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Accelerative Learning:Wonder method orpseudo-scientificgobbledygook?
By Uschi Felix
Published by
Melbourne, 2006
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Accelerative Learning: Wonder method or pseudo-
scientific gobbledygook?
By Uschi Felix
ISBN: 1 876339 46 2
Cover Design, Typesetting and Layout: Gabrielle Markus
Photography: Steph Tout
Published by CAE Press
First Published 2006
Uschi Felix. With the exception of Appendix 1 and Appendix 2copyright in this document is owned by Uschi Felix.
No parts may be reproduced by any process except with the
written permission of the copyright holders or in accordance
with the provisions of the Copyright Act.
For further information contact:
CAE Publications
Level 5, 253 Flinders Lane
Melbourne
VIC 3163
AUSTRALIA
The views expressed in this publication are those of the author
and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of CAE.
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ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER-METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK? ii i
Contents
Foreword v
Introduction
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
Part I. Background
Chapter 2. The evolution of Accelerative Learning 13
from Lozanov to the present
Introduction 13
Suggestopedia 14
Adaptations of the Lozanov model 20
Superlearning 21
Suggestive Accelerative Learning and Teaching (SALT) 28
Psychopdie 31
Summary 35
Part II. Literature Review
Chapter 3. The effects of music, relaxation and 39
suggestion in the learning environment.
Introduction 39
Music 40
Relaxation 51
Suggestion 59
General conclusions 66
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iv ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK?
Chapter 4 A critical analysis of the claims made for 69
Accelerative Learning
Introduction 69
Lozanovs research 70
Western research 80Non-experimental studies, Experimental
and quasi-experimental studies
General conclusions: research claims 105
Part III. Empirical Investigations
Chapter 5. A quasi-experimental investigation of the 109
effects of Accelerative Learning on behaviour,
self-concept, attitude and achievement in the natural
secondary school language class.
Introduction 109
Method 110
Results 114
Discussion 129
Chapter 6. An experimental investigation of the 135
effects of Accelerative Learning on language
learning, language self-concept and attitude in
the primary school.Introduction 135
Method 137
Results 141
Discussion 148
Chapter 7. The effects of Accelerative Learning 153
on the functional use of language in a year 10
German class.
Introduction 153Method 155
Results 161
Discussion 167
Chapter 8. Conclusions and recommendations 173
for research
Bibliography 183
Appendices 199
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ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER-METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK? v
Foreword
I have long been intrigued by Suggestopedia and sought a contemporary adaptation
of the original version. Uschi Felix, a highly respected language education scholar,
provides exactly this, a contemporary, researched, thought-through adaptation.
Long controversial, Suggestopedia is one of those fringe methods that has aroused
either scepticism or cynicism, adulation or imitation; but more careful reflection
should induce us to listen, learn, adapt and reflect. Felix tackles the controversy
surrounding the method in three important new ways. First, and probably for the first
time, she assembles an illuminating overview of its evolution from Lozanovs earliestconceptualisation to the present day. Second, Felix critically examines claims made
for Suggestopedia in the entire body of research conducted into its effectiveness.
Third, she conducts three innovative investigations addressing important gaps in this
research. These studies are not only superb models of controlled research designs, but
also, again for the first time, look at affective variables, such as self-concept and
on-task behaviour in the natural school environment. Felix concludes that a great
deal of pseudo-scientific gobbledygook has been promulgated about Accelerative
Learning. However, her rigorous warts-and-all analysis also presents a substantial
body of credible, valid evidence that should persuade us to take a second look at anapproach whose core values echo what good language teachers have long embraced as
pedagogically sound. For this we should all be very grateful.
Joseph LoBianco
Professor of Language and Literacy
The University of Melbourne
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ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK? 1
Chapter 1Introduction
Kopf, Herz und Hand.
[Head, heart and hand]
Pestalozzi
Accelerative Learning, originally known as Suggestopedia, has been the subject of
confusion and controversy. Comments have ranged from the damaging at one extreme
(Scovel 1979:258):
...suggestopedy, taken as a self-contained method for language instruction,
offers at best nothing much that can be of benefit to present day, eclectic
EFL programs, and at worst nothing more than an oversold package of
pseudoscientific gobbledygook!
to the fantastic at the other (Ostrander & Schroeder 1979:43):
With the Bulgarian approach, 500 words a day was just Mach1. By 1966, a
group learned 1000 words in a day, and by 1974, a rate of 1800 words a day
was charted. In 1977, Lozanov reported, some tests showed people capable
of absorbing even 3000 words per day.
Having examined the methodfrom both a theoretical and a practical viewpoint, it can
be said with confidence that neither of the above descriptions bears a resemblance
either to the nature ofSuggestopedia or to the realistic claims that can be made for
the effectiveness of the approach.
There are several reasons for the confusion and controversy associated with
Suggestopedia. When the method emerged in Europe and North America in the late
1960s it appeared to be shrouded in mystery since only incomplete information was
available from Bulgaria. In this environment of deficient information the Western
popular press was quick to sensationalise the isolated bits of research that became
available, a practice to this day continued by some commercial enterprises for better
advertisement of their courses. To make things worse, several different versions of
the approach were introduced, some contributing substantial changes to the original
Suggestopedia. Descriptors for the approach were often used interchangeably,
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INTRODUCTION
2 ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK?
with Superlearning being used for commercial courses while Suggestopedia and
especially SALT (Suggestive Accelerative Learning and Teaching) were the versions
most frequently used in experimental research. The terms Accelerative learning and
Accelerated Learning also emerged. In the interest of clarity we will throughout this
book useAccelerative Learning as a generic term to refer to all versions collectively,
while individual versions will be referred to by their specific names.
Historical Background
The original version of the method was devised by Georgi Lozanov, a Bulgarian
medical doctor, psychotherapist, Yogi and educator. In the 1950s and 1960s Lozanov
was researching suggestion largely in the area of medicine, psychotherapy and
parapsychology in Sofia. This field of research became known asSuggestology. Lozanov
used suggestion in a waking state (in his view in contrast to hypnosis) in the treatment
of skin diseases, ulcers and allergies, in a limited number of organic diseases, and
for psychological disorders. He also experimented with reducing sensitivity to pain
under extreme conditions such as surgical operations. In a controversial example,
Lozanov successfully sustained anaesthetization during a hernia operation lasting
fifty minutes which was filmed and subsequently reported at the International
Psychosomatic Congress in Rome in 1967 (Lozanov 1978). Nowadays, of course, these
procedures are no longer deemed sensational and are included quite frequently in the
practice of dentistry.
Lozanov became interested in applying the principles ofSuggestology to the learning
process. Together with a team of experts he created a unique teaching approach which
he called Suggestopedia. The term simply meant what it represented linguistically,
namely learning through suggestion.
Following his experiences with suggestology and psychotherapy, Lozanov (1978)
formulated the following principles ofSuggestopedia.
Learning is characterised by joy and the absence of tension. Learning takes place on both a conscious and an unconscious level.
The learners reserve potential can be tapped through suggestion.
Joy and absence of tension
Suggestopedic classes were designed to take place in a physically pleasant
environment, away from conventional academic surroundings. Classrooms look
more like sitting rooms with comfortable easy chairs, plants and colourful posters.
Ideally, class size is restricted to a maximum of 15 students.
Overall, enjoyment and relaxation are provided inSuggestopedia through the creation
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INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1
ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK? 3
of what may be called apositive suggestive atmosphere. Music plays a strategic role
in this endeavour. The tone is exclusively positive and non-threatening, emphasis
is given to co-operation and support rather than to competition, and students are
encouraged to function at the highest level of their academic potential. While all this
is equally emphasised in good Communicative Teaching (Widdowson 1978, Brumfit
1979), inHumanistic Language Teaching (Moskovitz 1978) and even in more recent
constructivist approaches (Felix 2002, 2003; Jonassen 1991, 1996), Suggestopedia
has at its disposal more powerful means to realise these conditions. The unique
combination of suggestion and music has the potential to create a state of relaxed
alertness in the students which Lozanov (1978) calls concentrative psychorelaxation, a
state which is not only generally perceived as pleasant, but which is also claimed to
enhance learning (Lozanov 1978).
Unity of conscious and unconscious processesLozanov (1977:3) believes that the inhibition of unconscious functions during the
consciously directed learning process does not correspond to the natural, dialectic,
inseparable link between conscious and unconscious processes. This is not meant
to imply that unconscious functions remain completely unutilised in conventional
teaching approaches (Lozanov 1978:259). Lozanovs system simply draws more
attention to the importance of these functions and to ways in which they can
effectively be integrated into the instruction process. In practical terms this principle
is observed in suggestopedic teaching at all times. It is best demonstrated by looking
at the behaviour of the teacher and at the presentation of the materials.
The role of the teacher is paramount in Suggestopedia. Lozanov expects a great deal
from his teachers. While most of the positive characteristics he outlines (Lozanov
1978:187) are equally required in other successful teaching methods, Lozanov gives
special attention to dual plane behaviour. This means that the teachers verbal
behaviour has to be completely congruous with their unconscious non-verbal behaviour.
Paralinguistic phenomena such as gestures, mimicry, eye contact and posture are very
important in communication and especially in persuasion. Teachers will not succeed
in convincing students that learning will be easy and successful while shuffling aboutnervously and avoiding eye contact with the students. Lozanov (1978:194) suggests
that mastery of dual plane behaviour is not achieved through practice which would
render the technique artificial, but through sincerity.
Paralinguistic elements are also included in the presentation of the materials in
Suggestopedia, in particular during the introduction of materials and during the active
concert session when verbal language is accompanied by appropriate body language
(various elements are discussed in detail in Chapter 2). In this way students perceive
the language material simultaneously on a conscious and on an unconscious level.
Studies by Baur and Grzybek (1984) and Schiffler (1992) indicate that learning may
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INTRODUCTION
8 ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK?
Chapter 3
The three major elements common to most versions of Accelerative Learning, and
which distinguish the approach from other methods with similar objectives and
strategies, are music, relaxation and suggestion. While Lozanov (1978) claims that
the combination of these elements is effective in the learning process, he has notprovided detailed empirical evidence for this claim. Subsequent research inAccelerative
Learning has, however, placed some emphasis on isolating individual elements for
investigation in order to determine the relative effectiveness and importance of each
of these elements. This chapter provides a detailed review of the relevant literature
within the field ofAccelerative Learning and in related and independent fields.
Chapter 4
Literature reviews on research findings in Accelerative Learning when used as a
complete teaching method, have so far been rather skimpy. Even major theses suchas Fassiyian (1981) and Botha (1986) are largely restricted to an uncritical report
of a small number of research studies.Furthermore, literature reviews tend not to
distinguish between different versions ofAccelerative Learning being used and, most
importantly, with the exception of Schuster (1984) and Schuster & Gritton (1985),
little or no distinction tends to be made between controlled experimental studies
and non-experimental studies in terms of the significance of findings. As a result
of this it is impossible to arrive at definite conclusions about the exact effects of
Accelerative Learning. In this chapter an attempt was made to address these problems.
A comprehensive critical review of the literature beginning with the Lozanov studiesis presented. This includes non-language studies as well as language studies in order
to determine whether the approach is particularly suited to language teaching as has
often been claimed. The major aim of the chapter is to identify the claims made for
the effectiveness ofAccelerative Learning, to examine these in the light of controlled
empirical support, and to highlight important gaps in the research.
Chapter 5
Although Accelerative Learning has been extensively used and tested in language
classes, the most important gap in the research is of controlled studies in the natural
school environment. While the claim for moderately improved achievement appears to
be reasonably well supported, claims for improved affective variables such as attitude,
self-concept and behaviour, have not been well supported overall, and particularly
not in this environment. Comparative studies have also generally not given much
attention to the teaching method used in the control groups. Our quasi-experimental
study carried out in the natural secondary school environment reported in this chapter
addresses these problems. Eight classes and five teachers at three different schools
took part in the study. Emphasis was given to the testing of affective variables with
language achievement being tested by means of broad measures only.
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INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1
ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK? 9
Chapter 6
Following the findings of the secondary school study which showed that use of the
Accelerative Learning approach does have the potential to improve affective variables
in this environment without compromising language achievement, it was decided to
carry out an experimental study on a smaller scale in the primary school environment.The reason for this was threefold. Firstly, a study on a smaller scale allowed for more
detailed language tests to be administered. Secondly, a study of this nature could
more easily address a possible teacher-treatment confound. Thirdly, a study in the
primary school environment could check the responsiveness of younger children to
Accelerative Learning. In this study primary school children were assigned at random
to either the experimental or control condition and teaching was carried out by the
same teacher with teacher behaviour being monitored by independent observers. All
four language skills as well as affective variables were tested.
Chapter 7
In the light of the findings of the primary school study which largely supported
those of the secondary school study regarding affective measures, and which showed
significant all round improvement in language achievement favouring the experimental
students, the question arose whether this improved performance in achievement was
solely due to improved memory skills, as has been claimed by some critics (Scovel
1979), or whether more sophisticated language skills were also affected byAccelerative
Learning. In order to administer detailed language tests, a final study was again
carried out on a small scale with one year 10 class providing the subjects. A simpletime series analysis was employed which meant that the same group of students took
part in both the experimental and the control condition. Teaching was provided by the
same teacher for both conditions with extensive checks for differential behaviour in
place. Language tests were designed to test both quantitative and qualitative aspects
of the students language use.
Chapter 8
This chapter, Conclusions, draws together the extensive information provided
previously and considers the pedagogical implications for Accelerative Learning and
for language teaching in general. It also includes a brief discussion of the limitation
of our own studies and suggestions for further research.
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10 ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDERMETHOD OR PSEUDOSCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK?
INTRODUCTION
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Part IBackground
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ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK? 13
Chapter 2The Evolution of Accelerative Learning from
Lozanov to the present
IntroductionSo many different versions ofSuggestopedia exist that it is difficult to arrive at a
description of its structure which would cover all possible variations. A number of
adaptations are known around the world today such asSuperlearning, SALT (Suggestive
Accelerative Learning and Teaching), Psychopdie, LIND (Learning in New Dimensions),
Optimalearning andHolistic Learning. Elements have been included or omitted over
the years, some according to sound research findings, some simply at a personal whim
or more often for better commercial viability. This has resulted in confusion about the
exact structure and content of a suggestopedic course.
When interpreting research results, it is important to know precisely what form of
experimental treatment was used, since the inclusion of visualisation techniques
(SALT) or synchronised breathing (Superlearning), for example, may have an effect not
otherwise associated withSuggestopedia. Unfortunately not all studies give a detailed
description of the treatment used. Furthermore, terms, especially Superlearning and
Suggestopedia, tend to be used as synonyms even though there exist clear distinctions
between the two approaches.
One important element missing in the research is a precise description of the evolutionofSuggestopedia since its inception by Lozanov in the 1960s to the present day.
Bancroft (1978a,b), Gassner-Roberts (1986a,1986b) and Strudel (1986) point out
different versions ofSuggestopedia and Bayuk (1983) discusses the possible dangers
involved in the confusion of one method with another. Although both Baur (1980) and
Philipov (1981) refer to early and later versions ofSuggestopedia, neither elaborates
further.
The aim of this chapter is to present an analysis of the changes that have been made, as
well as to provide a detailed description of three versions ofSuggestopedia referred to
in the literature. These are the two major versionsSuperlearning and SALT, both North
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PART I BACKGROUND
14 ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK?
American adaptations, and Psychopdie, a European version. We will endeavour to
isolate distinguishing elements between these versions and LozanovsSuggestopedia,
highlight individual contributions in terms of innovation, discuss these in the light
of the relevant research and finally, determine whether or not these constitute a
beneficial contribution toSuggestopedia.
Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia has undergone a number of changes since it was first experimentally
used by Lozanov in the early 1960s. Why some changes were made is not entirely clear.
Lozanov (1978) claims, for example, that research was carried out on the suitability
of certain types of music without giving any further details. Although he elaborates a
little in a paper given to American researchers in 1977 (in Hinkelmann 1986), no data
is available on this research in the West.
Until recently Lozanov himself never gave a clear description of a suggestopedic class.
His main publication in English Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestopedy (1978),
based on his Ph.D. thesis published in Bulgaria seven years earlier, is poorly organised
and somewhat vague when it comes to a description of what actually happens in a
suggestopedic classroom. This resulted in harsh criticism by linguists such as Scovel
(1979) who based their review of suggestopedic language teaching solely on this
publication. Bancroft (1976) suggests that there may have been a deliberate attemptto make the method inaccessible to the West and that certain items, especially those
referring to Yoga, may have been removed for political reasons prior to publication.
Barzakov (in Ostrander & Schroeder 1979) confirms the notion of secrecy surrounding
Suggestopedia in Bulgaria.
Confusion about the method became even more acute with the publication of
Superlearning (Ostrander & Schroeder 1979). This book gave an account of Lozanovs
method that consisted partly of an early version which Lozanov stopped using in the
1970s, and partly of elements that were allegedly observed in classes in Bulgaria,
but never officially acknowledged by Lozanov. Furthermore, the book elaborated
on Lozanovs method by advocating self-study courses using audio cassettes for
instruction. The result of this was that teachers went out to practice what they thought
wasSuggestopedia, often usingSuperlearning andSuggestopedia interchangeably as
a label for their method. This was particularly true for commercial courses which will
be further discussed below.
In the 1980s numerous articles appeared, particularly in Western Europe, claiming to
describeSuggestopedia. However, no two articles can be found that give an identical
account of the structure and content of the method. If we compare Suggestopdiealias Superlearning Lernen wie ein Kind (Nuber 1986), and Superlearning und
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THE EVOLUTION OF ACCELERATIVE LEARNING FROM LOZANOV TO THE PRESENT CHAPTER 2
ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK? 15
Suggestopdie als Superlernmethoden im Fremdsprachenunterricht(Brenn 1986), for
example, it becomes obvious that Nuber is describing the American adaptation called
LIND while Brenn is clearly describingSuperlearning.
In order to throw some light on the confusion, which still exists today, we will make
an attempt to trace the development of LozanovsSuggestopedia from its first officialmodel to the latest model first described by Lozanov and Gateva in 1984. Since the
changes were made largely within the phase referred to as the suggestopedic session, we
will concentrate on this phase here, and give a description of the entire suggestopedic
cycle with the final model below.
First Model
The first description in English of what is involved in a suggestopedic session can be
found in the report of the research committee working on a project in 1965 (Lozanov1978:25):
The suggestopedic session consists of an active and a passive part. During
the active part the teacher reads the unfamiliar words and phrases three
times (with their Bulgarian translation), using a special kind of intonation.
The students listen intently following the words and phrases on a printed
program. During the passive part the students relax in a passive state of
distraction without concentrating their attention on anything in particular.
The words and phrases are read again with special intonation by the
teacher.
The special intonation referred to means that a word or short phrase was presented
three times, first in a normal speaking voice, second in a soft voice and third in a loud
voice. At what stage the translation was given is not clear from this account, nor is it
mentioned at any other stage in the book. Ostrander and Schroeder (1979) report that
it was given first, before the intoned target language material.
When exactly music was introduced to the programme is also not entirely clear. Lozanov
(1978:268) speaking of the numerous experimental variants of the suggestopedic
session, mentions that In the beginning the passive part was accompanied by pre-classical or classical music playing in the background. The passive part was therefore
termed the concert session. The active part was not accompanied by music at this
stage, but emphasis was given to a dramatic performance of the materials by the
teacher using gestures, mimicry, body language, voice intonation in short, all
possible artistic means available. During this part, students were completely alert,
following either their text or the teachers performance or both. Before the passive
part students were given relaxation exercises.
Which form the relaxation took is also vague in Lozanovs (1978) own account.
The only concrete reference to be found is: With this variant (the concert session)
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PART I BACKGROUND
32 ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK?
verknpft ist, lsst die Suggestopdie (wie auch andere Methoden der Fremds
prachenvermittlung) wichtige Faktoren des Erwerbs unbercksichtigt.
[The language input is exclusively conducted via listening, reading and
musical-emotional backing. Because language perception in communication
is very strongly related to non-verbal elements such as eye contact, mimicry,gestures, proximity, as well as other factors of situational perception
and proprioceptive processes, Suggestopedia (as well as other methods
of language teaching) does not take into account important factors of
acquisition.]
Baur speaks of the students Wahrnehmung [perception] rather than of the production
of language items. Even though the students in Suggestopedia remain physically
passive during the presentation stages, they do not exclusively perceive and receive
the language via reading and listening. Lozanov (1978) makes it abundantly clear that
communication takes place on more than one level, namely verbal and non-verbal and
that the teacher needs to use every possible device, such as mimicry and gestures, in
order to make materials more accessible to the students. Baurs criticism, therefore,
is more appropriate regarding theSuperlearning courses produced on cassettes where
such elements cannot be included.
Baur is, however, justified in claiming that the students are not physically involved
in what he terms Gestikduring the long receptive periods in intensive suggestopedic
courses. He not only believes that the students need to practise the materials earlier
than Lozanov suggests, but that they also need to reproduce the non-verbal elementsincluded in the presentation of the materials. He emphasises (Baur & Grzybek 1984:70)
that the term Gestikhas to be broad since gestures are inevitably linked with other
non-verbal and/or paraverbal communication. In order to investigate the efficacy of
Gestik in the suggestopedic presentation phases, Baur and Grzybek (1984) carried
out a study in which 60 lexical items of Russian were presented to 203 volunteer
adult students who knew no Russian. The presentation phases were largely based on
Lozanovs first model:
First decoding (bilingual text) with the help of mimicry, gestures and
movements. Second decoding as above, but students imitate words and non-verbal
elements.
Intoned reading of the material (neutral, loud,whispering) without music.
Musical sance materials read to the playing of baroque music.
Presentation of materials took place in three different conditions as follows:
Teacher presents materials with Gestikduring the first phase.
Students reproduce materials with Gestikduring the second phase.
Teacher presents materials with Gestikduring the first phase.Students repeat materials verbally without Gestikduring the second phase.
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THE EVOLUTION OF ACCELERATIVE LEARNING FROM LOZANOV TO THE PRESENT CHAPTER 2
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Teacher presents materials audio-visually.
Students repeat materials verbally.
Phases three and four of the presentation cycle remained as above and were identical
for all groups. Subjects were given a 20 item multiple choice test immediately after
the sessions and one week later. Students did not know that they were going to
be re-tested. Baur and Grzybek were particularly interested in the results after one
week since items had to be recalled from long-term memory. The results showed the
following:
An increase in retention rate after one week in the first condition.
An unchanged retention rate after one week in the second condition.
A decrease in retention rate after one week in the third condition.
These trends were highly significant for all within-group tests. Between groups the
difference between the first and second condition, as well as between the second and
third condition was significant. The difference between the first and third condition
was highly significant.
In order to integrate these findings and to provide a more balanced model in terms of
the alternation of active and passive states inSuggestopedia, Baur (1984) developed
the following structure for hisPsychopdie cycle (information is included to give some
idea about the distribution of time for the individual phases in an intensive language
course):
Psychopdie structure
Preparation
Before the course begins students are informed about the nature of the course
and introduced to the relaxation techniques used. Baur does not specify the time
involved.
Presentation
Introduction Phase
The first 20 minutes of the course are spent decoding the new materials in a livelymanner integrating non-verbal elements to bring the text alive. This part is identical
to the beginning of Lozanovs presentation session, although the short duration
suggests that fewer lexical items are introduced here. Baur (1984:309) stresses that
the role of the teachers use ofKinesik, GestikandMimikis not to convey the meaning
of the text, since its translation is given, but to activate the interest of the learner
and to superimpose on the text characteristics which are perceived via a multitude of
channels and are stored as secondary associations which aids in the retention of the
materials.
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PART I BACKGROUND
34 ACCELERATIVE LEARNING: WONDER METHOD OR PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC GOBBLEDYGOOK?
Reproduction Phase
The next 90 minutes are spent with active reproduction of the text by the students
through interactive exercises. This phase does not exist in this position in any other
model of Accelerative Learning; the exercises described here, such as role play and
introductions, are part of the review and elaboration sessions in all the other models.In a sense Baur distributes the activities for review and elaboration over two sessions.
In this session the learners are to be made familiar with the text so that items used
in the activation session are easily recognised. They are given the opportunity to
develop their playful-creative fantasy, to lose their fear of speaking, to realise that
it can be fun to operate in the target language, and with the integration of physical
activities overcome their passive involvement in the learning process.
Analytical Phase
This 40 minute session is largely based on the second model of Lozanovs active concertsession. Baur (1984:313) points out that here the cognitive-analytical abilities of the
learners are activated through the reading of the text, the recognition of word and
syllable divisions, the comparison of mother tongue and target language structures,
and the comparison of phonetics and spelling.
Associative Phase
This session of 30 minutes is largely based on the first model of Lozanovs passive
concert session. Before this session the students have a relaxation period with
physical exercises and visualisation exercises. The placement of a relaxation session
here, although different from the other models discussed earlier (except Lozanovs first
model), is supported by some other practitioners ofAccelerative Learning. Stockwell
(1985), for instance, feels that students, especially in intensive courses, do not need
relaxation at the beginning of the course but at this stage. Baur (1984:315) points
out that here the logical-analytical processes of the left hemisphere, which were
predominant in the phase before, give way to right hemisphere dominated processes.
Now the materials are again perceived holistically with the superimposition of the
musical structures.
Activation
Baur stresses that before this session at least one night of rest should be given to
consolidate the materials. The next four to six hours are spent with the activation of
materials in playful communicative situations. Emphasis is put on the development
of spontaneous speaking, although writing skills and grammar are also included. Baur
(1984:319) believes that because materials were already presented in a playful fashion
during the reproduction phase, the transfer from input to activation and functional
use is more natural than inSuggestopedia.
Psychopdie appears to be a well designed adaptation ofSuggestopedia for intensive
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language teaching. Baur, too, points out that his model can be adapted for different
learning environments, provided that the relationship of time and phases is held
constant. The main difference between this model and Lozanovs model is the
inclusion of a reproduction phase before the concert sessions. In the Lozanov model
as in Superlearning andSALT the students remain in a receptive state right up to
the review and elaboration sessions. Baurs model by contrast provides a more even
alternation between receptive and active states which may well be more attractive to
the students. However, the receptive phases inSuggestopedia are generally not seen
as unpleasant, especially by adult students. Baurs model may also be attractive from
the teachers point of view. Intensive courses, in particular, tend to be very demanding
on teachers in these prolonged performance sessions.
In terms of structure all Baur does is reshuffle Lozanovs model by taking some time
devoted inSuggestopedia to elaboration and practice and using it for similar purposes
in the presentation stages. Although Baur and Grzybek (1984) have given some
empirical evidence for the efficacy of students reproducing non-verbal elements in the
presentation phase, this study on its own does not give sufficient support to the rationale
of including a reproductive phase in the presentation sessions. Lozanovs and more
recent researchers use of non-verbal elements in the review and elaboration sessions,
and indeed throughout the suggestopedic cycle, may well prove equally as efficient. In
order to prove the superiority of a reproductive phase it would be more appropriate to
compare the results after teaching with the entire cycles of both models.
Summary
Suggestopedia has undergone a variety of changes over the two decades of its existence.
Some changes, mainly those to the concert session, were made by Lozanov himself,
others were made by exponents adapting the method for their own environment. The
latest version of the suggestopedic cycle includes a preparation session, decoding of
the materials to be learnt, an active and a passive concert session in which materials
are read with the backing of entire classical or baroque pieces respectively, andextensive review and elaboration sessions.
In Eastern Europe the method differs the least from this model and it is still referred
to asSuggestopedia. Researchers, however, have reduced the two concert sessions to
one and made changes to Lozanovs music selection. Music from the baroque period
which is still predominant in Lozanovs selection is no longer used as a result of
research which showed more favourable student responses for the Vienna classical
period.
The two major versions ofSuggestopedia in the West areSuperlearning andSALT, bothoriginating in North America. Another version developed by a linguist in Germany
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is called Psychopdie. The originators of these versions have also made changes to
LozanovsSuggestopedia. The chief contribution ofSuperlearning is theinclusion of
synchronisation of breathing and presentation of words during the passive concert
session. The limited research does not consistently show this element to have a positive
effect on the retention of materials. However, the literature suggests consistently that
this element may be cumbersome for the students to handle which is reflected in
the fact that synchronisation has been dropped by most practitioners.Superlearning
also advocated self-study courses produced on audio-tapes, a system which was
adopted by commercial enterprises around the world. Although good examples of such
courses exist, vital elements such as the teachers presence, group dynamics and the
communicative interaction between students cannot be included in such courses.
The most important contribution ofSALT is the inclusion of mind-calming during
the presentation phase. Although research, here too, is not extensive, the literature
shows a positive trend towards improved learning and improved behaviour as well as
other positive psychological effects being associated with mind-calming. This may
therefore well be a positive addition to Suggestopedia which is reflected in the fact
that most Western practitioners have adopted mind-calming in their programme.
The contribution ofPsychopdie toSuggestopedia is the insertion of a reproductive
phase before the concert sessions. The rationale for this was to break up the long
passive states in which suggestopedic students in intensive courses find themselves.
Although there is no empirical evidence as yet which supports the efficacy of such a
phase, it may well be attractive to students and teachers alike to have a more balancedprogramme in terms of students arousal level.
Although there are distinct differences between the four versions ofAccelerative
Learning discussed in this chapter, caution must be exercised when interpreting
research results if the treatment is not described in detail. Labels are sometimes
used interchangeably, and elements generally associated with a particular version
may no longer be used. This has led to some confusion about the exact content of
anAccelerative Learning course. However, all four versions consistently use the same
three elements. These are music, relaxation and suggestion. While in the West special
attention is given to relaxation in the form of progressive relaxation or mind-calming
either during the preparation phase or before the concert session, practitioners in the
East no longer practice relaxation explicitly. According to Lozanov (1978), however,
relaxation is still produced through other suggestive means, such as music, teacher
behaviour and classroom atmosphere.
Since music, relaxation and suggestion are also used in most other adaptations of
Suggestopedia not discussed here, we can assume that these elements are generally
seen as the most important in the approach. The presumed effects of these elements
will therefore be discussed in detail in the next chapter.
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Chapter 3The Effects of Music, Relaxation and
Suggestion in the learning environment
IntroductionThe aim of this chapter is to investigate whether music, relaxation and suggestion, the
three major elements present in most versions of Accelerative Learning, have indeed
been shown to be effective in the learning process. For this purpose studies have been
reviewed not only within the field of Accelerative Learning, but also outside it.
One of the interests in Accelerative Learning research has been to isolate individual
elements involved in the method in order to determine their effect on a number of
dependent variables. This has been particularly true for the element ofmusic. Some
studies have investigated the effect of background music on vocabulary learning,
both in laboratory settings (Schuster & Mouzon 1982, Stein et al 1982, Schuster
1985) and in the normal teaching environment (Schiffler 1986b). Other studies, some
independent ofAccelerative Learning, have looked at the effect of background music
on reading performance (Mullikin & Henk 1985), on students' on-task behaviour
(Davidson & Powell 1986) and on context-dependent memory (Smith 1985).
While the majority of studies explored the effect of music on achievement, Lehmann
(1982) investigated psycho-physiological responses to different types of music in order
to determine which music may be most readily accepted by students in AccelerativeLearning classes. His findings, together with those of Smith (1985), who included
white noise as a background to learning, and those of Mullikin and Henk (1985), who
investigated the effectiveness of easy-listening background music, are particularly
interesting since they indicate that music selections other than those recommended
by Lozanov (1978) and Lozanov and Gateva (1988) may be effective in the learning
environment. Generally, the role of music in Accelerative Learning has been given
more attention by researchers than either relaxation or suggestion.
Since Lozanov himself no longer recommends specific relaxation exercises, the
question arises whether this element ought to be retained inAccelerative Learning on
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the basis of the Western research. There have been a number of studies investigating
the effect of various forms of relaxation training on achievement (Biggers & Stricherz
1976, Stricherz 1980, Johnson 1982, Baur 1982), on creativity (Gamble et al 1982),
and on physiological and psychological variables (Matthews 1983, Setterlind 1983).
The most extensive research on the effect of relaxation on achievement
independent of Accelerative Learning has been carried out in the field of
anxiety research. Since one of the principles ofAccelerative Learning is that
learning ought to be free from stress and tension, elements closely related
to anxiety, the findings of this research were found to be relevant to this
chapter and have therefore been included.
The least researched of the three major elements inAccelerative Learning is suggestion.
One reason for this may be that this element is particularly difficult to isolate in
any teaching environment. Results of studies in which the effect of suggestion in
Accelerative Learning was investigated (Bordon & Schuster 1976, Biggers & Stricherz
1976, Schuster & Martin 1980, Renigers 1981) are conflicting. Another reason for the
lack of research on suggestion may be its close association with hypnosis. The possible
relationship or distinction betweenAccelerative Learning and hypnosis will therefore
also be explored in this chapter.
Music
La musique est la langue du cur
[Music is the language of the heart]
Rousseau
While most elements ofAccelerative Learning can be found in education in some form or
other, the genuinely innovative element whichAccelerative Learning brings to today's
classrooms is the systematic use of music in the instruction process. While the coupling
of music and messages is extensively used in advertising and in entertainment, music
in education, outside official music classes, tends to be restricted to use with young
children in kindergarten and primary school. Although we know from experience
that words synchronised with music or rhythm are easier to learn than words alone,
preparation of materials in this form with older children or adults are usually only
found in music or drama classes, and perhaps in some language classes. The idea of
a mathematics class relaxing to the sounds of Handel's Watermusicwhile the teacher
recites a list of formulae, or an English class listening to Pachelbel's Canon while the
teacher reads excerpts from a novel, tends to elicit a variety of responses from today's
educators, ranging from amusement to disbelief. This form of learning, however, is not
new, and has been shown to be effective. As Rose (1985:97) points out, the coupling
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of music and recital of words was already used by the ancient Greeks.
.....audiences would attend a festival in the Panathenes [of the Panatheneia]
once every four years. A presenter would chant the entire Iliad to the
heartbeat rhythm of a softly playing lyre. From memory. Records show that
many of the audience could remember large passages afterwards.
Although the music used has changed, the technique of presenting words and music
simultaneously in order to enhance retention of materials has been reintroduced in
Accelerative Learning. Two major rationales for this can be identified in Lozanov's
(1978) original work. The first was Lozanov's belief that music has the potential to
create a state of relaxed alertness in the students which he calls psychorelaxation.
Lozanov (1978) found that the body rhythms of students adjusted to the rhythms of
the baroque music he used. He recorded a significant increase in alpha brain waves
during the passive concert sessions with a corresponding decrease in beta waves. He
also recorded a drop in blood pressure and a slowing of the pulse. According to the
relaxation and anxiety research discussed below, this state may be conducive to better
performance.
The second rationale for the use of music in the instruction process was the idea
of whole brain learning. Lozanov (1978) believed that the interaction of both
hemispheres together with the neo-cortex had a positive effect on retention rates
of learned materials. Research by Claycomb (1978) supports this claim. Other models
on brain functioning, such as the Triune Brain system (McLean 1973), the Taxon and
Locale Memory system (O'Keefe & Nadel 1978) and the Holographic Memory system(Pribram & Coleman 1979) also suggest, according to Stein et al. (1982), that multiple
channels of input will increase information retention.
In Accelerative Learning language and music are presented simultaneously resulting
in a complex interaction between both hemispheres and the neo-cortex. Strict
lateralisation of music and language processing, as has been shown by Duffy et al
(1981), can no longer generally be supported since it has been demonstrated that
different and extended areas of both hemispheres undergo changes during musical
tasks (Petsche et al 1985). While Duffy et al (1981) suggested that language is
processed by the left hemisphere while music is processed by the right hemisphere,
Petsche et al (1985) found that subjects listening to a Mozart symphony generated
totally different topographic patterns of changes of the E.E.G. parameters studied. The
latter's findings support the proposition of Bever and Chiarello (1974) who suggested
that the holistic appreciation of music of naive listeners is usually processed by the
right hemisphere, whereas musically trained listeners tend to use their "analytical"
left hemisphere.
The most detailed research on the role of music in Accelerative Learning has been
carried out by Lehmann (1982,1983,1984) in the former German Democratic Republic(GDR). whose major findings are reported in translation in Lehmann and Gassner-
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Conclusions Music
Judging from the findings of these studiesit can be said that background music appears
to have a positive effect in the learning environment. While most studies found a
positive effect on the recall of vocabulary, one reported better reading performance
and another better on-task behaviour associated with the use of background music.Of the ten studies which investigated the effectiveness of music during learning, nine
reported significant positive effects either on short-term or on long-term memory. Of
the eight studies which looked at the effects of music immediately after the learning
task, six reported significant positive results. Of the seven studies which looked at
the effects of music after 48 hours or even later, six again reported significant positive
results.
The effect of music during testing has not been as extensively investigated, and
findings are not as consistent as the above. While one study found a significantpositive effect on performance when either classical or rock and roll music was played
during testing, two studies found no significant effect when classical, baroque or
jazz music was played during testing. Another study reported a significant positive
effect of classical and baroque music played during testing on vocabulary recall when
students were tested immediately after learning but not when testing took place after
one week. There is an indication, however, that best results are achieved when the
same music is played both during learning and during testing. The two studies which
investigated the effect of the reinstatement of the learning conditions during testing
found this.
In terms of the effectiveness of different types of music, the findings of the majority
of studies discussed here lend strong support to the special effectiveness of baroque
and classical pieces, as originally suggested by Lozanov (1978). However, it must be
pointed out that this type of music has also been most extensively used and tested.
Other types of music have only been sporadically tested in the same context. Yet
the three studies which investigated jazz or rock music did not find these types of
music to be effective in learning. One study, however, found rock music effective
during testing. A study which investigated the effect of easy-listening music, which
shared characteristics with the classical music found most effective for suggestopedic
teaching in the former GDR, also found this type of music effective in improving on-
task behaviour. When making statements about the relative effectiveness of music in
learning, it is important to give either exact titles or an accurate description of the
musical piece used. It is not possible to state categorically that classical music is more
effective in learning than pop music, since it appears that the individual properties of
the pieces are important factors in the outcome.
Although there is strong support for the effectiveness of music in learning, we still
know little about how the reported effects of music on learning are actually achieved.In the context of the studies reviewed here the effectiveness of music can be explained
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in several ways. Music appears to create a more pleasant learning environment in
terms of affective criteria (Schuster & Mouzon 1982) which may improve performance.
It further appears to have the potential to affect concentration and attention rate
and in turn improve on-task behaviour (Davidson & Powell 1986). Music also appears
to be associated with physiological effects such as a lowered heartrate (Blanchard
1979) and increased alpha brain waves (Lozanov 1978) which may be instrumental
in improved performance. Finally, studies which included the reinstatement of music
during testing (Schuster & Mouzon 1982, Smith 1985) indicate that context-cuing
may be involved.
Relaxation
Take rest;A field that rested
gives a beautiful crop.
Ovid
While Lozanov (1978:269) argues that the suggestive environment itself is enough
to produce concentrative psychorelaxation without special emphasis on physical or
mental exercises, Western users of all versions ofAccelerative Learning tend to include
some form of relaxation exercise in almost every class. Is there any evidence in theresearch that students actually benefit from this rather unorthodox addition to their
learning environment?
Positive effects of relaxation on psychological, physiological and academic measures
have not only been shown within the field of Accelerative Learning (Gamble et al
1982, Barber 1982, Johnson 1982, Baur 1982, Moon 1985), but also independent of
Accelerative Learning (Matthews 1983, Setterlind 1983). There are also some studies
which show relaxation as having no effect (Stricherz & Stein 1980) or even a negative
effect (Biggers & Stricherz 1976) on simple recognition tasks. Studies in the field of
anxiety research (Sinclair 1971) suggest that the effectiveness of relaxation training
may be related to the difficulty of the task and to the level of ego involvement. Other
studies indicate that not all students are equally affected by relaxation training.
While Straughan and Duford (1969) report a positive effect on high anxiety subjects,
Wilson and Wilson (1970), Martin and Schuster (1977) and Schuster and Martin (1980)
found relaxation to be most effective with low anxiety subjects. We will now look at
the research in detail.
Within the field ofAccelerative Learning research suggests that relaxation may improve
performance. Barber (1982) reported that modified (relaxation only) suggestopedicsessions in a college management class led to some academic acceleration, improved
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the end of the year, students taught withAccelerative Learning have reported fewer
feelings of anxiety than their counterparts in traditional courses. Although there is
not yet any systematic evidence for this, anecdotal reports from studies support this
(Felix 1987).
Conclusions - Relaxation
Although we cannot say at this stage how great an effect relaxation alone has in
Accelerative Learning, the findings of the majority of studies conducted within, as
well as outside, this field give support to the retention of relaxation as an important
element in the approach. Most studies report positive effects being associated with
the use of relaxation. This is true for short term studies conducted in laboratory
settings and for long term studies carried out in the natural learning environment.
Findings include positive effects on achievement as well as on students' psychological
and physiological states and creativity. However, one study reports no effect and
another reports a negative effect of various forms of relaxation on long-term memory.
In contrast to the bulk of studies reviewed here, both these studies investigated the
effect of relaxation on a fairly simple task, namely recognition of vocabulary items.
Research into the relationship between anxiety and performance suggests that
relaxation training may be most beneficial when the learning task is difficult or
complex and ego-involvement is high. Easy tasks appear to be facilitated by anxiety
while tasks with low ego-involvement appear to be either uninfluenced by anxiety
or facilitated. Although the learning task inAccelerative Learning is not necessarilyperceived as being difficult, it is nevertheless a complex task with a high content
of ego-involvement, especially in language learning, and it appears therefore,
that students are likely to benefit from relaxation in this context. There is some
evidence that progressive muscle relaxation may be more effective than other types
of relaxation.
There is also some evidence that the effect of relaxation may be related to the level
of measured anxiety. Although results are not entirely consistent, a strong trend can
be observed towards low anxiety students being more positively affected by relaxation
during learning than high anxiety subjects. Since in Accelerative Learning, at least
after a period of time, students appear to display more low anxiety characteristics
towards learning and testing than high anxiety characteristics, this research further
supports the retention of relaxation training inAccelerative Learning.
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Suggestion
They can
because they think they can.
Virgil
Suggestion has existed in one form or another as long as human communication
itself. Its effectiveness has best been demonstrated in hypnosis from the classical
approach of Bernheim (1880) to the naturalistic work of Erickson (1980). It has further
been demonstrated in Autogenic Training (Schultz 1959), in Progressive Relaxation
(Jacobson 1938), inPsychosynthesis (Assagioli 1965), inBiofeedback(Green & Green
1977) and inSubliminal Learning (Budzynski 1976). Detailed reports on the effects of
suggestion on learning as a result of experimental investigations are scarce, however,
and the findings of different studies (Biggers & Stricherz 1976, Bordon & Schuster1976, Schuster & Martin 1980 and Renigers 1981) are conflicting.
Equally as important as establishing the effects of suggestion on learning is deciding
whether or not it is ethical to use suggestion in the learning environment. One of
the problems in Accelerative Learning is that the term suggestion may be seen as
synonymous with hypnosis and the approach therefore dismissed by educators and
administrators as unsuitable or dangerous in the learning environment. What is the
evidence in the literature for such reasoning?
Harrison and Musial (1978), who reviewed the literature on hypnosis in education,
report inconclusive and confusing results, yet a trend towards positive outcomes. Some
examples given (p.72) are that Harley and Harley (1958) claim that hypnosis actually
inhibits learning while Krippner (1966), Mutke (1967) and McCord (1962) all report
success in using hypnosis to increase reading speed and comprehension. Hilgard (in
Harrison and Musial 1978:73) points to the benefits of hypnosis in education:
The hundreds of students who have improved their learning and academic
achievement do not need convincing. And those who may be helped in the
future should not be denied the benefit of hypnosis simply because we do
not understand precisely what it is or why it works. For now, it is enough to
know that, for many, it does work.
The effectiveness of suggestion in hypnosis cannot be disputed on the basis of a large
body of studies. However, very few studies exist on the effectiveness of suggestion
as a single variable and unrelated to hypnosis. Three studies, apart from Biggers and
Stricherz (1976), discussed in the relaxation section above, could be located in the
field of Accelerative Learning which investigated the effects of elements including
suggestion on recall or recognition of vocabulary in laboratory settings. During the
early years when synchronisation was still used, Bordon and Schuster (1976) conducteda study using a factorial design in which they isolated suggestion, words synchronised
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with students' breathing and words synchronised with background music. Thirty-two
volunteer adult subjects, 4 per treatment cell, took part in the experiment. Findings
were that all three elements separately had been effective in significantly improved
recall, and that the variables interacted cumulatively such that learning was best
when all three variables were present.
These findings concerning suggestion are supported by Renigers (1981) who in a
similar design examined the effects of music, and suggestion coupled with relaxation.
The rationale for coupling suggestion with relaxation was the belief that suggestion
would be more effective when the subjects were in a relaxed state. Synchronised
breathing was also used but not isolated as a separate variable for investigation. Ninety
volunteer adult subjects, 15 per treatment cell, took part in this experiment. Renigers
(1981) found that suggestion coupled with relaxation was effective in significantly
improving vocabulary recall when compared to the control group.
These findings, however, are not supported by Biggers and Stricherz (1976), who
did not find a significant difference in performance between the control and the
suggestion condition in a recognition task. They are also not supported by Schuster
and Martin (1980), discussed above, who included suggestion in a study on the effects
of relaxation training on vocabulary recall. Although a positive influence of relaxation
on recall was reported in this study, suggestion was not found to have a significant
influence in the same context.
The conflicting findings of these studies in terms of suggestion highlight the
difficulty of accurately investigating variables of this kind. All four studies were well
designed and controlled. However, there is considerable variation in the manner in
which suggestion is administered in different studies. As a consequence, findings are
not readily comparable. In Renigers' (1981) study, for example, the subjects in the
suggestion condition received one verbal suggestion relating to the ease with which
subjects would learn the material, coupled with muscle relaxation (no time given)
and four minutes of Zen breathing. In Biggers and Stricherz (1976) the suggestion
condition involved a five minute concentration exercise focussing on the suggestion
that this exercise would result in higher level mental functioning. In Bordon and
Schuster (1976) the suggestion treatment consisted of a one hour preparation
including a lecture on Suggestopedia, verbal suggestions and instructions in the
use of imagery, and meditation procedures in order to establish an expectation that
learning would take place. In Schuster and Martin (1980) the suggestion treatment
consisted of an "early pleasant learning restimulation" (no time given) described as a
technique which "focuses on the bodily feelings, sensations, emotions and thoughts
associated with an early pleasant learning situation" (p.277). Although it can be said
that in all four studies subjects in the suggestion condition also received some form
of relaxation, the type of relaxation differed considerably between studies, and the
time involved in administering this variable varied substantially.
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Several other studies already discussed in previous sections of this chapter included
suggestion (e.g. Wilson and Wilson 1970, Schuster and Mouzon 1982 and Schuster
1985). However, this variable was either not separately analysed as in Wilson and
Wilson (1970), or the suggestion treatment was restricted to written suggestions
relating to either the ease or the difficulty of learning the materials as in Schuster
and Mouzon (1982) and Schuster (1985). Since we cannot be certain whether subjects
in these studies actually read the suggestions, their findings are not included in the
discussion here.
Studies which involve verbal suggestion might be described as having contained some
form of hypnosis. Since the possible relationship to hypnosis is an important issue
in the acceptance of Accelerative Learning in educational institutions, we will now
look at the relevant literature in order to present distinguishing factors between
Accelerative Learning and hypnosis, or between suggestion in the waking state and
suggestion in hypnosis.
Lozanov's early work in suggestology led him to claim that hypnosis is not involved in
suggestopedia because suggestions are exclusively administered in the waking state.
Yet little information is available on the differences or similarities between suggestion
in the waking state and suggestion under hypnosis, chiefly because of the difficulty of
finding a widely accepted definition of suggestion or hypnosis. As Marcuse (1966:19)
put it: "That hypnosis exists has become generally accepted; what it is, however,
is generally disputed." He offered a tentative definition of hypnosis as an "altered
state of the organism originally and usually produced by a repetition of stimuli inwhich suggestion (no matter how defined) is more effective than usual."(p.21) In the
literature on hypnosis this altered state is often referred to as a form of sleep, which
is in accordance with the etymological origin of the word hypnosis.
In the latest versions of Accelerative Learning there is no deliberate repetition of
stimuli and at no stage do the students find themselves in a state of induced sleep. It
is generally conceded, instead, that the students experience a state of alert relaxation
which is at all times defined as wakefulness. However, Tart (1969:167) defines light
hypnosis as "a state of relaxed wakefulness, accompanied by receptivity to suggestion,
with alpha brain waves as the dominant pattern." Bayuk (1983) believes that his study
establishes a direct relationship between the light hypnotic state and the intellective
alertness which characterises Suggestopedia. Bayuk claims that descriptions of the
suggestopedic state found throughout Lozanov's work (she has had access to the
original Bulgarian texts) closely parallel Tart's observations in his studies of light
hypnosis.
Marcuse (1966), too, speaks of waking hypnosis as a modification of hypnosis for
patients who are overly anxious about the loss of conscious awareness as a consequence
of being in a sleep-like state. Here, the verbal patterns of hypnosis are employed, butwithout any mention of sleep or drowsiness. Instead, the term relaxation is used.
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your stomach to relax. Tell your arms and hands to relax. Tell your feet and
toes to relax. Now let your mind relax. Let it become quiet and silent. Do
not let any thought distract you.
This scenario is as reminiscent of Jacobsons (1938)Progressive Relaxation as it is of
Unesthls (1986)Systematic Approach to Relaxation for Youths and Schultz's (1959)Autogenic Training. None of these approaches is immediately associated with hypnosis.
Maybe the difference really is only in the name. And maybe it is hypnosis which is
incongruous. According to Harrison and Musial (1978) even Braid who coined the term
hypnosis realised that the equation with sleep was probably erroneous, since a state
of heightened awareness is not really synonymous with sleep.
Suggestion as used in the approaches above, as in medicine and dentistry, is usually
seen as beneficial. Why then should we assume that suggestion used in education
is not beneficial or even dangerous? It could be argued that teachers, in contrast totherapists and dentists, are not qualified to use suggestion. However, is suggestion not
a constant part of their interaction with students? As Ginott (in Schuster & Gritton
1985:80) put it:
I have come to a frightening conclusion. I am the decisive element in the
classroom. It is my personal approach that creates the climate. It is my daily
mood that makes the weather. As a teacher I possess tremendous power
to make a child's life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an
instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humour, hurt or heal. In all
situations it is my response that decides whether a crisis will be escalatedor de-escalated, and a child humanised or dehumanised.
Ginott speaks neither of hypnosis nor of suggestion but of the teachers everyday
behaviour in the classroom. He is pointing out that a mood-setting is part of any
teaching, that the teacher sets up some mood context for any lesson, and that this can
be negative as well as positive. What Lozanov has done is make teachers aware of the
power of the suggestions transmitted through everyday behaviour. These suggestions
are not exclusively verbal, but more often found in gestures, mimicry, posture and tone
of voice. Lozanov (1978:201) defines suggestion as a constant communicative factor
and does not advocate bombarding students with obvious direct verbal suggestions
such asLearning German will be fun. While this may be effective with volunteer adult
students, a statement like this given to less motivated students in a secondary school,
some of whom do the language only because it is a compulsory subject, may produce
a counter-productive reaction such as Oh, no it won't.
If teachers believe that learning should be fun, easy and without stress and fatigue,
then they have to demonstrate this to the students and let them experience it so that
students in fact believe it as a result of their personal success, not as a result of a
verbal suggestion which could not possibly have the same effect.
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Maybe Lozanov's decision to call his methodSuggestopedia was unwise in the light
of the fact that suggestion may be regarded with suspicion in the education process.
However, if educators are able to see suggestion with the same clinical neutrality
demonstrated by Lozanov, they may agree with Galisson (1983:104):
je ne vois pas comment la pdagogie (en gnral) pourrait se passer de la
suggestion, quand il est avr que celle-ci constitue un ferment d'interaction
essentiel entre les tres, et qu'elle est ce titre omniprsente l'cole, lieu de
socialit, donc d'interaction par excellence. En bref: la suggestion en pdagogie:
oui ncessairement; rien que la suggestion en pdagogie: srement pas!
[I do not see how pedagogy (in general) could do without suggestion, when
it is obvious that it constitutes an essential mode of interaction between
human beings, and when it is in this capacity everywhere present in the
school, which is par excellence a centre of socialising, and therefore of
interaction. In short, suggestion in pedagogy is necessary; but surely notnothing but suggestion in pedagogy.]
Conclusions Suggestion
We do not know from the research available exactly how effective suggestion is in
Accelerative Learning. When efforts were made to isolate this element for investigation,
studies showed conflicting results. Research in this area may be hampered by the
fact that suggestion is difficult to isolate and administer in an environment which
involves human communication. Other approaches in which suggestion is used, most
notably hypnosis, indicate that suggestion may indeed be effective in the learning
process. Although findings concerning the effect of hypnosis on learning tasks
are mixed, there appears to be a trend towards a positive effect of hypnosis in the
learning environment. However, hypnosis is still largely regarded with apprehension
and suspicion by educators and administrators in schools.
SinceAccelerative Learning is often associated with hypnosis, it is frequently dismissed
as a viable teaching method for the same reasons. While it cannot categorically be
stated that Accelerative Learning has nothing in common with hypnosis, especially
not when compared to recent naturalistic techniques, it can also not be claimed
thatAccelerative Learning is hypnosis. The difficulty with finding a clear distinction
between the two is the fact that no widely accepted definition of hypnosis exists.
Hypnosis may range from extremely light states, which are similar to the relaxed
states reached inAccelerative Learning, to deep somnambulism, a state which cannot
even remotely be associated with the state of relaxed alertness in which students
in Accelerative Learning courses find themselves. While suggestion in hypnosis may
be used for many forms of treatments, ranging from attitude changes to painless
tooth extractions, suggestions inAccelerative Learning are confined to addressing the
facilitation of the learning task.
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This is done using suggestive means such as music and positive teacher behaviour,
rather than by means of direct verbal suggestions. If students' attitudes towards
learning are changed for the better in the process (see chapters 5 and 6), then this is
most likely the result of a combination of variables present in Accelerative Learning,
one of which is suggestion. Suggestion per se is already constantly present in any
learning environment, and teachers make use of it both consciously and unconsciously.
Lozanov has simply drawn attention to this fact and developed a method into which
suggestion is integrated as an exclusively positive means. There is therefore no reason
to exclude its systematic and positive application inAccelerative Learning.
General Conclusions
Although findings are not completely consistent, it can be said that the bulk of
the research on music and relaxation suggests that these elements are effective in
learning. In music this applies especially to pieces from the baroque and classical
period, although background music which shares characteristics with these has also
been found to be effective. In relaxation there is some evidence that progressive
relaxation may be more effective than other forms of physical and mental relaxation.
Suggestion, as a variable, has not been extensively researched, and the limited results
are not consistent. However, results from research in related fields indicate that
suggestion may have a beneficial effect in learning.
What are the benefits, though, of isolating one element for investigation? Although we
will know something about the effectiveness of that particular variable, we do not know
anything about its relationship with the other variables used inAccelerative Learning.
The most obvious question, of course, would be to ask which is the most important
of all the common variables. No study has yet answered this question, although some
have thrown light on the relationship between some variables, suggesting a cumulative
effect. Stein et al. (1982) showed that music together with visualisation appeared
more effective than music alone for long-term retention. Gamble et al (1982) found
relaxation together with music more effective than music alone. Baur (1982) reportsthat relaxation plus music was more effective than relaxation alone, and Bordon and
Schuster (1976) showed that the elements suggestion, synchronisation and music
interacted cumulatively with each other so that learning was best when all elements
were part of the treatment.
Although there are some conflicting findings in these studies, especially regarding the
variables suggestion and relaxation, it appears that the findings for the variable music
are consistent throughout, suggesting that music may well be the most important
when more than one element is investigated. This conclusion must be treated with
caution, however, bearing in mind the difficulties involved in isolating and measuring
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variables such as suggestion and relaxation. Furthermore, the bulk of these studies
were short-term and conducted in a laboratory setting, their findings can therefore
not be generalised to the natural learning environment. Although it is interesting
to know about the contribution of individual elements in Accelerative Learning,
the most important interest, however, is how effective the method may be in the
natural learning environment. Chapter 4 will therefore investigate the claims made for
Accelerative Learning as a complete teaching method in this context.
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Chapter 4A Critical Analysis of the Claims Made for
Accelerative Learning
IntroductionResearchers have gathered much naturalistic and experimental data on the effects
of the use of Accelerative Learning through empirical, case and laboratory studies.
Subjects under investigation have been predominantly language students, yet many
other fields as far ranging as physical science (Gritton & Benitez-Bordon 1976), naval
science (Peterson 1977) and vocational agriculture (Walters 1977) have been studied
usingSuggestopedia andSALT.
Findings have varied greatly, depending on the particular aspect under investigation,
the particular setting and the soundness of the research design. None of the controlled
Western studies was ever able to replicate the dramatic findings of the original
Bulgarian studies, on the basis of which Ostrander and Schroeder (1979) claim that
results can be improved by fifty times. There are some Western studies (Schuster
1976b, Peterson 1977, Walters 1977) which claim that learning can be speeded up by
two to three times without loss in achievement.
A large body of studies carried out in non-experimental conditions in the university,
secondary and primary school environment (Herr 1978, Beer 1978, Gassner-Roberts
1982, Stockwell 1985, Wagner 1985) report larger amounts of material taught, higherachievement, better classroom atmosphere and more confident students. These studies
were not conducted only in the favourable conditions for which the method was
developed that is, with small classes (12-15 students), pleasant surroundings and
block teaching (Herr 1978,1979, Gassner-Roberts 1982, Stockwell 1985) but also in
natural conditions (Beer 1978, Wagner 1985).
Controlled experimental and quasi-experimental studies in natural conditions, such
as normal university or school classes (Robinett 1975, Prichard, Schuster & Gensch
1980, Botha 1986), also report significant gains in achievement. Their findings
are supported by Moon et al. (1986) who conducted a meta-analysis of 14 of the
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most controlled studies chosen from an overall 40 published in the Journal for the
Society of Accelerative Learning and Teaching (Journal of SALT). Treatments were
not identical in all 14 studies, but each had a viable control group with which to
compare results. Findings were that the distribution of effect sizes over all categories
and outcomes was leptokurtic and positively skewed in favour of the experimental
groups. Moon et al. concluded that the treatments were effective relative to foreign
language acquisition, foreign language retention, affective attributes, and cognitive
achievement and creativity. (p. 8)
A number of studies mention other benefits being associated with Accelerative
Learning, such as improved self-concept (Edwards & Thomas 1982, Portes & Foster
1986), attitude (Schuster & Ginn 1978, Gassner-Roberts & Brislan 1984), behaviour
(Brown 1986), health (Lozanov & Balevski 1975), reduced stress (Lozanov 1978,
Gassner-Roberts & Brislan 1984, Schuster & Gritton 1985), and improved motivation
for continuing language study (Knibbler 1982).
The purpose of this chapter is to take a critical look at the claims made for the
effectiveness ofAccelerative Learning in the literature from the early Lozanov studies to
the present day. We will attempt to give a view of the general trends in the results and
draw some conclusions about their general magnitude in the West. We will finally draw
attention to important areas which have not been covered by the research so far.
Lozanovs Research
Lozanovs research in the 1960s and 1970s was conducted predominantly at the
Institute of Suggestology at Sofia, Bulgaria. Most of his studies were carried out
withinSuggestopedia, that is to say that he looked for effects that the method may
have on memory and on physiological and psychological measures. He also conducted
a small number of comparative studies in order to determine the effectiveness of
Suggestopedia when compared to other teaching methods. Although Lozanov is not a
linguist, the majority of studies were