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AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTS BIOTECHNOLOGY AUSTRALIA PAST: PRESENT: FUTURE
AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTS
BIOTECHNOLOGY AUSTRALIA
PAST: PRESENT: FUTURE
Biotechnology AustraliaBiotechnology Australia is the Australian Government body responsible for coordinating all non-regulatory biotechnology issues. Its Public Awareness Program exists to provide factual and balanced information to the public to enable them to make more informed choices about applications of biotechnology.
Biotechnology Australia is an agency comprising five Australian Government departments:
Department of Health and Ageing;
Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research;
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry;
Department of the Environment Water, Heritage and the Arts; and
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2008
ISBN 0 642 72583 7
All products in this resource are Copyright 2008, Commonwealth of Australia. You are welcome to display, print and reproduce this material in unaltered form only for your personal or non-commercial use. Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. Requests for further authorisation should be directed to [email protected]. To the maximum extent permitted by the law, we specifically disclaim responsibility for any loss you may suffer as a result of relying on the information on this resource. While we make every effort to ensure that material in this publication is accurate and up to date (unless denoted as archival material), you should make independent inquiries before acting on, or entering any commitment, based on material published here.
Referrals to other organisations are provided in good faith, but we can give no assurance of the quality, accuracy, or relevance of goods and services from these organisations.
This booklet explains the use of biotechnology in agriculture and related industries, focussing on Australian examples.
Each section contains background information, a timeline of developments, potential applications, current research areas, issues and future directions.
Words printed in bold text are defined in the glossary at the end of the booklet.
ContentsOverview.......................................................................................................1
Biofuels.........................................................................................................3
Biopharming..................................................................................................6
Cloning of animals.........................................................................................8
Environmental applications of biotechnology.................................................11
Genetically modified food and crops..............................................................14
Food crops produced using non-GM biotechnology.........................................19
Livestock production....................................................................................22
Managing pests and disease.........................................................................24
Nutraceuticals.............................................................................................28
Public debate and public attitudes................................................................30
Regulation of genetically modified organisms................................................34
Glossary......................................................................................................37
Useful web sites...........................................................................................41
Agricultural Biotechnology Developments
OverviewWhat is biotechnology?Biotechnology is the technological application of biology. It can also be described as the use of living organisms to make or modify products or processes, such as are used in brewing through the use of micro-organisms, or in modifying crops for new features.
Modern biotechnology plays an important role in Australia's economy. Apart from its use in agriculture and health, modern biotechnology offers possible solutions to future environmental challenges such as climate change, water scarcity and land degradation.
What is agricultural biotechnology?Common uses of agricultural biotechnology include improving plant and animal production and creating new, high-value agricultural products.
Some areas in which agribiotech can be applied are:
animals and animal health
aquaculture
fibre crops (e.g. cotton)
food crops.
Advances in these areas may help keep our country competitive and at the cutting edge of agriculture, food processing, forestry and environmental management.
Agribiotech techniques have been used in agriculture for hundreds of years. For example, farmers have always deliberately selected plants and animals with desirable characteristics, breeding only from the selected individuals. This is a form of traditional biotechnology.
Some examples of modern agribiotech research and applications are:
the use of biotechnology to assist conventional breeding
selective breeding of crops to develop an insect-resistance that allows a reduction in pesticide use
selective breeding of crops to develop herbicide-tolerance that allows herbicides to be sprayed on the field, killing weeds but not harming the crop, and encouraging better weed management to reduce the number of sprays used
using naturally occurring and genetically modified (GM) bacteria, fungi and enzymes that break down toxic and hazardous substances in the environment.
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Gene technology is a subset of biotechnology which involves the targeted transfer of genes between organisms, or manipulation of genes within an organism. Gene technology can be used to produce genetically modified organisms (GMOs). There are, generally speaking, three different categories of genetic modification:
1. Internal Genetic Modification - that is working with the genes within an organism or species.
2. Close Family Genetic Modification - that is transferring genes from a closely related species, which could also generally be done by conventional breeding techniques.
3. Cross-species Genetic Modification - that is transferring genes from an unrelated species or across kingdoms (e.g. animal-plant, bacteria-plant).
Applications of genetic modification in agriculture include:
producing crops that are herbicide-tolerant or pest-resistant
producing crops that can be used for producing pharmaceuticals
producing bacteria that can clean up pollution.
Issues surrounding the use of biotechnology in agriculture include:
safety of new crop varieties
segregation of GM and non-GM crops for overseas and local markets (where there is sensitivity to GMOs)
ensuring safety of food derived from GM crops and cloned animals or their offspring
segregation of plants or animals bred or engineered to produce pharmaceuticals or industrial chemicals from the food chain (where there are health concerns)
managing the potential effects on our ecology and biodiversity of releasing new crops, animals or other biotechnology products.
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Biotech story:Cancer-fighting tomatoes
Tomatoes contain an antioxidant called lycopene that is thought to lower the risk of coronary heart disease, breast cancer and prostate cancer.
Researchers at Purdue University and the US Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service are developing a new cancer-fighting tomato variety, which offers more than three times the amount of lycopene than conventional tomatoes.
Researchers expect commercial varieties of the lycopene-packed tomatoes to be available between 2009 and 2012.
Regulation and SafetyMost Australians strongly support a regulatory regime that protects human health and the environment, and yet public attitude surveys show that people are divided as to their awareness of Australia's strong regulatory system and their belief in the rigour of existing levels of regulation.
Australian consumers are more willing to support gene technology and biotechnology in agriculture when they see benefits for health or the environment, and when they are aware of the regulatory systems that exist.
Two key regulators in Australia in relation to agricultural biotechnology are the Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (OGTR), and Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ).
For more information see Regulation (page 29).
BiofuelsBiofuels are designed to replace or be used in conjunction with existing petroleum-based fuels. There are two common types of biofuel; ethanol, produced from sugars and starch, and biodiesel, produced from vegetable oils or animal fats. Although some diesel engines can operate on straight vegetable oil as a fuel, converting it to biodiesel makes it cleaner-burning and slightly more efficient. The use of vegetable oil as a fuel predated petroleum-based diesel by many years (see timeline below).
Biofuels are not a new concept. Brazil, for example, has used plant-based fuels since the 1970s, when the country switched a large proportion of its fuel supply to a cheaper home-grown product: ethanol produced from cane sugar.
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1 Biofuels in the European Union: A vision for 2030, European Commission, 20062 Biomass as feedstock for a bioenergy and bioproducts industry: the technical feasibility of a billion-ton annual supply, US Department of Energy / Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2005
Applications of biofuelsBiofuels have the potential to provide significant environmental benefits. Their use could help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, decrease the levels of toxins in our air and water, and reduce environmental impacts caused by mining for fossil fuels.
What stage are we at now?Biofuels are most commonly used in low-concentration blends with petroleum products. Internationally ethanol and biodiesel account for more than 90 per cent of total biofuel usage. Sugarcane, canola and corn are the major sources of raw material for biofuel production, while other potential crops being researched include Indian mustard and Jatropha. There is significant research into the use of crop waste for biofuel production, such as corn stalks, sugarcane bagasse (sugar cane residue) or wood waste.
Biotech story: Fuel from algae
Scientists at South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) in South Australia are selecting and developing aquatic microalgae as a source of oil for biodiesel.
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Studies show that algae can produce up to 60% of their biomass in the form of oil.
Because the cells grow in aqueous suspension where they have more efficient access to water, CO2 and dissolved nutrients, microalgae are capable of producing large amounts of oil in either pond culture or bioreactors.
www.sardi.sa.gov.au
Biotech story: Bacterial biogas
AnaeCo Limited, based in Western Australia, is developing a new technology that uses bacteria to break down waste.
The resulting heat and biogas are harnessed to create a self-sustaining system that produces commercial grade compost, and excess electricity that can be fed into the local grid.
www.bioconversion.com.au
IssuesIssues include the possible impacts on food and feed production, and their prices, as a result of replacing food crops with biofuel crops, or diverting dual purpose crops (such as corn) to biofuel. There is also the possibility that using more ethanol may increase groundwater contamination and photochemical smog and not reduce environmental impact.
What does the future hold?Biotechnology offers the prospect of producing biofuels competitively from readily-available plant material such as wheat straw, grasses, micro-algae, wood waste and bagasse. This technology is still in the process of being proven commercially but could reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and benefit the environment.
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BiopharmingBiopharming, also known as 'molecular pharming', uses genetically modified (GM) plants or animals to produce pharmaceutical proteins and chemicals such as vaccines, hormones and blood clotting or blood thinning agents.
GM animals or plants may be able to produce desired medicinal compounds at high levels and lower cost than can be achieved by other current means (such as synthetic chemistry, isolation from animal tissue, animal cell cultures or GM microorganisms). The use of GM plants or animals may also avoid health and safety concerns, such as the presence of human pathogens, associated with alternative production methods.
3 Human factor IX transgenic sheep produced by transfer of nuclei from transfected fetal fibroblasts, Science 19 December 1997: Vol. 278. no 5346, pp 1230-2133
Applications of biopharmingThe main advantage of biopharming is the production of cheaper, safer pharmaceuticals and chemicals. For example some transgenic animals, such as cows, sheep and goats can produce large amounts of useful human proteins in their milk. These proteins can then be purified from the milk for therapeutic use for humans.
Plants could make relatively cheap pharmaceutical and chemical 'factories'. In the same way that sugarcane is harvested and refined to produce sugar, compounds produced inside a GM plant are extracted and processed after harvesting. Instead of producing a food or fibre product, the end result could be a medicine. Plant made pharmaceuticals
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that do not require refrigeration also offer potential advantages for storage and distribution in places with limited infrastructure.
What stage are we at now?World-wide, crops including corn, soybeans, tobacco, alfalfa and rice are being used to produce medical or industrial products, including human enzymes, antibodies and proteins.
In Australia, scientists have been focusing on plants like tobacco, bananas and sugarcane which have particular advantages for biopharming. For example, tobacco is a non-food crop, avoiding entry of the product into the food chain, which may be an issue for some compounds. In Australia, tobacco is also grown in a highly-regulated environment. Bananas are sterile, so there is no risk of modified genes being transferred to other banana plants through cross-pollination. Sugarcane produces very large amounts of plant material and can also be grown as an essentially sterile crop.
IssuesThe use of animals in biopharming raises some ethical issues, such as how animals are housed, treated and managed.
The entry of some medical compounds into the food supply may present a health concern. Where this is the case, the GM plants and animals would need to be segregated from the human and animal food supply. Non-food species could be used, such as the tobacco example mentioned previously. Otherwise, farmers will need to ensure that there is effective isolation from other crops or livestock.
What does the future hold?Widespread commercial production of biopharmed pharmaceuticals is still some time away.
By using GM plants or animals to make pharmaceutical products, scientists may eventually be able to produce food with therapeutic benefits, such as preventing or treating some diseases. They may also be able to develop designer foods that complement people's individual genetic makeup to improve their health.
Biopharming may provide a means of making some medicine more readily available to a wider range of people.
Biotech story: Plant-based vaccines
Researchers in the USA have used genetic modification to develop potatoes that contain a vaccine for human papilloma virus (HPV).
HPV, the major cause of cervical cancer, is one of the most prevalent sexually transmitted diseases. A plant-based vaccine would be especially useful in developing countries, where traditional vaccines are both difficult and costly to administer.
www.urmc.rochester.edu
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Cloning of animalsAnimals, like humans, inherit a unique combination of genes from two sources - their mother and father. Animal clones, however, inherit their genes from a single source. They are genetic copies of a particular animal.
Animal clones are produced by replacing the DNA in an egg cell with the DNA from the animal which is to be cloned. The altered egg cell is then transferred to a surrogate mother's womb, where it develops as normal.
Although clones derived from the same source have the same genes, they do not look or behave exactly the same way. For instance, a cloned cow will have different skin patterns than the cow it was cloned from. This is due to a random settling of skin patterns that occur during the early stages of embryo development.
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Applications of animal cloningConventional animal breeding introduces variability with each generation of offspring, due to the random mixing of genetic information that occurs in sexual reproduction. For example, a cattle farmer breeding from a superior bull will obtain a range of offspring that may or may not have the same characteristics as the father.
Because a cloned animal has the same genes as its 'donor parent', it should exhibit the same characteristics. Cloning animals that have desirable characteristics can therefore be an efficient way to produce superior animals. These animals are likely to be used in breeding programs, rather than directly for food production, due to their cost.
Cloning can be used in conjunction with genetic modification to allow the addition of genes, producing animals that can generate useful products.
What stage are we at now?Since Dolly the sheep was born in 1996, many other mammalian species, including cows, pigs, mice and rats, have also been cloned. However, the cloning process is still costly and inefficient, as only a small per cent of attempts result in live births.
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Australia's first cloned cow, Suzi, was born in April 2000. In 2005, she gave birth to a healthy heifer calf called Suzitru. Suzi's milk is regularly analysed before being discarded, and tests show it to be the same as milk from any other cow.
Australia's livestock industries currently have a voluntary ban on the use of products from cloned animals in the human food supply. There are only a small number of cloned animals in Australia, and due to their value, they are confined to the research environment.
Biotech story: Molly and Polly
In 1997 researchers from the Roslin Institute in Scotland announced they had successfully created two GM lambs, Molly and Polly. The lambs were clones derived from a fetal sheep cell into which a human gene had been introduced.
The researchers hoped that Molly and Polly would produce factor IX in their milk. Factor IX derived from the milk of such GM sheep could then be used to treat hemophilia B, a genetic blood-clotting disorder.
In 1998, PPL Therapeutics announced that their sheep produced 300mg per litre of factor IX in their milk - 60 times the amount produced by humans.
www.roslin.ac.uk
IssuesEnsuring that food from cloned animals or their offspring is safe and does not adversely affect consumers is an important issue, as is animal welfare of clones, including whether cloned animals are more susceptible to disease.
What does the future hold?Future research may improve the success rate of cloning and lower costs, leading to increased use of cloning in animal production, and allow applications in new areas such as endangered species breeding. Other applications may include producing clones of GM animals for pharmaceutical agents (see Biopharming on page 8), and the production of large numbers of genetically identical animals for use as models in human disease research.
Biotech story: Is cloned meat and milk safe to eat?
In January 2008, US Food and Drug Administration scientists published a risk assessment stating products from certain cloned animals were safe for human consumption and did not need any special labelling.
The risk assessment concluded that "meat and milk from clones of cattle, swine and goats, and food from the sexually reproduced offspring of clones, are as safe to eat as food from conventionally bred animals."
New Zealand authorities have also stated that food from clones is as safe to eat as food from conventionally bred animals. Australia is closely monitoring international research in this area.
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Environmental applications of biotechnologyRecently, biotechnology researchers have turned their attention to solving environmental problems - cleaning up old problems, and enabling cleaner and greener industries in the future.
Environmental biotechnology makes use of biological enzymes and living organisms, such as bacteria and yeasts, across a variety of applications.
Applications of environmental biotechnologyEnvironmental biotechnology has the potential to produce technological solutions to environmental problems such as industrial and chemical pollution, natural build-ups of methane and ethanol, detecting contaminants or pathogens from large volume sources and controlling biofouling caused by microorganisms.
What stage are we at now?Environmental and industrial biotechnology research is very broad and the two disciplines have a significant degree of overlap. Some examples are given below.
BiofilmsBiofilms are collections of bacteria that group together on surfaces, forming complex structures that protect them from attack. Although biofilms are usually harmless, they can sometimes be havens for infectious diseases. They can also cause undesirable taste and odours in water, and can lead to microbial initiated corrosion of water and oil pipes.
Researchers from the Environmental Biotechnology Cooperative Research Centre are studying the natural formation and breakdown of biofilms. They have discovered how to trick bacteria into breaking out of their protective biofilm structure, enabling them to be quickly and easily destroyed.
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BiodiscoveryBiodiscovery involves searching for new and potentially useful biological compounds and characteristics among naturally occurring flora and fauna. For example a new species of bacteria that holds the secret to safe breakdown of some toxic wastes might be discovered in municipal landfill sites.
Source: Environmental Biotechnology Cooperative Research Centre
BioremediationBioremediation uses living organisms to clean up the environment. Naturally occurring and GM microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, as well as enzymes, are used to break down toxic and hazardous substances present in the environment due to human activity.
Bacterial factoriesLiving cells can be used as 'factories' to produce useful enzymes (as well as antibiotics, vitamins, vaccines and proteins for medical use).
Eco-efficient enzymesBiological enzymes can be used as an alternative to chemical processes to make various products. Enzymes may use less water, raw materials, and energy than chemical processes, thereby minimising environmental impact.
For example, the use of enzymes in washing powder saves energy by enabling stains to be removed at lower temperatures.
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BiomassBiomass (plant material) such as starch, cellulose, vegetable oils and agricultural waste can be used to produce useful chemicals (such as 1,3 propanediol, which is used in adhesives, laminates and mouldings), biodegradable plastics, pesticides, new fibres, stock food (protein), compost and biofuels.
IssuesOwnership rights of indigenous communities in areas where organisms are sourced and the potential for 'biopiracy' need to be considered (see www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/science/access/contacts/index.html).
What does the future hold?There are many potential applications of environmental biotechnology.
Researchers can already use gene technology or other biotechnology techniques to mix and match traits from different bacterial species. The desirable traits of several species could be combined to produce varieties that break down many different types of waste and pollution.
For example, it may be possible to extract a gene from one bacterial strain that allows the breakdown of a specific hazardous waste, and a gene from another strain that allows survival in extreme conditions such as high or low temperatures. The genes could then be transferred into a common, harmless bacterial species that can be easily mass produced.
Advances in biotechnology may also transform our forestry industries. Fermentation processes can be used to transform wood waste into new products. Forest industries could expand from the production of wood products, pulp, and paper, into areas such as biofuels, plastics, textiles and pharmaceuticals, gaining more value from the same resources.
Biotechnology techniques are also being used to understand the functions of tree genes involved in growth and wood characteristics. If these characteristics can be enhanced, then faster growing trees could fulfil demand using less land, and specialised trees could be grown to make particular products.
Biotech story: Biosensors
Scientists at the Environmental Biotechnology CRC are developing biosensors to quickly and accurately measure water contamination levels. This will allow users to detect pollutants and pathogens such as E. coli, Giardia and Legionella using rapid testing methods.
www.ebcrc.com.au
Biotech story: Munching microbes
With growing pollution problems across the globe, bioremediation solutions for contaminated sites are becoming increasingly important.
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Researchers at the University of New South Wales have been harnessing bacteria to clean up polluted land and water by creating bacterial communities capable of digesting chlorinated hydrocarbons. Sites they have already worked on include land at Botany in Sydney.
www.cmbb.unsw.edu.au
Genetically modified food and cropsWhen growing crops for food, feed and fibre, farmers select the plants that best suit their needs - for example, the highest-yielding or most pest-resistant crop, or the juiciest fruit. These characteristics are largely controlled by the plant's genes.
Just as with animal breeding, conventional plant breeding techniques result in variability in each generation. By crossing different plant varieties, a breeder may produce a plant with a desired characteristic, such as a juicy fruit, but the plant may also be susceptible to disease. If the genes for these characteristics are linked, (i.e. physically close together on the plant's chromosomes) it can take years of further breeding to remove the unwanted characteristic.
Using modern biotechnology techniques, plants with desirable traits can be bred more selectively, by identifying the genes that control a particular characteristic and genetically modifying the plant accordingly.
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Genetic modification of plants involves the insertion of new genes into the plant's existing genetic material (or the manipulation of the genes within a plant). Within Australia, all GM crops must be extensively tested in the laboratory and the field before being commercially grown (see Regulation on page 29 for further information).
Applications of GM cropsGM crops can provide benefits to farmers such as improved pest resistance or higher yield. The environment can also benefit through a reduction in chemicals used for crop production. Genetic modification also has the potential to provide foods that have specific consumer benefits, such as improved nutritional qualities.
What stage are we at now?Genetic modification is currently used overseas in agriculture and food production to:
increase pest-resistance in crops, reducing the use of pesticides
achieve tolerance to certain herbicides, increasing weed control options, facilitating no-till and low-till farming practices and reducing the use of environmentally persistent herbicides
improve disease resistance in crops
Biotech story: Drought tolerant wheat
Scientists at the Molecular Plant Breeding CRC have introduced genes derived from plants and yeast into wheat to produce proteins that may improve drought tolerance.
Drought tolerant wheat could help feed a larger number of the world's hungry, as well as potentially generating substantial export income for Australia.
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The GM wheat will be compared with non-GM wheat for the ability to secure greater yield under moderate to severe drought conditions, and the application has been reviewed by the OGTR for any potential risks to human health or the environment.
www.molecularplantbreeding.com
increase crop yield
improve the nutritional quality of the food produced by the plant
breed salt-tolerant and drought-tolerant plants.
To date, commercial growing of genetically modified plants in Australia has been limited to insect-resistant (Bt) cottons (known commercially as Ingard® and BollgardII® cotton), three herbicide-tolerant cottons as well as varieties that are both insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant, and GM carnations with altered flower colour. While herbicide tolerant canola was approved for commercial release in 2003, most States put moratoria in place until at least 2008 due to marketing concerns. The moratoria prevented these varieties being grown commercially until 2008. For more information, see Regulation (page 29).
Overseas, the most commonly grown GM crops are canola, soybeans, corn, and cotton, grown for food, fibre or animal feed. While the USA, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, India and China account for most of the world's production of GM crops, they are grown by more than 10 million farmers in 23 countries. Other countries that have approved GM crops include South Africa, Spain, Poland and the Philippines1.
Currently no GM fresh vegetables or fruit are approved for food use in Australia. Foods that are found on supermarket shelves that may contain GM ingredients include some processed foods, some cake icings and lecithin products.1 James, C. (2007) Global Status of Commercialised Biotech/GM Crops: 2007. ISAAA Brief No.37: Ithaca NY
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GM ingredients, from either domestic or imported sources, that are approved for food use in Australia include:
Soybean
Sugarbeet
canola oil
Biotech story: Frost-resistant barley
Scientists from the Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics (ACPFG) and Department of Primary Industries at La Trobe University in Victoria are developing frost-resistant cereal crop varieties using genes taken from the Antarctic hair grass.
The research aims to breed plants that can tolerate temperatures two degrees lower than currently available varieties, which would help make them less susceptible to frost damage.
www.acpfg.com.au and www.dpi.vic.gov.au
cottonseed oil
corn
potato
As previously mentioned, these are GM ingredients that may appear in foods, no GM fresh produce is approved for consumption in Australia.
IssuesEnsuring protection of human health and the environment is an ongoing issue for GM foods and crops. In Australia, every new GM crop needs to be assessed by the Gene Technology Regulator, and GM foods are assessed by Food Standards Australia New Zealand. The potential impact of GM crops on overseas and local markets, and segregation of GM and non-GM crops are also issues for industry and the public.
Public attitudes towards GM foods can be complex and difficult to accurately measure, but studies by Biotechnology Australia show that between 2005 and 2007 there has been a large increase in support of GM food crops rising from 48% to 73%.
What does the future hold?Within the next decade, a second generation of GM crops with more direct benefits to consumers is expected. These benefits may include increased vitamin and nutrient concentrations, improved ratios of 'healthy' starches and oils, and removal of allergy-causing substances.
Food crops produced using non-GM biotechnologyA plant's characteristics, such as yield, pest resistance and taste, are largely controlled by the plant's genes. Farmers and scientists use methods such as controlled pollination, inter-species crosses and screening of progeny to select for desired traits and breed improved plants. All the major food crops we eat today are far removed from their wild
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ancestors, and continue to be altered and improved using both traditional and modern breeding and selection techniques.
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Applications of non-GM biotechnology for cropsFood crops have been produced by biotechnology for many hundreds of years, but new understandings of genetics and the genes within a particular species (genomics), allows for more sophisticated and targeted non-GM breeding.
What stage are we at now?Conventionally, plant breeding could take many years to develop a new crop variety, often more than 12 years. Molecular markers are DNA sequences that are physically close on a plant's chromosomes to genes conferring particular traits. Plant breeders use these markers as flags to identify whether desired characteristics are present in a plant, allowing large numbers of individuals to be screened at a very early stage of growth, cutting years off the time taken to develop a new crop variety.
By understanding plant genes and their function, scientists are identifying genes associated with characteristics such as yield, improved disease resistance or better quality. With this knowledge, new crop varieties can be developed using molecular marker assisted breeding or gene technology.
IssuesEven though these foods are non-GM, if they are 'novel' (e.g. a non-traditional food or a new food with a significantly altered composition), they need to be approved by Food Standards Australia New Zealand before release to ensure safety for consumers.
What does the future hold?Both traditional and modern biotechnology will continue to be used to improve crops. New varieties may be developed that can better deal with various environmental stresses (which are likely to be exacerbated by climate change), increase yield and produce food products that are better for human health and more efficient for animal production.
Biotech story: Food Futures Flagship
Australia's ability to efficiently produce clean, healthy foods makes us ideally placed to produce and supply premium products to the global food market.
The Food Futures Flagship, one of nine National Research Flagships established by CSIRO, aims to transform Australia's agrifood industry in collaborations between CSIRO, and leading research and industry partners.
By applying the latest technologies, including biotechnologies, the Flagship program will help make Australia's agribusiness sector more sustainable, prosperous and internationally competitive.
Food Futures Flagship researchers are developing new wheat varieties with high levels of resistant starch. Diets high in resistant starch have been associated with improved bowel health and a reduction in the risk of colorectal cancer.
Researchers are also developing commercial varieties of oil seed crops that produce healthy omega-3 oils. A diet rich in these oils has many health benefits, including improved cardiovascular health and reduced incidence of type-2 diabetes and asthma.
www.csiro.au/org/FoodFuturesFlagship21
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Biotech story: Better breeding wheat
Scientists at CSIRO Plant Industry are hoping to better understand the genetic basis of the variation in growth, development and yield of wheat.
The aim is to identify the genes responsible for these features and use this knowledge to make classical breeding quicker and more effective in breeding higher yielding wheats.
www.csiro.au/plantindustry
Livestock productionModern biotechnology techniques are being applied in a number of animal breeding programs, particularly in dairy, sheep and beef cattle. Examples include early diagnosis of disease, and improvements in animal nutrition, wool fibre quality, meat marbling, and muscle development and composition.
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Applications of biotechnology in livestock productionApplying biotechnology techniques to livestock production offers many benefits to primary producers and consumers. It could also increase productivity, quality and cost-effectiveness of the livestock industry.
Potential benefits to the livestock industry include faster growth, improved pest and disease resistance, and better vaccines and diagnostic tests for disease. Consumers could benefit through improved taste, texture and nutritional value of food, as well as new food products and ingredients.
What stage are we at now?The diagnosis, prevention and treatment of livestock diseases are being transformed by advances in biotechnology.
The use of genetic marker technology can optimise traditional breeding methods in any production animal or fish species. Genetic marker research by the Victorian Department of Primary Industries and the Innovative Dairy Products Cooperative Research Centre is enabling industry to improve the genetic traits of Australian dairy herds. CSIRO-developed genetic tests for tenderness and marbling are routinely used by producers in the beef industry.
Biotech story: Leaner and more feed-efficient pigs
Primegro Limited, based in Adelaide, and its major customer, QAF Meat Industries, are developing a patented technology to help livestock breeders select superior breeding animals.
PrimeGROTM IGF-1 is based on a blood test for a protein called insulin-like growth factor-1. Levels of IGF-1 in young animals are genetically correlated with economically important traits, such as feed efficiency and fat levels.
Extensive research and development projects are also being conducted on sheep, beef and dairy cattle in conjunction with other major livestock industry projects
The information provided by the Primegro test enables breeders to increase the rate of genetic improvement of their stock.
www.primegro.com.au
IssuesContinuing to adequately ensure that human health and the environment will not be adversely affected by these new techniques will be important, and every new application will need to be regulated and managed effectively. Also the ethical treatment and health and well-being of livestock in research is an issue.
Biotech story: Immune-enhanced chickens
Imugene Ltd., based in NSW, is currently conducting trials of fowl adenoviruses (FAV) to deliver vaccines and cytokines to chickens.
Chickens raised in commercial facilities are exposed to a range of organisms that may cause low grade infections, adversely affecting their general health and production. To
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counteract this, antibiotics are often added to chicken feed. Using the FAV to economically deliver antigens against diseases or cytokines to stimulate the birds' immune systems, the FAV delivery system is being developed to provide an alternative to the use of antibiotics.
www.imugene.com
What does the future hold?The use of biotechnology techniques could enhance the production and health of livestock. For example, scientists may be able to improve the quality of livestock feed by improving nutrient content and digestibility of low quality feeds.
Another potential application is the genetic modification of dairy cattle or goats to alter the composition of their milk to include a beneficial protein that could improve consumer nutrition or even treat disease. This work, however, is still in the early stages of research and any future commercial production would be subject to stringent regulation to protect human health and the environment.
Managing pests and diseaseInvasive animals, also known as feral animals, are a huge problem all over the world, but particularly in Australia, which is host to more than 80 introduced vertebrate animal species. More than 30 of these are now considered invasive pests.
Pests and diseases can impact on Australia's food safety, trade, market access, environment and agricultural industry sustainability.
Biotechnology is being used to develop biological control methods for invasive animals, to either control their populations or reduce the harm they cause to the environment, as well as to improve disease management by reducing the transmission of infectious diseases.
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Applications of biotechnologyBiotechnology research can be used to develop effective methods to control invasive animals, plants and diseases.
Invasive animals cause at least $720 million damage in Australia every year 2
Biotechnology tools will also play a key role in the control of disease outbreaks in Australia and the region, and are important to the provision of evidence to support market-access decisions and the protection of trade.
One example, avian influenza, commonly called bird flu, could pose a major threat to the Australian poultry industry. Scientists from the Victorian Department of Primary Industries and CSIRO's Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL) are collaborating with the United
Biotech story: Cane toad control
2 McLeod, R. (2004) Counting the cost: Impact of Invasive Animals in Australia 2004. Cooperative Research Centre for Pest Animal Control, Canberra
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Researchers at the Western Australian Institute of Medical Research are using genetics to try to eradicate one of northern Australia's most stubborn pests, the cane toad.
By learning about the genome sequence researchers will be able to better develop strategies which can be used to control this pest and help protect our environment and native wildlife.
This includes new biological control agents, finding genetic markers to enable ecological studies of movement of toad and frog populations, discovering the genes that control sex development in the cane toad and identifying the genes involved in cane toad toxin production.
www.genomealliance.org.au/projects/CaneToad/CaneToad.html
Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in their work on bird flu.
Using biotechnology, the researchers are monitoring different strains of bird flu viruses that are present in the environment, and following genetic changes (mutations) that occur in the 'H5N1' strain. This collaboration will allow Australian scientists to gain experience with the disease in the field, and possibly develop measures to prevent or manage disease outbreaks in Australia.
What stage are we at now?Researchers from Australia's Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre (IA CRC) are using biotechnology techniques in several research areas including the 'Daughterless' technology, which aims to control carp numbers by creating a fish population with many more males than females. By blocking production of a particular protein involved in female carp development, only male fish are produced.
The CRC is also looking at contraceptive vaccines that could be used to control populations of large herbivores, such as feral horses and camels and are studying cane toad parasites and the toad's own toxic venom as possible means of cane toad biological control.
In disease control, CSIRO and Intervet scientists have developed a unique vaccine, Bovilis® MH against Mannheimia haemolytica (MH), the main bacterial pathogen associated with bovine respiratory disease (BRD). BRD is a potentially fatal form of cattle pneumonia. The vaccine improves animal welfare and reduces the need for antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs in the cattle industry.
Vaccines for veterinary use are often produced using biotechnology. For example, TickGARD™ is a CSIRO-developed GM vaccine against cattle tick. Released in Australia in 1994, it was the first commercial anti-tick vaccine in the world. TickGARD™ does not eradicate ticks, but cuts down their survival rate and severely damages their ability to reproduce.
Researchers at CSIRO Livestock Industries, working in collaboration with the Western Australia Department of Agriculture, have found naturally high levels of omega-3 fatty acids in some sheep. They have established that this is a heritable trait, so it is possible to breed sheep with high levels of these healthy fats, to the benefit of the consumer.
Disease diagnostic tests have also been developed using biotechnology techniques. Scientists at the Victorian DPI have developed rapid polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based diagnostic tests that detect various subtypes of the bird flu virus, including H5N1. CSIRO Livestock Industries researchers have developed a PCR test to identify the
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presence of disease-causing viruses in prawn farms. The highly-sensitive test can detect low levels of a virus, before infection develops, thereby allowing management actions to prevent it from spreading to other prawns.
BiosecurityBiosecurity is the protection of the economy, environment and human health from the negative impacts of pests and diseases, including the management of invasive species if they become established. The Australian Government continues to develop and implement risk-based frameworks and strategies to coordinate and improve national biosecurity, which will include use of biotechnology to improve our understanding of disease ecology, diagnosis, and surveillance. This will help Australia to deal more effectively with disease incursion or outbreaks
IssuesIssues include the potential for pests to develop resistance to a biological control, and the potential effects on Australia's ecology and biodiversity following the release of new organisms into the environment.
The changing global environment, particularly climate change, leads to continuously changing risks. Australia needs to be able to better predict and control these risks including the introduction of new diseases (such as foot and mouth disease) and the transmission to humans of bird or animal diseases (such as bird flu).
What does the future hold?All invasive-animal control projects aim to develop more humane, species specific methods for reducing feral populations. The IA CRC is developing baits that deliver toxins specifically to the target species. Work is progressing to make baits, such as the Pigout® wild pig bait, capable of safely conveying disease vaccines and fertility control agents.
Future projects may also include a more shelf-stable freeze-dried version of calicivirus for controlling rabbits, a new humane toxin for foxes and wild dogs, and control tools for pest birds.
In disease management the Australian Government continues to develop and implement risk-based frameworks and strategies to coordinate and improve national biosecurity. Within these frameworks and strategies, biotechnology developments will aid in reducing risks by improving Australia's understanding of disease ecology and disease diagnosis, and surveillance capabilities.
Biotech story: Biotech approaches to pest control
Aromatase (produced in the brain and reproductive organs) is the protein responsible for stimulating female development in carp and other fish at the embryo stage.
By using biotechnology to greatly reduce (silence) the production of aromatase in carp, scientists can bias sex ratios toward male development. Resulting male fish (daughterless carriers) have normal reproductive capacity and pass the 'silencing' characteristic to their progeny.
The daughterless carp technology was developed by CSIRO and aims to control carp numbers through biasing sex ratios towards males. With fewer females in the population,
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it is predicted that this genetic technology could sharply reduce carp numbers in the Murray-Darling Basin within 20 to 30 years of release.
www.invasiveanimals.com
NutraceuticalsFood can have both nutritional and therapeutic effects. Nutraceuticals are foods or food components that provide a medical or health benefit beyond basic nutrition, including the prevention and treatment of disease. Foods containing nutraceuticals are called functional foods.
The beneficial substances in functional foods may be naturally present, or their levels may be boosted or added from other sources.
Biotechnology research aims to find and develop new nutraceutical products that have consumer health benefits. Humans have used the therapeutic qualities of some foods to prevent and treat disease for hundreds of years.
Applications of nutraceuticalsNutraceuticals are being developed by the food, nutrition and pharmaceutical industries as well as the herbal and dietary supplement market. There is potential to deliver nutraceuticals through food, supplements and pharmaceuticals, where previously these substances may have been present in only a small range of foods or products and consumed at low levels.
What stage are we at now?Current uses of biotechnology in nutraceuticals and functional foods research include:
compound analysis
biopharming
genomics
increasing our understanding of medical biology
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developing techniques for monitoring immune responses and functional food effectiveness.
Biotech story: Seaweed saviours
Marinova, a company based in Tasmania, is conducting research trials into the bioactivity of fucoidans, sulphated polysaccharides extracted from organic macroalgae.
The company published a stem cell clinical trial in April 2007 and is currently running clinical trials in immune modulation and inflammatory pain relief in osteoarthritis.
The company provides pure fucoidan extracts as nutraceutical ingredients to many of the larger US nutraceutical companies.
www.marinova.com.au
Research in these areas has contributed to the development of foods and food supplements that reduce obesity and improve cardiovascular health, including antioxidants, probiotics, prebiotics, increased dietary fibre and low glycaemic-index (GI) foods.
There are a number of nutraceutical products on the market as a result of biotechnology research in the dairy industry. For example, chewing gum containing a product called Recaldent™ helps to re-mineralise the enamel of human teeth. The active ingredient is derived from a protein in milk that is used to deliver soluble forms of calcium and phosphate to the surface of the teeth where they can help to strengthen the enamel.
Other dairy research includes harvesting antibodies and bioactives from cows' milk, which have a role in boosting the immune system after birth. This research is at an early stage and no such milk products are available commercially.
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Scientists from Food Science Australia have isolated an anti-arthritic nutraceutical, chondroitin sulphate, from shark cartilage. This product provides benefits such as improved mobility and pain reduction for arthritis sufferers.
Researchers from Southern Cross University are studying a natural seaweed extract which might assist in the breakdown of dangerous blood clots and help protect against inflammatory conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease and arthritis.
IssuesNutraceuticals need to be approved by the appropriate regulators to ensure safety to human health (see Regulation on page 29).
What does the future hold?There will be further opportunities to discover biologically active components and incorporate them into foods. This research may lead to advances in nutrition, weight control, lowering cholesterol, and reducing the risk of certain diseases such as heart disease3.
For example, researchers from the CRC for Sugarcane Biotechnology are looking at bioactive compounds in sugarcane. They are discovering high levels of bioactive compounds, such as antioxidants, that could be used to produce supplements to prevent or manage diseases such as prostate cancer.
Public debate and public attitudesThere is a wide range of opinion in the community about applications of biotechnology in agriculture. The introduction of GM foods, for example, has led to diverse and often contradictory arguments, both for and against.
Surveys have indicated that attitudes towards new foods, including GM foods, are primarily driven by general attitudes towards food and whether people feel that benefits of a new food outweigh any perceived risks. People who have a high level of concern about food safety and nutrition also have concerns about GM foods, whereas people with fewer general food concerns are less concerned about GM foods.4
Since 2005 there have been major changes in public attitudes towards GM crops, based on GM foods no longer being seen as futuristic or unknown, and their potential to offer solutions to environmental problems such as drought, salinity and climate change. Non-GM biotechnology applications are viewed even more favourably, with over 90 per cent of the public supporting many applications that could address environmental problems, such as combating salinity or cleaning up pollution.
3 http://www.nceff.com.au 4 What you really need to know about what the public thinks about GM foods, Biotechnology Australia, 2005
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Attitudes towards GM foods5
Perceived value of broader objectives of biotechnology
Eureka Strategic Research 2007
During this period, awareness of both GM and non-GM technologies in agriculture has risen, perceptions of usefulness have risen and perceptions of risk have dropped.
While results of surveys on the acceptance of GM foods vary, Australian consumers overwhelmingly state that they want GM foods to be labelled, that they want more balanced information to help them make up their own minds and that they find polarised debates unhelpful in forming their opinions.
5 Source: www.biotechnology.gov.au31
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Value of different biotechnology applicationsThe chart opposite shows the high level of community support for applications that are providing biotechnology 'solutions' to high-profile problems.
What stage are we at now?The first generation of GM foods were not well accepted by consumers because most of them were developed to have agronomic benefits (such as insect resistance) for producers, not benefits for consumers. In addition, some people have been concerned that GM foods may be potentially harmful to their family's health.
Researchers from the CRC for Sugarcane Biotechnology, with the support of Biotechnology Australia, are conducting a survey to compare attitudes to GM crops among members of the Queensland general public and sugarcane growing communities. This is the first time that views of a particular industry group will be directly compared with those of the general public.
IssuesA number of issues surrounding GM food and crops are currently being debated. These issues are often based on a mixture of facts and beliefs. Research shows that attitudes to GM foods and crops are often quite different to portrayals of public attitudes by interest groups both for and against GM foods or crops.
Ethics
Ethics inquires into the moral values of human behaviour and conduct. It has an educative as well as a preventative function.
Professional ethicists take an active role in establishing and clarifying the ethical boundaries within which societies choose to evolve and operate, and provide guidance by commenting on topical issues.
Some of the ethical issues relating to biotechnology that have been discussed in the past, are currently under discussion, or are in need of discussion, include:
GM foods, crops, organisms: Are they safe for humans and/or the environment? Should GM foods be labelled, and, if so, to what extent? How appropriate are GM foods, crops and organisms? Should we be cautious?
Commercialisation of products: What property rights, if any, should be attached to genes, gene sequences and their products? Should genetic information and any commercial benefits resulting from its use be shared? How do we prevent biopiracy of indigenous knowledge?
Public policy issues: What policy measures should be developed to balance societal concerns with commercial interests? How do we ensure fair and equitable access to genetic testing, gene therapy, and other beneficial technologies?
Ethical standards in Australia are supported and complemented by relevant legislation and regulation.
www.bioethics.gov.au
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However, six key findings in relation to public attitudes are:
1. What consumers say in surveys is not always how consumers actually behave
Many different studies have shown that consumers tend to present an idealised view of how they shop, whether in relation to shopping 'green', buying 'healthy' foods or avoiding some modern food-processing techniques, which leads to a poor correlation between what people say they will buy and what they actually buy.
2. General attitudes towards foods are among the biggest predictors of attitudes towards GM foods
Many attitudes towards GM foods are driven by general attitudes towards foods, so if a person expresses a strong preference for 'organic' or 'healthy lifestyle' foods, they will most probably reject GM foods. However, if a person is a large consumer of processed foods, they will most likely accept GM foods.
3. In relative terms, GM food concerns are comparable to concerns about artificial preservatives
Surveys show that the highest food concerns tend to relate to the risk of disease such as BSE being transmitted through meat, as well as uses of hormones, bacteria and antibiotics in foods. When asked to rank their concerns about GM foods, people rank them very close to pesticide residues or artificial preservatives in foods.
4. There is a poor understanding of what 'genetically modified' actually means, and what foods are genetically modified - with wide belief that many fruits and vegetables in supermarkets may be GM
Only 35 per cent of the Australian population claim to know enough about genetic modification such that they could explain it to a friend, and a large percentage of people feel that almost any change to food is a genetic modification, including flavour or nutritional enhancements in food, colours in food, and even food grown with fertilisers.
5. Attitudes to GM foods are also influenced by a hierarchy of values
Positive values that influence attitudes to GM foods include:
– trust
– consumer consultation
– regulation
– consumer benefit.
The three biggest negative values that drive attitudes against GM foods are:
– unnatural
– unnecessary
– unknown.
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6. GM foods have become a focus for various ideologies
In talking to people with high active concerns about GM foods, very few of them actually articulate their concern as being about the food itself, rather they identify with strong ideologies. Attitudes that tend to predict a stance against GM foods include:
– concern about multinational control of the food chain
– concern over governments dictating public choice
– fear of new technologies
– a perception that science is going too far, too fast and is not regulated strongly enough
– concern over all industrialisation of foods
– a 'green' philosophy pertaining to humans not seeking to dominate nature.
Conversely, attitudes that tend to predict a stance in favour of GM foods include:
– high trust in science
– high trust in regulators
– support for commercial development of new technologies
– a philosophy that supports humans dominating their environment.
What does the future hold?The next generation of food crops, being produced by both GM and non-GM technologies, are likely to provide consumer benefits such as healthier oils, increased nutritional levels and removal of allergens. If these benefits are realised, they are likely to lead to strong support by consumers.
Regulation of genetically modified organismsGene technology has potential risks as well as benefits, and close scrutiny is needed to ensure it is applied safely.
Australia has some of the most stringent and transparent gene technology regulation in the world, particularly when the technology is used in the production of crops and food. GMOs including GM crops are regulated by the Gene Technology Regulator and food produced using gene technology is regulated by Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ).
What stage are we at now?The development, trial and release of GMOs is regulated by law at a national level by the Gene Technology Act (2000) (the Act), which has the object of protecting the health and safety of people and the environment. The Act established an independent statutory office holder, the Gene Technology Regulator, who is charged with administering the Act and making decisions about the development and use of GMOs.
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GM foods in Australia
GM ingredients that have been approved by FSANZ as safe for human consumption in Australia include:
soybean
sugarbeet
canola oil
cottonseed oil
corn
potato
In 2005-06 the national regulatory scheme for gene technology, which is overseen by the Gene Technology Ministerial Council (comprising a relevant Minister from each State, Territory and the Australian Government), was independently reviewed. The review concluded that the scheme had worked well in the five years following its introduction, and that no major changes were required. However, in 2007 a number of minor legislative changes recommended by the review were made to improve the operation of the scheme at the margin.
Details about the national legislative scheme for gene technology regulation in Australia, including information on the Act and the Gene Technology Ministerial Council, can be found on the Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (OGTR) website (www.ogtr.gov.au).
The national regulatory scheme preserves the right of the States to pass their own laws in the context of marketing and economic impacts. All States and Territories except Queensland and the Northern Territory introduced moratoria restricting the growing of
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GM crops. Some of the moratoria prohibited some or all commercial GM crops while others only prohibit GM food crops.
Most States began reviews of their moratoria in 2007. Following these reviews, New South Wales and Victoria decided to allow commercial production of GM crops. South Australia decided to maintain its moratorium.
GMOs, or products derived from GMOs, may also be subject to regulation by the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA), FSANZ, the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) and the National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS), depending on the GMO, the trait and the intended use. For example, GM food ingredients and processing aids are regulated by FSANZ; human vaccines are regulated by the TGA; animal vaccines are regulated by the APVMA; and, industrial chemicals such as enzymes are regulated by the NICNAS. Information on which Australian government agencies regulate particular GM products, and the regulatory processes involved, is available online (www.bioregs.gov.au) and more details are available at individual agency websites.
Public attitude research shows that the public is close to evenly divided on whether the rules that regulate the use of gene technology are sufficiently rigorous, and whether the rules that regulate the use of gene technology are complied with.
Public attitudes towards regulation
Base: All CATI. n=534Eureka Strategic Research 2007
Glossaryamino acids
Molecules that are the basic building blocks of proteins.
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Specialised proteins produced by white blood cells to fight specific bacteria, viruses, or other antigens.
antigens
Foreign substances (e.g. bacterial or viral proteins) which cause an immune response.
avian influenza
Also referred to as 'bird flu', this is a highly contagious influenza virus that can infect any bird, some strains of which have also been known to infect humans.
Bacillus thuringiensis
A species of soil bacterium that possess genes for a class of insecticidal proteins called the Bt toxins. Different strains of the bacterium produce different Bt toxins. Some organic farmers use this bacterium to control pest insects as an alternative to using synthetic chemicals. The genes for Bt toxins have been inserted into GM cotton plants, allowing the crop to produce the Bt toxin, reducing the need for insecticides sprays.
bacteria
A large group of single-celled organisms that do not have organelles enclosed in membranes. Most of their DNA is contained in a single chromosome, with the remainder contained in small circles called plasmids. Bacteria have a cell wall composed of protein and complex carbohydrate surrounding a plasma membrane.
bagasse
The dry, fibrous residue that remains after the stalks of sugar cane have been crushed and all the juice extracted. It can be used as a source of cellulose for some paper products or as a raw material for biofuel production.
biodiesel
An alternative fuel made from natural renewable sources such animal fats or vegetable oils. It has similar properties to petroleum but emits fewer environmental pollutants. Biodiesel can be used in diesel engines with little or no modifications, either as a diesel fuel substitute, or added to petroleum-based fuels to reduce their polluting effect. Examples include oils such as soybean, rapeseed, sunflower or animal tallow.
biodiscovery
Investigating biological resources (e.g. plants, animals, and microorganisms) for characteristics that might have a wider application and/or commercial value
biological control
The control of a population of one organism by another organism. Generally, the controlling organism is a predator, parasite or disease-causing organism of the species being controlled.
biofouling
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When living organisms attach to and start living on any object that is submerged in the sea. A commonly seen example is barnacles attached to the hulls of ships or the bodies of whales.
biopharming
The process of farming GM plants or animals to be used as living pharmaceutical 'factories'.
biopiracy
Unauthorised use of biological resources (e.g. the patenting and privatisation of biological or genetic resources without the consent of the originating community).
bioremediation
The use of plants or microorganisms to consume or otherwise help remove materials, such as toxic chemical wastes and metals, from contaminated sites - especially soil and water.
biotechnology
A broad term generally used to describe the use of biology in industrial processes such as agriculture, brewing and drug development. Traditional applications include animal breeding, brewing beer with yeast, and cheese making with bacteria. Modern biotechnology also includes the use of gene technology, which allows genetic material to be modified within a particular species or moved from one species to another.
Bt toxins
Insecticidal proteins naturally produced by the soil bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).
Bt crops
Crop plants that contain genes for Bt toxins. Examples are Bollgard II® cotton and Ingard® cotton.
cell
The basic unit of life in all organisms. It contains a complete copy of the organism's genome. In eukaryotic cells the genome is contained in an organelle called the nucleus. Complex organisms are multicellular. Prokaryotic organism are single celled and have no nucleus.
clone
A group of cells or organisms that are genetically identical as a result of being derived from one individual by asexual reproduction or use of nuclear transplantation.
cloning
The process of producing a genetically-identical copy. Genes, cells and whole organisms can be cloned. A clone is produced from one individual cell.
DNA
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Deoxyribonucleic acid, the genetic material of living organisms. DNA provides the code for the production of RNA and proteins.
ethics
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with moral standards and their affect on human conduct, both at an individual and societal level.
functional foods
Foods and beverages with potential health benefits.
hybrid
Something of mixed origin or composition. In the case of a plant or animal, a hybrid is produced by breeding together plants or animals of different varieties, species or race. It is the offspring of genetically dissimilar parents.
gene
A sequence of DNA that codes for the synthesis of a specific protein or has a specific regulatory function.
gene technology
The technology used to take a single gene from a plant or animal cell and insert it into another plant or animal cell of the same or different species.
genetic marker
A sequence of DNA that is known to be associated with a particular gene or trait.
genetic modification (GM)
A process of gene technology that alters the genetic material of a living organism. This includes inserting one or more new genes or altering the activities of an existing gene. Microorganisms, plants or animals (humans included) can be genetically modified.
genetically modified organism (GMO)
An organism (plant, animal, bacteria, or virus) whose genetic material has been altered by gene technology.
genome
The entire complement of genetic material (genes plus non-coding sequences) present in each cell of an organism, virus or organelle.
genomics
The study of whole genomes of organisms to understand the structure, function and evolution of the organism and its genes.
microorganisms
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Organisms that can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. They are also known as microbes.
mutation
A change in the DNA sequence of a gene or organism. Some mutations result in an altered characteristic of an organism, which may be beneficial, neutral or harmful for the organism.
organism
A living thing which contains DNA and is capable of cell replication by itself, (e.g. bacteria, plants and animals).
pathogen
A disease-causing organism.
pesticide
A chemical used to kills pests.
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
A chemical reaction used to create multiple copies of a gene sequence, making it easier to manipulate and/or identify.
probiotics
Dietary supplements containing cultures of beneficial microorganisms.
protein
A long-chain molecule made up of amino acids, the sequence of which determines the protein's function. The sequence of amino acids is determined by the order of DNA bases found in the gene coding for that protein.
RNA
Ribonucleic acid, a single strand organic polymer that is generally produced from a DNA template by transcription, and in turn acts as a template for protein synthesis or provides some other function in living organisms.
selective breeding
A process by which new or improved strains of plants or animals are developed through controlled mating, or crossing, followed by selection of progeny for desired traits.
trait
A feature of an organism that is genetically controlled.
vaccine
A preparation that contains either whole disease-causing organisms such as viruses which have been killed or weakened, or parts of such organisms, used to confer immunity
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against the disease that the organisms cause. Vaccine preparations can be natural, synthetic or derived using biotechnology.
virus
A group of particles that do not have a cellular structure and can only reproduce in living cells. They consist of a DNA or RNA genome surrounded by a protein coat and sometimes a lipid membrane.
Useful web sitesAustralian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authoritywww.apvma.gov.au
Australian Biosecurity Cooperative Research Centre for Emerging Infectious Diseasewww.abcrc.org.au
Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomicswww.acpfg.com.au
Bioenergy Australiawww.bioenergyaustralia.org
Biotechnology Australiawww.biotechnology.gov.au
CSIROwww.csiro.au
CSIRO Livestock Industrieswww.csiro.au/li
CSIRO Plant Industrywww.csiro.au/plantindustry
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestrywww.daff.gov.au
Environmental Biotechnology CRCwww.ebcrc.com.au
Food Futures Flagshipwww.csiro.au/org/FoodFuturesFlagship
Food Standards Australia and New Zealandwww.foodstandards.gov.au
Grains Research & Development Corporationwww.grdc.com.au
Invasive Animal CRCwww.invasiveanimals.com
Office of the Gene Technology Regulatorwww.ogtr.gov.au
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