Air Force NDE 101 Training

1. UNCLASS 2. SUBJECT: INTERIM OPERATIONAL SUPPLEMENT (IOS) #5.

3. THIS IS MESSAGE AFNDIO 01/2004, DATED 9 JANUARY 2004. THIS MESSAGE SUPPLEMENTS T.O. 33B-1-1, DATED 1 OCTOBER 1997, CHANGE 3, DATED 1 MARCH 2000, NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION METHODS. A SUITABLE REFERENCE TO THIS SUPPLEMENT WILL BE MADE ON THE TITLE PAGE OF THE BASIC PUBLICATION. COMMANDERS ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR BRINGING THIS SUPPLEMENT TO THE ATTENTION OF ALL AFFECTED AF PERSONNEL. MAJCOMS, FOAS, AND DRUS ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR RETRANSMITTING THIS IOS TO SUBORDINATE UNITS NOT INCLUDED AS ADDRESSEES ON THIS MESSAGE. THIS MESSAGE SUPERCEDES IOS 1 DATED 27 FEBRUARY 2001, IOS 2 DATED 15 OCTOBER 2001, IOS 3 DATED 14 MAY 2002, AND IOS 4 DATED 8 DECEMBER 2003. 4. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (IAW MIL-STD-1806) DISTRIBUTION AUTHORIZED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE AND U.S. DOD CONTRACTORS ONLY FOR ADMINISTRATION AND OPERATIONAL USE, 1 MARCH 1991. OTHER REQUESTS FOR THIS DOCUMENT SHALL BE REFERRED TO OKLAHOMA CITY ALC/LGLDT, 3001 STAFF DRIVE, TINKER AFB OK 73145-3042 5. INSTRUCTIONS: A) PAGE 1-5, SECTION II, PARAGRAPH 1.2.2, LINE 11, CHANGE TEMPORARILY WAIVED UNTIL 1 JUNE 2000 FOR ACTIVE DUTY, AIR NATIONAL GUARD, AND AF RESERVE COMMAND CIVILIAN PERSONNEL. TO WAIVED UNTIL FURTHER NOTICE FOR ACTIVE DUTY, AIR NATIONAL GUARD, AND AIR FORCE RESERVE COMMAND CIVILIAN PERSONNEL. B) PAGE 1-5, SECTION II, PARAGRAPH 1.2.4, DELETE PARAGAPH. C) PAGE 1-15, PARAGRAPH 1.4.5, ADD: WHEN USING PCAMS AS YOUR DOCUMENTATION TOOL FOR PROCESS CONTROLS AND EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE, THERE ARE A FEW MINIMAL STEPS THAT SHOULD BE FOLLOWED: 1. PRINT A DAILY INSPECTION REPORT AT THE BEGINNING OF EACH DUTY DAY. EACH SHIFT SUPERVISOR SHALL REVIEW PCAMS AT THE BEGINNING OF EACH SHIFT TO VERIFY COMPLETION OR ANY EQUIPMENT PROBLEMS. 2. PROVIDE THE EMPLOYEE NUMBER AND INITIALS OF THE PERSON PERFORMING EACH INSPECTION ON THE PRINTED REPORT AS EACH INSPECTION IS COMPLETED. TRANSFER THIS INFORMATION TO THE COMPUTER (PCAMS) AND FILE THE PRINTED REPORT. 3. BACK-UP PCAMS TO A SEPARATE DISK ONCE EACH WEEK. THE PRINTED REPORTS MAY BE DISPOSED OF ONCE ALL DATA IS SAFELY BACKED UP. 4. IN THE EVENT OF A DEPLOYMENT, INSPECTIONS DUE PRIOR TO USE OR IDENTIFIED DISCREPANCIES, PRINT THE AFTO FORM 244 AND MAINTAIN THE FORM WITH THE ITEM REQUIRING THE INSPECTION. 6. POINT OF CONTACT FOR THIS SUPPLEMENT IS MSGT THOMAS CHERRIX, AFRL/MLS-OLT, DSN 339-4931.

T.O. 33B-1-1 NAVAIR 01-1A-16 TM 1-1500-335-23TECHNICAL MANUAL

NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION METHODSKARTA TECHNOLOGY, INC F41608-90-D-1049-002 ARMY PERSONNEL: NAVY PERSONNEL: Wherever the text of this manual refers to Air Force technical orders for supportive information, refer to the comparable Army documents. OPNAV Instruction 4790.2 and weapon system specific manuals take precedence over this manual.

THIS PUBLICATION SUPERSEDES INTERIM OPERATIONAL SUPPLEMENT T.O. 33B-1-1S-1, DATED 27 OCTOBER 1999.

Prepared By: Automated Technical Order System (ATOS)

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT - Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Published under authority of the Secretary of the Air Force

1 OCTOBER 1997CHANGE 3 - 1 MARCH 2000

T.O. 33B-1-1INSERT LATEST CHANGED PAGES. DESTROY SUPERSEDED PAGES.

LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGESNOTE: The portion of the text affected by the changes is indicated by a vertical line in the outer margins of the page. Changes to illustrations are indicated by miniature pointing hands. Changes to wiring diagrams are indicated by shaded areas.

Dates of issue for original and changed pages are:Original ........................... 0.............1 October 1997 Change............................. 1........1 September 1998 Change............................. 2................ 15 July 1999 Change............................. 3............... 1 March 2000

TOTAL NUMBER OF PAGES IN THIS PUBLICATION IS 768, CONSISTING OF THE FOLLOWING:

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INTRODUCTION1. Nondestructive Inspection (NDI) is the inspection of a structure or component in any manner that will not impair its future usefulness. The purpose of the inspection may be to detect f laws, measure geometric characteristics, determine material structure or composition, or characterize physical, electrical or thermal properties, without causing any change in the part. The NDI methods include the following: Liquid Penetrant Magnetic Particle Electromagnetic Ultrasonic Penetrating Radiation This publication covers the theory and general applications of the various NDI methods. For specif ic information on the operation or maintenance of a particular item of NDI equipment, consult the appropriate Technical Manual. NDI methods in the hands of a trained and experienced technician are capable of detecting f laws or defects with a high degree of accuracy and reliability. It is important that maintenance engineering personnel are fully knowledgeable of the capabilities of each method but it is equally important that they recognize the limitations of the methods. No NDI method should ever be considered conclusive. Of ten a defect indication developed by one method must be conf irmed by another method to be considered reliable. Furthermore, the equipment is highly sensitive and is capable of detecting discontinuities and anomalies that may be of no consequence in the service for which a component is used. Limits for acceptance and rejection are thus as much a part of an inspection as the method itself. As an example, ultrasonic inspection equipment is fully capable of detecting normal grain boundaries in some cast alloys. The inspection criteria must be designed to overlook these normal indications and to discriminate in favor of the discontinuities that will affect the service of the component. The Off ice of Primary Responsibility (OPR) for this publication is the Air Force NDI Off ice, AFRL/ MLS-OL, 4750 Staff Dr., Tinker AFB, OK 73145-3317; DSN 339-4931. All inquiries regarding either the technical content or AFTO Form 22 in accordance with T.O. 00-5-1 should be addressed to this off ice. Army users are invited to send comments and suggested improvements on DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) directly to Commander, US Army Aviation Systems Command, ATTN: AMSAV-MC, 4300 Goodfellow Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63120-1798. Navy and Marine personnel shall submit changes/corrections to Commanding Off icer Naval Aviation Maintenance Off ice (NAVAVNMAINOFF) (ATTN NDI PM) NAS Patuxent River, MD submit changes/ corrections to Commanding Off icer Naval Aviation Maintenance Off ice (NAVAVNMAINOFF) (ATTN NDI PM) NAS Patuxent River, MD 20670-5446; DSN 326-7934.

. . . . .2. 3.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 1.1 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.4.5 1.5 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4 1.5.5 1.6 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.6.4 1.6.5 1.6.6 1.6.7 1.6.8 1.6.9 1.6.10 1.6.11 1.6.12 1.6.13 1.6.14 1.7 1.7.1 1.8 1.8.1 1.8.2 1.9 1.9.1 1.9.2 2 GENERAL INFORMATION ......................................................................................................... 1-1 INSPECTION FACILITY.............................................................................................................. 1-1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1-1 Notes for Floor Plan....................................................................................................................... 1-3 PERSONNEL TRAINING / QUALIFICATION / CERTIFICATION ......................................... 1-5 Guidelines....................................................................................................................................... 1-5 Requirements ................................................................................................................................. 1-5 Special Task Certif ication and Recurring Training.................................................................... 1-5 REPORTING NEW / IMPROVED NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES........................................................................................................................... 1-7 Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 1-7 Authority ........................................................................................................................................ 1-7 Scope ............................................................................................................................................... 1-7 Responsibilities .............................................................................................................................. 1-8 Entries on AFTO Form 242 .......................................................................................................... 1-9 PROCESS CONTROL ................................................................................................................. 1-14 Reason for Process Control ......................................................................................................... 1-14 Scope of Process Control.............................................................................................................. 1-14 Scope of Documentation Requirements...................................................................................... 1-14 Responsibilities ............................................................................................................................ 1-15 Suggested Documentation Method ............................................................................................. 1-15 PENETRANT PROCESS CONTROL......................................................................................... 1-20 Need for Process Quality............................................................................................................. 1-20 Process Control Requirements .................................................................................................... 1-22 Control of New Materials ............................................................................................................ 1-29 Monitoring Process Performance (Stationary Inspection Units).............................................. 1-31 Testing of Material in Use .......................................................................................................... 1-34 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION PROCESS CONTROL .............................................. 1-43 Purpose and Scope ....................................................................................................................... 1-43 General ......................................................................................................................................... 1-43 Causes of Materials Degradation ............................................................................................... 1-43 Frequency of Process Control...................................................................................................... 1-44 Material Requirements................................................................................................................ 1-44 Safety Requirements.................................................................................................................... 1-45 Magnetic Particle Equipment / System Requirements ............................................................. 1-45 Process Requirements.................................................................................................................. 1-46 Quantitative Quality Indicators ................................................................................................. 1-47 System Effectiveness Check........................................................................................................ 1-48 Ammeter Check............................................................................................................................ 1-49 Quick Break Tester...................................................................................................................... 1-50 Establishing a Field Indicator Reference Standard .................................................................. 1-50 Checking the In Use Field Indicators ..................................................................................... 1-50.1 Deleted Deleted ULTRASONIC PROCESS CONTROL REQUIREMENTS ....................................................... 1-52 The Ultrasonic Process Control Requirements.......................................................................... 1-52 Calibration of Equipment............................................................................................................ 1-57 PROCESS CONTROL FOR RADIOGRAPHY ........................................................................... 1-71 Scope and Purpose ....................................................................................................................... 1-71 Radiographic Process Control Requirements............................................................................. 1-71 LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION ......................................................................................... 2-1

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TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued 2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5 2.1.6 2.1.7 2.1.8 2.1.9 2.1.10 2.1.11 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 2.2.8 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.3.7 2.3.8 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.5 2.5.6 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.6.4 2.6.5 2.6.6 2.6.7 2.7 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 2-1 General ........................................................................................................................................... 2-1 Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 2-1 Background..................................................................................................................................... 2-1 Capabilities of Penetrant Inspection ............................................................................................ 2-2 Basic Penetrant Process ................................................................................................................ 2-2 Leak Detection ............................................................................................................................... 2-3 Personnel Requirements................................................................................................................ 2-3 Equipment Requirements.............................................................................................................. 2-3 Advantages and Capabilities of Liquid Penetrant Inspection.................................................... 2-5 Disadvantages and Limitations of Liquid Penetrant Inspection ............................................... 2-5 Limitations on Applications of Penetrant Inspection ................................................................. 2-6 BASIC PENETRANT PROCESS.................................................................................................. 2-7 Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 2-7 Types of Penetrant......................................................................................................................... 2-7 Methods of Penetrant Removal..................................................................................................... 2-8 Developers ...................................................................................................................................... 2-9 Classif ication of Penetrant Materials and Processes.................................................................. 2-9 Qualif ied Products List (QPL) .................................................................................................... 2-12 Basic Penetrant Processes........................................................................................................... 2-12 Sensitivity..................................................................................................................................... 2-13 PRETESTING, CLEANING, PRECLEANING AND POSTCLEANING................................. 2-18 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 2-18 Pretesting ..................................................................................................................................... 2-18 Cleaning........................................................................................................................................ 2-19 Contaminants and Soils .............................................................................................................. 2-20 Cleaning Processes....................................................................................................................... 2-23 Mechanical Working Processes ................................................................................................... 2-26 Precleaning ................................................................................................................................... 2-27 Postcleaning Af ter Penetrant Inspection................................................................................... 2-28 MECHANISM, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF PENETRANT ................................ 2-30 Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 2-30 Requirements of a Penetrant ...................................................................................................... 2-30 Mechanism of Penetration .......................................................................................................... 2-30 Penetrant Properties ................................................................................................................... 2-33 Application of Penetrant ............................................................................................................. 2-37 PENETRANT REMOVAL ........................................................................................................... 2-46 Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 2-46 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 2-46 Factors Inf luencing Removability .............................................................................................. 2-47 Removal of Water Washable Penetrant, Method A .................................................................. 2-48 Removal of Postemulsif iable Penetrant, Methods B and D ..................................................... 2-52 Removal of Penetrants with Solvent, Method C ....................................................................... 2-61 DEVELOPERS ............................................................................................................................. 2-62 Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 2-62 Fundamentals .............................................................................................................................. 2-62 Dry Developer .............................................................................................................................. 2-65 Water Suspended (Wet-Aqueous) Developer ............................................................................. 2-66 Water Soluble Developer ............................................................................................................. 2-67 Nonaqueous Solvent Suspended Developers.............................................................................. 2-69 Developer Dwell ........................................................................................................................... 2-70 INSPECTION AND INTERPRETATION .................................................................................. 2-73

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TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued 2.7.1 2.7.2 2.7.3 2.7.4 2.7.5 2.7.6 2.8 2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8 2.8.9 3 3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.1.6 3.1.7 3.1.8 3.1.9 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.3.7 3.3.8 3.3.9 3.3.10 3.3.11 3.3.12 3.3.13 3.3.14 Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 2-73 General ......................................................................................................................................... 2-73 Personnel ...................................................................................................................................... 2-73 Lighting ........................................................................................................................................ 2-74 Inspection Conditions .................................................................................................................. 2-82 Inspection, Interpretation and Evaluation ................................................................................ 2-83 SPECIAL PURPOSE MATERIALS............................................................................................ 2-91 Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 2-91 Oxygen Compatible Penetrants .................................................................................................. 2-91 Low Sulfur, Low Chlorine Penetrant Systems .......................................................................... 2-92 High Temperature Penetrant Materials .................................................................................... 2-93 Dye Precipitation Penetrant Systems ........................................................................................ 2-93 Reversed Fluorescence Method................................................................................................... 2-93 Thixotropic Penetrant.................................................................................................................. 2-93 Dilution Expansion Developers................................................................................................... 2-93 Plastic Film Developers............................................................................................................... 2-94 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION....................................................................................... 3-1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 3-1 Purpose of MPI............................................................................................................................... 3-1 Limitation of Magnetic Particle Inspection ................................................................................. 3-1 Discontinuity Versus Defect.......................................................................................................... 3-1 Magnetization................................................................................................................................. 3-1 Basic Terminology.......................................................................................................................... 3-2 Magnetic Field Characteristics ..................................................................................................... 3-3 Current Sources for Generation Magnetic Field ......................................................................... 3-9 Ferromagnetic Material Characteristics .................................................................................... 3-10 Magnetizing Equipment .............................................................................................................. 3-13 PRE- AND POST-MPI CLEANING & PRE-MPI DISASSEMBLY.......................................... 3-18 Pre-Inspection Cleaning .............................................................................................................. 3-18 Considerations when Selecting a Cleaning Process .................................................................. 3-18 Typical Cleaning Methods........................................................................................................... 3-18 Surface Preparation ..................................................................................................................... 3-19 Post Inspection Cleaning............................................................................................................. 3-20 Disassembly Requirements ......................................................................................................... 3-21 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES .......................................................... 3-22 General ......................................................................................................................................... 3-22 Factors Determining the Choice of Technique .......................................................................... 3-22 Technique Variations................................................................................................................... 3-22 Types of Electric Current ............................................................................................................ 3-22 Particles ........................................................................................................................................ 3-25 Suspensions .................................................................................................................................. 3-26 Methods of Particle Application.................................................................................................. 3-26 Techniques for Current/Particle Application ............................................................................. 3-26 Magnetic Field.............................................................................................................................. 3-29 Sensitivity Level .......................................................................................................................... 3-31 Circular Magnetization................................................................................................................ 3-32 Longitudinal Magnetization........................................................................................................ 3-35 Equipment .................................................................................................................................... 3-43 Special Methods ........................................................................................................................... 3-45

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TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.5.5 3.5.6 3.5.7 3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5 3.6.6 3.6.7 3.6.8 3.6.9 3.7 3.7.1 3.7.2 3.7.3 3.7.4 3.7.5 3.8 3.8.1 3.8.2 3.9 3.9.1 3.9.2 3.9.3 3.9.4 3.9.5 4 4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6 4.1.7 4.1.8 4.1.9 PORTABLE MAGNETIC PARTICLE FIELD INSPECTION TECHNIQUES ....................... 3-49 General ......................................................................................................................................... 3-49 Capabilities and Limitations....................................................................................................... 3-49 Equipment .................................................................................................................................... 3-50 Technique ..................................................................................................................................... 3-51 Applications .................................................................................................................................. 3-52 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION MATERIALS AND RESPECTIVE METHODS ............................................................................................................................... 3-53 General ......................................................................................................................................... 3-53 Particle Properties and Their Effects......................................................................................... 3-54 Media Selection ............................................................................................................................ 3-58 Current / Particle Application Techniques ................................................................................ 3-59 Dry Powder Magnetic Particles .................................................................................................. 3-60 Wet Visible Particles ................................................................................................................... 3-65 Wet Fluorescent Method ............................................................................................................. 3-72 DEMAGNETIZATION................................................................................................................. 3-76 General ......................................................................................................................................... 3-76 Purpose ......................................................................................................................................... 3-76 Principles of Operation................................................................................................................ 3-76 Requirements ............................................................................................................................... 3-77 Methods ........................................................................................................................................ 3-79 Equipment and Procedures ......................................................................................................... 3-80 Limitations ................................................................................................................................... 3-83 Special Techniques....................................................................................................................... 3-83 Measuring Residual Leakage Field Intensities ......................................................................... 3-84 FORMATION OF DISCONTINUITIES AND THEIR MPI INDICATIONS ........................... 3-88 Iron and Steel Manufacturing Processes ................................................................................... 3-88 Def inition of Terms...................................................................................................................... 3-91 Basic Steps of Inspection............................................................................................................. 3-91 Classes of Discontinuities............................................................................................................ 3-95 Non-Relevant Indications .......................................................................................................... 3-107 METHODS OF RECORDING MPI INDICATIONS ............................................................... 3-112 General ....................................................................................................................................... 3-112 Types of Records ........................................................................................................................ 3-113 MAGNETIC RUBBER INSPECTION METHOD.................................................................... 3-114 Description.................................................................................................................................. 3-114 Safety Precautions ..................................................................................................................... 3-115 Gel Time, Pot Life and Cure Time ........................................................................................... 3-115 Magnetic Rubber Inspection Procedure ................................................................................... 3-115 Post Inspection Procedures ....................................................................................................... 3-130 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION ................................................................................................. 4-1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 4-1 Def inition of Eddy Currents ......................................................................................................... 4-1 Inspection with Eddy Currents..................................................................................................... 4-2 Eddy Current Inspection Techniques........................................................................................... 4-2 Inspection Applications ................................................................................................................. 4-2 Electrical Conductivity .................................................................................................................. 4-2 Magnetic Permeability................................................................................................................... 4-2 Geometry ........................................................................................................................................ 4-3 Lif t Off and Fill Factor ................................................................................................................. 4-3 Flaw Detection ............................................................................................................................... 4-3

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TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued 4.1.10 4.1.11 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5.4 4.5.5 4.5.6 4.5.7 4.5.8 4.5.9 4.6 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5 4.7 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.7.5 4.7.6 4.7.7 4.8 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8.3 4.9 4.9.1 4.9.2 4.9.3 4.9.4 Components of an Eddy Current Inspection System .................................................................. 4-3 Limitations of Eddy Current Method........................................................................................... 4-4 GENERATION OF AND FACTORS AFFECTING EDDY CURRENTS ................................... 4-5 Generation of Eddy Currents........................................................................................................ 4-5 Variables Affecting Eddy Currents .............................................................................................. 4-6 Intensity and Distribution of Eddy Currents ............................................................................ 4-14 ANALYSIS OF EDDY CURRENT SIGNALS............................................................................ 4-16 Overview of Signal Detection, Processing and Display ............................................................ 4-16 Impedance..................................................................................................................................... 4-18 Impedance Diagrams ................................................................................................................... 4-23 Heat Treat Condition or Hardness ............................................................................................. 4-29 Impedance Plane Analysis .......................................................................................................... 4-33 Modulation Analysis .................................................................................................................... 4-34 TEST SYSTEMS .......................................................................................................................... 4-37 Eddy Current Systems ................................................................................................................ 4-37 Probes (Coil Assemblies) - General ............................................................................................ 4-37 Eddy Current Instruments.......................................................................................................... 4-41 GENERAL APPLICATIONS - FLAW DETECTION ................................................................ 4-48 Requirements for Eddy Current Flaw Detection....................................................................... 4-48 Test Systems ................................................................................................................................ 4-49 Lif t Off Effects............................................................................................................................. 4-52 Lif t Off Compensation Methods ................................................................................................. 4-52 Effects of Crack Location on Detectability ................................................................................ 4-55 Effects of Scanning Techniques on Detection............................................................................ 4-57 Reference Standards for Cracks ................................................................................................. 4-59 Evaluation of Crack Indications ................................................................................................. 4-65 Effect of Scan Rate and Pattern ................................................................................................. 4-66 SPECIFIC APPLICATION - FLAW DETECTION ................................................................... 4-67 Fastener Holes Removable Fasteners ........................................................................................ 4-67 Openings, Large Holes, and Cutouts.......................................................................................... 4-69 Fastener Holes Nonremovable Fasteners .................................................................................. 4-70 Fillets and Rounded Corner ........................................................................................................ 4-71 Corrosion....................................................................................................................................... 4-71 SPECIFIC APPLICATION - CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT ......................................... 4-73 Relationship of Mechanical Properties and Conductivity......................................................... 4-73 Applications of Conductivity Measurement ............................................................................... 4-78 Test Equipment............................................................................................................................ 4-79 Effects of Variations in Material Properties.............................................................................. 4-80 Effects of Variations in Test Conditions .................................................................................... 4-81 Conductivity Reference Standards ............................................................................................. 4-82 Inspection Procedures.................................................................................................................. 4-83 SPECIFIC APPLICATION - THICKNESS MEASUREMENT ................................................ 4-84 Criteria for Application ............................................................................................................... 4-84 Measurement of Total Metal Thickness..................................................................................... 4-85 Measurement of Nonconductive Coatings.................................................................................. 4-89 ADVANCES IN ELECTROMAGNETIC TEST METHODS ..................................................... 4-91 General Improvements ................................................................................................................ 4-91 Techniques Available for Use ..................................................................................................... 4-91 Developmental Techniques ......................................................................................................... 4-92 Application of Advanced Techniques.......................................................................................... 4-93

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TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued 5 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5 5.1.6 5.1.7 5.1.8 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6 5.5 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4 5.5.5 5.5.6 5.6 5.6.1 5.6.2 5.6.3 6 61 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 ULTRASONIC TESTING.............................................................................................................. 5-1 GENERAL ULTRASONIC PRINCIPLES.................................................................................... 5-1 Characteristics of Ultrasonic Energy ........................................................................................... 5-1 Generation and Receiving of Ultrasonic Vibrations.................................................................... 5-1 Basic Ultrasonic Inspection........................................................................................................... 5-2 Ultrasonic Vibration Modes .......................................................................................................... 5-6 Refraction and Mode Conversion.................................................................................................. 5-8 Ultrasonic System Variables....................................................................................................... 5-11 Test Part Variables...................................................................................................................... 5-16 Discontinuity Variables ............................................................................................................... 5-19 ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS .................................................................... 5-20 Basic Ultrasonic Instruments ..................................................................................................... 5-20 Search Units / Transducers......................................................................................................... 5-28 Couplants...................................................................................................................................... 5-40 ULTRASONIC TECHNIQUES ................................................................................................... 5-41 Guidelines for Inspector Familiarization ................................................................................... 5-41 Contact and Immersion ............................................................................................................... 5-41 Common Inspection Methods ...................................................................................................... 5-41 Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) ....................................................................................... 5-46 Transfer ........................................................................................................................................ 5-48 Evaluation of Discontinuity Indications..................................................................................... 5-53 Technique Development .............................................................................................................. 5-60 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION OF BONDED STRUCTURES.................................................. 5-62 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 5-62 Reference Standards .................................................................................................................... 5-63 Inspection Coverage..................................................................................................................... 5-65 Inspection Methods for Bonded Structures................................................................................ 5-66 Methods Used with Basic Ultrasonic Instruments ................................................................... 5-68 Methods Associated with Instruments Dedicated to Bond Inspection .................................... 5-76 ULTRASONIC THICKNESS MEASUREMENT....................................................................... 5-80 Applications .................................................................................................................................. 5-80 General Principles ....................................................................................................................... 5-80 Equipment and Materials ........................................................................................................... 5-81 Test Part Preparation.................................................................................................................. 5-83 Special Considerations ................................................................................................................ 5-83 Calibration and Measurement .................................................................................................... 5-83 ULTRASONIC LEAK TESTING ................................................................................................ 5-84 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 5-84 Equipment .................................................................................................................................... 5-85 Calibration and Testing............................................................................................................... 5-85 BASIC FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION ............................................. 6-1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 6-1 General ........................................................................................................................................... 6-1 Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays ....................................................................................... 6-2 Where to Use Radiography ........................................................................................................... 6-5 Unique Properties of Gamma Rays .............................................................................................. 6-6 X-RAY GENERATORS .................................................................................................................. 6-6 Def inition........................................................................................................................................ 6-6 Basic Requirements for Production of X-Rays............................................................................. 6-7 Effects of Voltage and Amperage on X-Ray Production ............................................................. 6-9 X-Ray Generators......................................................................................................................... 6-10

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TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued 6.2.5 6.2.6 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6 6.3.7 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.5 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 6.5.4 6.5.5 6.6 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 6.6.4 6.6.5 6.7 6.7.1 6.7.2 6.7.3 6.7.4 6.7.5 6.7.6 6.7.7 6.7.8 6.7.9 6.7.10 6.7.11 6.7.12 6.7.13 6.7.14 6.7.15 6.7.16 6.7.17 6.7.18 6.7.19 6.7.20 6.8 6.8.1 6.8.2 6.8.3 6.8.4 Practical Considerations When Choosing Equipment .............................................................. 6-16 Considerations When Operating X-Ray Equipment ................................................................. 6-18 ISOTOPE RADIATION SOURCES ............................................................................................ 6-19 Energy Spectra............................................................................................................................. 6-19 Source Strength ........................................................................................................................... 6-19 Focal Spot Size ............................................................................................................................. 6-19 Decay Characteristics .................................................................................................................. 6-19 Isotope Sensitivity........................................................................................................................ 6-19 Isotope Cameras........................................................................................................................... 6-20 Maintenance ................................................................................................................................. 6-20 FILMS, FILM HOLDERS AND SCREENS............................................................................... 6-20 Films ............................................................................................................................................. 6-20 Cassettes and Film Holders ........................................................................................................ 6-33 Screens.......................................................................................................................................... 6-35 INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATERIAL .............................................................. 6-37 Absorption Mechanisms .............................................................................................................. 6-37 Real Life Absorbers...................................................................................................................... 6-40 White Spectrum ........................................................................................................................... 6-40 Diffraction Patterns..................................................................................................................... 6-41 Material Contrast ........................................................................................................................ 6-41 SPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES............................................................................. 6-42 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 6-42 Special Purpose Techniques........................................................................................................ 6-42 Special Imaging Methods ............................................................................................................ 6-47 Computed Tomography (CT) ....................................................................................................... 6-49 Neutron Radiography .................................................................................................................. 6-50 EFFECTIVE RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTIONS ....................................................................... 6-50 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 6-50 Factors Affecting Image Quality ................................................................................................ 6-50 Radiographic Sensitivity ............................................................................................................. 6-63 Technique Charts......................................................................................................................... 6-69 Industrial Radiographic Film Characteristics ........................................................................... 6-74 Developing Theory ....................................................................................................................... 6-74 Developing Solutions ................................................................................................................... 6-74 Stop Bath Solution....................................................................................................................... 6-76 Fixing Solution ............................................................................................................................. 6-76 Washing ........................................................................................................................................ 6-77 Drying ........................................................................................................................................... 6-78 Dark Room Equipment................................................................................................................ 6-78 Preliminary Checks ..................................................................................................................... 6-80 Developing Procedure .................................................................................................................. 6-80 Testing Developer Activity .......................................................................................................... 6-82 Automatic Film Processing ......................................................................................................... 6-83 Silver Recovery............................................................................................................................. 6-85 Film Reproduction Technique ..................................................................................................... 6-85 Film Artifacts ............................................................................................................................... 6-86 Care of Radiographs ................................................................................................................. 6-88.1 RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION...................................................................................... 6-89 General ......................................................................................................................................... 6-89 Radiographic Image Quality ....................................................................................................... 6-89 Sensitivity..................................................................................................................................... 6-89 Def inition or Detail...................................................................................................................... 6-90

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TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued 6.8.5 6.8.6 6.8.7 6.8.8 6.8.9 6.8.10 6.8.11 6.8.12 6.8.13 6.8.14 6.8.15 6.8.16 6.8.17 6.8.18 6.8.19 6.8.20 6.9 6.9.1 6.9.2 6.9.3 6.9.4 6.9.5 6.9.6 6.9.7 6.9.8 6.9.9 6.9.10 6.9.11 6.9.12 6.9.13 6.9.14 6.9.15 6.9.16 6.9.17 6.9.18 6.9.19 6.9.20 6.10 Density.......................................................................................................................................... 6-92 Contrast ........................................................................................................................................ 6-93 Fog................................................................................................................................................. 6-93 Distortion and Magnif ication...................................................................................................... 6-93 Kilovoltage and Processing ......................................................................................................... 6-93 Viewing and Reading................................................................................................................... 6-93 Viewing Conditions ...................................................................................................................... 6-93 Reading Radiographs................................................................................................................... 6-96 Typical Radiographic Discontinuities......................................................................................... 6-97 Castings ........................................................................................................................................ 6-97 Casting Defects .......................................................................................................................... 6-100 Welds........................................................................................................................................... 6-101 Welding Defects and Conditions............................................................................................... 6-102 Spot Welds.................................................................................................................................. 6-105 Service Inspection ...................................................................................................................... 6-106 Radiographic Standards ............................................................................................................ 6-107 SCOPE AND PURPOSE ........................................................................................................... 6-108 Responsibilities (Air Force/Navy) ............................................................................................. 6-109 Responsibilities (Army) ............................................................................................................. 6-110 Qualif ications of Industrial Radiographers ............................................................................. 6-114 Possession and Use of Gamma Ray Sources............................................................................ 6-118 Radiation Safety Monitors ........................................................................................................ 6-119 Radiation Safety Monitor Assistants........................................................................................ 6-119 Radiation Protection Surveys.................................................................................................... 6-120 Distribution and Retention ....................................................................................................... 6-122 Exposure to Radiation ............................................................................................................... 6-123 Measuring Exposures Rates: Ionization Chamber Type Survey Instruments ................... 6-125 Calibration and Use of Radiation Survey Instruments .......................................................... 6-128 Personnel Monitoring Devices .................................................................................................. 6-129 Personnel Monitoring Requirements........................................................................................ 6-132 Dose Reporting and Recording Procedures .............................................................................. 6-133 Suspected Overexposure of Ionizing Radiation ....................................................................... 6-135 Standard Department of Defense Industrial X-Ray Radiographic Equipment..................... 6-139 Classif ication and Selection of Radiographic Installations .................................................... 6-140 Protective Installations or Shielded Installations ................................................................... 6-141 Design or Modif ication of Installations.................................................................................... 6-152 Structural Details of Protective Barriers................................................................................. 6-153 RT REFERENCES..................................................................................................................... 6-155

GLOSSARY......................................................................................................................................................... 1

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure Figure Figure Figure 1-1. 1-2. 1-3. 1-4. Nondestructive Inspection Facility .................................................................................... 1-2 Example of AF Form 1098 ................................................................................................. 1-6 AFTO Form 242 ................................................................................................................ 1-12 AF Form 3130 Sample Format for Fluorescent Penetrant Method Process Control .......................................................................................................................... 1-18 AF Form 3130 Sample Format for Magnetic Particle Method Process Control ........................................................................................................................... 1-19 Illustration of Crack Depth in Chrome-Plated Panel .................................................... 1-32 Specif ic Gravity Hydrometer Readings for Two Water Suspended Developers ..................................................................................................................... 1-40 Specif ic Gravity Hydrometer Readings Versus Concentration for One Manufacturers Water Soluble Developers ................................................................. 1-42 Ketos Ring ......................................................................................................................... 1-49 Establishing a Field Indicator Reference Standard .................................................... 1-50.1 Checking In-Use Field Indicators .................................................................................... 1-51 ASTM Reference Blocks.................................................................................................... 1-54 Angle Beam Block ............................................................................................................. 1-56 Use of IIW Block Horizontal Linearity ........................................................................... 1-58 Use of an IIW Block to Check Back Surface Resolution................................................ 1-60 Use of IIW Block to Check Entry Surface Resolution.................................................... 1-62 Straight Beam Distance Calibration with IIW Block .................................................... 1-63 Straight Beam Distance with Miniature Angle Beam Block......................................... 1-64 Point of Incidence Determination with IIW Block ......................................................... 1-65 Determination of Point of Incidence with Miniature Angle Beam Block ..................... 1-65 Angle Determination with IIW Block.............................................................................. 1-66 Angle Beam Distance Calibration with IIW Block......................................................... 1-67 Angle Beam Distance Calibration with Miniature Angle Beam Block ........................ 1-68 Angle Determination with Miniature Angle Beam Block.............................................. 1-69 Beam Misalignment (Skew Angle)................................................................................... 1-70 Skew Angle Measurement................................................................................................ 1-70 Basic Penetrant Inspection Process................................................................................... 2-2 Typical Small Parts Inspection Units ............................................................................... 2-4 Cracked, Brittle Iron-Plated Coupon Showing the Inspection Results from Two Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection Processes of Different Sensitivities .................................................................................................................... 2-5 Flow Chart for Water Washable Penetrant Process (Method A) .................................. 2-14 Flow Chart for Postemulsif iable, Lipophilic, Penetrant Process (Method B) ............. 2-15 Flow Chart for Solvent Removable Penetrant Process (Method C) ............................. 2-16 Flow Chart for Postemulsif iable, Hydrophilic Penetrant Process (Method D)..................................................................................................................... 2-17 The Contact Angle () is the Angle Between the Liquid and Solid Surface and is a Measure of the Wetting Ability..................................................................... 2-31 The Rise or Depression of Liquid in a Capillary Tube Depends Upon the Contact Angle ............................................................................................................... 2-32 Indications Produced by Penetrants of Four Different Sensitivity Levels Using Dry Developer .................................................................................................... 2-36 Approximate Drying Times for Two Types of Nonaqueous Developers at Various Temperatures ................................................................................................. 2-40 Viscosity of Several QPL Penetrants at Various Temperatures .................................. 2-42 Comparison of Dwell Time Versus Viscosity for Two Types of Penetrants ................. 2-43 Comparison of Adequate Dwell Versus Insuff icient Dwell on a Thermally Cracked Aluminum Block ............................................................................................ 2-46 Cracked Chrome Panels Showing Effects of Insuff icient Wash, Optimum Wash and Excessive Wash........................................................................................... 2-49 A Typical Wash or Rinse Station..................................................................................... 2-50 An Improper Washing Procedure .................................................................................... 2-51

Figure 1-5. Figure 1-6. Figure 1-7. Figure 1-8. Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 1-9. 1-9a. 1-9b. 1-10. 1-11. 1-12. 1-13. 1-14. 1-15. 1-16. 1-17. 1-18. 1-19. 1-20. 1-21. 1-22. 1-23. 1-24. 2-1. 2-2. 2-3. 2-4. 2-5. 2-6. 2-7.

Figure 2-8. Figure 2-9. Figure 2-10. Figure 2-11. Figure 2-12. Figure 2-13. Figure 2-14. Figure 2-15. Figure 2-16. Figure 2-17.

Change 3

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LIST OF FIGURES - Continued Figure 2-18. Figure 2-19. Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 2-20. 2-21. 2-22. 2-23. 2-24. Diffusion of Emulsif ier into Penetrant During the Lipophilic Emulsif ier Dwell .............................................................................................................................. 2-53 Results of Insuff icient, Optimum and Excessive Lipophilic Emulsif ier Dwell Time .................................................................................................................... 2-55 Action of the Hydrophilic Process .................................................................................... 2-57 The Effects of Optimum, Insuff icient, and Excessive Hydrophilic Removal ............... 2-60 The Effects of a Developer ............................................................................................... 2-63 The Effect of Proper Versus Excessive Drying ............................................................... 2-64 Cracked Aluminum Panel Comparing Results with an Optimum Thickness Layer (Top) to an Excessive Layer (Bottom) of Developer ........................................ 2-67 Comparison of Four Forms of Developer on a Cracked Chrome Plated Panels ............................................................................................................................ 2-72 Electromagnetic Spectrum Shows the Relatively Narrow Band of Black Light............................................................................................................................... 2-74 Relative Response of Typical Human Eye to Visible Light of Various Wavelengths ................................................................................................................. 2-75 Portable 100-Watt Black Light ........................................................................................ 2-77 Cross-Section of a Typical High Pressure, Mercury Vapor Arc Bulb ........................... 2-77 Transmission Curve for Kopp 41 Glass........................................................................... 2-78 Examples of Digital Radiometers .................................................................................... 2-80 Typical Penetrant Indications.......................................................................................... 2-84 Micrograph of a Cross-Section Through a Fatigue Crack Showing the Transgranular Progression .......................................................................................... 2-86 Micrograph of a Cross-Section Through a Stress Corrosion Crack ............................. 2-87 Horseshoe Magnet............................................................................................................... 3-3 Horseshoe Magnet with Poles Close Together.................................................................. 3-4 Horseshoe Magnet Fused into a Ring ............................................................................... 3-4 Crack in Fused Horseshoe Magnet.................................................................................... 3-4 Horseshoe Magnet Straightened to Form a Bar Magnet................................................. 3-5 Slot in Bar Magnet Attracting Magnetic Particles........................................................... 3-5 Crack in Bar Magnet Attracting Magnetic Particles ....................................................... 3-5 Magnetic Field Surrounding an Electrical Conductor ..................................................... 3-6 Magnetic Field in Part Used as a Conductor.................................................................... 3-7 Creating a Circular Magnetic Field in a Part .................................................................. 3-7 Using a Central Conductor to Circularly Magnetize a Cylinder ................................... 3-7 Using a Central Conductor to Circularly Magnetize Ring-Like Parts............................ 3-8 Magnetic Lines of Force (Magnetic Field) in a Coil ......................................................... 3-8 Longitudinal Magnetic Field Produced in a Part Placed in a Coil ................................. 3-8 Longitudinal Field Produced by the Coil Generates an Indication of Crack in Part ............................................................................................................................. 3-9 Field Produced in a Bar by a Parallel Current ............................................................. 3-9 Hysteresis Curve for a Ferromagnetic Material............................................................. 3-11 Flux Waveform During Demagnetization, Projected from the Hysteresis Loop................................................................................................................................ 3-12 Electromagnetic Probe or Yoke ........................................................................................ 3-15 Magnetization with a Permanent Magnet ...................................................................... 3-16 Current and Field Distribution in a Bearing Race Being Magnetized by the Induced Current Method ....................................................................................... 3-17 Comparison of Indications of Surface Cracks on a Part Magnetized with AC, DC and Three Phase Rectif ied AC....................................................................... 3-24 Drawing of a Tool Steel Ring Specimen (Ketos Ring) with Artif icial Sub-Surface Defects ..................................................................................................... 3-25 Hall-Effect Sensors ........................................................................................................... 3-30 Shim-Type Magnetic Flux Indicators .............................................................................. 3-30 Magnetic Flux Distribution in a Central Conduction and a Cylindrical Test Part ............................................................................................................................... 3-34

Figure 2-25. Figure 2-26. Figure 2-27. Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 2-28. 2-29. 2-30. 2-31. 2-32. 2-33. 2-34. 3-1. 3-2. 3-3. 3-4. 3-5. 3-6. 3-7. 3-8. 3-9. 3-10. 3-11. 3-12. 3-13. 3-14a. 3-14b.

Figure 3-15. Figure 3-16. Figure 3-17. Figure 3-18. Figure 3-19. Figure 3-20. Figure 3-21. Figure 3-22. Figure 3-23. Figure 3-24. Figure 3-25.

xii

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LIST OF FIGURES - Continued Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 3-26. 3-27. 3-28. 3-29. 3-30. 3-31. 3-32. 3-33. 3-34. 3-35. 3-36. 3-37. 3-38. 3-39. 3-40. 3-41. 3-42. 3-43. 3-44. 3-45. 3-46. 3-47. 3-48. 3-49. 3-50. 3-51. 3-52. 3-53. 3-54. 3-55. 3-56. 3-57. 3-58. Calculating Effective Diameter........................................................................................ 3-40 Stationary Wet Magnetic Particle Inspection Unit ........................................................ 3-44 AC/HWDC Portable Power Pack...................................................................................... 3-45 Portable Induced Field Inspection Equipment ............................................................... 3-49 Leg Positions of Articulated Leg Yoke ............................................................................ 3-50 Field Inspection of Nose Wheel Strut.............................................................................. 3-53 Squeeze Bottle Applicator ................................................................................................ 3-63 Filling Centrifuge Tube from Hose.................................................................................. 3-70 Drawing Fine Magnetic Particles from Vehicle with Horseshoe Magnet..................... 3-75 Hysteresis Loops Produced During Demagnetization .................................................... 3-77 Part in Demagnetizing Coil.............................................................................................. 3-80 Non-Contact Demagnetization ......................................................................................... 3-82 Typical Field Indicators.................................................................................................... 3-84 Deleted Deleted Sequence of Steel Processing Stages, Indicating the Principle Operations and the Defects Most Likely to be Found in the Material Af ter Each Process ...................................................................................................... 3-90 Sharp, Well Def ined Indication of Surface Discontinuity in a Weld ............................ 3-92 Broad Indication of Subsurface Discontinuity in a Weld............................................... 3-92 Typical Magnetic Particle Indications of Cracks ............................................................ 3-93 Magnetic Particle Indication of a Forced Fit .................................................................. 3-93 Magnetic Particle Indication at the Weld Between a Sof t and a Hard Steel Rod ................................................................................................................................ 3-94 Magnetic Particle Indication of the Braze Line of a Brazed Tool Bit........................... 3-94 Magnetic Particle Indications of Segregations................................................................ 3-95 Cross-Section of Ingot Showing Shrink Cavity............................................................... 3-96 Magnetic Particle Indication of a Sub-Surface Stringer of Non-Metallic Inclusions ..................................................................................................................... 3-97 Scabs on the Surface of a Rolled Bloom .......................................................................... 3-97 How Laps and Seams are Produced from Over-Fills and Under-Fills ........................ 3-98 Magnetic Particle Indication of a Seam on a Bar .......................................................... 3-99 Magnetic Particle Indications of Laminations Shown on Flame-Cut Edge of Thick Steel Plate ......................................................................................................... 3-99 Section through Severe Cupping in a 1 3/8 Inch Bar .................................................. 3-100 Magnetic Particle Indications of Cooling Cracks in an Alloy Steel Bar ..................... 3-100 Magnetic Particle Indications of Flakes in a Bore of a Large Hollow Shaf t ........... 3-101 Magnetic Particle Indications of Forging Cracks or Bursts in an Upset Section Severe Case ................................................................................................... 3-101 Surface of a Steel Billet Showing a Lap........................................................................ 3-102 Cross-Section of a Forging Lap (Magnif ied 100X)........................................................ 3-102 Magnetic Particle Indication of Flash Line Tear in a Partially Machined Automotive Spindle Forging ...................................................................................... 3-103 Magnetic Particle Indications of Defects in Castings .................................................. 3-103 Magnetic Particle Indications of Quenching Cracks Shown with Dry Powder ......................................................................................................................... 3-104 Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Indications of Typical Grinding Cracks ..................... 3-105 Magnetic Particle Indications of Grinding Cracks in a Stress-Sensitive, Hardened Surface ...................................................................................................... 3-105 Magnetic Particle Indications of Plating Cracks .......................................................... 3-106 Magnetic Particle Indication of a Typical Fatigue Crack ............................................ 3-106 Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Indications of Cracks in Crankshaf t of Small Aircraf t Engine Damaged in Plane Accident ................................................ 3-107 Creation of Magnetic Writing ........................................................................................ 3-108 Local Poles Created by Shape of Part ........................................................................... 3-109 Concentration of Field in a Keyway .............................................................................. 3-110

Figure 3-59. Figure 3-60. Figure 3-61. Figure 3-62. Figure 3-63. Figure 3-64. Figure 3-65. Figure 3-66. Figure 3-67. Figure 3-68. Figure 3-69. Figure 3-70. Figure 3-71.

Change 3

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T.O. 33B-1-1

LIST OF FIGURES - Continued Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 3-72. 3-73. 3-74. 3-75. 3-76. 3-77. 3-78. 4-1. 4-2. 4-3. 4-4. External Leakage Field Created by an Internal Keyway ............................................ 3-110 Non-Relevant Indications of Shaf t Caused by Internal Spline .................................. 3-111 Non-Relevant Indications Under the Head Created by Slot in Bolt .......................... 3-111 Preparation for Magnetic Rubber Inspection................................................................ 3-117 Using Pole Pieces to Improve Magnetic Contact .......................................................... 3-118 Typical Use of Gaussmeter Probes ................................................................................ 3-120 Magnetic Rubber Replicas .............................................................................................. 3-124 Generation of Eddy Currents in Various Part Conf igurations ....................................... 4-1 Block Diagram of Eddy Current Inspection System ........................................................ 4-4 Primary and Secondary Magnetic Fields in Eddy Current Inspection .......................... 4-5 Relative Magnitude and Distribution of Eddy Currents in Good and Poor Conductors ...................................................................................................................... 4-9 Relative Magnitude and Distribution of Eddy Currents in Conductive Material of High and Low Permeabilities................................................................... 4-10 Distribution of Eddy Currents in Thin Conductors Backed by Materials of Different Conductivities ............................................................................................... 4-10 Distortion of Eddy Current Flow at the Edge of a Part ................................................ 4-11 Effect of Discontinuities on Distribution of Eddy Currents .......................................... 4-11 Relative Effect of Frequency on Depth of Penetration .................................................. 4-12 Relative Intensity of Eddy Currents with Variations in Lif t-Off ................................ 4-13 Fill-Factor .......................................................................................................................... 4-13 Simplif ied Bridge Circuit ................................................................................................. 4-17 Sinusoidal In-Phase Variation of Alternating Current and Induced Magnetic Field ............................................................................................................. 4-18 Sinusoidal Variation of Alternating Current and Induced Voltage in a Coil............... 4-20 Combining of Out-of Phase Voltages ............................................................................... 4-20 Vector Diagram Showing Relationship Between Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance ............................................................................................................. 4-21 Diagram Showing Relationship of Voltage Drops Across Coil Resistance and Coil Reactance ...................................................................................................... 4-22 Vecto

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