RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS FORADAPTATION FROM COMlllA, BANGLADESH
I ,f,
I \ \' :--:l· r· \~Q()I·... \~\. '0....-
! I
I
••,
AgriculturalEconomicsReportREPORT NO. 215 JUNE 1972
By
Robert D. Stevens
Department ofAgricultural EconomicsMICHIGAN STATEUNIVERSITYEast Lansing
RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS FOR ADAPTATION FROM COMlllA, 8ANGlADESH
Robert D. Stevens
Department of Agricultural EconomicsMlchlqan State University
East lansing, Michigan
••
Cont~ntsI • Introduction ~nd Background •••• · . . . . . . . .
A. ~Jature of the Academy and Its Envl ronment •• · .• · • ·· • · 3
· · · • 7
10
· • 10
· · · · 10
12
· · • · 14
16
17
8. Methods Used In De ve Iop in9 P iIot Pro5)rams. · · •
II• The Status of Six Major Programs · · · · • · · ·A. Agricultural Cooperatives. • • · · • · • ·[3. Thana Training and Clevelopment Center. • ·C. Thana Irrigation Pro9ram · · · · · · ·D. Women' 5 Program. • . • • • • • · · · · · · • • · · ·E. Hural Education Expar iments. · • · • · .F. Rural Pub Iic Works Pro!,,)ram· · · · · •
III. Improvlnq Rural Government--The Training and Development Center ••• 19
A. Introduction and Problem Situation •• · . . . . . . 19
Experimental Pi lot Activities in Rural Government •• · . . • 23C. Evaluation of Develoflments in Rural Government. · . . . • • 29
IV. 'Jew Type Aflricultural Cooper a+l ves •• · . . . . · . • • 31
A. Organizational Methods and Program Content •• · . . . • 31
J. Evaluation of Cooperative Activity. · . . · .I • Economic Imflact on Farmers. · . . · . . . • • ~O
2. Economics of tho Cooperative Federation. · . . . • • • • ,17
3. Social Impact ••••• · . . . . . . . . · . · . . . . . . • ,19
4. Political Impact · . . . . . · . · . 'j I
V. Conclusions--Some Programs for International Adaptation. • 52
VI. Postscript on the Academy and Cooperatives through June, 1972 •••• 60
VII. Footnotos. · . . . . . . . . . . • • 6 I
Arrendix --Soc tcc+e o 13ib IIoor aphv of Ma.ior Works AboutComl I I a I~uraI Dove lopmen+ Pr oqr ams • • • • • o
Tables and FiquresPane
Table I. Status of Comi Iia Type Aqricultural Coope rat lvas , 1970. IITable 2. The Five Tiered Basic Democracies System of Government
In East Pakistan, 1959-1971. 22Table 3. Purpose of Loans, Agricultural Cooperatives Federation,
Comi Iia Thana, 1968-69. 38Table 4. Growth of Cooperative Membership and Land Ownership in
CornIIIa Thana, 1964-69. 42Table 5. Membership in the Seven Thana Expansion of the Cooperative
Project (1965-1970) Comi Iia District. 43Tab 10 6. DistrIbution of Total Population and Cooperative Membership
by Farm Size. 45
Table 7. Projected Annual Costs Per Thana for the Establ ishment ofCorniIla Type Agricultural Cooperatives in al I Areas of EastPakistan. 50
Figure I. Model of the Thana Traininq and Development Center,Comi Ila, East Pakistan. 25
Figure 2. Organizational Chart of Agricultural Cooperative Federation,Camilla Thana, 1969. 37
June, 1972
RURAL DlVELOPMENT PROGRAMS FOR ADAPTAT ION FROM COM ILLA, ~3ANGLADESH*
E1y
Robert D. Stevens
" •••The crucial f.eature of f rad lt lona l aqr lcu lture is the lowrate of return to Investment in agricultural factors of the type thatfarmers have been using for generations, ••• in order to transformthis type of agriculture a more profitable set of factors wi II haveto be developed and supplied. To develop and to supply such factorsand to learn how to use them efficiently is a matter of investment--investment in both human and material capital.".!/--T. W. Schultz
I• INTRODUCT ION AN[) BACKGROUNDIntroductory material and background on the Academy for Rural
[~velopment in Comi Ila and the methods used in developing rural programsare presented first. The paper then briefly describes essentialelements of six rural development programs organized at Comi Ila.Oe+al led analysis follows of two of these programs: Improvements inrural government, and development of new agricultural cooperatives.Conclusions about the potential of these programs for adaptation inother nations are presented in the final section.
*An e~rller vurslon of thl~ paper was prepared for the Research,-HId Tra In Inq Network Semi nar on "Deve Iopment Strateq Ies for Low IncomeFurmers" held at Ohio State University, September 14,1971, under thesponsorship of the Agricultural Development Counci I, Inc.
-2-The social and economic trnnsformation of low incomp developin0
thr.societies is dependent upon/continuous flow into a~riculture ofinvestments in modern technology with high economic returns. Uponthis economists are in general agreement. .'
Less emphasized in the literature about economic growth fromtraditional agriculture,are the associated institutional chan~es requiredin this transformation. The elaboration of a lar~e number of new ormodified institutions accompanies rapid economic growth. These non-marginal economic chanqes are In the public, quasi-public and privatesectors. In Pak istan, a major chanqe requ ired of the qoverruren+e Isystem was to shift from primary emphasis on law and order, and taxcollecting, to major focus on developmental activities. How to modifyor create effective governmental and other institutions at the locallevel for more rapid economic and social development was the task facing
Pakistan and the Academy in the late 1950's.I;t'termin inq
An excenu lnq lv complex set of questions are Involved in/how to <10
about ell ,In<l1nq Inst Itut Iona I ar ronoerren +s and acco l«r a r i rlCl f .rrrro r-. '
investments in modern +ocnno loov in ttle varied cultural, economic andtechnical environments In different parts of the low income world. Oneextreme strategy is to attempt to assure that hiqhly productiveagricultural technology is avai lable in the society and let entrepreneurscome forward and make the investments which wi II result in accelerated<lrawth. Another extreme strategy is based on the assumption thatoove rnrrerrf knows best haw to and is able to r-ap id lv develop anr i cu ltur e ,
-3-
This approach has often involved the complete reorganization of ruralsociety into large collective or communal farms such as in the wei Iknown cases of the USSR, Yugoslavia, and Mainland China.~/ Thesetwo extreme strategies have had serious shortcomin95 from an economicas wei I as other points of view. The wei I documented less extremenational strategies for accelerating agricultural growth in smal Ifarm aqrlculture in Japan, Taiwan, India and earlier In Denmark have
3/ .had considerable success.-Currently in the developing nations,a number of carefully worked
out approaches and experiments are underway attempting to acceleratethe economic and social transformation of rural society without themistakes of attemptin~ to directly transplant foreign models. The ruraldevelopment proqrams developed at the Academy for Rural Development inl3angIadesh are one set of these exper Iments. The Swed Ish aid work onthe Chi lalo Agricultural Project in Ethiopia Is another.~/ A differentapproach was fol lowed in the Puebla Project in a rainfed area of Mexico.~/
A. The Nature of the Academy and its EnvironmentDetal Is of the history of the Academy for Rural Development in Comi Iia
are generally wei I described by Raper.~/ In brief, the Academy isgovernment training and research institution, which commenced operatingIn 1959. It was a new type of Institution in Pakistan charged withproviding in-service tralninq to members of the Clvl I Service forimproved performance In development activities in rural areas. In1959, Its staff of professionals consisted of 10 Individuals, only two
-4-
of whom had Ph. O.'s. The Academy faculty's expertise was predoni na+e lvin social science fields--education, psycholo~y, sociology, economics,and pol itical science, etc.
IIlustrative of its training program is the fol lowing list oftraining courses given In 1968-69: rural development courses for EastPakistan Clvi I Service Probationers, for Circle Officer Probationers, andfor Clvi I Service of Pakistan Probationers; job training courses forproject and deputy project officers for district rural developmentprograms; specialized joh training courses for fertilizer inspectorsof the East Pakistan Agricultural Development Corporation, CircleOfficers, Thana Irrigation Officers, and Thana Agricultural Officers,managers and rode I farmers of irrigation groups under the Thana IrrigationProgram; courses for students from the Social Welfare Col lege of Dacca,from the Department of Journalism, Dacca University, and from the
A9riculturaf University Mymensingh; plus various special ized programsfor international participants sponsored by the United Nations and AIO
for a total nu/TtHlrof par t lc lpan+s in courses ofS,930}J~lum()rOU!irese.irch ;,nd ovn lua t lon studies hevo hoon puhli',hcJ by
.the Academy. Major studies are listed in the selected n i b lioqr aphv ,A complete list of publications of the Academy through 1971 is forthcomin0.~
In evaluating the impact of the activities of the Academy forRural Development, it is important to know the major official andunofficial Iinkaqes between the Academy and the government of Pakistan.In the original scheme for the Academy proposed by the Government of
r:-)-
Pakistan, a hl~h-Ievel Ooarj of Governors was specified to providepolicy and broad managerial ~uidance for the research and trainingactivities of the Academies. An early decision also determined thatthe Director of the Academy should be a person of considerable seniorityand of sufficient status to be able to undertake the training ofCivl I Service of Pakistan officers at the level of Division Commissionersand Secretary of Government. From 1962 on, the Academy at Comi Ilahad a Aoard of r~vernors headed by the Chief Secretary of the Governmentof East r(lki~;tanwith members represent lnq the Central Ministry ofFlnance , tt-cEstablishrrent Division, the Provincial Secretary of Finance,A:Jriculture, Basic Democracies and Local Government, Education, Registerof Cooperatives, the Vice Chancel lor of the University of Dacca, andtwo non-officials appointed by the Governor. The Director of the Academywas member-secretary. The membership of the Board was thereforerepresentative of the major users of the teaching and research servicesof the Academy. ~/
In addition to the strong formal institutional inter-linkingof the Academy with qovernment +tir-ouqhthe Uoard of Gove rnors , thepersonal characteristics of the first Director, Akhtar Hameed Khan,further strengthened these interrelationships. For he, as a formerIndian Clv lI Servant, knew personally and had equal status with manyof the major figures in the Civi I Service of Pakistan. Thus, thedesign of the institutional Iinkages between the Academy and the otherrelevant departments, and the status and individual characteristics of the
-()-
first 01 rector a II prov ided the cruc ia I Iinkaqe s for the exposure ofqovernment personnel in relevant departments to the pi lot and research
programs of the Academy.With respect to financial and personnel resources, the Ford Foundation
provided capital grants for the Academy bul Idings. Fln~nclal supportfor the annual expenses of the Academy were shared by the CentralGovernment and the East Pakistan Government. In 1969, these annualexpenses were at a level of $181 ,000.~1 These funds supported theAcademy faci Iitles and administrative personnel and a professionalstaff of 18 instructors and 21 research assistants. Technical assistance,mostly in the form of advisors, was provided by the Ford Foundation througha contract with Michigan State University from 1959-71. This included aninitial training period for the 10 original staff members of the Academy
at Michigan State, and the provision of a total of7 resident advisors at Comi Ila, as wei I as 6 short-time consultants.Additional support was provided by Peace Corps volunteers and expertsfrom the Danish Government, the British Government and the JapaneseGovernment. Additional research and other funding was provided to thedifferent experimental programs from various other sources. These aredetal led in the Academy reports and by Raper.
The physical environment of the Academy is presented in detai I inIIIa number of studies including that by Muyeecr-- , as wei I as in many
other Academy research publlc~tions. The salient features of thisenvironment are sma ll owner-oper(lted rice f arms with fin iWAraCJ8 landho lo ino
-7-
of 1.46 acres. The overwhelmingly dominant rice crop is grown in threeseasons under a tropical monsoon climate with an extensive summer rainyseason involvinq flooding of much of the land and a rainless winterseason. Rice occupies about 90% of the cropped acreage. The averagecropping intensity was 1.6 in 1968.
The general ideological environment provided by the Government ofPakistan was officially termed Islamic Social ism. However, littledirect ideoloqical influence was felt at the Academy. A more importantgovernmental influence on the Academy's activities were factors relatedto the nature of the Pakistan Government which was dominated by theheritaqe of a colonial civil service. The "Iron framework" of Pakistanhad qeneral Iy been trained to focus on the limited problems of law,order and taxation. There Is consensus that the high-ranking officersof this civi I service were highly intel Ilgent and wei I educated individuals.Most of them, however, had urban biases and little knowledge of ruraldevelopment needs and proqrams.
Methods Used for Developing PI lot Programsllold oxperlmental and pi lot field proqr ams were fundamental to
tho wldo ranq lnq impact of the Academy. Tho six rural developmentproqr,JI'T15d lscus so d bnlow were the result of pilot activities conductedby the Academy for Rura I Deve lopment In one Thana (county) In East Pak istancontaining 107 square mi les and in 1961, 217,297 people. These ruraldevelopment programs are strategies for the involvement of al I thepeople of the area. They were desiqned to provide a way in which farmers
-8-
and others Cldin lncreas i nq access to me an lno f u l economic, political,and social activity. The activities have been the result of careful
experimentation in the local cultural environment. Continuingresearch and evaluation of program operations are undertaken.
These development programs are Iimited largely to improvedorganizational activities focused on the supply of more profitablenew technology to farmers ,including the provision of training--toinsure the required investment in human capital for productive use ofthe new technology. In this process, Cemi Iia proqrams have undertaken
ofa great deal ot local testinq/crops and farm equipment. The Academy,however, was not assi~ned the task of developing new and more profttable
12/agricultural technologles.--The methods used in the Comi Ila Rural Development Programs developed
out of a need of the Academy at its establishment in 1959. In an earlystatement, Akhter Hameed Khan, the first director of the Academy anddominant fiqure in the development of the proqrams at Cemi Ila, said,"Our training activities have been formulated around these rules: thattraining should be supported by research; that trainino should be~upportod by HxpAri~)ntal offorts to to~t theorins and find workablo
n rocouurns i ••• "
"When we be(jan work, the first serious problem was that theinsturctors had no experience in rural development. Whatever knowledgethey had was of an academic nature. The instructor in rural businessmanagement had only the experience of having managed to get himselfout of the vi Ilage! Our Iqnorance could not be removed by readingbooks. The number of surveys of this part of the world is very smal Iand mo5t of these are about India. But even these only described thingsas they exist. We were here to try to discover things as they shouldbe and then plan the training accordingly."1l/
-9-
As a result of this view of the Academy's trninin~ problem, a
major portion of faculty energies were immediately channeled toward
undertakin~ and analyzing pi lot experiments in rural development. These
experiments were essential to provide the faculty with useful materials
for use in the classrooms with the clvi I servants.
In 1960 experimental and p,llot activities were faci Iitated when
Comi Iia Thana was designated as a developmental laboratory in which
programs and administrative experiments could be undertaken by the Academy.
Although vi Ilagers were the primary target group of the experimental
programs some urban citizens in the city of Comilia were benefitted,
t l I I b th tl o lt t' l r i 14/par ICU ar y y e coopera ve cre I ac IVI les.--
I'llth respect to the overa I I goa Is of the Academy, Dr. Khan's view
was:
"What we are trying to evolve here is a pattern for the futureadministration of East Pakistan at the Thana level. This isour primary aim. We are not engaged in a little experiment.It is by no means an academic exercise or simply a researchproject. It is an attempt to find out wh at can be done tobring about the soundest and quicker;/economic and socialdevelopment allover East Pakistan!'-
The Pakistan Academy for Rural Development at Comi Ila, lead by
Dr. Khan, was thus the initiating institution for various experiments
and o roqrems in rural development. In the rest of the paper, the focus
wi II be pl~ced on individual pro~rams Initiated hy the Academy.
- 10 -
II. n~E STATUS OF SIX MAJOR PROGRAMS
We now consider briefly six major programs developed by theAcademy: agricultural cooperatives, the Thana Trainin~ and DevelopmentCenter, the Thana Irrigation Program, the Women's Program, RuralEducation Experiments, and the Rural Public Works Program.
Agricultural Cooperatives. Early in 1960, experimental effortsled to the orqanization of a number of vi IIage-based cooperativesocieties. The Comi Ila type cooperatives had sustained growth inall three cooperative development efforts. (Table I). In view ofthe dismal history nnd the great difficulties faced by cooperatives indevelopin~ societies, this record of sound growth is perhaps une~u~1 ledover the first eleven years in any developing society. The governmentof Pukistan recognized this achievement in the Fal I of 1970 by undertakingto implement the organization of Comi Ila type cooperutives throughoutthe province of East Pakistan. Analysis of this program is undertakenlater in this paper.
Thana TraininQ and Development Center. A second major programwas the experimental activity began in 1960 directed toward the organizationof the Thana Trainin~ and Development Center. A Thana (county) is oneof 413 administrative units into which East Pakistan was administrativelydivided. This program is examined in detai I below.
-11-
Table I
Status of Camilla Type Agricultural Cooperatives, 1970• Average Average Per Cent
Coop Coop Shares Loan OverdueSocieties Members and Savings Issued Loans OverPer Thana Per Thana Per Member Per Member Total Loans
Number Number s $ %- - -Coml Ila Thana A.C.F.1960/61 - 1968/69 30 I 11,673 28.98 52.71 (2.0% more
than I year)Three External Thanas1963/64 - 1968/69 229 5,873 10.34 57.75 4.4% (2.5%
more than I year)Seven Comi IIa Olstrl ctThanas 1965 - Nov.1970 196 5,620 19.53 54.60 9.5% (default)
Total for a ll II Thanas 2,360 68,632
Source: A New Rural Cooperati ve System for Comi IIa Thana. Ninth Annua IReport. Pak Istan Academy for Rura I Deve Iopment. 1970. And,Khan, A. H. Tour of Twenty Thanas. Pakistan Academy forRura I Oeve Iopment. 1971.
-12-
In summary, the Thana Development and Training Center Program wasaccepted in 1964 as a province-wide program in East Pakistan. Fundswere al located for the construction of developmental centers in al I
of the non-urban thanas in East Pakistan,based on the Comi I la model.~/Currently most thanas In the province are using a development centersimi lar to that experimented with at Comi Ila.
Thana Irriqation Program. The two season monsoon cl imate inBangladesh presents major problems of water control. In Comi II~whichis representative of most of Bangladesh, the dry winter season has lessthan 2 inches of rain per month during the four months of November -February ,requiring irrigation for the production of most crops. In contrast,the five very heavy rainfal I months of May, June, July, August, andSeptember include 10 inches of rain per month. An annual avorage of 94inches fal Is on Comi Ila. As yet, the immense problem of harnessingand control ling the gigantic Ganges and Brahmaputra River sysrems andof providing drainage during the rainy season have only begun to befaced. In relation to this immense national task,relatively few majorriver and flood control works have been completed.
Given this water situation, the Academy early concluded that itmi0ht be able to undertake some local activities which would reducefl(~ding during the monsoon season. It also saw a major orportunityIn local irrigation activities in the dry winter season. Tho approachInvolvfld use of the accumulated wator in thfl rond~ and rlvor'; throu0h
- 13-
law-lift mechanical pumps and secondly, experimental activity in theuse of tubewel Is for the provision of a greater quantity of water,for it was soon recoqn t zeo that avai lable surface water was quicklyused up In the dry season. Basic problems here related to how toreduce the costs of the tubewel Is, how to assure their continuous operationand repair, and how to assure payment for installation and operation.The cooperative system proved a solution to the managerial problems.The ear Iy attempts to deve lop mechan Ica I pump irrlqaf lon in the Thana
171are provided in a number of reports.-- The qrowth in irriqation activitiesand the problems faced are documented In the annual reports of the Academyand by Raper.
On the basis of the experiments at Coml Ila, decisions were takenearlv in 1968 to launch a province-wide Thana irrigation proqram. In1968-69, the first year of this province-wide irrigation program, thetarget was distributing and operating 11,500 low-11ft water pumps forirri~ation and 700 tubewel Is of 6-inch diameter to be sunk by the EastPakistan Agricultural Development Cooperation. The 1969 evaluationrepor-t states that 10,852 low-lift pumps were used by qroups in the196ti-69season, and 638 tubewol 15 were sunk, of which nearly 200 wentInto operation during the year. 181
These data convey very little of the immense training achievementthese figures represent. For example, 8,000 individuals were trainedin the operation of the low-lift and the tubewel I pumps. Also, theactivity required to assure payment for the use of the pumps involved
-14-
was an immense effort. The first recommendation of the 1969 evaluationreport was "that the program shou Id conti nue and expand in future years. ".!.2!
Women's Program and Fami Iy Planning"One cause of our misery and poverty is that we keep
our womenfolk at home guarded over constantly. Wekeep them Indoors. We have almost imprisoned them.Wo do not educate them, and because they are confined,they cannot educate themselves; so they are nearly al III literate. They are timid. And so lonq as the womenare uneducated~ development can hardly be expected inour country. ,,~/ A.H. Khan
"The women's program is intended to bring women out fromthe physical and psychological seclusion that haswithheld their productive energies from the mainstreamof development. They are to learn how to get aboutindependently and with dignity, how to earn smal I sumsof money through a variety of economic activitiesconvenient to their household obi igations, and how to /enrich the health and social life of their fami Iies."~
In attemptinq to provide some solution to this problem, exploratoryactivity by Academy staff In the vi Ilages in ccnversation with both menand women resulted In the decision to develop a series of trainingprograms at the Academy for women. These commenced on January I, 1962.Theso fixperJrrontnI tralnln(')ilnd other activities for women fit theacademy have continued. Content of the training classes includeschild care, maternity diseases, fami Iy planning, literacy, sewing,spinning, poultry raising, gardening, sanitation, first aid, and si Ikscreen printing. More specialized training programs were also developedfor midwives. ThE! development of economic activities for women commencedwith the provision of hand-spinning machines in 1963. Other activitiesincluded sewinq and weaving, rice-hoeing, the use of wheat in the diet
-15-
whieh led to development of training in fami Iy nutrition. The amount
of participation by women is indicated by the following fiqures for
the 1968-69 year: 13 training groups involving 304 women in classes of22/7 to 50 days.-- In 1969, women's programs patterned after those at
Comilia were begun in three experimental farm project areas in different
parts of East Pakistan by the Agricultural Development Corporation.
Associated with the women's program, an experimental fami Iy planning
activity was undertaken in July, 1962 with support from the Provincial
Department of Health. This rural pi lot fami Iy planning program was
laid out in three parts: action, promotion, and research. During the
1960's, considerable experimental program activity and research was
carr ied out at Comi I Ia. The research was part Iy supported by the
Population Counei I and Included technical assistance by a number of
rosearchers from overseas. As a result of this pi lot and experimental
activity, a number of valuable lessons were learned with respect to
the response of vi Ilagers to different approaches to providing both
materials for fami Iy planning and for the communication of the goals
and knowledge about how family planning devices are used. This research
was of particular value in a Moslem rural society where considerable
uncertainty about the acceptability of fami Iy planning Ideas existed.
Effective promotional technlC'jues developed at the Academy included
the creation of sonqs about fami Iy planning which are sung in local
markets as wei I as broadcast over government radio.
-16-
Action parts of the fami Iv p l ann i nq proqr arn were integrated with
the national scheme for fami Iy planning in 1965, under the administrative
control of the Thana Fami Iy Planning Officer. Research and experimental
program activities have continued with a view to keeping the fami Iy plannin~
activity in ComiI la Thana as a model for the rest of the province.23/
Rural Education Experiments. As in many developing countries,
the educational system in Pakistan is largely a legacy of the colonial
rulers. In Pakistan, an urban and clerical bias predomi nated, In 1959,
in Comi110 Thana only one-fifth of the poou l at i on over 5 years of aoe
was I iterate. Given this educational environment, the Academy undertook
experiments in education beginning in 1961. The four main pr09rams are:
(I) introduction of a "rural bias" (farm life related education) in all
of the rural schoo ls in ComiI l a , Thana through a pi lot school project;
(2) the "feeder schools" programs (one teacher vi Ilage schools for
small chi Idren and adult III iterates), started in early 1963 in the
vi I I ages with cooperative societies; (3) the training of the vi Ilaqe
women to te ach I t rcr acv classes in the vi l l aoes and to teach small
ch l l drnn 111 I)ovprnrmnt prlm,1ry ,,(:h{)ol'.; fmc! (tl) ttlO '.(;111101 plflnt
improvement project l aunched in oar l v 1964 as a par t of the Public
24/Works Program.--
The status of these programs in 1969 was as fol lows! The pi lot
sChool project evolved into the operation of youth clubs in al I of the
69 primary schools in the Thana with a membership in 1968-69 of 5,720,
students. Teacners , however, were apparently reluctant to participate
-17-
In tho youth r.luLJproorc'lmr,without additlon,,1 pay.
The feeder school p rooram has become an Imam (re llqt ous leader)teacher proqram. These religious leaders were given training inliteracy methods at the Academy. They taught 135 classes to 4,227students in 1968-69. In addition, they operated literacy classes foradults in which 2,875 persons attended. The women's program alsoincluded 68 female literacy classes in which 2,375 women were enrol led.
School plant improvement became part of the Rural Works Programwhich is discussed below. As a result, a large number of classroomswere repal red and bu iIt in the Thana.~1
To conclude, the experiments In rural education in Comi Ila Thanahave had some success and are continuing; however, as of 1970, theDepartment of Education or other units of the government of Pakistanhad not seen fit to adopt any of these activities as models forbroader programs. Whether this is due to the limited success ofthese experiments In Coml Ila, or to a lack of understanding of theusefulness of these programs on the part of the Department of Educationand other government officials Is not clear.
Rural Public Works Program. As Academy personnel interactedwith the other qovernment of f lc la ls of the Thana and the v lllaqers ,they bnceme more dlrectly aware of the extent of the effect of floodson tho crops and how this affected the ability of farmers to repay credit.Raper indicates that in one area south of Comi Iia town, for five yearsIn succession prior to 1961, the spring rice crop had been severely
-18-
damaged and the late summer rice crop often had to be transplantedtwo or three times before the seedlings could keep ahead of the rlsinqflood waters. There was, therefore, continual pressure to do somethin9about the flooding.
In 1961, Richard B. Gilbert of the Harvard Advisory Group askedthe director of the Academy whether he could organize Public WorksPrograms In the vi I lages to increase employment and income, usingwheat as part payment for their waqes under the Pl 480 Program.Discussion in the Thana Council in October, 1961, resulted in theapproval of a proposal for Thana-wide pi lot publ ic works pro~ram.
1Twenty-one schemes for irrigation and dralnaqe and three schemesfor flood control were submitted by I I union counci Is early in 1962.By the end of the program for that year, 35 mi les of canals had beencleared and 14 1/2 mi Ies of embankments and roads had been constructedto help control floods. This included the construction of two water
26/regulators and twenty-three culverts.--As a result of the success of this pilot p roqram , the Department
of Basic Democracies and local Government authorized funds for a proqramto be carried out In many parts of East Pakistan in 1962-63. The Academyp~rticlpated In the tralnlnq of qovernment officials for this expandedoperation. This Included writino a Manual for Rural Public Works explaininothe procedures used in the rural works program. The Academy also provided
I + l rt 27/eva ua Ion repo 5.--Thereafter, the works program was increasingly supported by the
government in East Pakistan and later this rural works program model wastransferred to West Pakistan.,
-19-
Thomas has provided a summary of the Rural Works Programaccomplishments for the years 1962-1968 as fol lows: roads, hardsurfaced and dirt, new 21,895 mi les, repaired 118,371 mi les; embankments,new 3,743 mi les, repaired 7,595 mi les; drainage and irrigation canals,new 9,031 mi les, repaired 9,966 mi les; community bui Idings includingschools, 9,584. The rural works activity is estimated to have created173 mi IIion man-days of employment. The total works program al location
28/for the six years was 196 mi IIion dollars.--This brief description of six programs originating at
Comi Ila provide perspective on the types of activity undertaken by theAcademy and the varying success of these programs. We turn now to amore intensive an~lysis of two programs of particular interest;experiments in the development of more effective rural government, andthe establishment of new type agricultural cooperatives.
III. IMPROVING RUnAL GOVERNMENT--THE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT CENTERA) Introduction and Problem Situation
Just as the returns to investment on farms are dependent uponthe level of management performance at the Thana or county level, thequality of government program operations and management greatlyinfluences the return to government programs. Involved here areissues of institutional or non-marginal change in an administrativesystem as wei I as marginal change. The return to program investmentis depon den t both on the productivity of the project activity and ontho rilte of .idoo t Ion.
-20-
This analysis is focused on factors affecting the rute of adoptionof programs at the Thana level. Such factors Include: confusion andconflict emono programs, lack of necessary coordination especially ininsuring avallabll ity of requi red program suppl ies, also "Perhapspart of the trouble was that the nation bul Idlng departmental officers(agriculture, irrigation, forestry, etc.) were not yet ready to plan
29/with the local people and to report to them directly:-- An additionalmajor difficulty was that departmental officers were not able to gainneeded participation by vi Ilagers in programs.
Government program performance at the Thana Ieve lin East Pak istanwas generally poor when the Academy began its work,consistlnq prlmari Iyof independent government departmental activities (agriculture, coops,water, etc.) which in a large number of cases provided low or negative
returns. In the early exploratory analysis of these problems,theAcademy concluded that a solution required three kinds of coordination:of di fferent depar-tmental programs at the Thana leve Ij of departmentalefforts with triose of the next lowest leve I of government, the Un ions j
and amoog the different un ions. 30/At about the time the Academy was undertaking its exploratory
analysis the Ayub Khan, government of Pakistan established the five-tieredbasic democracies svs tem of qove rnmen f In October, 1C)59. (Tilble 2).
level tho flve-tlerod 8aslc Democracies system was a slgnlflcunt,departure from thE~ past history of governmental organization in which
- 21 -
Table 2The Five-Tiered Basic Democracies Systemof Government In East Pakistan, 1959-71
Title ofAverage Population Admi n istrati ve
Leve I No. of Units 1961 Off icer(I) Provl nce 50,840,000 Governor(2 ) Oivislon 4 12,710,000 Commi ss ioner(3) Oistri ct 17 2,402,353 Deputy Commi ss ioner(4) Thana 411 123,698 Circle Officer(5) Un Ion 4,053 12,544 Chairman
Vi IIages 64,523 788 (No recogni zed head)(Not in BasicDemocracies System)
Sources: Robert D. Stevens, Institutional Chance and AgriculturalDeve Iopment". East Lans Ing, ~11ch igan: ~1ich iqan Sta teUniversity, Department of Agricultural Economics, AER #641967 P.M. and Raper, Rural Development in Action, Ithaca,New York: Cornell University Press, 1970, p. 101.
---- -- -------------
- 22 -
the lowest effect-rve qovarnrnan+a! unit was the District,wlth an averagepopulation of more than two mi Ilion. The new five-tiered governmentalsystem included cit the lowest level an elected Union Counci I. Unionshad an average population of 12,544 persons in 1961. It also establisheda Thana Counci I cit the next highest leve I of government to be composedof the elected Chairman of each Union Counci I plus 25 percent governmentofficials and 25 percent appointed members.~/
Since in previous government organization the next highest level ofgovernment, the! District, particularly in the person of the CeputyCanmissloner, retained most of the decision making power and control
of funds and personnel, the question was posed as to what powers andactivities were appropriate for these two new lowest levels of ~overnment.As it turned out, the Rural Works Program became one major successfulactivity of the Thana and Union Counclls,with 71% of the Works Programal locations going to these levels of ~overnment in 1966-67.321 TheWorks Program demonstrated that certain kinds of activities,such asroad building ancl earth works for water control ,could be effectivelycarried out by these two new levels of government. These types ofinfrastructure bLiIIding activities also aided agricultural developmentactivities.
-23-
B) Experimental Pi lot Activities in Rural GovernmentIn spite of the successful rubllc works activities there remained
many questions particularly at the Thana level about how to qreatlyimprove the manaqement of government programs. The history of theAcademy's activities in government are contained in six annual reportson Comi Ila Rural Administration Experiments.33/ In summary, theparticipant observation activities by the Academy faculty in Comi IlaThana government led to a proposal in 1963 for a Thana Training andDave lopment Center. In 1964, th is concept was accepted for app Iicat ionin the rest of East Pakistan. Modifications of the Thana Traininq andDevelopment Center were, however, sti II beinq explored by the Academyuntil the 25th of March, 1971. Analysis of the Thana Training and DevelopmentCenter concept and its reus Its to date fol low.
The concept of a Tralnlnq and Development Center at the Thanaor county level Includes the fol lowing major elements:(I) A single physical location at the Thana level for al I major
nation-bui Iding department offices(2) A smal I adjacent adaptive research and experimental farm(3) Housing for government officers sufficiently attractive to encouraqe
them to stay in the Thana for many years(4) Physical facilities for adult and farmer training classes--The Traininq
Cantor(') l.nouqh l<lnd tor edd lrlona l ac tl vl t los il~; neodo<1--such as w()rf~house<;,
machinery repair shops, a bank, etc.
-24-
(6) An effectively functioning Thane Counci 1 Including electedrepresentatives from the Unions and representatives of thenatlon-bui Iding departments
(7) A central Cooperative Association to serve farmers
The first five objectives of a physical nature were relativelyeasy to accomplish once decisions had been made to al locate the neededWorks Program funds to purchase and build. In Coml Ila Thana the lastof these five objectives, the staff quarters, was finished In 1966.
The more difficult task of establishing an effectively tunc+ lco lnqThana Counci I and a sound agricultural cooperative organization hasrequired years of experimental and pilot activity. (Fi9. I)
A primary cha IIenge in the Thana has been to ach Ieve effectivecooperation in developmental programs between the members of the ThanaCouncil under thE:!leadership of the General Administrative Officerof the Thana--The Circle Officer. A second challenge has been
to activate the training component of the Cantor. Examination of fivesp&clflc problems nnd the results ~chleved In Coml IIe Thana throughJune 1969 provide ~n evelu~tlon of the success of developln~ governmentat the Th~na level using this approach.
I) The Problem of Lack of Funds under the Control of the Thana GovernmentTwo recently developed province wide programs,the Rural Works Programand the Thana 1rr lgatl on Procr am have provl ded funds to the Com I IIa Thanagovernment (in 1968-69 $46,025). All Thanas in the Province have also
34/rece I'led funds +rom these sources dur in9 the Iast few years.-
c0.,.;•... ~ - >' ~j -C1l 0
or< •.. enu u ell0 CJ >II) ~ ~Ul ~ •.. ---< Q CO~OJ •.. 00 Q) ...-t>- U c: Co. c:~....• Q) ~ a o U•.. ..., Ul •.. a ~ §C1l a •.. Q) U~ ~ ::l .¥ P 0
~p,. Po ~ ...-t U ....•.I c: t"d C1l ell
0 I ....• ::E ~ ioo-- >0 ~ ::l ....•U ell ...-t ...-t •.. •..
(J co co ...-t co...-t ~ ~ ~ c: ::l ~til •••• ::l ::l 0 U ell~ •••• •.. •.. ~ ....• r----- Po•.. 0 ...-t ...-t •.• ~ :c 0c ::l •.. ::l t"d be 0Q) •••• (J ....• u co<; U UU QJ ~"tl ~ ....• I r---c:: ....• ~ ell ~ ~ c: er::: ...-ttil s: CO~ OO~ 0 ...-t t"d~ c: u <U < •...•:z < c: ..... ~t"d 0 U •..
E-o r: w ....• c: cc: ::I ellZ CIl ::l 0 U
U~ W co'--- c:u ~--------------- ~--------------- er::: C1l
QJ t=!-< N ...-t W.-I U
~ CIIZ ~ CII :> ~----- .c- "0 ..... > .. ~ til •..W til c: U ....• c: 0 CII ....•
c C1l •.. O~ ..... ••••z 0 QJ C1l ~ U r-< 00'-; c: e:: ~ •.. ...-t •.. c:c, c: QJ •.. C1l t"d c: Q) A. ....•. c:::J e I til c: ~ CII co ....•. 11'1 0
0 I ~ ....• ::l e t"d <: til \0 ~co ....• ~ c: "tler::: •.. QJ ~ •......l ...-t til CJ ....• ~'-' ~...-t Q ...-t ~ '-' coI U
U Ei 0 ....•. t"d t"d UW N ....• "(j 0 .. 0 c,. ••• <: .•..• ...-t co ....•...-t •••• < U OQU QJ c: u...-t c: e:> ...-t •••• c: •.. Q IV C:-..I t"d ::l
til ....• C...-4~~
IV e Q ::I>~ ~~ ~ U t"d co E 0III c: ••.• ~ ~ C1l .. c: Z t-- I-U 11'1 0
Q > ::I QJ QJ coe ~-..I IV ...-t ell U
0 0 .•..•c 0 -e > <: e I ,t:.U u..c III ~ c: ~ ...-t 0 ON •.. •..
Q '-' U ~ . p.. 0 co ....• co -..I...-t Uc: t"d -..I 0 ::l I til c: •••• IIIZ ...-t 0 o IV e en ~ ~ ....• ::l fIl 0 ~....• ... ,-....,: co ....... p.. fIl t.Ll ~ ....•<: U c: fIl •.. t= til U c: t"d IV til Qc: ::l ~ c: ell c 0 ::l ....• > IV '-':l CII til O"tl 0 ~O' 0 co~ 0 N .0 ..... III ....• ~ •.. E-< U co C1l
U ...-t e s: •.. a •.. t"d"tl '-' ...-t e.. "'--"Ill~
•.. U t"d Z c: H ...-t cotil :;: c: ~ co co ..... isH c: fIl •••• ;::l OQ •••.• .. > '- >t"d ~ "'0 0 ~ 0 ~ til ...-t- t= CII ell . ~ ~ ell CII ....• III,<..
.Cl •.. ~ ~ ...-t p.. ••..• U c .cH e c: IV IV ..... ~ c E-o •..
III ..... () (J () t"d !'IS :l 0< :z 0 .•..•..... c: c: c: 0 til U ••••Po~ ~ ::l C1l t"d fIl ~ 0ex: ~ Co.~ ~ 0 ~~
ell ell <: 1------N C1lC 0 U ;:: A. fIlE-o IIIo >.....< z •..
coz ....• ...-t ~c: ..... III< Z 0 () Po..... § 0:c --------------- ------------- ....• c: 0::l 0 UE-o < U
IIIer::: '---- OQ
III co::l E-t ...-tc: ...-tQJ .....> III :>ell •..
p.; co ~ •..----- ...-t!'IS ~ ell 0
"0 c •.. "'0 ~~
!'IS til ~t=~ 0
III co "tl III() ::-: c: ::l ...-t~ co c: c .....•... cu a ()
~ ~ > ..... c:III c ::l.., ....l er::: ;.:J 0u
--.
co...-t....•.....eaU
~o
-26-
2) The Problem of lack of Participation by the Nation Sui IdingDepartment Off Icers In the Coord i nat iem Act Iv Ity of the Thana Caunci I.The Thana Is the lowest level of government in which most of the nationbul Idln~ departments are represented. The role of the Thana Departmental
officers IS,therefore,vltal for developmental programs, especially withrespect to (a) coordination of the different pr09rams in the Thana, (b)
andproviding Instruction to farmers and others,/(c) ensuring the availabilityof services and supplies. In Camilla Thana, major participation in ThanaCauncl I deliberations by the nation bui Iding department officers hasbeen achieved with considerable effort. For the first time, the BasicCemocracy order requ lred these officers to report their activitiesto the Thana Counel I as wei I as through the usual hierarchy to theirdepartmental superiors. However, despite the participation which wasachieved, the 196!~69 Report of PARD concludes that attendance in theThana Council by these officers leaves much to be desired and that up toJune 1969 the Circle Officer had no administrative control over the
351Oep~rtmenta I Off i cers In the Thana.- ~~ohsen commented ear Iier ,"Activating the department! I officers seemed to be more difficult than
361mob I IIzlnq the peop le,,,-3) The Probllem ot Lack of Coordination between Unions. The success of
tIle Thana Counc! I in providing a forum for effective coordination ofthe programs in the different Unions became very clear in the developmentof rural wqrks program plans. Instead of receiving comprehensive plansdrawn up In District or hi9her offices that have little possibl Iityof implementation and no qenuine support from local leaders, the new
-27-
approach started the planning process for Works Programs from the vi Ilaqe
level. Finally, after many meetings including appropriate departmental
officers and other technical experts, a Thana rural works plan was agreed
to with implementation steps included, which could be carried out.
Preventive health and crop and animal disease plans were developed in
a simi lar manner. Through use of this new planning process, the required
coordination of activities in different unions was achieved.
4) Prob lems In the Implementation of the Training Center Concept.
In Comi Ila, as the new activities and programs were undertaken, the
need for various types of adult training was continuously apparent.
Training activities were,therefore,carried out including the fol lowing
types: one day training for Union Counci I members on the functions of the
Union Counci I and the duties of members; Rural Works Program training
for 200 vi Ilage leaders In measurement of earth moved, accounts keeping,
and maintenance of laborer roles; one day training for union counci lors
on each of the fol lowing: budget preparation, role of the counci I members
in solving vi Ilage problems, organization for pump irrigation, the Unionond
taxation system, conciliation court procedures,/administration of ~"'uslim
FarniIy Law; training of masons and brick layers for the publ ic works
program; classes for vi Ilage cooperative managers in cooperative organization
and management; training for model farmers in al I manner of agricultural
subjects; women's classes in health, food and family planninq;/classes
for roli~ious loaders who toach Iiteracy to primary school studonts and
to adults. The 1968-69 report indicates that 49 courses with a total
-28-
attendance of 2226 were organized in the Thana for rural develorrrent
workers and rura I leaders.
An important step in the training activities was the use of departmental
off I cers. The I r new ro Ie of teacher increased the i r i nvo Ivement and
contact with the people they were charged with serving.
5) The Problj3m of Uncertainty in the Circle Officer's Leadership Role
in the Thana. fn addition to the problem of how the Thana Circle Officer
was to achieve coordination between the nation bu l l d l no department
officers without administrative control of personnel or an appreciable
budget, the Circle Officer faced two other potentially powerful Individuals
in the Thana, the Thana Magistrate, and the newly instituted position of
Project Director of the Cooperative Federation. Some agreement as to
the roles and the working relationships between these individuals was reauired
for producti ve government management.
In the 1960's, the Cooperative Project Director In many Thanas
was senior in government rank and age to the CI rcle Officer. In Comi I la
Thana the CooperCltlve Federation has also Involved more people, had a
larger payroll than the Thana government. Mohsen In the 19f13 Ornen l zat l on
Cher't for ttlC Thane Tr e ln l no and f)ovolopmant Contor onv l saqnd the Project37/
lJlrector as suporlor to the Circle Offlcer.- By 1966, however, the
Com!I Ia CI rc Ie OH I cer reported that a week Iy meet I ng between the
Circle Officer and the Cooperative Project Director provided the only
link between the two or~anizations, implying that both officers were
at least on an equal footin!1.38/ By 1970, the Circle Officer had apparently
-29-
been accepted at least in principle,as the chief administrative officer39/in the Thana.-- However, within the nation bui Iding departments, Thomas
reported in 1971 that "Despite this official sanction It is clear that
there are important groups and agencies at the provincial and national
level which have little real understanding of or sympathy for the type40/of rural organization which has been discussed here1~ In particular, he
points out that the Departmont of Agriculture opposes the concept of an
inteqrated tralninq and development center and is rapidly expandinq
the standard type extension system.
The Thana magistrates who are responsible for law and order and
revenue functions often have equal or superior civi I service rank to
the Circle Officer. In his 1971 study, Dr. Khan reports, "The concept
of the Thana Training and Development Center is in danger of being" 41/submerged by the old obsessive pattern of magisterial control. --
In two Thanas, magistrates had been qiven overal I charge In the Thana,
including being made Chairmen of the Thana counci Is.
C) lvaluatlon of Developments in f~ural Government
How does one evaluate the increased returns (economic, social
and political) at the Thana level to the use of government funds as
a result of improved organizational and institutional relationships?
In Comi Ila as In most areas, a number of major variables have changed
along with changes in government organization. The joint products are
difficult to separate. Little data on performance levels is avai lable ,and experimental controls are not possible. The fol lowing judq
~re,therefore,made.
-30-
In economl c terms, the success of both the Rur a I Works Proqramand the Thana Irrl9ation Programs, were dependent upon the Thana[)eveloprrent and Tr'aining Center Organization and Concepts. The
Rural Works Program was Judged remarkably successful by Thomas. Itcreated an averagEI of 40 million man-days of emp loyment annually wh ichproduced a major Increase In Infrastructure faci Iities in rural areas.
42/In benefit-cost terms,Thomas estimated a 57 percent return.-- Withoutthe Thana level or~anizatlon and training the works pro~ram eitherwould have fal led completely or provided a much lower return.
In IIke fashion, the Thana Irrl~ation Program which was initiatedon a pravl nce-w Ice bas Isin 1968-69 had by 1970-71 p Iaced 26,000
operating pumps In the field able to Irrigate 1.3 ml Ilion acres. Withoutthe Thana level organization and training approach used farmers would nothave paid part of the cost at Irrigation, because previously waterhad been free. The magnitude of this success is better gauged by thefact that the East Pakistan water agency in 20 years had only been ableto Irrigate 94,563 acres at an Immense cost. Tho nine~year effort of
43/tho Aqrlculturl1l Dovelopment Corporation h~d only fleldod 3,')00 pumps.-
In social terms, the most Important result has been the new andImproved re t e+lons between government officers and vl llaqe rs , "Undoubtedly,the most wholeson~ Influence Is that of the new relationship betweenofficers and vi Illagers••••There Is guidance and supervision withoutundue subordinatiion. There is trust arising from mutual knowledge ••••They have now a realistic view of government and its acenc les •••• but as
-31-
human aqencies with limited resources, established for their benefit, and44/solicitous of their loyalty."--
At the international level, the World Dank in its recent East Pakistan45/Action Program supported the Comi Ila rural development mode 1.--
In summary, the Academy Director and Faculty, throuqh participant
obse rvat ion In the Than", Counc iI Meet ings, the Un ion Counc i I Meet inqs ,
and Interaction with departmental and administrative officers, greatly
influenced the operating procedures of local government and greatly
Increased its effectiveness. The model of the approach used by the
Academy in improving governmental performance is of more general interest
than the specific changes made.
IV. NEW TYPE AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES
The first objective in this section is intensive analysis of the
organizational methods and proqram content of Comi Ila type cooperatives.
A second objective is to provide,to the extent possible, measures of
the economic, social and pol itlcal chanqes which have resulted from the
A. ~r;Jilnililt i and I Methods and Program Content
The general methodological approach of the Academy to organizing
cooperatives in Comi Ila was fundamental to the success of the program.
"From August, 1959, the Academy has been closely observing theworking of plans and programs in the 80-square mi Ie Comi IlaThana V-AID area. We have attended regularly the fortniahtlyconferences of the V-AID workers and listened attentively totheir views and the view of the officers. We have also invitedselected groups of successful farmers, teachers, officer bearersof the cooperatives, artisans and others. We have made case
-32-
studies of al I these groups and carefully reccrded theiropinions and suggestions and published these In the shape ofsmal I mon09raphs.
"The Academy has taken th is area as a Iaboratory forsocial and economic research and experiments because we believethat such experiments and researches are necessary in orderto put substance into our training programs and make themrealistic. It is also the best use of the talents of theteam of exper~s at the Academy •••
"We think. that we are now in a position to initiate anexperiment in agricultural and economic develcpment whichmay be very significant. Briefly the chief objective of thisexperl ment WC)U Id be to promote the formati on of sma II cooperati vegroups of far-mers who would adopt. Improved methods, Implementsand machines. A small group cooperative would aim to becomeself-sustained. The members would learn to save and collectthe ir own cap i ta I and invest it in better farm ing. ,,46/
The first +errtat lve plan for a cooperative pilot project includedthese Important points:
"(I) The Academy would sponsor a central cooperative;(2) The centra I co-ope rat ive wou Id have sets of improved
implements and mach ines like power pumps, sma \I tractors, etc.;(3) It would undertake the demonstration of these implements in
various vi Ilages, and run training courses for the farmers;(4) On receiving requests from farming families, it would help
In the organization of smal I co-operative groups, who wouldbuy the Implements on a hire-purchase basis;
(5) Tho central co-oper~tlve wI II carryon an Intenslvo educativeprOC"Jr~mmostrer.sln'lthe noed for savinq and Invostr1ent Inf arml nq I1nd tho Inern IrlrJ of bettor methods for Inero as In<1production and the Income of the members;
(6) If the habit of co-operation grow5 the members would learnto do their buying and 5el ling jointly, as wei I as thep Iann Irig of crops. 1147/ .
The organizational effort to implement cooperative pi lot projectbegan in early 1960 with the identification of leading farmers asorganizational anents In the vi Ilages from which they came. These
-33-
individuals were pai<i a smal I amount of money to cover transportation
to come to the Academy for training in extension methods and group
organization. They were also given some training in improved methods
of aqriculture. Their task was to go amonq the vi I lagers of their
locality and try to organize qroups Interested in cooperative48/
ac+ Ion •"-
"Even though these extension agents were not highlyenlightened or highly trained people, they wereinterested and wi Iling. This apparently was whatwas required because they did get groups together.Fol lowing the formation of a group, the specialofficer for cooperatives met with a group. Sometimeshe went to the vi Ilage. Sometimes the committee ofvi IIaoe rs came to him."
This special officer " ••• was always interested firstin the group's intentions. Were they really interestedin becominq a cooperative or were they perhaps moreinterested in some special compensation they mightqet?" He also " ••• looked into the reasons fororganizing the oroup to see if the memhers couldrea I Iy a fford a coope rat Ive , If he became con v j needthat the group was a genuine one truly interested inworking together and If it was large and homogeneousenough to develop Into a viable social group then heproceeded to state the conditions under which theAcademy would work with them.,,49/
In summary, the conditions were as fol lows: (I) the nroup would
have to organized itself into a formal group and elect officers. Later
it would have to become a registered cooperative society. (2) Compulsory
rcqular weekly meetings of al I members would be held with records kept
of the meetings. (3) Individual members would have to make reoular
weokly savinGS which would be deposited in In<ilvidual accounts.
(4) lhn qr oup would have to eqroo to select .m individual from their
midst as an orqanizer who would go to the Academy for regular meetings
-34-
at least once a week. He would collect and carry thel r sav Inqs tothe Academy and would bring back useful information to the group andteach It to them. The organizer would receive payment for his travel
ancosts pius/additional smal I allowance. (5) The 9rouP would have toaqree to keep 90c1d accounts. (6) The group wou Id have to eqree do toJoint plannin9 to improve their business to engage in joint effortssuch as the joint use of a power water pump or the Joint purchase ofseeds. They would have to give up some of the prlvl leges of acting asIndividuals and accept same of the burdens of ect lno as a group. The
group would have to agree to adopt Improved a9rlcultural practices andaccept training and improve their ski IIs. The group would have to agreeto join a coope ra+l ve federation for securing credIt, purchasIng andmarketIng services and educational materials. The group would alsohave to agree to engage In long periods of discussion where al I membersof the society WE~re present and thus prevent the government of thecooperative by the managing committee only as had been the practice ofso many societies In the past In East Pakistan.501
Crltlc~1 to tho success of these cooperatives WC'lStllA trainingof the Individual chosen by the v lllaqe qroup to be their villageorganizer or cooperative manager. Intensive training courses wereoperated at the Academy for these newly-chosen cooperative organizersor managers. So~n it was clear that this individual could not performwe II both the functions of keep inq the cooperati ve operati ng and ofrecelvln~ the necessary training in agricultural practices to brin9new techn ica I know Iedge back to the v i IIage. Thus, the v i IIage
-.5')-
cooperatl ve s wern asked to choose>. from amono themso Ives a second
Individual to be a "model farmer", who would come to the Academy
weekly to receive training in improved agricultural practices. The
model farmer also was provided with transportation expenses and a
small additional allowance. The thi rd major officer of importance in
the vi IIage cooperative is the Chairman of the Cooperative. This
indIvidual operates largely in an honorary capacity but also receives
a small a llos an ce ,
In summary then, It should be stressed that the orqnnlzational
approach consisted of the self-Identification by a vi Ilaqe group of
individuals who were to be their leaders. These individuals then received
training at the Academy. In this way, no outside individuals were
arbitrarily injected into the vi IIage cooperative scene. Due to this
approach, the Comilia ccoper-at lves h ave been based largely upon natural
soc ia I group ings •.~_!/From this organization approach a large number of cooperatives were
dove lopo d , bo+h in aqr lcu l+ur a l v l llaqes and emono o the r qr oup s , ny
hy " lilf'lO r nn t ra I Aqr lcu lt ur nl L()Opnfl1tives Fo de ra t lon (Fi'llJrn2).
~"ember5hlp In this Federation included 11,673 vi llaqer s in 301 vi Ilaqe521cooperative societies, or an average of 37 me~bers per soclety.---
A second large central cooperative had also developed to serve nonfarm
citizens in the Thana, the Special Cooperative Societies Federation
which in 1969 was composed of 87 primary cooperative societies with 3,8B8
members.
-36-
The Academy clnd the Centra I Cooperatl ves in Comi II a Thana are
entirely separate institutions. After the initial pi lot organizing
activity by the Academy faculty, in January, 1962, the first Central
Cooperative in +ne Thana was registered with its own staff. Thereafter,
the Academy faculty continued to observe, analyze,and from time to
time provide some professional assistance to the cooperatives. But they
no longer had management responsibi I l tv , However, dur l nq the whole
period of th is report, Or. Khan conti nued as the dominant member of
the Board of Dt rectors of the Centra I Cooperati ves I n the Thana.
The proor-em con+en+ of the agricultural cooperatives is focused
on the provision of loans to farmers. This credit flow provides the
primary source of Income for both the Agricultural Cooperatives Federation
and its vi I I age primary cooperatives. Loans for 1968-69 were 60 per
cent for the purpose of producing four major crops: spring rice, fal I
rice, winter rice, and winter potatoes. <Table 3). A hinh proportion
of the loans was for one year.
With respect to new technology, one of the basic parts of the
agreement with the vi I Iage cooperati ves as stated above was that farmers
would adopt improved agricultural practices and accept training.
Experimental and pi lot winter pump irrigation and other types of
mechanization of agriculture were early objectives of the Academy.~/
The new major technologies Introduced by the cooperative organization
include the fo l l cwl nq ; (I) the effective Introduction and operation of
low-II tt w8ter pumps tJonlnnln!l In 1959;~/ (~) tho pilot development of
-37-
•••••• 1•• ".
84.OCII-1II 1UX1I-1~C~, 'nlpeetotll) Chle' InllMc•••.O).tUn.c •• '........,...'., 'Ut"a.r".,.C-aI
•• ,,.-,,. •••• ,"* .'.
[~fJhau~.'U)
Un.r (ach 'nspectol-,O\,llIs90 Sec'-"••-10 M•• ' 'Ir_1I- to 1041"19."
Fi (lure 2: Ornanizational Chart of Anricultural CooperativesFederation (A.C.F.), June, 1969.
SOURCE: Pak i stan Academy for Rura I Cleve lopment, A New Rura ICooperative System for Comi Iia Thana, Ninth AnnualReport, Comi Ila, East Pakistan, 1970. p. 5.
-38-
Table 3
Purpose of iL.oans,Agricultural Cooperatives FederationComilla Thana, 1968-69
Rupees(00)
Purpose
One-Year Loans
Spring Rice (Aus) 486Summer Rice (Amon) 368Winter Rice (Boro) 756Potatoes (Winter) 123l.and Purchase and Rental 543
Other 222
Total Onc--Ye ar Loans 2498
'!\%-Year Loans
Cattle, Cloth Dying and Other 72
Three-Year Loans
Land Release and Purchase 295
Grand Total 2,865
Sourco: Ad/l"C"d from Pakh t an "c:admny tor R'Jral IJcw~lopmont,N.!rlth ""n\Jnl Heport, 1968-69. Comilla, J<:.ut Pnk t s t an ,19;10. p , 27.
-39-
low-cost hand dug six-inch tubewel Is begun in 1962 including necessary
operational supervision procedures, maintenance and repair, and parts
supply. This intermediate technology development is the most outstanding
original technical contribution of the Comi Ila Programs;~ (3) Pi lot
and adaptive research beginning in 1960 on the use of 4 wheeled, 35
horsepower tractors for rice and other crops. In the ten years of
experience with these tractors a great deal has been learned. But it is
fair to say that,nlthou(jh by 1969,6154 acres wore cultivated by 17
tractors, a solution had not yet been found to the economic operation56/of this size tractor in agriculture in the Comi Iia area;- (4) Adaptive
research and testing of new crop varieties and animals with the assistance
of Japanese (1960 on), Danish (1966 on), and United States technicians.
Starting in 1966, the first IRRI varieties of rice became available
for use in East Pakistan. They were tested and promoted by the Cooperatives;~/
(5) Adaptive research, supply and promotion of agricultural Inputs including58/particularly chemical terti Iizers, pesticides, and improved seeds.-
ItHJ successful work of tho Coopor at i ves In auap t lvo ros t i no and
promotion of now todlfloloCJY no ln t-. to ,lflimport an t wOilklll!'.',in !-IIO
or lq lua l concop t of tho Acadumy. :iocial sc lon t lst s worklnq in rural
areas of deve lop lnn nations are at a great disadvantage if they lack
easy access to high qual ity agricultural and other technical knowledge.
This is because productive new technology is central to most effective
rural developrrent programs whether in agriculture, nutrition or health.
Due to the organizational requirerrents of these various technologies,
considerable knowledge of the appropriate technoloqy is essential
-40-
for effective work In the social sciences in rural areas. Therefore, aninstitution either requires a few highly competent Individuals trainedin appropriate fields of technoloqy on its staff, or a workable wayof gaining regular and easy access to such persons located in anotherInst Itut Ion.
B. Evaluation of Cooperative ActivityAnalysis 0+ the socia-economic Impact of the agricultural cooperatives
federation Is undertaken here. First, focus is placed upon the economicimpact on farmers ano secondly, on analysis of agricultural creditfran the point of view 0+ the cooperative federation and the nationaleconomy. Finally, the social and political impact 0+ the agriculturalcredit program Is exp lored,
I. Economic Impact on Farmers. The extent and amount of economiceffect of the eqr+cu Itura I cooperatl ve society on farmers In Comi IIa,Thana and the other thanas with this type of cooperative Is inevitablydifficult to meaSUlie because of the Joint relationships betweenthe credit activities and the other activities for the supply of modernInputs to agrlcuJt1ure. Thus, although the results which are presentedbelow are not all due to the agricultural cooperative society activityalone, there is ll+r le doubt that a major share 0+ the economic ImpactIs due to the ccccer-e+Ive program. In the follOWing paragraphs, the impactIs measured by the participation of farmers and by the effect ofcooperative activities on production and Income. Some concludingccmments focus on ,employment, Income distribution and land tanuro If-sues.
- 41 -
Estimates of the proportion of farmers who are members indicate that
in 1969,37 perc:ent of the f arrrer's in Comi Iia Thana were members.
An ave raqe of n percent of the farmers were members after five years
of cooperative activity in seven other Thanas of Comi Iia District.
(Tables 4 and 5).
Economic benefits should be measured indirectly in terms of changes
In inputs and yields, due to the lack of comprehensive farm management
studies which would provide estimates of net income qal ns , A detailed
analysis of winter rice by Faidley and Esmay is ava l lable. They conclude
the fol lowing: that within five years almost al I farmers, both coop
and non-coop had adopted high-yielding Winter rice varieties which, on
the averaqe, more than doubled rice yields for both groups.59/ Earlier
studies of the costs and returns of winter irrigated crops by Mahman
(2 reports) and Hoque (I report) demonstrated greatly Increased net
farm Income from the use of additional pumped irrigation water obtained
through the cooperatives.
The growth of purchased inputs of corrmerci al ferti Iizer and pesti cides
has been significant for winter rice. The Faidley and Esmay study shows
that, in 1966, cooperative members used commercial fertilizers at the rate
of about $4.00 per acre on non-Improved rice varieties. Whi Ie in 1970, with
almost 100 percent use of improved rice varieties, commercial ferti lizer
lncro acod to more ttl<:J$16.00 po r acre among cocpe rat lve membors. It
Is Pdrtlcl~rlv significant that non-cooporatlve farmers also were able
to rurchAse from the central cooperative and use almost the same amount
-42-
Tab Ie 4
Growth of Cooperative Membership and Land Ownership in Comi I la Thana, 1964-1969
Item 64-65 65-66 66-67 67-68 ~8-69No. of agrl cu I tura 1 COClpS 152 158 225 251 30 INo. of coop members 4910 5161 8462 I 1,518 I I ,673~ of families who are c:oop members 15.7 16.5 27 36.7 37.3Land owned by coop members (acres) 10,100' 11,700 19,150 26,050 26,410% of total I and owned by coop members 19.6 22.7 37.2 50.5 51.2
Source: LeVern Faidley and Merle L. Esmay. "Introduction and Use ofImproved Rice Varieties: Who Benefits?" Department ofAgricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, 1970.(Ml meo).
-43-
Tab Ie 5
Membership in the Seven Thana Expansion of the Cooperative Project(1965-1970), Comi Ila District
1961 EstimatedRural popu. small farm Cooperative
Thana (approx.) fami lies members PercentageI• Laksom 3,16,000 37,000 8,298 22.4
2. Chand ina 7,32,000 15,000 4,592 30.63. Saral I 1,30 ,000 15,000 6,022 40.04. Haj i!1anj 2,36,000 27,000 5,313 19.65. Ouasba 1,86,000 22,000 3,445 15.66. Brahmanbarla 2,64,000 31,000 6,723 21.67. Chandpur 3,05,000 35,000 5,053 14.4
Total: 15,69,000 1,82,000 39,446 21.7
Source: Khan, Akhter Hameed. Tour of Twenty Thanas. PakistanAcademy for Rura I Deve Iopment. Feb ruary, 1971, p, 13 andp. 18 (as of November, 1970).
-44-
at comrrerci a I tert iii zer pe I'" acre. Thus, a I thouqh cooperat i ve membershi p
compri ses less than 40 percent ot the f arrre rs , the benef i ts of the
cooperative activity are widespread among farmers in the Thana.
Increased pest l c l de use Is Indicated by the fact that,in 1966,
on l v 15 percent of the non-cooperati ve fami lies used pesti ci des,wh i Ie
in 1970, 98 percent of them used pesticides. The agricultural
cooperative had a large role in makinq the chemicals and applicators
eva i Iab Ie. 60/
The more spacl f i c Issue of the distribution of benefits from
cooperative activity by farm size is of major interest. This question
was examined by Faidley and Esmay by considering farm size in relation
to cooperative ~~mbership, adoption of new variations, and yield. They
found that coooer at l ve membership was fairly evenly distributed in
farms larrJer than one acre rep reaent l nq 54 per cent ot the rural
population. For the thirty percent of the population with farms less
than one acre,only 15 percent belonged to the cooperatives. Of
particular slqnlficance is the fact that 43 percent of the cooperative
members had farms in the one to two acre range. The landless rural
population (about 15 percent) is I ittle served by the cooperatives
directly. (Tab Ie 6).
With respect to the adoption of improved varietles,( regardless
of f arm slzeladoptlon ra+es of winter rice were about the same, with
ccopor-at l ve mombnr~jboql nn i riq earlier. Tho very much hll")her v l o l ds of
-45-
Table 6
Distribution of Total Population and CooperativeMembership by Farm Size
Farm size % of total rural % of cooperative % of rural popu Iat ionin acres population with members with with given farm size
given farm size given farm size who are coop membersnil 15.3 2 5
.01-1 30.5 12 151.01-2 24.2 43 68
2.01-3 14.4 18 473.01-5 10.6 16 56over 5 5.0 8 60
Source: Faidley and Esmay. "Introduction and Use ofImproved Rice Varieties: Who Benefits?"Department of Agricultural Engineerin~,Michigan State University, 1970.
-46-
the new winter rice varieties show no overal I correlation with farmsize. Thus,farms under one acre were apparently able to gain accessto the necessary fertilizer, pesticides, irrigation water and other. t 611Inpus.-
Other evidence of economic gains by farrrers follows. In anattempt to assess the effect of cooperative activity on farms, Rahimconducted two comparative sample survey studies in 1964 and 1969of Comi I la cooperative farmers and farmers in a nearby Thana where therehad been no cooperatives unti I after 1965. Unpubl ished data from thiswork shows that ,by 1969,Chandina Thana farrrers had increased yields by
only 10 percent as compared with 98 percent for Comi Ila Cooperative farmers.
An estimate of net fami Iy assets showed an increase of 19 percent forChandinn with an Incroase ot 61 percent amonq Comi Ila cooperativemerroers.621
An estimate of direct benefits to cooperative rrembers as a resultof sh Ittlnq one quarter of an average farmer's debt from a 60 percentinterest rate to a 17.4 percent Interest rate indicate an annualincrease in incor.e of some thirteen dollars.631 For farrrers with percapita lncorras ln the one hundred dollar range this is an appreciablegain.
In conc IUS Ion, there is Iitt Ie doubt that in Comi IIa Thana thesmall vl lleqe coope rar lves and the Thana level coopor-ar lvo federationhave toqe+hcr had cons Iderab Ie economl c imp ac+ on most of the v IIIaf)ers.Wo turn now to the economl cs of these coope ra+ j vcs ,
-47-
2. Economics of the Cooperative Federation. After ten yearsof development, by 1970 the Comi Iia type cooperatives had demonstratedtheir administrative and financial stability. In this section, aftera brief outl ine of the credit arrangements, focus wi II be placed onfinancial progress and problems.
The credit system operates in the fol lowing way. Loans areobtained by the members of the vi Ilage cooperatives on the basis ofspecific plans for the use of the credit for agricultural production.An Interest rate of 10 percent is charged plus a service charge of5 percent per annum for a total of 15 percent. Of the 10 percent interest,2 percent is paid back to the society concerned to bui Id its own fund,4 1/2 percent is paid to the financing bank as interest and I percent ispaid to the vi IIage cooperative manager as his commission. The Thanalevel association retains 2 1/2 percent to meet its own expenditures.
The five percent service charge is used for the salaries of thevi I I age accountants to maintain the accounts of the primary societiesand to provide the t rave llnq allowances to the v lllaqo cooperativemlHHHlnr!J,tho v lllauo model t ermnr s , on d thH che lrroon of tho prlrnorv
societies, as wei I as to membors of the managing committee of thecentral association. Allowance to the Thana officers for teachingclasses is also paid from the service charge.
With respect to the required purcha~es of shares equal to the fivepercent of the loan, a 5 percent dividend was declared in 1968-69. Afixed 4 percent interest is paid on any savings accounts of coop members.
-48-
The amount of money a vi flage cooperative may borrow is dependent
upon the sum of its say I ncs and shares. In the 1968-69 accounti n:l
perIod savin~s and shares amounted to 35 percent of the loans.
From a financial point of view, central to any 9uccessful credit
cooperative is the loan repayment experience. Comilia type cooperatives
have had manageaCIIe amounts of overdue loans and bad debts (Tab Ie I).
Although hard work is required to further reduce overdue loans, other
data on the r epl c grcwth of membershIp, savings accumulated by members,
loans Issued and real ized al I point to financial and organizational health.
Financial success is Indicated by continuing growth of assets. The
profit and loss statement for 1968-69 shows a net loss of about one
percent on the total Incorre of the Agricultural Cooperatives Federation.
The expenditures in this account include about five percent of total
Incorre Tor agrlclJltural extension activIties. Questions can be raised
64/as to whether th~3 cooperatives shou I d have to carry th I s cost.-
From the point of view of cost to the national treasury, the Comi I la
cooperative svs tem was an Immense step forward In PakIstan. Loans
of the Toccavl t'ype through the old type Union multi-purpose cooperative
societies which had been mostly captured by notables, had annual loan
repaymant rates of 40 percent. No other organ I zati ons had been ab Ie
to reach large numbers of smal I farmers with credit.
Strong evidence that the ComiIia Cooperative system held promise
came from the approval In the fal I of 1970 of the Integrated Rural
-49-Development ~rogram by the central government of Pakistan. This programto be administered by the Department of Agriculture,was to establishAgricultural Cooperative Federations and vi Ilage cooperatives on theComi Iia model in all 411 Thanas within a nine-year period.651 Themagnitude of the projected investment per Thana was $21,000 in annualrecurring administrative and training costs and a disbursement of loanfunds to the Thana of $210,000 for five years (Table 7). Completerepayment of the loan fund was planned for twenty-five years.
3. Social Impact. The social impact of the cooperatives, althoughdifficult to document precisely,appears in a number of ways. In mostvi Ilages the coops are too young (3-5 years) to have had influenceOn the social structure. However, the new role of manaqer of thevillage cooperative has had significant influence on vi Ilages. Bertocclstates that in the vi Ilage he studied,the cooperative manager was askedto participate in dispute-settl ing with the traditional leaders.661
Another example reported by one of the Academy instructors is that whenvi Ilagers want to get thin~s done, they go to the vi Ilage cooperative
. t d f th t d i+l I I d th ltd U . . I 671manager Ins sa a e ra Ilona ea ers or e e ec e nlon counci ors.--There is little question about the Impact of the cooperatives on
tho aqr lcu lt ura l information flow systems. f~esearch In the Thana showsthat vl lleqe cooperative members adop t earlier and have hlqher proportionsof adoption at any time. There are few sources of agricultural informationin the Thana. 681
-50-
Table 7
Projected Annuel Costs per Thana for the Estab I i shment ofComi I la Type Agricultural Cooperatives in AI I Areas of East Pakistan
1• Fi rst-year cap ita I grant (One Year Only) $42,000(Buildings, Transport and OfficeEquipment)
2. Annually recurr l no operat i n~ cost $21,000.a) SaIaryan d A1lowances for
Cooperative FederationProject Officer, AssistantProject Officer andAccountant $5,570
b) Trai n I n~~and Extension $15,4303. Annual loan fund bui Id-up for $210,000
Thana Cooper-a+i ve Federati on(for five years only)
SOURCE: Adepre d from Government of Pakistan, Planning Corrmission,P.C.I. form on the Integrated Rural Development Prograrrme.1970..
-51-
With respect to educational impact, the weekly training of themodel farmers from the village cooperatives Is a major educationalInput which is multlpl ied by the subsequent discussion held by theseIndividuals in their viliages,often aided by written lesson material.The cooperatives have also supported adult literacy classes for bothmen and women.
The impact of the cooperative activity has been positive onemployment. Almost al I the changes In agriculture have been employmentcreating, Including particularly the major increase in winter cropacreage due to pump irrigation. The Faidley and Esmay and the cost androturns studies provide estimates of additional labor used with thenew hi1h-yielding varieties. There has been some displacement of handIrrigation by low 11ft pumps and of animal plowing by tractor plowing,but the net effect on employment of these changes appears at least neutraland It may wei I have been positive.
With respect to Impact on values, Schuman,ln a pioneerinqsociological study,found that Comi Ila Cooperative farmers had asignificantly increased bel ief in their abi lity to control theirdestiny as compared with other farmers in other parts of East Pakistan.69/
4. Political Impact. The political impact up to March 25, 1971,of Comilia act lv lt las Is hard to interpret. One mason is +h at , In thecontext of East Pakistan, the effect of the Comi Ila activities on governmentand politics should be considered together. The strong impact of Comi Ilaactivities on certain government programs such as rural works and irrigation
-52-
has been discussed above. Despite this, Monam Khan, the Clovernor of
East Pakistan during the mid-sixties, continued to take a negative view
of tho Academy and its activities.
In the political arena, because of the marti al law rules of
Pres I dent Ayub Khan, part Ies were not permi tted to operate unt i I 1968.
In the ensuing political activl~/, the Academy and its activities were
not brought into political discussion in a major way. Sertacci,
however, reports that after the Awami League's sweep of East Pak i stan
In 1970, it was ser-l ous l v consIdering supporting the Carli Iia approach
70/to rural developm~nt.-- Due to the ecl ipse of the political parties
until 1968, one can conclude that during most of this period it was
more Important f or the Academy to attempt to In f Iuance governrrent
programs than the political party positIons.
v. (x)NCLUSIONS··-SO~1EPROGRAMSFOR INTERNATIONALADAPTATION
The Academy for Rural Development In Comi Iia and a number of
the programs It deve lcped have had major Impact on increasing the income
of large numbers ()f small farmers during the last decade in Bangladesh.
These widespread economl c and social benefits have been shared by most
groups of the population in rural areas. Of particular significance
Is the heavy local training component of these programs. The result
h85 been a great Increase In management and technical capacity by many
different Ind l vi oua l s from the v l l l eqes ,
-53-
In a recent seminar reviewing world experience in developmentstrategies for smal I farmers, only a few major programs of promise werefound; the IADP Program In India, The Puebla Project in ~~exico, and theprograms in Comi Ila. The important Taiwanese experience was not includedIn this seminar as it Is wei I known. Therefore, the Comi Ila programsare advanced for consideration and use with appropriate modi fication inother developing nations.
Six major programs of the Academy of Rural Development in Comi Ilawere examined as wei I as the nature of the Academy itself. The promisinqwomen's program and rural education experiments were presented briefly asactivities which,up to 1971,had only had limited national impact. TheThana Irrigation Program and the Rural Works Programs were also onlydiscussed briefly, as there Is considerable literature avai lable about
71/these nationally adopted programs.--- Major focus in the paper wasplaced upon: I) the nature of the Academy as a research, training andpi lot program organization and upon two of the more complex majoractivities; 2) the improvement of rural government through the ThanaTralninq and Development Center, and 3) the new type agriculturalcooperatives. Conclusions about the possible usefulness of these threeexperiences for other nations fol low.
The Academy for Rural Development--Ten years of successful experiencewith in-service training, research and pi lot demonstrations by the Academyfor Rural Development in Coml Ila provide an important model for simi larinstitutions in other nations. With a basic annual expenditure of less
-54-
than $200,000, olqhteen instructors und twenty research assistantshave been able to make a siqniflcant national contributIon. Theyhave provided in-service training about rural development to membersof the civil service, produced research and evaluations of importantrural development activities, and succeeded in developing, operating,and supporting the expansion of pi lot rural development programs.Fundamental to this success was a sound social science approach torural problems ancl the establishment of a county size experimentalarea. Stronq leadership by the instructors and Dr. Khan was animportant factor in these activities. The fol lowinq matters are ofrarticular Imrortance In considering the Academy model for applicationelsewhere.
I. Essential to success was an experimental open-minded approachon the part of +he Academy staff and Academy director involving a greatdeal of interaction between Academy personnel and rural people.
2. The Coml Ila experience suggests that because of the interrelationsbetween activities and the reinforcement of programs which results, aswide a range of subject matter activities should be carried on asfeasible, Includlnq particularly those In agriculture, health and nutrition,
women's proqr ams , education, and family planning, and others.3. A ~tronq position for the essential social science disciplInes
In the competencl es of the Academy facu Ity is essentl a I. However, theexperience In Comilia has pointed to the need for ready Institutionalaccess to personnel with deep knowledge of agricultural and other rural
-55-
technologies for the development of effective research, teaching andpi lot programs in rural development. One alternative solution is toinclude,as members of the Academy,a smal I number of staff competentin agricultural and other rural technoloqies.
4. The research and evaluation functions of such an academy areessential both to document change and to analyze the status of programsand evaluate alternative program designs.
5. In establishing effective relationships between the Academy andgovernment, of particular importance is a board of directors comprisedof high level members from departments of government with major operationsIn rural areas who are potential users of the Academy training and otherservices. An associated need is for the director of the Academy to havesufficiently high status so as to be able to operate effectively withdepartments of government.
Improving Rural Government--The Training and Development Center--Earlyactivity by the Academy focused on improving local government performance.The result was the acceptance by the East Pakistan r~vernment in 1964of the Thana Traininq and Development Center concept for the 41 I Thanas(counties) in East Pakistan. The physical faci lities for those centershad been completed In most Thanas by 1970.
Continuous effort by the Academy has been focused on the moredifficult task of qreatly improving the performance of governmentofficials at the Thana level. Major successes were achieved in pi lotactivities which developed the Thana level Rural Works Program and theThana Irrlqation Proqram. The models developed were the basis for
-56-
provincewldeexpansion of these pr oor ems, r eccqn ized nationally and
abroad as s t on l t l cent contributions to rural develooment in Oangladesh.
without the chanqed concepts of rural government and the kind of
organ i zat ion for Ioca I deve lopment whi ch these programs embody, these
activities would e t tner have been impossible or of much lower productivity.
The World Bank in its East Pakistan Action Program of 1970 supported
this rural development model for local admtnistration.
In considering the approaches and programs of the Comi I la Rural
Training and Development Center for international use, the fol lowing
pol nts eopear Important:
I. An acadamv such as that at ComiII a recu ires suff i ci ent
l n t t uenco over qove rnrren+a l activities in an experimental rural area
so that it may carry out and analyze pi lot development activities.
2. A rural training and development center is required at a
central physical site including all the agencies involved In rural
development. Thl3 center should be as close as possible to a heavi Iy-
frequented market. In connection with the establishment of such a
center, care is required that these services of lowest levels at governmental
activity be located so that rural citizens may conveniently make a
round trip by local transportation during one day to conduct their
business.
~. Rural novernment should focus on activities which affect most
rural resldonts directly and require Joint action, such as roads, water
control and schools. In tho ComiIia experienco, rural qovernment was
- S7 -
not effective in agriculture and other specialized sectors whichInvolved only a portion of the population directly. Responslbi lityfor these development activities should be clear and appear torequire specialized organizations focused directly on their problemssuch as the a9rlcultural cooperatives or the special cooperatives.
4. A training center should be an integral part of rural government.AI I significant Institutional and program changes require certain amountsof training for different groups: farmers, women, government officials,etc. Also, the experience of having officers from the agriculturedepartment and other agencies take on the new role of teachers ofrural citizens has proved to be of considerable value to both groups,particularly in increasing communication and understanding.
S. Of particular value was the regular bringing together in theThana Councl I for the first time of representatives of 90vernment agenciesand valid representatives of rural people for discussions of plans andaction programs. In this way, vi Ilagers gained much increased involvementIn local government decision making. Improved program performance canresult as representatives of government agencies have the neededtechnical expertise and control of the al location of major funds andsupplies, whi Ie rural leaders can obtain decisions from communities andmobilize people to participate in development.
6. In deve lop lnq successful pi lot programs, of fundamental importance15 the o~rly participation of agencies for which the rl lot prooram maybncome a modol. Joint p lenn lnn and operation of pilot programs w lth
-58-
target agencies should be undertaken to as great an extent as possibleso that the program If successful may more easi Iy become adoptedas the agency Is own,
New Type Agricultural Cooperatives--Beqinninq with experimentalpi lot activities in 1960, new type vi IIage agricultural cooperativeswere developed in Comi Ila Thana. By 1971,301 agricultural cooperativeswere regi stered i11 the Thana with II,673 members. Loans overdue morethan a year among this group was at a two percent level. Expansion ofthis cooperative system into ten other Thanas resulted in a total of2,360 vi IIage cooperati ve soci eti es with a tota I membersh ip of 68,632by 1971.
Evaluation of the efforts of these cooperatives in Comi Ila Thanaindicate they have had major economic Impact. A number of studies showrapid Increase In input use, in the planting of hl~h yielding varietiesand in rice production. One comparative study estimates between 1964and 1969, a ten percent increase in rice yields in an adjacent Thanawhere cooperatives have only recently been organized as compared witha 98 percent lncre ese in rice yield in Comi Iia Thana. In 1970, inCom! Ila Thana where per capita Incomes are In the $100 range, the CentralAgricultural Ccope re+l ve Federation and Its vi Ilage cooperative societiesoperated a credit program with an averaqe loan of $53 per member withpor member shares ~nd s~vlngs equal to $29. This cooper~tlve systemwas fInancially stahle with steady annual Incre~ses In loaning activity.Addltlon~1 evidence of the promise of the system came from approval
- -- ------- ----~
-59-
In the Fall of 1970 for the expansion of these +vpcs of coopc rnt lvesto al I 41 I Thanas. Additional impact of the cooperatives In socialand political areas has also been shown.
The fol lowing points are of particular importance in consideringthe development of new type vi Ila~e cooperatives in other areas.
I. The Comi IIa experl ence has demonstrated that sma II farmers inlow Income nations can be organized voluntari Iy into effective vi Ilagecooperatives. This system ~herefore, represents a viable rural institutionalsystem for serving smal I farmers.
2. This cooperative approach includes: smal I primary units of upto sixty members based upon pre-existing social groups, a cost of creditto farmers approaching 15 percent, and a possible re~uirement particularlyIn the early stages of partial monopol ies In the supply of new Inputs tosustain the appreciable costs of serving smal I farmers.
3. Integra I to the system is the se If-se lection of the leadersof the primary cooperatives coupled with their continuous training incooperative management and new agricultural technology.
4. The combination within the cooperative of agricultural extensionactivities and the provision of credit is productive. Through localcommunication channels, the agricultural knowledge extended through thecooporntive passes to nl I members of the vi Ilage, hence, the nationaltroasury may appropriately pay some of the costs of extension carriedout by the cooperatives.
5. Vital to success of the system is the continuous access of thecentral cooperative organization to new, high return, agricultural technology.
- 60 -
V I. POSTSCR IPT ON THE ACAOE~11YAND THECOOPERATIVES THROUGH JUNE, 1972
On the night of Apri I 25th, 1971 the savage attack by the "Jest Pakistanmi litary upon the civilian population, Dacca University students, and
Professors In what was then East Pakistan set in motion irreversible changeswhich led to the invasion of East Pakistan by Indian forces in support ofthe Bangali gurrl Ilas and the end of united Pakistan with the surrender of thePakistan Armed Forces on December 17, 1972. Since that time the new nationof Oanqladesh has been coping with the reconstruction, returning refugees, andfood shortages. Cetermi nati on of reorgan ized government agency and civ i Iservant responsibi lities continues at the time of writing.
Reports from the Acadaow fortunate Iy have Indi ca+e c that no loss of IIfaamong Academy personnel occurred and that there was relatively little damageto Academy classrooms, dormitories, the Iibrary, and other faci Iities.
During the current national reorganization period, the Academy has continuedtraining and research act lv i t les , Government decisions are expected soon whichwi II more clearly Indlc:ate the Academy's future roles.
The Cooperatives in Comi Ila Thana have continued to operate even durln0the fighting. As yet reports are not available to asses's the losses Incuredand the levels from which the cooperative system wi II rebuild.
The Inteqrlated Rur-al Development Program, Intlally approved In 1971, forthe expansion of Camilla Type Cooperatives into al I 413 Thanas of Uangladesh,remains in July, 1972, the mejor basis of current plans for rural programImp lementati on.
- 61 -
V II-FOOnJOTES
I. T. W. Schultz. Transforming Traditional Agriculture. NewHaven: Yale University Press. 1964. p. 8.
2. Major references to the experience of socialized agricultureinclude:
A. U. S. S. R.*
Clarke, Roger A. "Soviet Agricultural Reforms Since Khrushchev,"Soviet Studies, Vol. XX, No.2 (October 1968), PP. 159-178.,(Reprinted In Morris Bornstein and Daniel R. Fusfeld, TheSoviet Economy: A Book of Readings, Richard D. Irwin,l'ii"c.,Homewood, I IIinols, 1970, pp. 409-427. Good on the currentsltu~tlon.
Domar, E. D. "The Soviet C.ollectlve Farm as a Producer Coop."American Economic Review. Sept. 1966, Vol 55. pp , 734-55.
Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Aqrlculture of the U.S.S.R.Stanford University Press, 1959. <Difficult and long).
Kahan, Arcad lus, "The Collective Farm System In Russia: SomeAspects of Its Contribution to Soviet Economic Development."In Carl K. Eicher and L. W. Witt, Agriculture In EconomicDevelopment. McGraw-Hili Publishers, New York. pp. 251-271.
Karcz, Jerzy F., ed. Soviet and East European Agriculture,University of California Press, Berkeley, Cal ifornia, 1967.
Schoonover, David M. "Change and Reform in Soviet Agriculture,"(Paper presented at a meeting of the Washington Chapter ofthe American Association for the Advancement of Sla~ic Studies,held at George WaShington University, Washington, D. C., May29, 1968).
Schinke, E. "The Organization and Plannlnq of Soviet Agricul-ture," WAERSA - Vol 12:1-18, 1970, March.
Strauss, Erich. "Soviet agriculture in perspective: a studyof Its successes and failures." ~Jew York: Praeger, 1969.
Venzher, V. G. "Characteristics of the Collective-Farm Economyand Prob Iems of its Deve Iopment ," Eastern European Economl cs,Vol. IV, No.4, 1966, pp. 3-28. (More advanced).
* David Schoonover's advice on references was in this sectionwas appreci ated.
- A2 -
Vol in, Lazar. A Centrurv of Russi~n A~riculture: FromAlexander II to Khrushchev, Harvard University Press,Cemo r i dqe , r,1assachusetts, 1970. (Lona and qreat detai I).
B. Yugos Iav I a
"Aqrari an Reform in Yugos Iav i a." Yugos Iav Survey I I: vi.Septermber, 1961, pp. 785.
8eletic, Zvinomir. "Agricultural Development and a StableGrowth of Output." Eastern European Economics, Vol. VI I,No.4, 1969, pp. 41-48.
Dovring, Fo,lke. "Land Reform in Yugoslavia." AID SprinqReview, 1970.
Ray, P. K. "Economic Plannlnq in Yugoslavia with Particularf~ference to Anr i cu l ture ," [conomic Weekly Special Numoe r13: I I I 3- 1122, J u 1v , 196I •
Tomasvlch, Jozo , Peasants, Politics and Economic Chanqe inYuposlavia. Stanford University Press, 1955.
Vuckov Ie, Mih a i 10. "The Trans format i on of the Peasant Coopera-tive" in Yugoslavia Economists on Problems of a SocialistEconomy. -rdited by Radmi la Stojanovic, University of Gelgrade( 1964) •
C. China (Mainland)
Broodbent, K. P. "Two decades of Soc i a I and Economi c Deve lop-ment InCh inese Communi st Aqr i cu I ture. " 1949-69. Revi ewarticle WAERSA- 1969.
Buchanan, Keith M. The Transformation of the Chinese Earth. 'New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970.
Dawson, Owen l. Communist China's Agriculture: Its Develop-ment and Future Potential. New York: Prae~er, 1970.
Jones, Phi lip P. and Thomas T. Poleman. Communes and theAgricultural Crisis In Communist China, pp. 3-22, FoodResearch Institute Publications of 1962, Food r~searchInstitute Publications: 1959-19(,5, VI, No. I, 1966Stan ford UnI vers I ty.
Kuo, Leslie T. C. The Technical Transformation of Agriculturein Communist China. New York: Praeger, 1972.
Perkins, DWight H. Agricultural Development in China, 1368-1968. Chicago: Al dl ne Publishing Co., 1969.
Tang, Anthony M. "Agriculture in the Industrialization ofCorrmunist China and the Soviet Union." Journal of FarmEconomics, Vol. 49, No.5. 1967, pp , 1118-1134.
- (I) -
3. Major references to those experiences include:A. Denmark
Jensen, Einar. Danish Agriculture--Its Economic Development.J. H. For lao , Copenhagen, 1937.
Skruhbeltrang, F. Agricultural Development and Rural Reformin Denmark. Food and Aqriculture Oroanization of theUn, No. 22, 1953, pp. 320. '
B. JapanJohnston, Bruce F.
Transformation:parience." Food1962): 223-
"Agricultural Development and EconomicA Comparative Study of the Japanese Ex-Research Institute Studies 3 (November,
Johnston, Bruce F. "Agriculture and Economic Deve loprrent : TheRelevance of the Japanese Experience." Food Research Insti-tute Studies, Vol. VI, No.3, 1966, Stanford University,Stanford, CalifornIa.
Nakamura, J. A~ricultural Production ~nd the EconomicDevelopment of Japan, 1873-1922. Princeton UniversityPress, 1966.
Ogura, Takikaza, (ed.). Agricultural Development in ModernJapan. Tokyo: Fuji PuhllshingCo., Ltd., 1966.
Ohkawa, K. et at. Agriculture and Economic Growth: Japan'sExperience. Princeton University Press, 1970.
C. TaiwanChristensen, Raymond P. Taiwan's Agricultural Development--
Its Relevance for Developing Countries Tod~y. U.S.D.A.-E.R.S., Foreign Agricultural Economic Report tJo. 39, 1968.
Hough, Richard L. and Gay I D. Ness. "The JCRR: A Mode I forInternationally Induced Development." In InternationalDevelopment Review, X, 3 (Septerrtler1968), pro 14-17.
Hsieh, S. C. and T. H. Lee. Agricultural Development andIts Contributions to Economic Growth in Taiwan. JointCommission on Rural Reconstruction, Economic Digest Series{I 17, Ta ipe i, 1966.
Shen, T. H. The Sino-American Joint Commission of RuralReconstruction, Cornell University Press, 1970.
D. IndioLlrown, D. D. AfJrlcultural Development in Indli'l'sDistricts.
Harvar d University Press, Cambridl1e, 1971.
- 64 -
Governrrent of India. Modernizina Indian Aariculture. Repor+on the Intensive Agricultural District Program (1960-68), V<:>I. I. Expert Committee on Assessment anti Evaluation,Ministr'Y of Food, Agriculture, Community Development, andCooper at i on, t~ay, 1969.
Malone, Carl and Sherman E. Johnson. "The Intensive AgriculturalDevelopment Program in India," Agricultural EconomicsResearch, Vol. 23, No.2, Apri I, 1971.
Mellor, J.:-W., Thomas F. Weaver, Uma J. Lele and Sheldon Simon.Developinq Rural India--Plan and Practice. Ithaca, New York:Corne II Uni vers i ty Press, 1968.
Shastry, E3. D. Quickening the Pace in Vi Ilage Improvement--Intens ii ve Agrt cu I tura I ot sfr let Program. Government ofIndia, Ministry of Food, Agriculture, Community Developmentand Cooperation, ~jew Delhi, July, 1969.
4. 8engt Nekby. CADU--An Ethiopian Experiment in Developing PeasantFarmina. Stockholm: Prisma Publishers, 1971. And, Chi laloAgricultul~al Development Unit (CADU)--Project Description.CADU, P. O. Box 3376, Addis Ababa. October, 1971. pp. 27.
5. The Pueb Ia Pn;)ject 1967-69--Progress ReporT of a Program toRapidly Increase Corn Yields on Small Holdings. InternationalMaize and Wheat Improvement Center, Mexico City, ~t1exico. Nodate (19701). And, Myren, Delbert T., (ed.l. Strategies forIncreaslnq Agricultural Production on Small HOldlnrs. (AReport on an International Conference, Puebla, Max co, August,1970, tn+erne+t one t Maize and Wheat Improvement Center,~xlco City, ~xico).
6. Arthur F. Rapier. Rural Development In Action. Ithaca, New York:Corne II UnIvers I ty Press. 1970.
7. Pakistan Academy for Rural Development. Tenth Annual Report,1968-69. Comi Ila, East Pakistan, 1970. pp, 9.
8. Bibliography of Publications Relatin~ to the Pakistan Academy forRural Development In Comi I la, 19 9-71. Michigan State University:Asian Studies Center. (Forthcoming>.
9. Raper. 21:.. ~l.!.pp. 35.
- 65 -
10. Tenth Annual Report. Ope Cit. p. 2. Soe also Raper, p. 35.II. Abdul Muyeed. "Strategies Involved in a Development System of
Planned Social Change in Rural East Pakistan". Ph. D.Thesis, Mlchlqan State Univerlsty. 1969.
12. However, certain activities were of this nature, particularlythe development at Comi lIa of low cost,hand dug"tubewellsand research In dairy supported by Danish Technical Assistance.For crop trial reports, see the bibliography of Comi Iiapub IIcat lons ,
13. Akhter Hameed Khan. "The Basic Principles of the Comi Iia Program".Mimea. February, 1963.
14. See particularly pages on the Special Cooperative SocietiesFederati on in the Annual Reports on A New Rura I Cooperati veSystem for Comi Ila Thana. Pakistan Academy for Rural Development,Com! II a.
15. Akhte r Hameed Khan.2£.. cit. p. 12.16. Pakistan Academy for Rural Development Fifth Annual Report,
Comilla, East Pakistan, 1963, p. 67.
17. S. A. Rahim. Voluntary Group Adoption of Power Pump IrrigationIn Five East Pakistan vi l laqe s , Technical Publication No.12. COmllla, East Pakistan: Pakistan Academy for RuralDevelopment, 1961. The Comi Iia Pilot pro~ect In Irrigationand Rural Electrification, comi Ila, Eastaklstan: PakistanAcademy for Rural Development. 1963. And, Mahmoodur Hahman,Irrigation in Two Comi Ila Vi Ilages, Comi Ila East Pakistan:Pakistan Academy for Rural Development, 1964.
18. A. K. Mohsen. Evaluation of the Thana Irri9ation Program in EastPakistan--196a:69. Comi Ila, East Pakistan: Pakistan Academyfor Rural Dovelopment, 1969. p. 21.
19. A. K. r~ohsen. 2£.. Cit., pp. 112-121.20. Akhter Hameed Khan. The Role of Women in a countrt's Development.
<Translation of e talk In Benqa ll, Harch 5, 19 3, CamillaEast P~klstan: Pakl:.t~n Academy for Rural Oovelopment.As quo+e d from Rapar , A. F., Rural Oevoloprront In Action,lthace , New York: Cornell University Pres!;, 1970, pp , 157.
- 66 -
21. Nl co l aas G. ~~" Luykx. "The Comi Iia Project, East Pakistan",a chapter in Change in Agriculture. London: Duckworth, 1970.
22. Pakistan Academv for Rural Deve loprrerrt , Tenth Annual Repor1". 1970.And, Jan runesaa Ahmed, \~orren's Education and Home DevelopmentProcram. Comilla, East Pakistan: Pakistan Academy for RuralDevelopment. Fourth Annual Report for 1966-68 dated 1969.
23. Major references on fami Iy planning work in Conl 1103 include:Raper, Arthur F. Rural Development in Action. Ithaca,New York: Cornell University. 1970. pp , 172-185. PakistanAcademy for Rural Development, Tenth Annual Repor1". Comi IiaEast Pakistan. 1970. "Family Planning Projec1"if, pp. 85-88.And, M. A.• Manan. The Comilia Pi lot Project in Fami Iy Planning,Fifth Proqress Report, Pakistan Academy for Hural Development.
24. Arthur F. Rape r , Ope Cit. pp. 186-209.
25. Pakistan Academy for Rural [;evelopment, Tenth Annual Repor+, Comi Ila,Eas1" Pakls1"an. 1970. pp. 75-81. And, Abdul Mayeed,School WOlrks Program, Pakis1"an Academy for Rural Development, 1966,and A. A. Shuiyan, lmamas as Teachers, Pakistan Academy forRura I Devl31opment, 1968.
26. A. K. M. Mohs,en. Repor1" on a Rura I Pub I i c Works Prooram.Academy for Rural Development, Comi Ila, East PakTstan.
Pakistan1962.
27. A. T. R. Rahman. An Evaluation of Rural Public Works Program,Eas1" Pakistan, 1962-63, and Ibid., 1963=64. Comilla, EastPakistan: Pakistan Academy for Rural Development. 1965.And, K. r~. Tlpu Sultan (ed.), The Works Program in Comi Iia Thana:A Case Study 1962-66. Pak I stan Academy for Rura I Deve Iopment,1966.
28. J. W. Thomas. "Agricultural Produc1"lon,Equlty,and Rural OrganizationIn East Pak I stan". Ora ft for the Research Workshop on Rura IDevelopment in Pakistan, Michigan State University. July, 1971.
29. A. K. M. Mohsen. The Comilla Rural Admlnis1"ration Eand Annual Report or I 6 - akistan Academybeveloprrent, 1963. p. 16.
30. A. K. M. Mohsen. 9£.. Cit., p , 12.
31. Ell i ott Terror. "Rur a I Deve lopment in East Paki stan", raper presentedat the RU50cJrch Workshop on nural [)ovelopment In Pak i s tan , As i anStudln<; Con to r , ~~lchlq(Jn ..ta+o un l vnrn l tv , Ju l v , 1<l71. Thisp"lwr Irl! 11Idtl'i d ~;lJIl1mdry n l s t orv r i ] lilJr,iI C(lVOrnnlJl1i In f""'it rdklstcm.
- 67 -
32. Tepper, £e.. cit.33. Pakistan Academy for Rural Development. The Comi Ila Rural
Administration Report for 1963, 1964,1966,1967,1968, and1969.
34. Pakistan Academy for Rural Deve Iopment. Tenth Annua I Report, 1970.pp. 44-50.
35. Pakistan Academy for Rural Deve Iopment. Tenth Annual Report, 1970. p. 50.36. A. K. ,\1. Mohsen. 2E.. Cit., p. 18.37. A. K. H. Mohsen. 2E.. Cit., Appendix A.38. Pakistan Academy for Rural Development. Comi Ila Rural Administration
Experlrrent, Third Annual Report, 1964-65. 1966. p. 53.
39. R. R. Faruqee, C. S. P. Personal Communication.40. John W. Thomas. 2£. Cit.41. Akhter Hameed Khan. Tour of Twenty Thanas. Pakistan Academy for
Rural Developrrent, Comi lla , East Pakistan, 1971. p. 6.42. John W. Thomas. "The Rural Public Works Program in East Pakistan" in
G. F. Papanek and W. P. Falcon (eds.), Development Policy II:The Pakistan Experience. Harvard University Press (In Press1971), and J. W. Thomas, "Rural Public Works and East Pakistan'sDevelopment". Doctoral Dissertation, Harvard University, 1968.
43. John W. Thomas. "Agricultural Production, Equity, and Rural OrganizationIn East Pakistan". 2£. Cit.
44. Akhter Hameed Khan and M. Zakin Hussain. A New Rural CooperativeSystem for Camilla Thana. Third Annual Report. 1963. p , 15.
45. John W. Thomas. "Agricultural Production, Equity and RuralOrganization in East Pakistan." Or. Cit.
46. Akhter Hameed Khan. Letter to Chief Secretary of East Pakistan.Dated Comi Ila, January 15, 1960, as printed in Fairchi Id andHaq, A New Rural Cooperative System for Comi Ila Thana, 1stAnnual Rerort, Pakistan Academy for Rural Developrrent, 1961.
47. A. H. Khan, Loc. Cit.
- 68 -
48. Henry W. Fairchi Id and Shamsul Hao. A New Rural CooperativeSystem for Comi Iia Thana. First Annual Report, PakistanAcademy for Rura I OeveIopment, 196 I. p , 19.
49. Fairchild and Haq, Ope Cit., p . 20.
50. Falrchi l d and Haq, Ope Cit., p , 21.
51. Peter 8ertocci. "Elusive Vi Ilages: Social Structures andCommunity Organization in Rural East Pakistan". Ph. D.Thesis, Michigan State University, 1970.
52. Pak i stan Academv for Rura I Deve Iopment. A New Rura I Cooperati veSystem for· Comi I Ia Thana. NI nth Annua I Report, Com! I Ia,East Pakistan: Pakistan Academy for Rural Development, 1970, p , 18.
53. Fairchild and Haq, 22.. Cit., p. 65.
54. S. A. Rahim. Voluntary Group Adoption of Power Pump Irrigation inFive East Pakistani vi Ilaoes. Pakistan Academy for RuralDevelopment TeChnical Pubiication No. 12,1961, and R. D.Stevens, "l nst l tu+ l ona l Change and Agri cultural DevelopmenT -Some Evl dance from Comi II a, East Pak i stan", Department ofAgricultural Economics, Michigan State University, Aqr1culturalEconomics Report Number 64, 1967.
55. Pakistan Academv for Rural Development. The Comi Iia Pi lot ProjectIn Irrigation and Rural Electrification, 1963. Revisededition 1966 and M. K. A. Mohsen, Evaluation of the ThanaIrrigation Program in East Pakistan, 1968-69. Pakistan Academytor Rural Development, 1969.
56. Pakistan Academy for Rural Development. A New Rural CooperativeSystem, Ninth Annua I Report, 1970.
57. See the Annue l Reports of the New Rura I Cooperatl ve System and othertechnical reports Including Fazluh Bari, "A Comparative YieldTrial with Different IRRI Selections", Pakistan Academy forRural Development, 1969, (Mlmeo), and O. H. Kazl, PotatoResearch Project Report, Pakistan Academy for Rural Development,1969.
58. See the Annual Reports of the New Rural Cooperative System.
---------------------
- 69 -
59. LeVern W. Faidley and Merle L.Improved Rice Varieties:Agricultural Engineering,pp. 9. (Mlmeo).
Esmay. "Introduction and Use ofWho Benefits?" Department ofMichigan State University, 1970,
60. Faidley and Esmay. 2£. Cit., pp. 12.61. Faidley and Esmay. ~. cr-.; pp. 15.62. John W. Thomas. "Agricultural Production, Equity, and Rural
Organization in East Pakistan." Ope Cit.63. Robert D. Stevens. "Notes on Project Costs and Gai ns to Coopera-
tive Farmers, Camilla Thana, East Pakistan." Unpub Iisheddraft, 1967. See also, Robert O. Stevens and Anwarul Hoque."The effectiveness and financial stabi Iity of the ComiliaAgricultural Cooperative Credit System for Smal I Farmers."Unpublished paper, April, 1972.
64. Details are avai lable In Pakistan Academy for Rural Development, ANew Rural Cooperative System for Comi Ila Thana, Ninth Annual-Report, coml I la, East Pakistan, 1970.
65. Governrrent of Pakistan, Planning Commission. "P. C. I. Form onthe Integrated Rural Developrrent Programrre." 1970. (Mimeo).
66. Personal communication with P. J. Bertocci.67. Personal communication with Anwarul Hoque.68. Major research on diffusion at Comi Iia includes: S. A. f~ahim,
Diffusion and Adoption of Agricultural Practices, PakistanAcademy for Rural Development, 2nd Ed., 1963; S. A. Rahim,Communication and fJersonal Influnnce In an East PakistanVillage, Pakistan Academy for Rural Developrrent, 19()5; S.A. Rahim, Collective Adoption of Innovations by VI Ilaqecooheratives In Pakistan, Department of Communication,Mlc I~an state University, 1968.
69. Howard Schuman. Economic Development and Individual Change: ASocial-Psychological Study of the Com! Ila Exper!rrent inPakistan. Harvard University Center for InternatlonDIAffairs, Occasional Paper No. 15. February, 1957.
70. Personal communication.71. For material on the Rural Works Program, see notes 27 and 28, and
on Irrigation, notes 17 and 18.
70
APPENDIX
SELECTEDfHBLIOGRAPHY OF MAJORWORKSABOUTCOMILLA RURAL DEVELOPMENTPROGRAMS
Tho following retferences are a selection of major works on the differentrural development programs originating at the Pakistan Academy for Hurall)evelopment in Camilla, East Pakistan up to Apri I, 1971. Excluded in thislist are nurrerous statistical and technical agricultural reports such asthose of the crop cutting yield surveys and the reports on potato and ricetrials. References preceeded by an asterisk (*) are of primary interest.Unless otherwise indicated, al I works were published by the PakistanAcademy for Rural Development, Comi Ila, East Pakistan. The academy isnow off i ci a I Iy The Bang Iadesh Academy for Rura I Oeve Ioprrent.
Comprehensive lists of works published by, and related to the work at,the Pakistan Acacemi es for Rural Development are found in Edgar A. Scnu l erand Raghu Sinqh, The Pakistan Academies for Rural Develo ment, Comi Iia andPeshawar, 1~59-1'i64=·A Bibliography, ast Lansing: ASian tudies Center,Michigan State Univer'sity, 1965; and in a forthcoming bibliography of theCom! I la Academy for the years 1959-71, to be publ ished by the Asian StudiesCenter, Mlchiqan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. The MichiganState University Library has the most complete set of the materialsavailable on the Acaciemies and the Camilla rural development programsas I de from +ho I\cndcmy.
THE PAKISTAN ACADEr,lYFOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT
*Annual Reports, Pak ls+an Academy for Rural Development, 1960-1970.
Niehoff, Richard 0., Technical Assistance in the In-Service Training otPakistani Civ; I Servants Since 1958, East Lansing: Asian Studies Center,Michigan State un l vars t tv , 1966. (Mimeo).
*Raper, Arthur F. Rural Development in Action. Ithaca, New York: CornellUni vers i ty Press, 1970.
Schuler, Edgar A. "The Origin and Nature of the Pakistan Academies forVillage ~voloprnent." Rural Sociology, Vol. 29, September 1964.
COOPERATIVES
Choldln, Harvey M. "Urb an Cooperatives at Comi Ila, Pakistan: A Case Studyof Loca I Leve I Oeve lopment," Economi c Deve loprrent and CuI tura I Chanqe ,Vol. 16, Jenuarv 1968.
comi I I a oi stri cttheAn Evaluation Report on the
71
Hoque, Anwarul. "Coooer et l on Under Extreme Traditionalism and UnfavorablePhysical Conditions," pp , 57-97 In Inayatullah (e d) , Cooperatives andPlannod Chan~e In Asian Hural Communities, Genova: United t~atlonsnoso!!lrch Ins Itufe for Social Development, 1970.
Huq, M. Ameerul, Five Years of a Workmens' Cooperative, (A Case Study of aRickshaw Pul lers' Cooperative), 1965.
*Khan, Akhter Hameed. Tour of Twenty Thanas. 1971.
Khan, All Akhter. Rural Credit In Gazlpur Vi Ilage. 1968.
*A New Rural Cooperative System for Coml I la Thana, First Annual Report, 1961and subsequent reports fo /970.
Rahim, S. A. "Introducing Technological Change Through Cooperation inNabinagur, and East Pakistan Village," pp. 9-53 In Inayatullah (e d )Co eratives and Planned Chan e Asian Rural Communities, Geneva:Un velopment, 1970.
Rahman, Mahmoodur, Coml I la Cooperative Cold storage, 1967.
Smith, Blake W. H. "The Comilia System of Supervised Credit" (Unpub l ishedmanuscri p+) ,
stevens, Robert D. "Nc+es on Project Costs and Gains to Cooperative Farmers,Comilla Thana, East Pakistan." Unpublished draft, 1967.
and Anwaru I Hoque. "The Effecti veness and FI nanci a I Hab I ts of the---C='omi l l a Agricultural Cooperative Credit System for Small Farmers."
Staff Paper pp. 72-8. Department of Agricultural Economics, MichiganState University, 1972.
EDUCATION AND YOUTH WORK
Uhulyan, All ASfjar. Imam~s "5 Teachers. 1968.
nhulyan, All Asqer', Youth Work At Coml l l a, 1968.
BrIdges, Wm. R. Supervisor's School Club Manual Youth Program. 1966.
*Khatun, Shafia. Report on Youth Work at Comi Ila, 1964-1965 (1967).
*Mohsen, A. K. M. Youth Work at Comi Ila: Backgrounds and Annual Reportfor 1963-1964 (/964).
*Muyeed Abdul, School Works Programme, Comi Iia Kotwal i Thana, 1963-1964 (1965)and ib l d,.; 1964-1965 (1966).
72
FAMI L Y f1LANNI NG
Fi rst Annual Report, A. Majeed Khan. Rural Pi lot Fami Iy Planninq ActionProC1ramme, 1962.
Second Annual Report, A. ~~ajeed Khan. Pilot Proiect in Fami Iy PI<'lnnino--Progress to May~.
Thi rd Annual Report, Harvey M. Choldin, Comi I la Pi lot Project in Fami IyPI ann i nq , I96 5 •
*Fourth and Fi tth Annua I Reports, M. A. Mannan, The Comi II a Pi lot Project inFamily Plannln9, 1967 and 1968.
Be re Ison, Bernard, "Pakistan: The Rural Pi lot Fami Iy Planning Action Programat Comi l l a ," Ne'H York: The Population Counci I, 1964 (mlrneo) ,
Stoeckel, John and Moqbul A. Choudhury, Fertility Trends In Camilla KotwaliThana, 1969.
IRRIGATION AND MECHANIZATION
Akhanda, M. A. and S. M. Kamal, Problems and Prospects ot Thana IrrigationProgrammes. (A Report on a Training Seminar for Thana Officers). 1969.
~anglade5h Academy for Rural Development, Report on the Evaluation ot ThanaIrrigation Programme in Bangladesh (1969-70), ComII la, March, 1972.
*The Comi I la Pi lot Project in Irrigation and Rural Electrification, 1963.Rev i sed ed i t ion, 1966.
Haq, Khondaker Azharu l , "Problems and Prospects of L~-Cost Tubewell Irrigation:A Case Study I n ComI I I a Kotwa II Thana," Paper for the Workshop on Rura IDevelopment in Pakistan, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1971.
Hoque, Anwarul, cos+s and Returns--a Study of Irrigated Crops in Comi 1113Villages, 1~"67. (1968).
*Luykx, tHcol~a5 G. ~~. "Terminal Report on Introduction of Mechanized FarminoIn Coml l l e on a Cooperative l3asls, 1961-1966," 1967 (Mlmeo).
*Monsen, A. K. M. Evaluation of the Thana Irrl~atlon Program In East Paklstan--1968-69. (196~ •
Rahman, Mahmoodur. Cost and Return: A Study of lrriqated Crops in Com! I laVi I I ages , 1964.
Costs and I~turns, Economi cs of Winter I rri gated Crops in Comi II a,1965-66. (1967).
I rri0ation in Two Comi Iia Vi Ilages. 1964.
73
RURAL PUULIC WORKS
Gilbert, I~ichard V. "The Works Proqr am in East Pak ist an", InternationalLabor Review, Vol. 89, March 1964.
.• A Manual for f<ural Public Works, 1962•
*Mohsen, A. K. M. Report on a Rural Publ ic Works Program. 1962.
Rahman, A. T. r~. et al. An Evaluation of Rural Public Works Pr09ram, EastPakistan. 1%2-63 and ibid. 1963-64. ( 1963 and 1965).
Sultan, K. M. Tlpu (ed.). The Works Program in Comi I la Thana: A Case Study1962-66. ( 19(6).
The Works Program in East Pakistan. 1969.
*Thomas, John W. "Rural Public Works and East Pakistan's Development".Unpubl ished Doctoral Dissertation, Harvard University, 1968.
"The Rural Public Works Pr oqr am in East Pakistan" in G. F.Papanek and W. P. Falcon (eds.), DeVel01ment Pol Icy I I: The PakistanExperience. Harvard University Press, 971.
r<URALADMI~nSTRATION, LOCAL GOVERNMENTAND THE THANA TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENTCENTER
*The Comilla Rural Administration Experiment. 1963 and following years.
Rahman, A. T. R. Basic Democracies at the Grass Roots--A Study of ThreeUnion Counci Is of Comi Iia Kotwal i Thana, 1962.
Sobhan, Rahman. Basic Democracies, Works Programme, and Rural Developmentin East Pakistan. Pakistan: bureau of Economic ResearCh', Universityof lJacca, 1968.
Tepper, Elliott. "Rural Development in East Pakistan". Paper presentedat the Research Workshop on Rural Development in Pakistan, MichiganState University, East Lansing, Michigan. 1971.
WOMEN'SPROGRAM
*Women's Education and Home Development Program. First Annual f~eport for 190)and subsequent reports.
74
OTHERMAJORWORKS
Uegum, Ummul Ara, Statistical DIClost, 1968-69 (1970),
l3ertocci, Peter. "Elusive Vi Ilages: Social Structures and CommunityOrganization In Rural East Pakistan". Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis,r·lI ch I qan State UnIvers i ty, 1970.
• "Patterns of Social Organization in Rural East Gengalll--..,..In-A:'''" •....,.C.,.i-p-ski,edt Bengal East and 'f/est. East Lansing: Asian Studies
Center, Michl~aln State University, Occasional Paper ~Jo. 13. 1970.
Choldin, Harvey M. liThe Development Project as Natural Experiment: TheComi II a Pak I stan Project". Economl c Deve lopment and CuI tura I Change I
Vol. 17, April 1969.
*Faidley, LeVern W. and Merle L. Esmay. "Introduction and Use of ImprovedRice Varieties: Who Genefits?" Department of Agricultural Engineering,I~lchigan State University, 1970.
FaroUK, A. and S. A. Rahim.Experimental Survey inBureau of Economl c Research,for Rural r~velopment, 1965.
Karim, Rezaul. Cooperative Farmina In Com!lIa. 1970.
Luykx, I~i col aas G. /il. "The Com!I Ia Project, East Pak I stan", a chapter InChange In Agriculture. London: Duckworth, 1970.
• "Organ i zing for I~ore EHect I ve Labor Ut I Ii za+ i 011 in---R-u-ra-r"'1 ~E"'a-s-t~pl:""a""k""'lr'st an" • 1970 (MI mea) •
~1uyoed, Abdul. "Str-ategies Involved In a Developr:-ent System of PlannedSocial Change !n Rural East Pakistan". Unpublished Ph. O. Thesis,~~lch! gan State Uni vers i ty. 1969.
Qadir, S. A. VlllagEI Dhanishwar: Three Generations of Man-Land AdjustmentsIn a Pakistan Villaoo. 1960.
8.Communlcntlon and Porsonal Inf luence In an East Pakistan Vi Ila~e.1965.
Diffusion i3nd Adoption of Agricultural Practices. Secondedition.
75
*Schuman, Howard. Economic Development and Individual Chan~e: A Social-Psychological Study of the Comi Iia Experiment in Pakistan. HarvardUniversity Center for International Affairs, Occasional Paper No, 15.February, 1957••.
Stevens, Robert D. "Rural Development Programs for Adaptation from Comi l l a ,Bangladesh". Departrrent of Agricultural Economics, Mi cn l qan StateUniversity, East Lansing, Mlch l qan , AER #215, 1972. (Mlmeo).
"Institutional Change and Agricultural Developrrent:Sorre Evl dence from Comfll a, East Pakl stan", East Lans i ng: Departmootof Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, Ag. Econ. ReportNo. 64. 1967.
Thomas, John W. "Agricultural Production, Equity, and Rural Organization InEast Pakistan". Pre I Iml nary Draft for the Research Workshop onRural Development In Pakistan, ~~ichiqan State University, East Lansing,MIchigan. July 1971.
,..•
••,;
.•.:
•
