Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development€¦ · within the city and how to balance expanding urban...

Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development:

A strategic approach towards resilience

2

All rights reserved:

Technische Universität Berlin

Urban Management Program

Editors:

Sonja Nebel

Jesús Salcedo V.

Authors:

Jesús Salcedo V.

Pedro Becerra

Panagiotis Achamnos

Florencia Carvajal

Ana Alcántara

Sonja Nebel

Proofreading:

Shane O’Hanlon

Website: www.urbanmanagement.tu-berlin.de

© Al Buraimi, A Strategic Approach towards Integrated Urban Development and Resilient Urban

Management

Layout by Jesus Salcedo V www.js-arquitectos.com

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Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience

Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development:A strategic approach towards resilience

Berlin, 2015

Technische Universität BerlinUrban Management Program

4

Foreword

The aspirations of communities evolve and change with the requirements and development of

societies. Cities and towns are beautiful places that contribute to the variety of cultures and to

the quality of life of communities in our diverse world. The Buraimi governorate with a history of

intra-regional trade and a meeting ground of trading convoys was indicated as part of Twam, and

the well known Al Buraimi oasis. Out of a desire for further development in the cities of Al Buraimi

governorate, research institutions from Oman and abroad have been involved. The cooperation

between the Municipal Council in Al Buraimi Governorate and the Technical University of Berlin

brings in the Urban Management Master Program to evaluate the current situation and policies in

the sectors covered by the studies of the program.

It is our goal that such cooperation serves as a model for further efforts with academic and research

institutions of urban planning. The results of this cooperation will contribute in the formation of

better government for the civil society and to enriching the knowledge about urban planning, public

transport, tourism and architecture.

5


Advancing the municipal sector in the cities of the world towards innovation, it is important to

localize innovative thoughts within authorities of planning and executive bodies and activate the role

of private sector as well as to encourage creative locals to play an active role in the formation of the

civil character of modern cities. Such an approach will significantly contribute to the development,

the culture and economy of the Sultanate of Oman.

On behalf of the people of Al Buraimi Governorate, myself and all municipal council and government

institutions’ staff, I extend our thanks to the Technical University of Berlin - Urban Management

Program- and all Master students that participated in the studies and co-operation with the

municipal council in the governorate. We appreciate the efforts that they have made for the success

of the co-operation and we are looking forward to further co-operations in the future. Our thanks go

to all my fellow members of the municipal council on their active role.

Ibrahim Said Al Busaidi

Governor of Al Buraimi

Chairman of Al Buraimi Municipal Council

6

Foreword

This report is intended to open a broader discourse on future development in the Governorate

of Al Buraimi, Sultanate of Oman. The country is facing high population growth and a dynamic

urbanization process that has been started about 45 years ago based on the discovery of fossil fuels.

Not only in the capital city of Muscat but as well in smaller towns and former rural areas drastic

transformation took place – and is still ongoing. An increasing need for jobs, social and health

facilities, transport infrastructure as well as for housing is confronted with limited resources such as

oil and gas but as well land and environment.

The Governorate and Municipality of Al Buraimi have started to assess and reflect ongoing processes

and invited five young architects and civil engeneers, students from the Urban Management Master

Programme of TU Berlin, Germany to research on key fields of urban and regional development in

the Governorate.

Five key fields have been selected according to emerging challenges in the Governorate, such as

how to handle the threatening decay of the historic parts of the former oasis Hamasa and Sa’ara,

how to meet the high demand for residential plots, how to get them serviced properly and in time

with fresh water, electricity and sewage systems, how to allow for appropriate transport and mobility

within the city and how to balance expanding urban structures with remaining rural ones in the

region with its particular constraints and potentials.

This report describes the current state of development in the forementioned fields and presents

recommendations towards a comprehensive strategic urban management in Al Buraimi, based

on the overall goal of a sustainable and resilient future development to be managed within cross-

sector coordination and interdepartemental cooperation. This is summarized in short-, medium-

,and longterm action plans accompanied by a chapter on further studies needed, on capacity

development and on cross cutting issues related to all five key fileds worked on.

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We hope to offer forwordlooking and encouraging findings that may foster a vivid dialogue - among

all parties involved- about crucial issues of Al Buraimi future development. This report could

have been elaborated thanks to the highly appreciated support –financial as well as technical and

organizational- from the Governorate and the Municipality of Al Buraimi. The joint efforts taken from

Al Buraimi Governmental Organizations and TU Berlin, Urban Management Programme made

it possible to conduct a field survey in September/October 2014 followed by intensive scientific

elaborations in form of master thesis submitted in February 2015.

We wish to express our sincere gratitude for the opportunity to carry out this report in fruitful

cooperation between Al Buraimi Governorate and Municipality and TU Berlin

Dr. Sonja Nebel / Dr. Bettina Hamann

Urban Management Program

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Acknowledgments

The team is most grateful to the Governorate of Al Buraimi, and to the Municipal Council for the

opportunity to do research and field work, besides the generous financial support that made this

possible.

This research would not have been possible without the help and interest of His Excellency Al Sayed

Ibrahim Bin Said Al Busaidi, Governor of Al Buraimi.

The team would also like to thank the following Ministry Branches in Al Buraimi for their kindness

and welcoming during all the interviews: Al Buraimi Governorate Office, Ministry of Agriculture

and Fisheries Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Environment & Climate Affairs Al Buraimi Branch,

Ministry of Housing Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Regional Municipalities & Water Resources Al

Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Tourism Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Transport and Communications

Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Transport and Communications in Muscat, Municipal Council of Al

Buraimi, Oman Chamber of Commerce & Industry Al Buraimi Branch, and the Transit Department

of the Royal Oman Police of Al Buraimi.

Many thanks to Dr. Hammad Al Gharibi for his initiative, guidance and welcoming in Al Buraimi.

Likewise, thanks to the members of the Municipal Council of Al Buraimi for fostering this research.

Special thanks to Mohammed Al-Badi, Sheikha Al Naimi and Mohammed bin Hamed bin Miftah Al

Shamsi.

Sinicerely,

Panagiotis Achamnos, Ana Alcántara, Pedro Becerra, Florencia

Carvajal, Bettina Hamann, Sonja Nebel, Jesús Salcedo

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Table of contentsForeword ........................................................................................................................................................................ 6

Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................................................8

List of figures ....................................................................................................................................................................... 12

List of boxes .......................................................................................................................................................................16

List of abbreviations and acronyms ................................................................................................................................. 18

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................................... 20

Part 1 Current trends and challengesIntroduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 24

Rationale .......................................................................................................................................................................27

Urbanization background in Oman and Al Buraimi ..............................................................................................................28

History and urbanization in inner Oman settlements ...........................................................................................34

History and urbanization in Al Buraimi .................................................................................................................................36

Current trends .......................................................................................................................................................................41

Current challenges ................................................................................................................................................... 44

SWOT analysis ...................................................................................................................................................................... 46

Al Buraimi 2030; a vision for a resilient future ..............................................................................................................52

The need for a paradigm shift .................................................................................................................................54

Part 2.1 Regional development & growth managementAssesment of the current state .................................................................................................................................58

Spatial analysis ...................................................................................................................................................................... 64

The setting of areas for strategic development and growth management ....................................................................... 68

The city centre of Al Buraimi ....................................................................................................................................................72

The outskirts of Al Buraimi: ....................................................................................................................................................76

As Sunainah ...................................................................................................................................................................... 80

Selected instruments for urban growth management ...........................................................................................82

Action plan for regional development through growth management ....................................................................... 86

Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................................................... 89

References ......................................................................................................................................................................90

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Part 2.2 Sustainable transportationAssessment of the current state of transportation and mobility .......................................................................................... 96

Transportation planning procedure ............................................................................................................................... 101

Transportation legal framework ...............................................................................................................................102

Urban space for mobility ..................................................................................................................................................104

Goals ... .....................................................................................................................................................................................107

Governance / Institutional recommendations ............................................................................................................108

Technical recommendations .................................................................................................................................................. 114

Improvement of regional public transportation ............................................................................................................120

Action / management plan .................................................................................................................................................. 121

Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 122

References ..................................................................................................................................................................... 123

Part 2.3 Infrastructure DevelopmentAssesment of the current state of infrastructure ............................................................................................................ 128

Water management .................................................................................................................................................. 134

Strategies for sustainable development in water management ......................................................................................... 138

Solid waste management .................................................................................................................................................. 141

Strategies for sustainable development in solid waste management ...................................................................... 143

Wastewater management .................................................................................................................................................. 147

Strategies for sustainable development in wastewater management ...................................................................... 150

Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 152

References ......................................................................................................................................................................155

Part 2.4 Housing & urban designAssessment of the current state of housing ............................................................................................................162

Urban planning instruments – structure plans compared .........................................................................................164

Finding: Dual reality – dual dynamics of develoment .........................................................................................170

Finding: Change in urban morphology ...............................................................................................................................176

Recommendations .................................................................................................................................................. 182

Guidelines for urban design .................................................................................................................................................. 183

References ..................................................................................................................................................................... 185

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Part 2.5 Heritage management and responsible tourismAssesment of the current state of heritage ........................................................................................................... 190

Tourism in Al Buraimi .................................................................................................................................................. 191

Heritage assets inventory for tourism in Al Buraimi ............................................................................................................ 195

Hamasa: an example for responsible tourism development .........................................................................................201

Guidelines and Action plan towards responsible tourism in Hamasa ..................................................................... 203

Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................................... 211

References .....................................................................................................................................................................212

Part 3 Further recommendationsCross cutting issues ..................................................................................................................................................216

Capacity Development for sustainable development Al Buraimi ......................................................................221

Further Studies recommended ...............................................................................................................................225

Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................................... 229

AnnexMethodological remarks ..................................................................................................................................................232

List of Institutions visited .................................................................................................................................................. 233

Glossary ....................................................................................................................................................................................234

Most relevant references ..................................................................................................................................................237

About the authors ................................................................................................................................................. 242

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Figure 1. Main suq in Al Buraimi .......................................................................................25

Figure 2. Abandoned agricultural plots in the city centre ........................................ 26

Figure 3. Geographical location of Oman. ...................................................................... 29

Figure 4. Hajar mountain range, Oman. .......................................................................32

Figure 5. Urbanization process of an inner Oman oasis settlement: Nizwa ........... 33

Figure 6. Geographical location of Al Buraimi Governorate ......................................... 35

Figure 7. Villages in the Buraimi Oasis area. .......................................................................36

Figure 8. View of an aflaj channel ....................................................................................... 37

Figure 9. Current state of As Sara, ...................................................................................... 40

Figure 10. Lost oasis and heritage .......................................................................................43

Figure 11. A street in Sa ‘ara, Al Buraimi .......................................................................43

Figure 12. View of the scattered neighbourhoods ........................................................ 55

Figure 13. Maximum and minimum temperatures in Al Buraimi Governorate. ...........58

Figure 14. Average rainfall in Al Buraimi Governorate ........................................................59

Figure 15. Production of desalinated water in different Governorates. ..........................61

Figure 16. Omani population pyramid in Al Buraimi Governorate in 2012 ......................... 62

Figure 17. Expat population pyramid in Al Buraimi Governorate in 2012 ......................... 62

Figure 18. Mens tailoring and readymade clothes. ....................................................... 64

Figure 19. Spatial charachetristics in Al Buraimi ........................................................65

Figure 20. Satelite view of Al Buraimi’s .......................................................................67

Figure 21. Current land use plan .......................................................................................67

Figure 22. Strategic area 1. City centre and 2. Outskirts. ....................................................... 69

Figure 23. Strategic area 2. As Sunainah ...................................................................... 70

Figure 24. Strategic area 1. City centre satelite image ........................................................72

Figure 25. Strategic area 1. City centre: Urban growth management instruments ........... 73

List of figures

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Figure 26. Strategic area 1. City centre: Specialized clothing cluster ..........................74

Figure 27. Strategic area 1. City centre: Time allowed for plots to develop .......................... 75

Figure 28. Strategic area 1. City centre: Urban design intervention potential ........... 75

Figure 29. Strategic area 2. Outskirts satelite image: ........................................................76

Figure 30. Strategic area 2. Outskirts: Urban growth management instruments ...........77

Figure 31. Strategic area 2. Outskirts: New typology implementation ..........................78

Figure 32. Strategic area 2. Outskirts: Urban design intervention potential: ...........78

Figure 33. Scattered housing in the outskirts of Al Buraimi .........................................79

Figure 34. Strategic area 3. As Sunainah: satelite image ....................................................... 80

Figure 35. Strategic area 3. As Sunainah: urban growth management instruments ...........81

Figure 36. Action plan for growth management ........................................................87

Figure 37. View of Al Buraimi‘s scattered urbanism ....................................................... 89

Figure 38. Built roads in Al Buraimi ...................................................................................... 98

Figure 39. Carbon dioxide emissions in Oman ...................................................................... 98

Figure 40. Mobility creating factors .................................................................................... 100

Figure 41. Transportation planning procedure .....................................................................102

Figure 42. Sample area in Al Buraimi ..................................................................................... 105

Figure 43. Map of roads network in Al Buraimi .................................................................... 106

Figure 44. New road in Al Buraimi ..................................................................................... 112

Figure 45. Public transportation plan ..................................................................................... 116

Figure 46. Transit oriented development TOD concept ...................................................... 118

Figure 47. Activity centers .................................................................................................... 119

Figure 48. Action management plan ..................................................................................... 121

Figure 49. Technical recommendations ..................................................................... 121

Figure 50. Roundabout sign .................................................................................................... 122

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Figure 51. Thaqbah well .................................................................................................... 133

Figure 52. Production from wells, ..................................................................................... 133

Figure 53. Total water distribution in Al Buraimi ...................................................... 137

Figure 54. Water saving campaign adds ..................................................................... 139

Figure 55. Landfill ................................................................................................................... 143

Figure 56. School children educated in recycling programmes ....................................... 145

Figure 57. Treatment plant ....................................................................................................149

Figure 58. Action plan 1984 ....................................................................................................164

Figure 59. Structure plan 1985 ..................................................................................... 165

Figure 60. Expansion plan 1986-1996 .....................................................................................166

Figure 61. Expansion plan 1987-1990 .....................................................................................167

Figure 62. Road hierarchy and town access according to structural plan ........................168

Figure 63. Current Al Buraimi map used for planning ......................................................169

Figure 64. Constructed Al Buraimi .....................................................................................170

Figure 65. Marked plots .....................................................................................................171

Figure 66. Planned vs granted plots ......................................................................................171

Figure 67. Omani and expat population in Al Buraimi Governorate ........................ 172

Figure 68. Chronological division scheme ..................................................................... 173

Figure 69. Expat on his way home ..................................................................................... 174

Figure 70. Preffered living areas .....................................................................................176

Figure 71. Neighbourhoods in the outskirts ..................................................................... 177

Figure 72. Neighbourhoods in the city centre ..................................................................... 177

Figure 73. Neighbourhoods in the city centre 2 ...................................................... 177

Figure 74. Built structure change ..................................................................................... 178

Figure 75. Public space alteration .....................................................................................179

Figure 76. Article 58 a)1 .................................................................................................... 181

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Figure 77. Article 58 a)2 .................................................................................................... 181

Figure 78. Recommendations. ..................................................................................... 183

Figure 79. Location of heritage sites ..................................................................................... 195

Figure 80. Decay situation in Saára. .....................................................................................196

Figure 81. Decay situation in Hamasa .....................................................................196

Figure 82. Al Khandaq fort ....................................................................................................197

Figure 83. Pottery in Nizwa ....................................................................................................199

Figure 84. Basketry in Al Buraimi .....................................................................................199

Figure 85. Dry falaj in Saára. ....................................................................................200

Figure 86. Interventions in Phase I .....................................................................................205

Figure 87. Interventions in Phase II .................................................................................... 207

Figure 88. Night tour walking route .................................................................................... 207

Figure 89. Interventions in Phase III, ....................................................................................209

Figure 90. Summary of the action plan ....................................................................209

Figure 91. National Fort Route .....................................................................................210

Figure 92. Ruins in Hamasa .................................................................................................... 211

Figure 93. Capacity development process .....................................................................222

Figure 94. Three levels of capacity development ......................................................222

Figure 95. Interrelation of levels in capacity development .......................................223

Figure 96. Agriculture in As Sunainah .................................................................................... 229

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Box 1. Living conditions are changing rapidly ....................................................................... 18

Box 2. Aim of the study .................................................................................................................... 20

Box 3. Unique geographical characteristics amongst the Arabian Peninsula ..........................27

Box 4. Particularities in inner country settlements. ...................................................................... 29

Box 5. Diverse nature of challenges .......................................................................................38

Box 6. Land availability .....................................................................................................................39

Box 7. Strengths .....................................................................................................................41

Box 8. Weaknesses .................................................................................................................... 42

Box 9. Opportunities .....................................................................................................................43

Box 10. Threats ....................................................................................................................................45

Box 11. Rising problematic ..................................................................................................... 48

Box 12. Basic considerations for the instruments .......................................................................65

Box 13. Parking ratio test .................................................................................................................... 99

Box 14. Land allocation ................................................................................................................... 123

Box 15. Community survey on fresh water ..................................................................................... 134

Box 16. Community survey on solid waste management ...................................................... 138

Box 17. Community survey on wastewater management ...................................................... 147

Box 18. Additional population ................................................................................................... 160

Box 19. Social aspects of housing ....................................................................................................164

Box 20. Responsible and sustainable tourism ..................................................................... 187

Box 21. UNESCO World Heritage ....................................................................................................189

Box 22. People perceptions about Al Buraimi’s attractiveness ..................................................... 190

Box 23. Tangible assets criteria .................................................................................................... 191

Box 24. The Buraimi Oasis .................................................................................................... 193

List of boxes

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Box 25. Intangible assets: criteria ....................................................................................................194

Box 26. Further tangible assets examples: Falaj irrigation system .......................................196

Box 27. Tools for participation .................................................................................. 213

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List of abbreviations and acronyms

AD Anno Domini, after Christ

APFO Adequate Public Facility Ordinance

BC Before Christ

B&B Bed & Breakfast

CDS City Development Strategy

COC Chamber of Commerce

Expats Expatriate

FYP Five-Year Development Plan

GCC Gulf Cooperation Council

GDP Gross domestic product

HDMS Highway Design Manual Standards

MECA Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs

MENA Middle east and North Africa

MOA Ministry of Agriculture

MOH Ministry of Housing

MOM Ministry of Municipalities

MOT Ministry of Tourism

MOTC Ministry of Transport and Communication

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MRMWR Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources

NCSI National Centre for Statistics and Information

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

OCCI Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry

OIFC Omani Investment and Finance Company

ONSS Oman National Spatial Strategy

PAEW Public Authority for Electricity and Water

ROP Royal Oman Police

SDG Sustainable Development Goals

ST Sustainable Transportation

STP Sewage Treatment Plant

SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats analysis

TOD Transport Oriented Development

UAE United Arabs Emirates

UDC Urban Development Charges

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UN-Habitat United Nations Human Settlement Programme

UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization

WHO World Health Organization

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Executive Summary

The “Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience” report,

is the joint work of five recent graduates from the Master of Science degree in Urban Management

Programme at the Technical University of Berlin, Germany. It is a study that compiles the most

important findings of five theseses successfully submitted during February 2015 in Berlin, and that

represent the academic research done in the Governorate of Al Buraimi during September 2014.

The current state of the Al Buraimi Governorate offers the perfect field for strategies regarding

sustainability, resilience and transformation to be envisioned and formulated. Urban and rural

trends portray an emerging society and issues that start being regarded as unsuitable for long-

term development: cities are growing extendedly amongst faraway distances, traffic commuting and

congestion are increasing, pollution and availability of natural resources is being hard to tackle,

economic activities are changing, migration rates escalating, historical assets are being forgotten,

etc.

Albeit these growing concerns, population in the Governorate is young and ready to transform,

to grab the myriad opportunities that are waiting to be profited from: renewable energies are at

Al Buraimi’s doorstep, better water and waste management practices have already started, an

improvement of the transportation network can be achieved, the housing paradigm and curving of

the urban sprawl can be redirected, and the management of heritage assets in the Governorate can

fuel a revival in local identity.

These are the main sectors identified and analysed by the previous studies, and therefore propose

strategic approaches. They are presented in the current report as separated chapters. Part 1 of this

report comprises an overview of the historical context of Oman and Al Buraimi. Within this part, the

current trends and challenges are described and a possible scenario for the year 2030 is presented.

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Part 2 of the report is made up of five sub-chapters, each one tackling a field of urban management

that together make up a comprehensive analysis: Regional development and growth management;

Sustainable transportation, Infrastructure, Housing and urban design, and finally Heritage

management and responsible tourism.

After these chapters, Part 3 describes the next steps that are recommended for the Governorate to

take action. This third part is made up of a description of the cross-cutting issues identified and

that portray the wide spectrum of areas that need to be worked upon. They include issues such

as inter-sectoral cooperation and participation. Moreover, the topic of capacity needs assessment

and capacity development is explained in light of the recommendations made. This report ends by

mentioning a final set of studies that are still needed for the presented strategies to start.

Part 1 Current trends and challengesJesús Salcedo V

Contributors:Panagiotis AchamnosAna AlcántaraPedro BecerraFlorencia CarvajalSonja Nebel

The current chapter introduces the Governorate

of Al Buraimi, Oman with a general historic

overview, and the socio-political context

that has shaped the region. From a general

perspective within the urban and regional fields,

current trends regarding economic activities,

infrastructure, mobility, natural resources and

heritage, are presented and explained. Likewise,

the current challenges that the region faces are

portrayed and then a SWOT analysis is shown.

This chapter ends by introducing the general

idea behind this report, about a possible and

crucial change in development paradigm, and

illustrates it by proposing a future scenario

under the name „Al Buraimi Vision 2030“.

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Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges

Introduction

Rapid urbanization processes have generated

considerable research interest in the fields

of urban management, urban sociology, and

geography amongst others. These are often

consequences of transitions in an economy and

examples around the world portray this.

In the Arabic countries of the Persian Gulf such a

process has been characterized the last 40 years,

with particular economic situations and a fast

rate. In Oman, there has been a strong transition

from rural and nomadic living conditions to a

sedentary and urban environment; this has been

promoted by the Omani government through

a series of measures and policies that rely on

fossil fuel availability, investment in education,

and the diversification of the economy.

Oman has also restructured its administrative

zones and created new Governorates, such

as Al Buraimi; thus promoting urban growth

through the development of its administration,

the creation of employment in the government

sector and the construction of housing. This

has brought about better living conditions to

the Omanis, as well as a distinct scattered and

sparse urban fabric in almost every city in the

country, the consequence of a decade-old land

allocation policy. This is strongly accentuated in

the Governorate of Al Buraimi.

Hand in hand with development, the availability

of fossil fuels has facilitated this process.

For instance, water scarcity has been solved

through the desalination of seawater as well as

its transportation from the coast to the inner

cities. Likewise, electricity sources are fossil fuel

based and consumer demand for resources is

only increasing. Nonetheless, there are signs of

improvement; there are important achievements

in the waste water system and the collection of

solid waste too.

Box 1. Living conditions are

changing rapidly

Al Buraimi, in northwest Oman,

continues to grow and the shift

from economic activities related to

agriculture, toward commerce and

services, has seen improvements in

some aspects of the living conditions

of nationals, but as a consequence

land use is very homogenous.

Besides this, migration rates are

escalating and the scarcity of natural

resources is presenting a major

problem to future development of

the region.

Previous page:

Wadi landscape in Oman

Source: (Salcedo, 2014)

25


Additionally, large infrastructure projects in the

Governorate of Al Buraimi and its surroundings

are also opening up more opportunities, namely

the new University Campus, the highway to

Dubai and the future railway link/line/connection

between Sohar and Abu Dhabi. Therefore it is

essential to study the planning strategies that

the government undertook, and the theories

regarding urban economics and regional

development, under an urban-geography

umbrella. These have to be contextualized with

the environmental, social and political aspects

of the Governorate.

The current work is focused on a fieldwork

analysis of the problems that are a direct

consequence of the urbanization process.

Problems that affect the Governorate in many

different sector, include: spatial structures, the

management of utilities, as well as those from

heritage issues, mobility issues, and finally the

regional scale issues that are related to both the

villages and the main city. This interrelation of

issues is associated with the spatial composition

of the urban and rural areas; the use and

management of natural resources; the main

economical activities that the city is undertaking

and an analysis of the long-term scenarios.

Figure 1. Main suq in Al

Buraimi


26


Box 2. Aim of the study

This study aims to provide novel strategies for an improved

regional development of Al Buraimi. This includes strategies

related to regional development, tourism, housing, transport,

and waste management. Therefore, obstacles and threats that

the region faces are analysed and the myriad possibilities to

overcome them are carefully selected in order to provide the

local Government with a sound set of strategies related to

each of these areas.

Figure 2. Abandoned

agricultural plots in the

city centre


27


Rationale

Much has been discussed about strategies for

cities and their regions; taking into account the

latest paradigms on sustainability, resilience,

and technological improvements. This has

not underlined all of the Arabic cities in the

Persian Gulf. On the contrary, city branding,

sustainability marketing, and city marketing

have been used as a mean to increase wealth

and profit of certain sectors but not as a real

framework or long-term strategy that could

improve the living conditions of many. This

is exemplified from Kuwait to Doha and Abu

Dhabi.

Urbanization in Oman has fortunately been

somehow dissonant to the rest of the Persian

Gulf Arabic states. Even though cities are

growing very fast, and urbanization issues are

on the rise, the Omanis still have a particular

sense of spatial qualities; in large urban areas

as well as on the small architectural scale. The

cities in Oman are on the verge of keeping up

with their neighbour’s modernization or falling

back and taking another path. This could be a

strategy that corresponds truly and uniquely

to its geographical, socio-economic and

environmental context.

There is the possibility that cities in Oman

will continue with development as usual, as

currently the energy sector is still proceeding

as normal. But the threshold between adopting

change early enough, and realizing that regional

problems are going to be very hard to tackle, is

still a thin line that is more and more present

in Omani institutions and the general public.

The current need is not necessarily to address

emergency issues in Oman, but to address the

growing concerns, and start to curve them all

before they become a real problem for most

of the society. The issues related to the use of

natural resources and growing concerns about

pollution, mobility and inequality, are certainly

being discussed more and more frequently.

Proof of this is the will of the government to

provide a long-term strategy for the country,

regarding spatial growth, natural resources, and

diversification of the economy, which is already

underway.

Therefore, this study can help as the starting

point of novel strategies that can be applied to

the context of one Governorate, and if proven

successful in the mid-term, could well be

replicated in other areas. The chance to propose,

promote and improve is there, and this study

takes this opportunity to its full potential.

28


Urbanization background in

Oman and Al Buraimi

Historical background of Oman

The socio-economic conditions of the Gulf

states are very different to other Middle East

and North African Countries (MENA) mainly

because they were free of a direct colonial

domination. There is a strong relationship

from the ruling families with traditional values

and Bedouin tribal traditions and nomadic

living, and finally the modern development that

shaped these countries came at the same time

as oil revenues were produced and scientific and

practical experience were on the rise.

During the 60’s Oman was characterized as

having a series of uprisings against the Sultan’s

rule in the region of Dhofar. This episode of

Oman’s history marks the start of a new era

as a country, because the former Sultan’s son,

Sultan Qaboos deposed his father and changed

the way in which the country was managed.

The former Sultan’s rule was characterized as

feudalistic and isolated, whereas Qaboos rule

was characterized by economic reforms and

modernization.

The 70´s period marks the start of Sultan

Qaboos' rule, and it was branded by a series

of policies related to development of many

areas of the economy. These were laid out in

Development Plans that structured the means

for directing oil revenues into productive

investment (Looney, 1990). The strategy was

to develop new sources of national income, to

develop infrastructure and national manpower

resources, and to improve the civil service.

Looney (1990) criticizes the fact that the

economy of Oman was very diversified before

the reliance on oil, and that since the 70’s this

development of human capital directed many

of the aforementioned diverse activities into

government or oil based industry.

One of the measures that the government

took in order to develop the urban milieu was

to provide basic infrastructure and jobs in the

government in most of the country (Janzen,

1983). For the case of Dhofar this is very relevant,

as it was important for the government to make

urban living attractive enough for nomadic

tribes to settle down, as the recent revolution

was still a major concern.

During these two decades, there was a decline

in the traditional caravan trade, and an increase

in motorization rates as people settled in urban

29


Figure 3. Geographical

location of Oman.

The governorate of Al

Buraimi is marked in red

colour.


Oman

Yemen

Somalia

Ethiopia

Eritrea

Saudi Arabia UAE

Pakistan

India

Sri Lanka

AfghanistanIrak

Kuwait

Arabian Sea

Persian Gulf

Red Sea

Iran

areas. There was also an increase in dependence

of imported goods such as food, and a shift

from traditional dwellings into new “modern”

typologies. Additionally, Omani nationals

became more skilled from the 70´s until the

90´s, and the economy grew at a rapid pace. A

consequence of this was the increased import of

low skilled workforce ever since.

Arabic urbanization processes in the

Persian Gulf

The Persian Gulf is a geographical region located

in Western Asia between the Arabian Peninsula

to the southwest and Iran to the northeast.

The relevance of this region is related to the

industrialisation and development process that

the nations located here experienced due to the

vast amounts of oil sources. This region is the

world’s largest source of crude oil. Nations such

as Bahrain, Iran, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,

the UAE and a part of Oman are located here.

The Gulf is also a region where 90% of the

population live in cities, making it the most

urbanized region in the world (Mohammad

and Sidaway, 2012). This process has been fast;

urbanisation started around the 60’s and 70’s

for most of these Arab Nations. Around the

30


50’s the main cities, located on the coast, were

fortified town centres with an important fishing

or pearl trade activities, and the population kept

a close relationship with the nomadic groups

such as Bedouins in the inner land settlements

and oasis (Fox et al., 2006).

The region shares more than urban typology and

commercial characteristics; it also shares Arabic

as a common language, as well as traditions,

religion, and ever since the oil economy started,

they also share a similar “oil political economy”

(Fox et al., 2006). This political organisation is

characterized by the governance figure of the

Sheikh or ruler. The Sheikh has traditionally

been the controller of the natural resource

wealth, the facilitator of the urban realm, of

modern welfare as well as better life quality.

This is also portrayed by the young history of

urbanization illustrated by the construction of

roads, housing, infrastructure such as hospitals,

schools, airports, etc.

Alongside this process, the fishermen and

farmers took positions in the newly created

bureaucratic machines, merchant families

engaged in enterprises and trade, ruling sheikhs

took important positions in the governments,

and the oil industry expanded rapidly opening

up job opportunities for foreigners as well.

During the 70’s the process took a faster pace

and the Gulf countries made better profits

during the Arab-Israeli embargo until the 80’s.

During this period, old inner Arabic cities

and towns, most of them in desert areas,

experienced decreases in population growth,

suffered the abandonment of town centres and

agricultural activities, and moved to larger cities

where employment opportunities were better.

Modernization process

Fox et. al. (2006) claims that the urbanization

period took another rhythm during the 80’s,

where attention was given to other types of

infrastructure such as universities, better road

infrastructure, diversification of the economy,

and tourism. New job opportunities in the

service and industrial sector, opened up the

doors to thousands of migrant workers. Parallel

to this, better living conditions that the local

citizens were experiencing and the wish to

move to new housing settlements outside of

the old city centres, made it possible for migrant

workers to move to the city centres and quickly

settle in smaller dwellings and most of the

time in overcrowded and poor conditions. In

time, this process degraded the image of the

city centres to the eyes of the citizenry, relating

them to a poorer sector of the population and a

decayed state.

31


Inner city spatial-migration

Around the 90's some of the Gulf States decided

to change the decaying image of the city centres

by constructing new housing settlements for the

migrant workers in peripheral locations ; often

by demolishing old structures and making way

for modern housing projects. These housing

patterns vary a little from country to country.

Fox et al., (2006) has identified the following: in

the higher classes, rich Sheikhs have built large

palace complexes on the coast, with smaller

palaces located within an enclosing wall. This

is namely related to the family structure, several

spouses as well as housing for the children.

This structure can be found in the UAE coastal

cities as well as the inner cities such as Al Ain,

Al Buraimi’s neighbouring border city. The

main rich class has a tendency to build villas,

which can be described as palaces but smaller.

The enclosing wall typology also occurs here.

This high and middle class has been able to

build these new typologies because of the land

allocation policies, subsidized housing, and easy

loans. The necessity for larger plots in order to

accommodate this typology explains why the

wealthier portion of the population moved into

the peripheries of the town centre.

Finally, the lower strata of society, made up of a

majority of migrant workers as well as nomadic

tribes that recently settled in the cities would

live in housing compounds provided by the

government. Many of these compounds were

built by Oman and the UAE during the 80’s.

As a consequence of migration from rural into

urban areas, economic and industrial growth,

the Gulf cities are characterized by a distinctive

demographic profile. They have a numerically

small indigenous citizenry and a large number

of low-wage immigrants. In Abu Dhabi for

example, 75% of its inhabitants are foreign

workers, and of these only 1% are highly paid

(Mohammad and Sidaway, 2012). In the case

of the UAE migrant workers are referred to as

temporary workers and their salaries are usually

lower than the requirements they need to meet

for their families to be permitted to join them.

This rapid urbanization process mainly

illustrated by cities like Dubai or Abu Dhabi, but

also present in Doha, Kuwait, or Riyadh; has

produced centres for trade, culture, finance and

tourism. The spatial change has been facilitated

by the revenues from the petrol industry, and

this diversification of the economy can only be

compared to the urbanization process of cities

such as Las Vegas or Los Angeles (Mohammad

and Sidaway, 2012). Cities where segregated

patterns distinguish the class of the citizenry,

fragmentary development occurs along the main

32


Figure 4. Hajar mountain

range, Oman.


33


Figure 5. Urbanization

process of an inner Oman

oasis settlement: Nizwa


Box 3. Unique geographical characteristics amongst the Arabian Peninsula

One of the reasons why Oman has a distinct history and civilization from the

rest of the Arabic Peninsula is due to the countries natural boundaries (Gangler

and Gaube, 2012). Oman is bordered to Saudi Arabia by the Rub al-Khali, or

“Empty Quarter; by the Rimal Bainuna to both Saudi Arabia and UAE; Rimal

al-Ahqaf to Yemen, and the coast line bordered by the Straight of Hormuz, the

Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. The country is also divided by the Jabal

Akhdar mountain range; marking different regions of desert planes, coastal

planes, mountainous terrain and the more humid south. The arid interior of

the country, where Al Buraimi lies, is divided by this mountain range from the

coastal planes and the capital. In these regions people could only settle near a

natural spring, wadi or by artificial systems such as the falaj.

34


transportation routes, and private transport

oriented growth is completely reliant on fossil

fuels.

What distinguishes the Gulf cities rapid

urbanization process from other similar

processes is the fact that no other region

in the world has the same combination of

architecture, migratory patterns, government

initiatives and city marketing. In conclusion, the

seats of power for ruling families, the increase

of job opportunities, migration rates from the

desert settlements and from poorer emerging

economies into the cities, the inner city migration

to the periphery, and the private transportation

reliance, are common characteristics of most

Gulf cities . They are the basis for the new

modernity, culture and identity that the Gulf has

acquired; nonetheless in Oman it has managed

to permeate differently into the cultural and

spatial structure of its cities.

History and urbanization in inner

Oman settlements

Oman shares most of the characteristics

described earlier but differs to the rest of the

Gulf States in many ways. During the 90’s there

was still no definition for urban settlements in

Oman, which would differentiate between towns

or cities. The Supreme Committee for Town

Planning would make three distinctions, namely

regional centres;, main city, and tertiary centres.

During this decade the biggest settlements in

terms of populations were concentrated along

the north coastal plains and around the cities

that now make up the metropolitan Muscat.

There is little information about village

settlements of Oman during the 90’s, since

many villages in the northern part of Oman were

either difficult to consider separate from the

cities; or they were nomad Bedouin villages with

seasonal migration between the coast and the

interior.

Oman’s capital, Muscat has also experienced

a rapid urbanization process, as well as other

Omani cities in the coast. A similar oil political

economy, migrant workforce, and local citizenry

wealth has shaped the capital, whereas private

transport infrastructure has lead the direction

of growth. They are different to other Gulf cities

in the way in which some of the old spatial

structures can still be found in central areas,

where building heights are homogenous,

and there are strict architectural rules at play

concerning design, which vows for traditional

and Islamic historicist architecture (MOM).

35


Furthermore, in Oman, inner towns can be

subdivided into geographical regions, where

some of them are at the bases or in the

mountain ranges, and some of them are located

in the desert planes farther away from the

mountains. In these inner settlements, all the

development and urbanization characteristics

described above also had consequences. The

lack of a natural topographical boundary as in

mountainous inner settlements has provided

vast amounts of flat space for the described

urbanization processes to occur. This is why

there is a greater contrast between inner

settlements such as Al Buraimi which is located

on flat territory.

Al Buraimi Governorate

OMAN

UAE

IRAN

Al BuraimiAl Ain

SoharMahda

Dubai

Persian Gulf

Gulf of Oman

Abu Dhabi

As Sunainah

MuscatFigure 6. Geographical

location of Al Buraimi

Governorate


Box 4. Particularities in inner

country settlements.

The lack of a traditional trade in

fish or pearl did not make inland

towns particularly open to other

cultures (Mohammad and Sidaway,

2012). Economic activities involved

trade between suqs, from camels

and agricultural goods to slaves,

and a semi nomadic culture shaped

the towns such as Al-Jahra and Al

Ahmadi in Kuwait; Al Ain in UAE

and Al Buraimi and Nizwa, amongst

many others in Oman.

36


History and urbanization in Al

Buraimi

The history of the area known as the Buraimi

Oasis is composed of various stages of

occupation by small groups that fought over

the control of the villages in the oasis. This was

mainly due to its geographical position linking

trading routes between the coasts of the Persian

Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.

The Buraimi Oasis covers an area of about 6km

by 9km; where 9 settlements with historical

associations are found (Petersen, 2009). Life

in these settlements was possible because

of the aflaj system developed all over Oman,

where water was brought from the nearby Hajar

mountains with the use of channels. Examples

of this type of oasis towns are frequent in Oman,

where there is the availability of fresh ground

water and fertile agriculture land.

There is some evidence that describes the first

settlements of the Buraimi Oasis in pre-Islamic

times by tribal migrations from North Africa.

Authors like Morton (2013) mention that there

was the presence of a representative of the

Prophet Muhammad, who stopped at Tu Am

(the name given to the area before the name

Figure 7. Villages in the

Buraimi Oasis area.

Many of the original oasis

are still part of the urban

fabric of both cities. The

blue dotted line shows

the position of the aflaj

system.


Al Buraimi, Oman

Al Ain Oasis

Al Muwaiqih

Al Mataradh Oasis

Hamasa

Al Jimi Oasis

Al Jimi Oasis

Al Qattara Oasis

Hili Oasis

Al Buraimi Oasis

As ‘SaraAl Ain, UAE

37


Al Buraimi) in order to persuade the Sasanian

government to convert to Islam. Eventually,

Sheikhs at Nizwa agreed to convert to Islam

(Petersen, 2009) and the Sasanians were

expelled from the Oasis.

There is more information for the period

between the sixth century A.D. and 1700 where

different groups sieged and controlled the area,

expanding the few constructions present in the

oasis. The groups were very diverse; Abbasid

Caliphs of Baghdad, Ibadite and Sunni factions,

Wali’s from neighbouring villages in Oman,

and Sheikhs in the neighbouring Trucial Oman,

as well as Saudis that started to incurse to this

land around 1805. Founded on Wahhabism,

different groups led by Saudis invaded and took

over the control of the oasis. This led to several

fights between them and forces amassed by the

Sultans of Oman, in order to regain control of

the oasis.

Some of the first descriptions of the village and

its surroundings by western authors appear

around that time. Hammerton and S.B, Miles in

Petersen (2009) described Al Buraimi as a large

Figure 8. View of an aflaj

channel

still ocassionally used for

agriculture purposes in

the centre of Al Buraimi


38


town with a strategic fort. They confirmed that

the surrounding villages had economic activities

that ranged from manufacturing in pottery,

weaving, ironworking, trappings, pottery trade,

farming of dates, alfalfa, oranges, mangoes and

root vegetables.

The Al Buraimi Oasis had twelve aflaj with an

average length of 7km. There were also two

main forts known as Al Illah and Al Khandaq

that comprise large rectangular structures. The

construction of this fort is attributed to the

Wahhabi’s between 1800 and 1818. The second

fort, recognizable by its moat, is considered to be

older from around 1808 to 1813. Petersen (2009)

argues that this moat typology is rather strange

in Arabia and in post-medieval fortifications.

One of the authors that describes the area

around the year 1959, is Wilfred Thessiger in

his book Arabian Sands (Thesiger and Stewart,

2008). He was in the Buraimi Oasis several

times making a four-day trip on camel from Abu

Dhabi. Thessiger mentions the existence of a fort

in Muwaiqih where his host, the Sheikh Zayid

resided. From there, he describes the existence

of enclosed spaces by mud walls, palm groves

and the stunning landscape of Jebel Hafeet, a

close by mountain, and the Omani mountains

range further away.

The “Buraimi dispute”

At those times, Saudi influence on the area was

very important, still Wahhabis were prominent

merchants and had control over slave-routes,

which flourished in two of the villages of the

Oasis. The political situation at those times

remained very delicate. Sheikhs would claim

power over its village, and not recognizing

the power that the Sultan of Oman had over

the area. This meant that power relied on the

support of tribe groups that each Sheikh would

amass by his own means.

Regionally, the Iraq Petroleum company had

already signed agreements with both the Sultan

of Oman and the Trucial Sheikhs in order to

explore the region around the Oasis, but without

any clear representation of the Sultan, and with

unstable rulings by the Sheikhs because of

disputes between the Al bu Falah of Abu Dhabi

and the bin Maktum of Dubai, the foreign

investment in petrol explorations was not

accomplished. This feudal system was a chronic

problem until the Al Buraimi dispute that ended

in the clear recognition of borders between, the

Former UAE and the Sultanate of Oman.

The events that preceded this dispute start with

the Saudi’s last incursion in 1952 when they

took over the village of Hamasa with armed

39


forces, violating territory from Abu Dhabi.

This event known as the Buraimi Dispute was

even discussed on the United Nations Security

Council because of British and U.S. involvement

with the three governments in dispute, Oman,

Trucial Oman and Saudi Arabia. The situation

was delicate because the British had influence

and some support from both Trucial Oman and

the Sultan of Oman, and the U.S. from Saudi

Arabia.

Arbitration broke down until 1955 and Britain

encouraged the expulsion of the Saudis from the

area (Morton, 2013), ending up with the current

borders between Oman and UAE being drawn

right across the Oasis. Ever since then the area

known as the Buraimi Oasis is comprised of

nine different villages, Buraimi, As ´Sara and

Hamasa today on Oman; and Al Ain, Muwaiqih.

Mataradh. Jimi, Qattara and Hilli on UAE.

The Oasis after the conflict

Around 1955 after the Saudis had been expelled

from the Oasis, the situation for the inhabitants

was delicate. During the four years that Hamasa

was under the influence of the Saudis it had

received money and had seen its market activities

develop. With the expulsion of the Saudis, even

though the village itself was not destroyed, the

economy was left shattered (Morton, 2013).

Hamasa was estimated to have around 3,000

people, supporting the Sheikhs Rashid, Obaid

and Saqr, who under British pressure and fear

from further reprisals coming in from Muscat,

left to Saudi Arabia.

It is stated that during this short-term influence

of Saudis in Hamasa, the villagers also saw

better living standards with the investment that

the Saudis brought. They started to neglect their

agricultural activities and thus began the path

towards decadence of the Buraimi Oasis and

its agriculture. During that time, the Sultan in

Muscat spared no relief in helping the villages

in the Buraimi Oasis to be redeveloped; the aflaj

system was left in an abandoned state and even

though the Wali of Buraimi and the British were

collaborating to invest in Buraimi, the sultan

refused to cooperate financially with them

(Morton, 2013).

This is the starting point of the polarisation

in the economy of Al Ain in the UAE and Al

Buraimi in Oman. British investment came to Al

Ain in support with the Abu Dhabi Sheikh and

the aflaj was repaired and the suq became soon

a thriving place for the local economy.

40


Figure 9. Current state of

As Sara,

View of the centre of the

neighbourhood in Al

Buraimi Oasis.


41


Current trends

Linnear growth and shift in activities

The Governorate of Al Buraimi is distinguished

by being the cross point between Oman and

UAE. AL Buraimi serves as a commercial capital

where business thrives with Al Ain, Abu Dhabi

and Dubai. Al Buraimi is also a fast-growing

city; new housing areas are being laid out, as

well as commercial areas and governmental

offices. Besides this, recreational areas are being

designed and built too. Nonetheless, there is a

trend in expansion that is affecting the urban

development of the city and its villages.

Al Buraimi is growing in a linear fashion, mainly

along the highway route that connects the main

city with the UAE and with the rest of Oman.

This is due to a strong car-oriented development

and to the current land allocation policy. The

trend is that the city of Al Buraimi is becoming

linear, such as Muscat and many others in the

country, growing along a transport route, and

not oriented towards employment, education or

leisure locations.

The other trend analysed by this study is that the

shift from primary activities such as agriculture

and stockbreeding, into governmental offices

and a small percentage of the private sector.

Car dependancy

The transportation mode is car dependant due to

affordability in prices of cars and oil. Moreover,

there is a car-oriented culture embedded in

the society. This situation has led to high

automobile accident rates and considerable

areas of land dedicated to car infrastructure.

Therefore, walking distances or infrastructure

for non-motorized modes of transportation are

non-existent.

Service provision is challenging

Al Buraimi is growing horizontally and not

vertically. The people of Oman are used to

having their own land with their own house, thus

growth is happening towards the outskirts of the

city, where it is uncontrolled and very scattered,

without planned infrastructure for basic services.

The trend is that these services arrive after the

construction of houses, which creates a huge

problem to the people trying to inhabit these

areas. For this reason, infrastructure provision

and specifically the key services face a lot of

challenges.

Finally, solid waste management processes

cannot cope with the rapid growth of the city in

the absence of sustainable ways of solid waste

treatment.

42


People are living farther and more

disconnected from each other

The tendency for housing and land allocation

policy creates an urban tissue composed of

isolated single dwellings. The plots assigned

for housing are always delivered farther away

from the city centre, allowing houses to be built

disconnected from the city centre, its activities

or infrastructure systems. There is also a trend

in oversized housing plots with unnecessary

amounts of space between the designated plots.

The distance between dwellings prevents

people from bonding and cultivating a feeling of

belonging, therefore restricting social cohesion.

Physically, housing has taken an expensive and

inefficient direction as a consequence of the

city adopting typologies that do not cater to the

local environmental conditions. Consequently,

it results in high production, functional, and

maintenance costs for the city.

Traditional culture is dissapearing

The corresponding increase in internal

emigration for work has reduced the rate

of family cohabitation with the number of

inhabitants in a household decreasing. Besides

this, the introduction of novel home designs

and building materials has displaced traditional

building techniques and materials; changing the

traditional aspect of the city towards a modern

appearance.

Additionaly, Hamasa was once a major market,

but nowadays is deteriorated due to neglect and

environmental degradation. The settlement is

now largely uninhabited, offering little incentive

to potential new residents. There is a tendency

toward abandonment of heritage and cultural

assets, and the decay of the sense of identity

among the community. Besides this, new

administrations in the Ministry of Heritage and

the Ministry of Tourism do not propose actions

in order to increase the attachment towards

these assets. Sites as Hamasa are prone to

disappear.

43


Figure 10. Lost oasis

and heritage


Figure 11. A street in

Sa ‘ara, Al Buraimi

Source: (Carvajal, 2015)

44


Current challenges

Curve and re-direct growth

The future challenge is to withstand this linear

growth and try to curve it. By this, an effort

to concentrate growth on specific nodes is

necessary. Precise areas in the city centre have

to be made attractive for development to occur,

as well as some foci in the peripheries have to

be detected in order to start a clustering process

for neighbourhood creation.

There are two important things that must occur.

Firstly that growth is curved and drawn back

to shorter distances for activities to occur, and

with this: better practices and technologies for

an adequate natural and man-made resource

management get implemented. The second is

to prevent primary activities from disappearing,

resulting in the Governorate eventually being

on the verge of resource scarcity.

Review and reformulate mobility

The national policy and the legal framework

need to be reviewed to overcome the challenge

of car dependency. In addition, it is necessary to

create proximity through higher densities and

mixed land uses. Thus, the land distribution

policy and building codes might be reviewed.

Another challenge is to raise public awareness

on sustainable transportation to reduce car

use. At the same time, the implementation of

facilities for non-motorized transportation plays

an essential roll to minimize car domination.

Issues such as inaccessibility, pollution, high

noise level, high congestion, among others,

still do not represent an urgent challenge for

the city. Nevertheless, if the urban area keeps

growing at the pace of the previous years and

the new developments continue with the same

urban planning system, the city may face the

aforementioned challenges in the short and

medium term.

Box 5. Diverse nature of challenges

In order to accomplish these regional challenges, the Governorate can focus

on improving the following: building codes, natural resource management

regulations, natural resource technologies, promote better land uses in the city

centres and peripheries. Moreover, promote agriculture and livestock activities,

within better water management practices and technologies.

45


Cope with demand

The Municipality will be unable to cope with

the demand of water and basic services, and

the ever growing population and distances

between every new household. The challenge is

to address this as well as to tackle the growing

demands of solid waste management, and the

capacity for wastewater management.

Enhance housing and neighbourhoods

Another challenge is to enhance the

constructions performance in order for them

to have better energy saving and bioclimatic

standards. The opportunity lies in utilizing

land and energy for the development of the city

environment as a whole. Housing’s contribution

for the improvement and functioning of urban

growth is achieved when it is not seen as isolated

constructions but as units within a larger

functioning organism; the neighbourhood.

Re-awaken culture

The future challenge is the revival of the

abandoned settlement of Hamasa. Mud-brick

construction is a valuable vernacular technique

in oasis settlements, and along with the physical

loss of the house structures, the knowledge of

such building traditions is also in danger of

being lost to future generations. The loss of

the intangible heritage represents the death of

a part of the community’s identity; therefore

there is a great urge to promote the importance

of heritage assets among the young population.

Finally, the challenge is to invest in capacity

building in order for community members to

have improved future input in decision-making.

Box 6. Land availability

The municipality faces the problem

of not possessing vacant land for

further plot allocation despite having

most of its territory not yet built. This

involves the setting of reforms for

land delivery procedures. Therefore

the challenge is to develop reforms

within the land delivery procedures

and to distribute plots in areas

already in an urbanized state.

46


SWOT analysis

After presenting the development of the

Governorate, its current trends and challenges,

this study presents a SWOT analysis. It is an

easy way to classify preliminary findings into

strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and

threats. It therefore identifies the strong and

weak points of the city and villages and helps to

quickly show what can be exploited and profited

from, or what can harm the region.

In the case of threats and opportunities, a wider

scope for analysis is encountered as these two

are frequently external or the city may have no

control over them. Threats can include factors

related to national urban environment, political

context, trade agreements, infrastructure, etc.

The role of the analysis is to identify if they are

contributing to the development or if they are

exposing the city to problems.

On the other hand, the SWOT analysis serves

as a guideline to propose alternative scenarios

for development. The use of scenarios is

helpful in order to present possible outcomes

to stakeholders (Cities Alliance, 2011). Similarly,

the study presents many options out of the

SWOT analysis, in order for local authorities to

work towards a collective decision and to gain

ownership whilst choosing the option that they

find more suitable.

Strengths

Geographical position and young

population

There are two main strengths on the regional

scale. One of them is the geographical position;

the Governorate lies on the Crossroads between

growing metropolitan areas, Sohar, Nizwa, Abu

Dhabi and Dubai. This is already fuelling the

economy and business of the city, but it can still

be exploited even more. The second strength

are the human resources; the Governorate has a

big young educated population that need to find

places to work and live in order not to go outside

of the region in search of better opportunities.

Sustainability awareness

There is an increasing awareness about

environmental sustainability among the

government institutions. Additionally, the

Governorate of Al Buraimi and ministries are

seriously considering the improvement of

citizens’ quality of life. This can be seen in how

the local government is open to new ideas for

urban development, protecting the local identity,

and cultural value, for instance.

47


Investment in sustainable

infrastructure

The main strength is that the majority of

population is connected to a water system;

almost the 80 per cent. Besides this, the new

wastewater treatment plant is another strong,

which is very modern even though it still does

not cover the entire city, but marks a big leap

in the improvement of wastewater handling.

Additionally, residents’ eagerness to participate

in recycling and waste separation projects is a

good strength on which to profit.

Equality of tenure

One of the main strengths is the intention to

keep land and housing tenure possibilities equal

among citizens. This is the main reason the

lottery method was considered for distributing

land.

Another beneficial aspect is the propensity

for a more distinctive architectural style or

elements for the city making it consequently

more homogenous. Additionally, land remnant

availability can be used to link residences among

each other if given an intentional public open

space character.

Pride through identity

The main quality Hamasa possesses is the

ability to give a sense of pride to the community;

the mud brick-houses are part of the identity

and belong to the cultural heritage assets of the

area, making the site unique. Its location is also

beneficial; near to the Al Ain border in the U.A.E.

and within the city. it is also next to the Fort Al

Hillah and Fort Khandaq.

Box 7. Strengths

Geographical position and human

resources

Environmental sustainability

awareness

Water network connection

Wastewater improvement

Equality in tenure possibilities

Homogenous cityscape

Cultural identity

Location of heritage assets

48


Weaknesses

Natural resource management

The main weaknesses found have to do with

the management of natural resources, and

mainly water. This can be seen in examples in

both the city and villages. This is linked directly

with the scarcity in the Al Buraimi city aflaj, and

the depletion of groundwater reserves in many

areas. Likewise, the availability of desalinated

water has prevented that a responsible water

management culture exists.

Centralization, lack of participation

and car-dominance

The centralized governance structure,

inadequate coordination, and the lack of

public participation are weaknesses of the

transportation planning. This is portrayed by

the lack in autonomy at the local level to make

decisions on plans or strategies. Additionally,

car-oriented development and low prices of cars

and fuel have lead to automobile dependence,

minimizing the chances of non-motorized

transportation. Finally, the transportation

facilities have absorbed significant areas of land.

Inadequate wastewater reuse

The percentage of wastewater reused is very

low, and there is a lack of recycling processes.

There is a weakness in planning because of

the lack of land and budget designated for the

establishment of recycling centres.

Inadequate housing design

The current building regulations do not consider

the surrounding environment. This leads to

a lack of identity between neighbourhoods.

Another weakness is how the housing sector

is addressing the climatic conditions with high

energy consuming systems.

Box 8. Weaknesses

Natural resource management

Lack in autonomy at the local level for

transportation planning

Car-oriented development

Low percentage of wastewater reuse

Inadequate building regulations

High energy consumption at a

household level

Few skilled human resources on the

field of responsible tourism

Lack of cooperation between

Ministries

49


Lack of capacity building and

cooperation

There is a weakness in terms of capacity

building as there are little human resources that

are skilled in the field of responsible tourism, as

well as a weak tourism diffusion from both the

Ministry of Tourism and the Ministry of Heritage,

also portrayed by their lack of cooperation in the

matter. Finally, the lack of interest on a fraction

of the community is also a weakness for the

development of Hamasa.

Opportunities

Introspection of the economy

The closing of the border with Al Ain can

represents some negative issues, such as Al

Buraimi locals have more trouble profiting

from the opportunities Al Ain offers in terms of

commerce and education due to congestion at

the check points and vice-versa. Nonetheless,

this new border has begun a slow but good

process of introspection of economy into Al

Buraimi. This is an opportunity to invest in

businesses, local know how (i.e.: clusters) and

education; enhancing spaces inside the city so

that businesses and more types of uses appear

(i.e: worship, education, commerce).

Sunlight

Al Buraimi has unlimited amounts of sunlight

that could be used to generate renewable energy

in many different ways.

Smart growth

The Sultanate of Oman has enough financial

resources from the oil industry, which

could be invested in innovative sustainable

transportation. There is still time for smart

growth by reformulating the current planning

processes and switching into a more sustainable

mode of transportation.

Box 9. Opportunities

Investment in local know-how and

clusters

Investment in education

Investment in solar energy

Switch into sustainable transportation

Creation of a water saving culture

Creation of a recycling culture

Solar energy at a household level

Creation of jobs in the tourism sector

Re-introduction of vernacular building

and art craft techniques

50


Recycling and saving culture

The residents’ willingness in saving water could

be used to foster better water saving plans, as

well as introducing recycling at all levels. The

performance and lifetime of the current landfill

can also be improved.

Learning from abroad

There is room for change in housing, as most

of the land stock remains un-built. There is also

the possibility of learning from better practices

elsewhere, and use them as references for better

planning strategies.

New economic activities

By developing the area of Hamasa within

responsible tourism criteria, new job

opportunities can be created. Additionally,

reintroducing vernacular building techniques

and with them, a sense of identity amongst Al

Buraimi locals. Finally, art craft production can

also be re-introduced, such as basketry and

pottery.

Threats

High costs of development and

resource dependancy

This study claims that the land allocation policy,

combined with the particular oil-economy in

Oman and governmental strategy, has produced

the scattered urbanization process, and this is

the origin of most constraints, weaknesses and

eventually threats. They include the high cost

of infrastructure and service delivery, as well as

resource dependency and scarcity. The rise in

costs exists on two levels. First of all on a utilities

level including water, wastewater, electricity, etc.;

and secondly on a typological level including

roads, schools, clinics, commerce, etc. The

growing dependency on basic natural or man-

made resources such as water or food is

increasing; therefore the risk for the Governorate

of having resource scarcity in the future if ever

the economy changes abruptly is very likely.

Inequality in mobility and health risks

Inequality and unfair accessibility for vulnerable

groups are threats for community development

and social cohesion. In addition, public health

and security is permanently threatened by

the car-oriented development. This mode

entails ecological threats such as pollution,

contamination, high levels of noise, and

destruction of the local ecosystems.

51


Box 10. Threats

Rise in infrastructure and service costs

Resource scarcity

Inequality and unfair accessibility to

transport for vulnerable groups

Costs of externalities attributed to car-

oriented development

Increased water demand

Reluctance to reuse treated water

Landfill threat to public health and the

environment

Disintegration of the urban structure

because of the land allocation policy

Loss of intangible and cultural assets

Growing water demand and waste

Issues associated with water demand include

the major drought periods caused by climate

change, and straining by the population.

Moreover, there is a general reluctance on behalf

of the community to reuse treated water i.e.: for

the irrigation of the grass in the green spaces.

Another threat is that the current landfill is very

close to the residential area and it does not fulfil

the technical requirements, posing a threat for

the environment and the health provision of the

area.

Scarce land stock

There is a lack of vacant land within Al Buraimi

to supply the housing demand for the following

lottery applicants. Talks with the neighbouring

wilayat of Mahdah have already begun to

negotiate the use of their land. The further

disintegration of the city and its residential areas

affects social cohesion and enlarges many of the

urban issues aforementioned i.e.: costs.

Loss of intangible assets

The lack of interest from the community, and

the loss of attachment to heritage and cultural

assets. Besides this, political factors affect the

creation of awareness campaigns promoting

the importance of the site. This can lead to a

permanent loss of such assets.

52


Al Buraimi 2030; a vision for a

resilient future

The Governorate of Al Buraimi can be the place

where inner land settlements revive an Omani

culture that has stagnated over the last 40

yearsVision 2030

New neighbourhood units and housing

typologies occur on a small but condensed

level, where small day-to-day activities can occur

within footsteps of each household. People can

walk through cool, shaded pedestrian streets

and head to the mosque, store, school, coffee

shop, etc. without having the need to use their

cars. Neighbourhoods also allow people to

interact on a daily basis with their neighbours;

social cohesion is constantly increasing.

On a household level, Al Buraimi produces

more than half the electricity needed with the

use of solar panels, and the remaining fraction

of electricity provided to the Governorate is used

for purposes other than housing. People have a

water conservation mind-set and everything is

recycled to the last drop. There is also a growing

trend in people growing small amounts of fruit

and vegetables in their own households.

In the villages, agriculture remains a strong

economy, and the products from local farms are

sold locally at Al Buraimi as they have the best

quality and are grown with sustainable practices.

Products that come from neighbouring Mahda

and As Sunainah are more valued than products

that come from other regions or countries, based

on their responsible and organic production

practices.

On a municipal level, Al Buraimi has a strong

control on how to deliver services. This is

done according to urban growth management

instruments, where growth is fostered in

clustered units and not in a linear or concentric

manner. This means that the Governorate

constantly monitors the growth patterns of

its city and villages and delivers utilities and

services to places where more units are built

together; likewise, it taxes the development

of land in areas outside of “adequate public

facility ordinances” (APFO) and promotes the

development of land inside them with the use of

building incentives. This is mainly governed with

a renewed building code and building permits.

Development in Al Buraimi is also encouraged

to occur rapidly in some areas. The city centre

and the oasis are places coveted for the

development of housing and commerce, and

the living conditions here are preferable for

residents that want to experience the benefits of

shorter commutes and mixed-use typologies.

53


Al Buraimi works as a hub for business and

commerce between cities in Oman as Sohar and

Nizwa, and cities in the UAE; providing places

for conferences, meetings, as well as all types

of leisure and commercial activities surrounding

the central Oasis and reclaimed heritage zone.

Al Buraimi and its villages are now proof that the

Omani way of living is unique and can be in line

with best practices towards the environment.

The city has also adopted smart growth

strategies, minimizing land occupation for car

facilities, and reducing automobile dependency

whilst prioritizing pedestrians. In addition,

residents are made aware of the importance

of adopting environmentally friendly practices.

Furthermore, public transportation is

implemented and functioning throughout the

city with the aim of providing a sustainable

choice of transport for everyone.

Additionally, the city has minimized the use

of non-renewable resources, the impacts on

the natural environment and protects the local

biodiversity whilst fostering the use of renewable

resources. Furthermore, the city and region has

managed to secure safe access to fresh water for

all the residents through an adequate network,.

It has also managed to introduce a solid waste

management network that covers the entire

city . This system is based on recycling, and a

sewage network that has a high percentage of

reused treated wastewater. Al Buraimi residents

are aware of the importance of adopting more

environmentally friendly practices towards the

use, reuse and conservation of water, as well as

separating and recycling their solid waste.

Neighbourhoods are recognized by their

harmonized appearance, which reinforces

the community’s identity. They are also

interconnected with thoroughfares, for residents

to access the different vicinities. Moreover,

neighbourhoods are thriving with pleasant

resting squares and areas to pause from the

heat and daily stress. Al Buraimi is a city that is

used as an example in the rest of Oman, due to

its innovations with bioclimatic and high energy

savings in buildings.

Finally, the revitalization of Hamasa has

been accomplished and the involvement of

the community towards the tourism sectors

has been acknowledged. Training and skill

development became key elements in order to

revive the oasis settlement of Hamasa, so as to

become a national tourist attraction.

54


Box 11. Rising problematic

Many issues that are arising in Al Buraimi are common to other places in the

world. They have to do with rapid growth of urban areas, the shift from primary

activities into the service and governmental sector, a growing migratory profile

as well as a growing young population, a strong car oriented development, a

reliance on external natural and man-made resources, the lost of identity and

heritage, the reliance on non-renewable sources of energy. Finally , an ever

growing distance between housing units that has an overall effect of spreading

all the aforementioned problems into long distances for them to be tackled.

Besides this, rising living costs are a reality: portrayed by electricity, water, fuel,

construction costs; time spent commuting and increasing health problems.

The need for a paradigm shift

Omani development in inner settlements has

been shaped by a distinctive trade and caravan

commerce; by an amazing water system and

agricultural activities related to it, and within

architectural typologies of great value to

Omani heritage. This shaped cities such as Al

Buraimi that relied on commercial routes from

the Omani coastal towns into the UAE shores.

Towns developed around the Oasis that were

fed by the aflaj, and in turn fed the inhabitants

with produce and cooler temperatures.

This has been distorted during the last 50 years.

A shift from semi-nomadic activities into a

sedentary modernization, facilitated by a rich

oil industry and the creation of employment in

the governmental sector, has occurred rapidly

and the traditional way of living is now mere

history. Omani modern life is also shaped by

the consequences of the land allocation policy,

which has allowed equal opportunities of tenure

to arise between all Omani nationals.

This study makes the claim that Al Buraimi has

the opportunity to shift from this paradigm of

development that Omani culture has undergone

during the last 40 years, and start to direct it

toward long-term strategies. This can be framed

within the well being of the majority, an efficient

use of natural resources and conservation of the

ecosystem, a shift in household typologies, in

better technologies related to service provision,

in better transportation modes, in better

economic opportunities in the regional level and

the reconnection to lost heritage and culture.

55


Figure 12. View of the

scattered neighbourhoods


Part 2.1 Regional development & growth managementJesús Salcedo V.

The following study presumes that if

development continues in the current manner,

disparities amongst social groups will grow

rapidly and the region will be reliant on external

resources; moving further apart from any

aspiring resilience thus always having the risk

of resource scarcity, worse living conditions

and disparities, as well as a deteriorating quality

of life. The following chapter sheds light on

the process that has resulted in Al Buraimi

Governorate’s urban and regional state. In

order to do so, a geographical and socio-

economical analysis is presented, as well as a

spatial overview of the urbanization process in

the Governorate. The major advantages and

disadvantages regarding spatial development

are drawn and with them, a strategy is framed.

A set of criteria that can improve the spatial

living conditions is presented. It is theoretically

framed under the urban growth management

field. Additionally, The study proposes a set of

recommendations in the shape of instruments

for urban growth management, as well as maps

that illustrate how can they be applied in the

short, medium and long term. The purpose

of the recommendations is to redirect the

Governorate’s development strategy toward

improving and profiting from its assets, to

improve its use of natural resources and public

space, as well as the policies that will curve

the ever growing sprawl, by shifting into a new

set of criteria regarding urban and regional

development.

58

Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management

Assesment of the current

state

Taking into account that the problematic of

the Governorate has been presented, the

following study starts with a brief analysis of

different geographical, economic, social and

spatial factors that affect the Governorate as a

region. Afterwards it explains the strategy and

instruments recommended.

Climate, Temperature and rainfall

According to the statistics, the maximum

temperatures recorded for Al Buraimi since

2002 have risen considerably. In other terms,

the last 5 years have been the hottest; reaching

maximums of 48 C. Likewise rainfall has been

very irregular and scarce during the last five

years. From 2002 to 2006 the lowest amount

recorded was 36mm of rainfall, and from

2007 to 2012 the lowest recorded was 12mm.

Moreover, averages for these two periods are

67mm and 38.6mm. In terms of weather and

water resources Al Buraimi is one of the hottest

and underprivileged in Oman.

Water Resources

Historically the Buraimi Oasis was a source of

many products that were cultivated thanks to

Figure 13. Maximum

and minimum

temperatures in Al

Buraimi Governorate.

Source: NCSI, modified by

author

Previous page:

Agriculture in Hafeet, Al

Buraimi Governorate

Source: (NCSI, modified

by author).

59


the aflaj system, its use being spread all around

the country. The aflaj allowed ground water

from nearby mountains to be transported as far

as the agricultural lands in the Buraimi Oasis

villages, where mainly date palm was cultivated.

Nowadays, the two main oases that are still in the

Omani side are a mere glimpse of the splendour

that the aflaj system allowed to flourish. Around

10 years ago, the water flow from the aflaj system

was almost exhausted do to a rapid increase

in water use in the surroundings. The fast

urbanization of Al Buraimi and Al Ain used most

of the ground water available until the point of

drying up the source of the aflaj (MOM, MECA).

It is still uncertain to the Al-Buraimi government

if most of the responsibility of drying up the

ground water is due to the extraction by wells.

Decline in agricultural activities

The rapid urbanization and its direct increase on

the demand for water is not the only cause of

the abandoned state of Al Buraimi’s agriculture.

The process which the country undertook since

the 1970’s to improve the industry and provide

better employment for Omanis as well as

fostering the sedentariness of many nomads

(Janzen, 1983, p.292) is also the reason why a

diversification of employment was introduced.

Later on, activities that resulted more attractive

in terms of revenues and man labour started

Figure 14. Average

rainfall in Al Buraimi

Governorate


by author)

60


to replace agriculture. This is portrayed in

contemporary Al Buraimi by the fact that only a

few landowners still use their plots in the Oasis

to grow products. Many of them have seen an

opportunity in migrant workers to rent these

lands and allowing the renters to utilize the land

for their own self-production.

Water scarcity in the agricultural sector

One of the reasons for the rapid decline in

agricultural activities is the drastic change in

rainfall seasons (MOA, 2014). Another reason

is the job opportunities that have been created

in other sectors, namely government offices,

that have displaced a lot of people from time-

consuming and less profitable agricultural

activities. These urban activities are more

secure and profitable: the Omani government

offers numerous job opportunities in all

sectors. Furthermore, land use change was still

possible until recently, when the Ministry of

Agriculture placed a halt on land use changes

from agriculture to other uses. This means that

agricultural land in the Governorate can no

longer be transformed into housing, commercial

lots, etc.

Authors such as Abdel Rahmnn and Omezzine

(1996) describe problems that the traditional

aflaj system has on contemporary agriculture.

During irrigation a lot of water is wasted

through evaporation and overuse. This could be

sustained with investment in better engineering

technologies for irrigation and transportation of

water.

Increase in desalinated water

production

The authorities have acknowledged the water

scarcity problem, and the country knows that

there is a lot to do in terms of management,

and improvement of agricultural practices.

Desalination plants produce around 77% of the

water used in domestic purposes in Muscat

(Abdel-Rahman and Abdel-Magid, 1993). In

comparison, there has been a decrease of 37%

in the production of water in Al Buraimi from

1,094 M. Gallons in 2010, to 679 Mn. Gallons

in 2012 (NCSI). This is due to the opening

of the desalinization plant in Sohar, in the

Governorate of Al Batinah (North and South),

which now covers most of the supply of water to

Al Buraimi. To understand the water production

required for both Governorates, Al Batinah and

Al Buraimi, we need to look at this figure closely.

In Al Batinah, there is an increase of 22% in the

production, from 21,480 Mn. Gallons in 2010 to

26,396 Mn. Gallons in 2012. This Governorate

is the one with the biggest production of water,

exceeding the production of Muscat (14,937

Mn. Gallons in 2012) by far. The supply for Al

Buraimi is included in this numbers.

61


Energy

Oman privatized its energy sector as early as

1999. This has encouraged a lot of growth in

the sector (Al-Badi et al., 2009). Today 80%

of Oman’s GDP is comprised of gas and oil

revenues. The whole country relies on electricity

generated by gas, but meeting the ever-growing

demand from the household and industry

sectors will be a task hard to deal with. This is

the main reason why there is a lot of potential in

studying the energy sector and its future shift to

renewable sources.

The household sector consumes more than

50 percent of the country’s total electricity (Al-

Badi et al., 2009), whereas the industrial sector

is growing every year. These are the two main

consuming sectors. Part of the problem related

to the energy sector, is that the pricing system

doesn’t reflect the true cost it takes to generate

electricity. Energy is heavily subsidized (Al-Badi

et al., 2009), for household, industry and for

agriculture, and this does not provide incentives

to save energy at a household level.

Figure 15. Production

of desalinated water in

different Governorates.

Sohar produces all the

desalinated water that

gets sent to Al Buraimi

Governorate


by author)

62


Figure 16. Omani

population pyramid in Al

Buraimi Governorate in

2012

Source: NCSI and Author,

2014

Figure 17. Expat

population pyramid in Al

Buraimi Governorate in

2012

Source: NCSI and Author,

2014

63


Population

Population has been increasing during the

previous years, mainly due to the creation

of the Governorate and the increase in

employment in the government sector. There

was a population growth of 22.8% from 72,917

people in 2010 to 89,564 in 2012. If we look at

the data in terms of nationals and expatriates

there are some interesting findings. There is

an increase in nationals of 6.93% from 43,026

in 2010 to 46,004 in 2012; and an increase of

expatriates of 45.73% from 29,891 in 2010 to

43,560 in 2012. Most of the expatriates come

from India, Pakistan, North Africa, Indonesia

and the Philippines. This means that as of 2012

expatriates make up 48% of the population in

Al Buraimi Governorate. This same growth

has been contrasting in the two villages of the

Governorate. Omani growth in As Sunainah has

been 7.19%, but expats have decreased by 86%.

In Mahda, Omani growth has been 6,92% as in

Al Buraimi; but expats have decreased by 69%.

This means that there are more employment

opportunities for expats in the city of Al Buraimi.

Trade and clusters

Oman’s economy can be regarded as a shift

from traditional trade and feudalism into

oil industries, governmental sector, and

entrepreneurship. Moreover, the economy in the

country can be separated as the activities taking

part in the coast and activities taking part in

the inner settlements. Until 1970 the economy

of the country was characterized by this duality,

where the ports traded dynamically with each

other and those of other countries (Speece,

1989); then with second category ports, and

small settlements; and only then would they

connect through the rough country’s topography

with established trade routes into the inner

settlements. These were places where caravan

trade occurred, and only if the demand for trade

and the population were large enough, bazaars

and suqs would be established as permanent

structures.

Trade in Al Buraimi

S.B. Miles in (Speece, 1989) described the

market activities in Al Buraimi in 1877 as “one

of the small markets. It had no proper bazaar;

trade was done almost entirely by barter at an

open-air market”. Today, the Al Buraimi suq is

only a remnant of any splendour that it could

have actually had in recent years. The area of

Hamassa at the middle of the 20th century had

the main buildings that hosted different types

of commerce, (Phillips, 1972) and slave trade

continued well beyond the 1950s.

Today in there is amongst smaller activities

like the construction sector and the quarries,

64


an interesting economic activity, which this

study uses to portray one of the particular

characteristics of the city. In the central parts of

the city there is a series of business dedicated

exclusively to the selling of ready-made clothing

or the tailoring of clothing, mostly for women.

One of the key arguments to promote clusters

is that “there is an increasing importance of

knowledge-creating processes for competitive

advantage in global economies” (Cumbers

and Mackinnon, 2004, p.962). For the case of

Al Buraimi, there is a potential in promoting

a spatial link between these same types of

commerce, to foster the exchange of knowledge,

networks, workforce, commercial links, etc.

Spatial analysis

The governorate of Al Buraimi was created in

2006 from a part of the Ad Dhahirah region.

This governorate is located in northeast Oman,

bordering with the UAE to the west andnorth,

the Al Batinah region to the east, and the Ad

Dhahirah to the south. The governorate is made

up of three Wilayats; Al Buraimi, Mahda and

Figure 18. Mens

tailoring and readymade

clothes.

Clothing cluster in Al

Buraimi.

Source: (Author, 2015)

65


Sunainah. The city of Al Buraimi is the capital of

the governorate, and it lies directly on the border

with the UAE, adjacent to the city of Al Ain on

the other side of this international border.

Land allocation policy

The main factor that has shaped the spatial

structure of cities in Oman is the land allocation

policy that was implemented in 1984. The

conditions in which people receive the plots are

very basic. Most of the time plots are allocated

in areas of the city where no development

has occurred yet, because the Ministries plan

and layout new areas where development will

expand and then distribute the land. There is no

obligation to build on the plots, people have the

choice of using these plots to build housing, to

sell, rent or trade them. In consequence, there is

a large amount of plots that get distributed but

that undergo no development.

Regarding infrastructure, the plots are normally

serviced with electricity during the first year.

Road infrastructure is not necessarily provided;

this decision is made according to the budget

allocations of the Ministry of Transport and

F

ED

G

CA

Al ainAl Buraimi

B

Figure 19. Spatial

charachetristics in Al

Buraimi

A: Minimum development

took place at the sand

dunes

B: Oasis

C: As’ Sara

D: Al Khadra

E: New park and sports

complex

F: Main east-west axis

G: large extensions of

allocated land

Source: (CNES / Astrium,

CNES/ Spot Image,

Digital Globe, modified by

author., 2014)

66


Communication (MOTC) which are different in

time with the expansion plans of the Ministry of

Municipalities, from which water, sewage and

waste handling is provided. Another secondary

factor that affects the willingness to build on the

plots or not, is the preference for Omani’s to

live close to their relatives. Thus, once land is

allocated they also try to buy and sell in order to

group themselves and build close to each other.

This policy, along with its consequences in

terms of services, gave its spatial characteristics

to the urban growth of cities like Al Buraimi.

During the 1990s the policy was modified and

the standard plot size was raised. Ever since,

the areas distributed vary between 600m² to

900m²; with obvious consequences to the

rapid scattered sprawl of the cities in Oman.

Moreover, there was a turn in the events when

the scattered sprawl reached unprecedented

scales, because as of 2008 women are also

eligible to a plot (MOH, 2014). This doubled

the demand of applications, and thus the

land allocated for housing extended farther

and farther away from the city centres, around

10km of linear expansion during the last 8 years

(MOM, 2014; MOH, 2014).

Big plans, unexpected changes

The most interesting changes in Al Buraimi’s

urbanization process are related to housing.

Between 1984 and 1986 expansion plans were

laid out for the city. During that time housing and

economic activities were mainly concentrated to

the south of the Oasis, still thriving with palm

groves. Housing settlements could be found

between the Oasis and the southern border

with Al Ain. This border was just a political

one, but there was no control from either of

the countries, meaning that locals could cross

between Al Buraimi and Al Ain at any time.

Nonetheless, the main roads that used to cross

from each side to another are the same north-

south axis that still exists and where the border

checkpoints are now situated.

Another distinctive feature of the space between

Al Ain and Al Buraimi is the sand dunes situated

between the Oasis and the western border.

Regional Planning Committee laid out housing

plots during the 80’s. In this plan, there is also

the designation of residential areas around the

old city of Hamasa, but fortunately not all the

plots were built upon. Today the former villages

of Buraimi, As Sara and Hamasa are now a part

of the urban fabric of the whole city, which still

uses its names to define the neighbourhoods.

On the city’s land use plans today (MOH), we

can observe that most of the residential areas

that were planned around As’ Sarah and Al

Khadra were built upon, in comparison to the

urban scattered patterns that extend from As’

Sarah far into the west of the city limits.

67


Figure 20. Satelite

view of Al Buraimi’s


CNES/ Spot Image,


author.)

Figure 21. Current

land use plan

Same scattered

development as in satelite

image, showing all the

roads and different type of

buildings foreseen in the

expansion plans. White

solids represent existing

structures

Source: (MOH/ Author,

2015) modified by author.

68


There are two reasons why this happened: the

land allocation policy, and the large amounts of

plots destined for governmental offices when

Al Buraimi was made a Governorate in 2006.

These plots account for a big proportion of land,

spreading out new residential areas farther into

the west, where not much has been built yet.

The villages

The villages such as Mahda, Sunainah or Hafeet

have similar spatial structures. Many plots

in the villages are larger as many of them are

functioning as agricultural lands with houses

built inside. This older land pattern is mixed with

the land allocation policy where smaller plots,

nonetheless between 400-900m2 big, have

been allocated for the construction of housing.

These new plots are nearer to the highways that

link the towns and villages to bigger cities e.g..:

Al Buraimi, Ibris, Nizwa.

One of the striking features of Hafeet or As

Sunainah is the fact that spatial structures are

not as scattered as in the city of Al Buraimi. In

the villages a better, denser and more compact

structure seems to have prevailed. This is due

to the fact that most land allocated has been

inside the city of Al Buraimi, and not the villages,

and also because population growth in the

villages has remained either constant or slightly

decreasing.

Strikingly, both Hafeet and As Sunainah have

heritage values that are not being taken care of.

In Hafeet, the Ministry of Heritage has identified

many pre-historic graves but they remain

unknown to most Omanis, as well as their is

not a profit being acquired from their historic

potential.

Regional and common problematic

Omani lifestyle is becoming more and more

resource dependant; consequence of having

wealth from the petrol sector and imported

labour. This lifestyle is portrayed by the

simplicity which Omanis can build houses that

are detached from any urban tissue, because

there is always the possibility of commuting via

private vehicles.

The setting of areas for strategic

development and growth management

The analysis shows that Al Buraimi has the

means to provide subsidized resources and

services on an almost individual basis, such as:

water, electricity, etc.; but these living conditions

are getting farther away from what a city and

region should pursue in terms of resilient

development.

The need to supply individual services for

each household has negative economic

consequences. Nonetheless, the principal

69


problem lies in the concept of the land allocation

policy, because it is not necessarily attaining the

objective that it had at its conception; to provide

Omanis with land for housing and therefore

better living conditions. The policy is only

addressing land tenure issues in a way in which

everyone obtains the right to a portion of land,

a plot that is unattached from the living urban

fabric and that comes with a series of terms

and conditions that make attaining better living

conditions more difficult.

The conclusions of this analysis, as well as

the SWOT analysis presented on the previous

chapter, opens up the possibility of combining

certain areas of the city that have constraints

and disadvantages on which to act. They are in

turn, linked to some of the opportunities and

strengths analysed. Therefore, they enhance,

improve, and turn threats and disadvantages

into opportunities and strengths for the future.

Within the Governorate, three areas with

particular characteristics can be specified:

Strategic area 1: City centre

The strategic area comprises the centre of

Al Buraimi along the clothing cluster, with

the old suq and oasis on one end, and the

governmental district and both Hamasa and

Sa’ara on the other. The disadvantages here

Figure 22. Strategic

area 1. City centre and 2.

Outskirts.


70


are related to the abandonment of agricultural

land, and congestion due to work places and

car ownership. But it also represents one of the

lively areas of the city, with plenty of work places,

combined with commerce and residential areas,

highger density and smaller commuting times.

Strategic area 2: The outskirts

The outskirts of the city or the area where

scattered development is the least dense. Where

housing units are located far away from one

another and the service of public infrastructure

is scarce. Here, the consequences of the type of

spatial development are the most striking. Most

of the issues analysed in the SWOT are present

in this area.

Strategic area 3: As Sunainah

Land is on the verge of being abandoned for

better opportunities in the city, and the public

facilities such as markets, schools, and places

of work are scarce. Future scattered housing

and growth are also a threat to the small rural

structures of the villages, thus here another

set of criteria towards strategic development

can be made. In order to produce a set of


area 2. As Sunainah


71


recommendations and finally a set of criteria

for the development of these 3 strategic areas,

a policy and instrument review regarding urban

growth management has to be presented; as

well as the specific instruments and policies

reviewed have to be contextualized.

Instrument and policy analysis for

Al Buraimi Governorate’s regional

growth management

In the following section the main tools and

instruments that are used to manage urban

growth and its pertinence to the context of Al

Buraimi are explained. Also, a conclusion that

will shed light on the establishment of a set of

criteria for further urban growth is presented.

This chapter describes briefly the general

situation of the three strategic areas, taking

into account that all of the urban issues are

already discussed and described in the SWOT

analysis, and then mentions which of the urban

growth management instruments are the most

pertinent to each area. Graphic images are

presented for each of the three strategic areas,

that portray an example of how could these

instruments be framed at an urban and rural

scale. In other words, this study identifies all the

potential places where the set of instruments

can be implemented within the strategic areas

and thus presents it in the shape of maps.

Box 12. Basic considerations for

the instruments

All of the options that are proposed here

are valid instruments for the city of Al

Buraimi and the villages, framed within

three strategic areas. Nonetheless it is

the responsibility of the policy maker

to decide which one of these options

suits the citizens better, and to decide

through consensus, with the municipal

authorities, on which ones to develop

further and finally implement. The

main objectives to have in mind when

choosing these instruments are to know

the direction, quality and pace of growth

that Al Buraimi wants.

72


The city centre of Al Buraimi

The main problems analysed include plots that

are left unused, development mainly along the

highway, lack of quality and quantity of places

for gathering, increasing congestion in the main

avenues, etc. This is why a set of instruments

can be very rewarding in terms of making plots

more attractive for development, improving the

quality of urban fabric by starting “punctual”

renewal projects, regulating the sprawl of

certain commerce or office space in some areas,

as well as fostering the growth of it in others.

The instrument that identifies “areas with

urban potential use” can tackle this. Likewise,

this area is attractive for new constructions,

therefore regulatory instruments can play a

big role here, promoting the construction of

projects according to a new set of sustainable

criteria. Additionally, the municipality should

offer the opportunity for mixed use buildings to

appear along certain areas, as well as for new

architectural typologies to be tested.

There are many empty plots that need be to be

made more attractive by allowing new typologies

and uses to exist. This is why the mix-use,

building regulations, district specialization and


area 1. City centre satelite

image

Highest density and most

diverse plot use in city

centre


CNES/ Spot Image,


author., 2014)

73


Existing building

Un-built plot

Existing street

Un-built street

New building regulations and typologies

Mixed-use

Specialized commercial district

Plots with urban design potential and connectivity

Adequate Public Facility Ordinances

Specialized agriculture district

Short time allowed for plots to develop

Medium time allowed for plots to develop

Extenden time allowed for plots to develop


area 1. City centre: Urban

growth management

instruments


urban design potential instruments are relevant

for this strategic area. In the short term, it is

expected to see new projects come in the way

of the current urban fabric, but slowly a change

in paradigm is expected to occur, when citizens

have the chance to experience the benefits of

better urban conditions. They are expected

to occur in many ways: less commuting to

places of leisure, worship, commerce, study;

better building conditions and reduced costs

in electricity for air conditioning; better urban

space after urban interventions occur; and

lastly a thriving district with commerce, culture,

habitation and office space condensed in a

better and optimal way.

74


The main instrument for this to occur in the long

term will be the time allowed for plots to develop.

If made possible, plot owners that don’t have

any intention to develop the land, can be offered

another plot in an area that is not affected by this

policy. Bids for projects in available plots within

the time frame policy can then be reviewed by

the authorities and then choose the projects that

fulfil the new development criteria proposed by

this study. The time frame considered for this

policy is the following: short term developments

are proposed as lasting 2 years; a medium term

5 years, and a longer term 10 years. This is why

this instrument will start transforming the city in

the mid- and long-term.

The real shift in paradigm will occur when land

in the city centre of Al Buraimi becomes more

attractive for projects to be built.

The Municipality should always keep in mind

that when making decision over a set of projects

for a given plot, the project that ensures the best

use of sustainable construction methods, and

that ensures better urban quality for its users

and its surroundings, should always be chosen,

Regarding APFOs in the city centre, new projects

that want to be developed here will have to pay a

higher price than the projects that are developed

in city areas where the distribution of services is

still not existent.


area 1. City centre:

Specialized clothing

cluster


75



area 1. City centre: Urban

design intervention

potential

Pedestrian connectivity,

shadowed spaces, etc.



area 1. City centre: Time

allowed for plots to

develop


76


The outskirts of Al Buraimi:

The main need in areas that have a low density

and scattered sprawl is to curve this growth and

try to cluster housing units with one another. In

the short term, the main instruments that play

role are the land allocation cap and a possible

land allocation moratorium, explained in detail

in the following section.

In the mid-term, this study recommends the

need for very small and punctual public urban

space interventions to occur between small

housing clusters and places of worship, schools,

etc. Basic indicators can be surveyed to see

what is the minimum amount of households

that could be served with this instrument.

Interventions such as these can add value to

the plots and fostering the clustering of more

housing units. These instruments can only work

if they are placed under Adequate Public Facility

Ordinances (APFO) and they can only be made

in the long term. Their goal is to eventually

allow people to be less reliant on door-to-door

water, sewage and solid waste services, and

thus reducing the costs for the municipality.

In the long term, and after a thorough survey

that analyses the availability of services per

neighbourhood area, an APFO can take place.


area 2. Outskirts satelite

image:

Lowest densities and lack

of services.

Source: CNES / Astrium,

CNES/ Spot Image, Digital

Globe, modified by author.

77


This instrument can transform the scattered

areas of Al Buraimi in the long term, because

after the APFO are functioning, development

that takes place outside the designated areas

will have to pay for the adequate fees necessary

for the provision of services in new areas.

Frequently, extra fees will induce developers and

construction to occur within the APFOs.

The designation of mixed use areas and the

fostering of new typologies will play a secondary

role in this strategic area.


area 2. Outskirts: Urban

growth management

instruments


Existing building

Un-built plot

Existing street

Un-built street


Mixed-use








78



area 2. Outskirts: New

typology implementation



area 2. Outskirts: Urban

design intervention

potential:

pedestrian connectivity,

shadowed spaces, etc.


79


Figure 33. Scattered

housing in the outskirts of

Al Buraimi


80


As Sunainah

The village of As Sunainah is characterized by a

very small demographic growth and a slow shift

of primary activities. The inhabitants face similar

problems as the outskirts of Al Buraimi, namely

being too far away from places to shop, study

and work.

The difference with the city, is that there are

possibilities to improve the agricultural sector

and thus allow more people to stay in the village

and have a good quality of life. This is why the

main challenge is to curve the abandonment of

agriculture lands. This activity can be fostered

with the cooperation of the MOA and the MOM

in two ways. One is establishing parameters for

agricultural plots to be inside the specialized

district, this means that they will have to comply

to a set of criteria regarding better practices in

terms of produce and use of natural resources.

Likewise, farmers should never stop receiving aid

in terms of capacity building, the introduction of

new technologies. The second is that with the

aid of the Chamber of Commerce, farmers that

produce goods in the specialized districts can

receive aid for their transportation and be sold

at a specified place and time, on a regular basis

in the city of Al Buraimi.


area 3. As Sunainah:

satelite image

Source: CNES / Astrium,

CNES/ Spot Image, Digital

Globe, modified by author.

81


Small scale urban interventions are also

reccomended, mainly to promote connectivity

between plots and places of study, leisure and

worship. This can help in promoting a stronger

community, which will always be useful if most

of the inhabitants are dealing with the same

economic activity.

In the long term, the municipality should focus

on providing adequate services and facilities.

Likewise, the Municipality should prevent the

settling of new scattered neighbourhoods with

the creation of APFO, so that new development

outside of it will also bear the infrastructure

implementation charges.


area 3. As Sunainah: urban

growth management

instruments


Existing building

Un-built plot

Existing street

Un-built street


Mixed-use








82


Selected instruments for urban

growth management

Short-term

The following selected instruments can take

place as soon as possible in order to gain time

for the mid- and long-term instruments to be

defined. They can be implemented during the

first two years of the implementation of the

whole set.

Development moratorium and land

allocation cap

One of the most drastic approaches available

is a development moratorium. The distribution

of plots further away from the centre of Al

Buraimi should be paused; likewise for the

villages. A moratorium for this policy is difficult

to implement, but can buy time, which is much

needed for the next instruments to be developed

properly. Parallel to this policy, the Ministry of

Housing needs to establish a development cap

that can decide on the pace that the city wants

to have regarding number of plots allocated

within each new period. This development cap

can be promoted as a way to give only optimal

land for development and not to continue giving

away land far away from the strategic areas

and infrastructure expansion plans. The land

allocation cap can be regarded as a short-term

instrument as it does not solve the issues related

to urban growth in the long term. Nonetheless it

should be maintained, reviewed and monitored

in order to define if the cap should allow more

plots, or constrain more plots in the future.

Middle term

In the mid-term there are many instruments that

can start to be designed. They can be divided

into two different categories: incentive type and

control type instruments. The mid-term for the

instruments to work is defined by a time frame

starting at 2 years until 10 years.

In the case of the incentive instruments, it is

important to promote the land market of plots

that are located in these centres. Additionally,

control type instruments will prevent bad

practices from continuing and gradually shift

towards a resilient and sustainable growth

paradigm.

New typology implementation

Varied uses can be allowed to appear in the city.

They can combine housing with commercial

and office space; what typically is a mix-used

typology. Even though this typology exists in

some parts of the city, there is a potential in

designing a very novel and contextualised

typology that caters to both the needs of a

growing population, authorities, and fosters

83


better urban development. Here is where

the instrument plays a major role in a shift of

paradigm; as it has to offer the opportunity for

new typologies to be created. The typologies are

not going to be defined in this study, as it is not

in the scope. Nonetheless, this study claims

that if mixed uses are promoted via the waiving

or exemptions of taxes, or even through low

interest loans for the projects that go along this

development direction; then slowly but certainly

the areas around the strategic centres will start

to change. The Municipalities role in the matter

is to make sure that this novel typologies are

promoted and fostered.

Additionally regarding a new typology, an

increase in heights is important. An average

height of 5 or 6 storeys should be pursued as is

already evident with some of the buildings in the

centre . Single storey or two storey projects have

to be discouraged in the city centre.

Building standards:

Better building materials should include

construction materials that are produced

nearby, insulate better against the extreme

temperatures and thus allow savings in cooling

and electricity. Additionally better technologies

in the construction industry and for building

installations (e.g.: solar energy production

on a household scale for both production

of electricity and water heating) should be

supported. Likewise, the surface of windows in

buildings and quality of glass has to be carefully

reviewed so that buildings are better insulated.

Urban design interventions:

There should be small-scale urban public

space interventions, that can create adequate

shaded spaces in clustered neighbourhoods.

This is thought in order to promote the use of

endemic tree species, grey water use for their

maintenance, and the creation of connectivity

between neighbourhoods in a small scale. This

instrument is represented in the figures as a

large amount of space with the potential to be

transformed. This should be seen as an identifier

of such space and not as an urban design tool

that directs where and how this intervention

should occur.

The role of the Municipality is to identify the best

small plots and spatial remnants between them,

to start up a project that generates better public

urban space, in both Al Buraimi and the villages.

Time allowed for plots to develop:

There has to be a shift in the way in which

land is allocated without any responsibility for

development. It is understandable that the

Municipality cannot impose new regulations

on a national policy, but they can also provide

84


new incentives for the owners who do develop

their plots in a determined time frame. This

will give another boost for the people who do

have the means and desire to develop plots, and

will diminish the amounts of plots that remain

undeveloped and unused. This scarred urban

tissue should be prevented as much as possible.

Likewise, plots that remain undeveloped should

be taxed in a very careful way, meaning that a set

of criteria for what a “developed plot” is, should

be established first. Another alternative is that

taxation for unused plots is implemented, and

it can be higher in city centre plots than in

peripheral plots.

If the creation of a fee for plots that are not

being used is not attractive for the Municipality,

this study also proposes that plots only be

allowed to remain unused for a maximum time

period. After which they should be transferred

to other users with proposals for them. In

this scenario, the original owner should get

another plot allocated in an area of the city

where this specific instrument is not in play.

This instrument considers three phases: by

short time to develop a plot (up to 2 years),

medium time (up to 5 years), and a maximum

of 10 years for extended time. Plots outside the

area designated by this instrument will have a

standard tenure. It is important to stress the

need for a set of criteria that can determine if a

plot is actually being developed and used, or if it

is genuinely abandoned.

Urban design control measures:

New projects should provide some open space

but always at the backside of the plots; these

areas are the ones that eventually can be used

for car parking. They should never be on the

front side of the street as it normally occurs;

conditions and specifications for car parking

spaces have to be reviewed and changed. This

also means that alignment regulations have

to be carefully reviewed by the corresponding

Ministries, namely MOH and MOM.

This instrument is not necessarily a growth

instrument but it is one that this study identifies

as necessary to complement and guide the

previous ones.

Tighter building regulations

Urban growth should be encouraged but

always within a new set of criteria, the following

instrument is also a counterpart of the incentive

type regulations, as it will discourage some

development to occur, but will foster more

sustainable projects taking place.

The gradual setting of regulations that

discourage bad practices in terms of materials

and renewable energy for housing, commerce

85


and industry, include a more expensive building

permit for any project that does not consider the

new building standards.

This way, the waivers and tax exemptions for

the projects that are built accordingly to the

new standards can be financed by the projects

that are not. This type of instrument cannot be

applied to the already built projects in the city,

but the incentives should be available for them in

the case of refurbishment, retrofitting, building

extensions, etc. Eventually, these standards can

be turned into regulations so that all projects

comply them.

Long-term measures

The following long-term measures can be put

in place after two or three years of the first

implementation of instruments, but they will

be able to show benefits after the fifth year of

its implementation and can be elongated as

necessary as possible.

District specialization

A link between the agriculture producers of

the region and the market vendor could be

established, through the promotion of space and

financial aid for such market process to occur. It

is important to bear in mind that any investment

in this type of subsidiarity means that the region

can become more resilient towards certain

issues. Agriculture should also be fostered with

better technologies and practices in order to

have more efficient water management.

Clusters of commerce should be encouraged

further. Incentives in certain areas can be

exclusively for commerce dedicated to the

clothing industry for example; or for retail, offices,

etc. This can also make small neighbourhoods

attractive as well as social capital is encouraged

through a public policy.

APFO’s

Adequate Public Facilities Ordinances (APFO)

can help in creating an environment for the

right implementation of development projects.

A thorough study that can provide the right

indicators for the number of plots of each

type in different areas; namely the strategic

development areas and the outer parts of the

city, has to be made. Demographical surveys

need to occur in order to do this properly. Data

needed includes detailed demographical growth

per area in the Governorate.

Combined with the MOH and the MOM

development plans, a set of APFO has to be

implemented to direct further growth in the

long term. This will change the land market in Al

Buraimi drastically, but in the long term, urban

growth will be directed towards more specific

86


goals, instead of uncontrolled results derived

from master planning. APFO can include the

amount of households in areas that are already

served by public sewage and waste-management

networks, as well as areas that are served by the

water network. This will make it unattractive for

developers to build outside of the areas that are

not going to be served with adequate public

facilities yet.

This instrument can also be applied to the

areas where urban development is highly

scattered. There can be an APFO that promotes

the clustering of living units in the same

area in order to receive basic infrastructure.

This strategy could foster that plots that are

scattered and undeveloped acquire different

values according to the possibility of clustering

together. Also, people can be encouraged to

organize themselves in a community of clusters,

in order to have sets of houses developed in

a certain area. The goal would be to cluster

development as much as possible in order

for the basic services to be provided by the

municipality in the future, and cut costs in water

distribution, or wastewater and solid waste

management.

A survey will be needed to obtain the necessary

indicators for an APFO to take place; done by

MOM, MOH, MOA and MOTC.

Building standards in the long-term

If a new code of building regulations for the

Governorate of Al Buraimi is done, then in the

long term it will be possible to stop projects

that don’t take advantage of renewable energy

resources, or thermic insulation for example.

Incentives can be paired with fees so that in

the long term there is always a reason to build

accordingly to new standards. Rural areas in

Al Buraimi could benefit greatly from such

measures, if ever in the long term the capacity

of ground water is even scarcer, it will be of

much help if the urban areas manage their water

consumption in a better way.

Action plan for regional

development through growth

management

The adjacent table shows the selected

instruments and differentiates them briefly

by type, name, short description, authority in

charge and measures needed for the instrument

to be implemented in the appropriate time

frame.

87


Type Name Brief descriptionAuthority in charge Measures needed

controlDevelopment moratorium

Short pause needed to plan carefully the implementation of the next instruments

MOMTemporary halt in land allocation process.

controlLand allocation cap

Restrict the number of plots that get laidout and distributed in the next stages

MOM + MOHAnalysis of maximum number of appropriate plots that can be allocated per term.

incentiveNew typology implementation

New mixed use typologies, increase in heights, setbacks, building standards

MOM Building permit incentives.

incentiveNew building standards

Better and adequate building materials, technologies and practices according to criteria

MOM+MOHBuilding code with new incentives.

regulationNew building standards

Regulation of un-built space in plots; tighter regulations favouring urban design and pedestrian friendly setbacks; deprioritize parking lots, and prioritize mixed use street level.

MOM+MOHBuilding code regulations and penalties, controlled by building permits.

controlTime allowed for plots to develop

Plots allocated in certain areas have a time frame for a project to be developed there. Failure to comply with a project leads to the plot being re-allocated. Original owner gets a new plot in an area without a time frame.

MOM

Temporary ownership of allocated plot until project is aproved, as well as a new re-allocation scheme is needed.

designUrban design interventions

Foster the creation of shadowed public spaces that allow connectivity, with the use of endemic species and greywater.

MOM+MOTCSurvey to identify the initial small scale projects, and a call for proposals.

incentiveDistrict specialization

Foster and facilitate the creation of certain enterprise and economic activities.

MOA+COC

Waivers and financial contributions for startups, commercialization of goods from farms into the city, as well as capacity building and better technology.

control APFO

Provision of services from municipality based on a long term plan according to clustering of built units and denser development

MOT+MOM+MOH

Survey and studies needed in order to specify which areas will the APFO cover.

regulationBuilding standards

Gradually implement obligatory building standards in order to stop incentives for good practices and only continue with penalties for un-wanted building practices.

MOM+MOH Building permit regulation.

regulationResource management standards

Better wastewater reuse, solid waste management, and sustainable energy use

MOM+MOH+MOA

Incentives for projects that take advantage on sustainable technology as well as higher building permit costs for projects that do not.

Short term

Mid term

Long term

Urban growth management instruments and necessary procedures in time phases for AL Buraimi Governorate

Figure 36. Action plan

for growth management

Source: Author, 2015

88


Flexibility and adaptation of

instruments in the mid and long-term

The main thing to have in mind regarding

these sets of instruments, is the fact that they

are not permanent and static, but flexible and

adjustable. This means that in the medium term,

instruments that rely on specific boundaries

have to be small-scale and site specific.

With the use of monitoring, the urban

management growth instruments can adapt to

the growing conditions of the city and villages,

and thus go along development in a periodical

and careful way. These instruments should

never be regarded as master planning or zoning

measures, but as directive, preventive and

repelling measures for identified urban growth

patterns.

Alternatives and complications for this

set of instruments

First of all, for the short term instruments,

an allocation cap will be unpopular for the

future generations that are waiting for plots.

The negative implications of this instrument

should be regarded in the following terms: the

municipality should not only allocate plots,

but also ensure that plots allocated can lead

to better living conditions. This means that

the municipality has the responsibility from

stopping the distribution of plots that hinder

development and can leave people without

adequate infrastructure and services, as well

as potential bad living conditions in the long

term. The consequences of scattered urbanism

explained earlier should always be kept on mind.

Regarding the mid-term instruments, there is a

possibility that the citizenry is reluctant to new

typologies. The introduction of this novel type of

building regulations will be slow to be adopted

from the demand side. Nonetheless, the policy

makers have to make sure that the possibility

for this type of development is there, namely

through the creation and implementation of new

sets of regulations that allow such a typology to

establish.

The Municipality has to keep in mind that

long terms measures are intended for the well-

being of the vast majority as well as for the

environment; therefore new enterprises that

want to be involved in the production of more

adequate building materials and solar energy

technology have to be considered in the further

development of Al Buraimi.

89


Conclusions

Al Buraimi can lead the way towards a more

resilient society in economic, social and

environmental terms. It is recognized that

“governments must implement policies to

ensure that the benefits of urban growth

are shared equitably and sustainably” (UN

Department of Economic and Social Affairs,

2014). Likewise, a resilient development

implies that the city creates better employment

opportunities as well as an improved resource

and waste management, in addition to

transportation, equality and governance.

In the long-term, the living conditions can be

enhanced if the shift in the current development

paradigm occurs. This implies that management

of services are improved, better land tenure

opportunities as well as housing conditions are

ensured, reducing living costs for the people

and the municipality. Likewise, better spatial

qualities can be ensured if a typological shift

occurs, where the cities condense and provide

more spaces for encounter, leisure, worship,

study and employment. This is what is meant by

a shift in paradigm in the criteria that drives the

development of Omani cities.

Figure 37. View of

Al Buraimi‘s scattered

urbanism

Growth continues to

extend farther and farther

away into the city limits.


90


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Alterman, R. & MacRae, D. (1983) Planning and

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Part 2.2 Sustainable transportationPedro Becerra Rodríguez

The city of Al Buraimi, located in the northwest

of the Sultanate of Oman, has experienced

rapid urban growth characterized by patchy

and unsustainable development over the last

years. As a result of this process, the city is

facing challenges in different dimensions of

the urban structure. One of these problems is

transportation, which is automobile dependent

and road based. Additionally, Al Buraimi

presents segregated land use patterns, low

densities, reduced travel choices, considerable

occupation of land for car facilities and high

accidents rates, amongst other issues. Thus

the increasing transportation needs may lead to

social, environmental and economic problems.

Additionally, the transportation planning

process is characterized by a lack of coordination

among institutions and shortage of vision.

Car dependency can be attributed to different

factors; firstly, the national transportation

policy and legal framework are focused on

roads development. Secondly, prices of cars

and oil are relatively affordable in the Sultanate,

and there is a car culture based on foreign

automobile models. Furthermore, the current

strong top down approach does not facilitate

the instruments necessary to implement a

sustainable mode of transportation. A more

balanced transportation system, achieved via

a more holistically coordinated and inclusive

planning approach would provide many

benefits to the city. This chapter has the aim

of analyzing the current transportation system

in Al Buraimi. Afterwards, this study intends to

provide proposals which are based on criteria

and concepts to adapt toward a more balanced/

sustainable transportation system in Al Buraimi.

96

Part 2.2 Sustainable Transportation

Assessment of the current

state of transportation and

mobility

The affordable prices of oil and cars in addition

to the road based transportation policy of Oman,

has led to automobile dependency in Al Buraimi.

As a result, the vast majority of residents use

cars to travel. It is estimated that 90% of citizens

move by private car, whereas 5% travel by taxi,

which is the only complementary means of

transport available for the citizens. Furthermore,

2% of the residents travel by private bus; this

number only includes certain students and

workers, who use the service provided by their

schools and companies. Meanwhile, only 2%

and 1% of the residents commute by walking or

biking respectively. The information on choice of

transportation in Al Buraimi is illustrated in the

graph below.

Low costs for car based mobility

Considering indicators such as residents’

income per month and prices of cars and oil, it is

Choice of transportation

mode in Al Buraimi

Source: (Author, 2014

(based on community

questionnaires)

Previous page:

Main street in Al Buraimi


97


evident that private transportation in Al Buraimi

is affordable for residents. For instance, in the

automobiles’ market, new cars are available

from 500 Omani Rials. Additionally, prices of

fuel are very low due to the fact the Sultanate

of Oman is an oil producing country. The price

for one litre of oil is normally 0.12 O.R. (NCSI,

2014). Meanwhile, the average minimum wage

in Oman is 325 O.R. per month (Zawya, 2013).

Additionally, the costs of car insurances and

maintenance are not expensive.

High investment into improved road

network

Over the last 3 years, there has been a

considerable increase in road building in the

Governorate of Al Buraimi. This is attributed

to the urban growth of the city and new

infrastructure built for regional linkages.

According to the National Center of Statistics

and Information of Oman (2014), only 15

kilometers of roads were built in 2011. However,

in 2012 the road length increased sharply and 103

kilometers of new roads were laid. Afterwards,

113 kilometers of new roads were laid in 2013

in Al Buraimi. The total expenditure in roads

in Oman can provide an overall idea of the

economic costs attributed to the infrastructure

for road-based developments in the Sultanate.

According to the National Center for Statistics

and Information (2014), the Oman Government

Development Expenditure for roads was 384.9

Millions in O.R. in 2011. This expenditure

decreased slightly to 373.3 Millions of O.R. in

2012. Afterwards, it increased again and the cost

was 424.3 Millions of O.R. in 2013. Furthermore,

according to the Department of the Ministry of

Transport and Communications in Al Buraimi

(2014), the budget allocated for maintenance

of the highways and regional roads is 100.000

O.R. per year. Thereby, the information on road

expenditure shows a significant amount of the

development budget invested on car-based

transportation infrastructure.

Road-related transport services in Al

Buraimi

The few available services provided are private

transport such as taxis, school buses, and buses

for workers. The operation of taxis is controlled

and regulated by the Royal Oman Police. There

are no taxi companies in charge of the service

and there is no informal transport. Moreover, the

bus service for public schools is managed by the

local government. In contrast, the bus service

for private schools, Buraimi University, and

workers is managed directly by the educational

institutions or by the companies.

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Furthermore, the National Oman Transportation

Company provides public bus services to travel

from Al Buraimi to Sohar-Muscat and Ibri-Nizwa.

The NOTC is the only transportation company

in the Sultanate and operates throughout the

country. However, the service does not match

the demand of regional linkages in Al Buraimi.

Environmental impacts

According to the World Bank (2014), the

carbon dioxide emissions in Oman increased

significantly over a period of only 20 years,

measuring such emissions from 1990 to 2010.

The number of metric tons in 1990 was 6.3

per capita, which rose to 20.4 per capita by the

Figure 38. Built roads

in Al Buraimi

Road executed lengths

in the Governorate of Al

Buraimi per Year

Source: (National

Center of Statistics and

Information, 2014)

Figure 39. Carbon

dioxide emissions in

Oman

Source, (World Bank, 2014

modified by author)

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year of 2010. Furthermore, the total number of

thousand metric tons produced in the Sultanate

of Oman in the year of 1990 was 11386, whereas

in 2010, the production of thousand metric tons

grew up 57202.The increase in carbon emissions

has negative impacts on the environment,

affects air quality and contributes to global

warming.

Road safety - accidents

The most urgent problem that transportation

presents for Al Buraimi is the high rate of

accidents. According to the Royal Oman Police

(2014), in the year 2011 the city had 318 non

serious accidents, 310 injuries and 27 deaths. In

2012, Al Buraimi had 315 non serious accidents,

360 injuries and 32 deaths. Furthermore, in

the year 2013 the city recorded 325 non serious

traffic accidents, 381 injuries, and 42 deaths due

mostly to high speeds and drivers misbehaviour.

The situation has not been effectively controlled

and the accident rates have increased slightly

over the previous years.

Mobility creating factors

This refers to the aspects which characterize

mobility in the city of Al Buraimi. It is important

to understand the aspects that influence why,

where, and how individuals in Al Buraimi

commute to their destinations.

Commercial activities

The commercial activities such as shops,

restaurants, markets, and other services

generate considerable demand for mobility in Al

Buraimi. These activities are located in the main

secondary and distributor roads of the city, where

density is higher. It is important to mention that

these commercial points are located close to the

international border with Al Ain (U.A.E).

Residents from Al Ain frequently cross the

border to go to Al Buraimi where they can find

more affordable prices of goods and services,

increasing the flow of traffic. The crossing points

of the international border between Al Buraimi

and Al Ain are critical points of traffic flow. The

information collected indicates that 27% of

Omani residents in Al Buraimi cross the border

daily, 23% cross the border more than once per

week, 13% once per week, 16 % more than once

per month, 14% once per month, and 7% never

cross.

Leisure activities

influence mobility in Al Buraimi as well. The

facilities for sports are the Buraimi Sports

Club and the Sports Complex, which attracts

significant numbers of people. Additionally, the

Buraimi Park, which is the only public green area

for recreation in the city, is another point where

people commute frequently during the evenings.

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Health and education activities:

Facilities such as hospitals, medical centers

and education facilities such as schools and the

Buraimi University generate high demands of

mobility.

Additionally, there are 27 public schools and 8

private schools in Al Buraimi. According to the

National Center for Statistics and Information

(2014), it is estimated that there were 8,918

students in Al Buraimi in 2013. As previously

mentioned, the schools and the Buraimi

University provide bus transportation service for

the students.

Mosques:

Moreover, the mosques in Al Buraimi are

essential points for the residents. The largest

mosque is the Masjid Sultan Qaboos, which is

located in front of the main roundabout of Al

Buraimi. There are many mosques located in

different parts of Al Buraimi and easy to reach by

foot from the residential areas.

Figure 40. Mobility

creating factors

Points that create mobility

and concentrate more

demand of accessibility in

Al Buraimi

Source: (Ministry of

Housing, 2014 Modified

by: Author)

101


Transportation planning

procedure

The Supreme Council for Planning produces a

planning framework for the organization of the

physical development in the Sultanate of Oman.

Within this framework, the Ministry of Housing

develops Regional Plans for all regions of the

country (MOTC, 2013). Based on these Regional

Plans, the Supreme Council for Planning

designs Town Structure Plans. Such plans are

the base for development, which includes the

transportation infrastructure. In the case of Al

Buraimi, the implementing agencies are:

(1) The Department of the Ministry of

Transportation and Communications in Al

Buraimi, responsible for the highways and

regional roads, and

(2) the Buraimi Municipality, which is the branch

of the Ministry of Regional Municipalities

and Water Resources, and has the Office for

Technical Affairs regarding to the local road

network.

The Ministry of Transport and Communications

determines the priorities and schemes, thus

works such as roads improvements and

roads reconstruction are usually considered

because of poor safety conditions, congestion,

and infrastructure failure (MOTC, 2013).

Furthermore, the development of new areas

requires building more roads and transportation

facilities. The Department of the Ministry of

Transportation and Communications in Al

Buraimi and the Office of the Technical Affairs

of the Municipality have to coordinate the new

road developments, concerning the existing

and proposed services which could be affected.

Therefore, they need the information from the

agencies in charge of public services such as the

Public Authority for Electricity and Water, oil and

gas companies, telecommunication companies,

waste water companies, amongst others. The

Ministry of Housing allocates residential plots

of land to the Omani nationals. At the time that

the land is allocated, there is no transportation

or public service infrastructure. Thus, after a

considerable area has been developed then

the roads and service infrastructure are built.

There is no connection between land use and

transportation planning because they are the

responsibility of separated ministries, which find

it difficult to coordinate these two components.

102


Figure 41. Transporta-

tion planning procedure

Source: (Author, 2014

based on the planning

procedure stated in the

Oman Highway Design

Standards)

Transportation legal framework

The Omani legislation contains 4 regulations

related to transportation:

Oman highway design manual

standards

This manual provides broad guidelines for

the responsibilities of particular authorities

and organizations involved in transportation.

This document does not only include

design standards, but also planning and

implementation procedures. These standards

have been established by a Technical Committee,

which had representation from the Ministry of

Transportation and Communications, the Royal

Police, the Supreme Council for Planning, the

Muscat Municipality, the Municipality of Dhofar,

and the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and

Water Resources (MOTC, 2013). This regulation

has been developed based on previous legal

frameworks for transportation design and

implementation. The standards were meant

for the design of highways, arterial, secondary,

103


distributor, and access routes, which in other

words, means the hierarchy of national and

local roads. This regulation establishes some

technical codes that must be followed in the

design and implementation stages. Additionally,

it states the planning procedures for national

and regional strategies, according to the Oman

Planning Guidelines (SCTP, 2010).

Omani environmental regulations

This set of laws was created by the Ministry of

Environment and Climate Affairs in order to

prevent pollution, environmental degradation,

chemicals hazards, and damage to the

ecosystems in the Sultanate of Oman (MOECA,

2013). The law is mainly addressed to the

industrial activities which handle hazardous

chemicals. It includes the control of emissions

and noise levels, which indirectly refers to

transportation activities as well. Through

this regulation, the Ministry of Environment

and Climate Affairs issues permissions

for all activities that represent a risk to the

environment. The planning process also states

that all new roads projects need a license which

certifies that they comply with the environmental

requirements.

Oman planning guidelines

The guidelines were issued by the Ministry of

Housing; they established planning definitions

and standards for the development in the urban

and rural areas. They also set standards for

road networks and accessibility (MoH, 2014).

Furthermore, the guidelines determine the

land uses permitted along the highways and

the distances between the roads and buildings.

Moreover, the master plans must establish

the limits of the projected areas which will be

urbanized, the projected roads, and protection

areas. It also complements some of the

standards that have been established by the

Oman Highway Design Manual. The guidelines

are linked to the building codes and state the

number of required parking lots per project,

depending on the built area, land use, and

density. Finally, they determine the minimum

distances between residential areas and service

facilities.

Development control plan framework

The DCPF is a document which contains

guidelines and standards for the development

of integrated tourism projects. Consequently,

the framework encompasses standards of

transportation facilities for accessibility to

tourism complexes. They define the number

of parking lots, the type of roads and streets

to access, and traffic impact assessments.

Additionally, the standards recommend

implementing facilities such as sidewalks

and bikeways in the tourist areas, and the

preservation of the local landscape.

104


Urban space for mobility

Roads network

According to the Highway Design Manual of the

Ministry of Transport and Communications, the

roads network in Oman is structured in different

levels depending on the accessibility, speed,

distance, and traffic flows. As a result, it is

possible to categorize roads in Al Buraimi with

the national standards hierarchy. Al Buraimi has

a national route, which is the only highway in

the city, which connects it with Sohar-Muscat

and Ibri-Nizwa. This national highway is linked

to two secondary routes in Al Buraimi, which

connect it with the wilayat of Mahdha and the

two international border crossing points.

The highway in Al Buraimi, which is a national

route that connects the city with the highways

to Sohar and Ibri, presents high traffic flows

and a speed limit of 120km/hour. Moreover,

there are green areas between the highway and

the local roads located alongside. These are the

only green spaces provided for pedestrians in

Al Buraimi and are designed with the purpose

of creating a barrier between the highway

corridor and sidewalks. The highway fulfils all

the standards included in the regulation for

national roads; it has a high quality and good

performance in regard to traffic flow and low

congestion.

The secondary route to Mahdha functions as a

main entrance to the industrial area of the city

and other facilities such as the waste treatment

plant and the dumping site. The facilities for

waste are located approximately 10 kilometers

away from this route. This road is for trucks

and heavy traffic due to the activities located in

this area. Moreover, it is also the access to the

Buraimi Park and the residential areas in the

west of the city. According to the MOTC (2014),

there is a project plan for the dualization of the

road to Mahdha, which would increase the traffic

flow. On the other hand, the secondary roads

that connect the highway with the international

border concentrate the most important

commercial areas of the city alongside them.

Facilities such as restaurants, shops, the souk

(market), hotels, retailers, and other businesses

are located along the secondary routes. The

traffic is usually congested during the peak

hours, thus increasing likelihood of accidents.

Parking lots

Car dependency in Al Buraimi entails the

demand for significant urban areas for parking

lots. The transportation mode has favoured

cars instead of the pedestrians, thus, it is more

common to find parking places than sidewalks

or green areas. It is possible to find either

formal or informal parking lots; the city has built

considerable areas for car facilities. However,

105


Figure 42. Sample

area in Al Buraimi

Selected area for analysis

of land occupation for

parking lots

Source: (Wikimapia, 2014

Modified by: Author)

Box 13. Parking ratio test

This study considered a specific area of four blocks in Al Buraimi, in order to

measure the area and percentage of land used for parking lots. The analysis

indicated that 15% of the areas were used for parking lots and 25% were empty

plots, which were also occupied by cars. It also showed that densities are very low

and land is not being used efficiently. Only 60% of the selected area is built up.

106


it seems that the demand for parking is higher

than the supply of available places to park. It is

common to find empty plots of land which have

not being built on within the city, these places

are usually used as parking lots when all the

other facilities are occupied. Therefore, there is

a lack of regulation to avoid the occupation of

these plots of land by cars. Areas which could

be used as public spaces with possibilities

for community interaction, enjoyment, and

cohesion are being wasted to accommodate the

high number of vehicles. Furthermore, parking

in Al Buraimi is free, lacking of regulation and

control which affects traffic congestion.

Sidewalks

Many areas have been developed without

considering pedestrians facilities, others have

either poor quality of sidewalks, reduced space

for walking, or only segments of pavement.

Moreover, the city has not built facilities for the

mobility of elderly people, children, and people

with special needs. The building codes are not

enforced to maintain the distance between

buildings and roads, there is lack of spatial

justice in the distribution of urban spaces in the

city because there is no equity for accessibility.

Additionally, prioritizing cars discourages

options for non-motorized transportation.

Figure 43. Map

of roads network in Al

Buraimi

Road network hierarchy

according to the

Highway Design Manual

criteria of the Ministry

of Transportation and

Communications

Source: (MOH, 2014

Modified by: Author)

107


The outcomes of the survey performed within

this study show that approximately 15% of the

residents never walk, whereas 65% of them walk

below than 2 hours per week; 15% walk between

2 and 4 hours per week, while only 5% walk

more than 4 hours per week.

Development of new roads

New internal roads have been developed over

the last years in disperse/patchy developed

areas of Al Buraimi. The city has spent significant

amounts of financial resources on roads located

in the outskirts. The new infrastructure entails

high economic costs and it does not compensate

for the low benefits that it represents. The

decision makers are not considering a balanced

development and are sacrificing significant areas

of land. This is not sustainable in terms of the

environment and economy because it destroys

the local ecosystem, investing high amounts of

money without meeting the needs of the city.

Therefore, the budget for development could be

invested in a more effective manner.

Goals

The aim of this study is to propose

recommendations. Its purpose includes the

evaluation of the transportation planning

structure. Moreover, in order to fulfill the

above mentioned it is important to include the

following sub objectives:

○ To analyze the mobility patterns in Al-

Buraimi by identifying the factors which

influence urban and regional transportation.

○ To evaluate the existing transport facilities

and mobility behavior .

○ To review the current transportation laws,

regulations, strategies, planning procedures,

and how they are implemented in practice in Al

Buraimi

○ To identify the problems and challenges

that the current transportation system entails

and propose ideas on how to switch to a more

sustainable mode of transportation.

○ To establish criteria on sustainable

transportation in order to address the

dimensions of rapid uncontrolled growth.

108


Recomendations

The analysis has provided a broad panorama

of transportation in Al Buraimi, identifying the

key issues and challenges. Thus, with the aim of

classifying the proposals, this section is divided

into governance/institutional and technical

recommendations.

Governance / Institutional

recommendations

Integration and coordination in the

planning procedure

In order to contribute to a more effective

planning procedure, it is essential to integrate

and coordinate activities among the ministries

and government institutions. Thus, the Ministry

of Transportation and Communications, the

Ministry of Housing, and the Ministry of

Regional Municipalities and Water Resources

should function using a holistic approach. By

coordinating activities, urban development

would be implemented in a more balanced

and sustainable manner. Consequently, it is

needed to establish efficient mechanisms and

instruments for the integration of development

activities. This means that plans and decisions

on housing, transportation, infrastructure,

public services, and environment should be

taken as an integrative process. Moreover, it

includes establishing a common database

for all ministries to keep all the necessary

information readily available. The planning

procedure suggests the coordination among

ministries; however, in practice it does not

function holistically and it is also necessary to

create management tools for a more efficient

implementation stage. Therefore, the Ministry of

Housing in Al Buraimi, which is the responsible

for land use administration, should integrate

the land use plan with the responsible for local

transportation network in Al Buraimi in order to

ensure more compact development.

Additionally, it is not appropriate that the

Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water

Resources is the responsible for the local road

network in Al Buraimi. There is a disconnection

with the Ministry of Transportation and

Communications at the local level and this

is one of the reasons for the failure in the

implementation of transportation regulations.

Changing the land distribution system

The national land distribution policy should be

reformulated with the aim of using the land

more efficiently and create higher proximity. The

current system of allocating lands randomly has

led to patchy developments, wasted land, and

urban fragmentation. The process of distribution

should also enforce the construction on the plot

of land and the simultaneous development

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of urban facilities and services for those plots.

This process should encourage a compact

urbanization, by ensuring useful occupation of

land. It is important to consider mechanisms

that compel people who receive plots by draw

to build on them. Therefore, by refocusing the

land allocation on people who are genuinely

determined and financially able to build, the

urban areas would have higher densities, better

access to services, and an improved quality of

public spaces.

Integration of land use and

transportation planning

The integration of land use and transportation

planning is a key recommendation in order

to reduce the need for new roads, and

build infrastructure more efficiently. The

Ministry of Housing should tie land use

administration policies with transportation

planning, coordinating the planning process by

establishing strategies addressed to achieving

this holistic approach. In addition to the

integration of planning activities, two strategies

are proposed:

○ Nodal Development: Al Buraimi should

concentrate high densities and mixed land uses

in strategic points of the city, as mentioned in

part 2.1.

○ Walkable Communities: Al Buraimi

should provide the facilities for non-motorized

transportation (biking and walking) which

encourage people to adopt a healthier life style.

Review of laws and regulations

The overall national policy on transportation

should be reviewed and reformulated in order

to convert to a more transit oriented policy.

Afterwards, the Oman Highway Design Manual

Standards, the building codes, and the Omani

Environmental Regulations should be modified

in order to adjust to the needs of sustainable

development.

○ Review of the Oman Highway Design

Manual Standards: As mentioned, the national

policy on road based transportation should

be reconsidered. Therefore the standards

should be developed in more depth for the

local transportation network, defining codes

that minimize car dependency by providing

facilities for walking and biking. The regulation

should also establish clear responsibilities for

the implementation of the local network and

more efficient mechanisms for monitoring and

enforcement.

○ Review of the building codes: As a

complement to the review of the Oman Highway

Design Manual Standards, the building codes

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should support the allocation of the urban

spaces for pedestrians. Therefore, the codes

should consider the minimum distance between

buildings and local roads and the obligation

to build sidewalks. They should also regulate

the number of parking lots and reduce the

occupation of public spaces by cars.

○ Introduction of parking fee: This proposal

might work with the aim of regulating the use

of public spaces for parking lots. It would also

contribute to reduce car use due to the fact that

it is currently free to park anywhere in the city.

This initiative has been implemented in Muscat,

where there was a limitation of parking lots

in the city centre. Thereby, priced parking was

successfully established to reduce the demand

of parking lots, discouraging car use, and

reducing traffic.

○ Regulations to reduce car use: The

affordability of cars generates a challenging

perspective in minimizing automobile

dependency. Therefore, in order to reduce car use

and accidents rates, other actions beyond speed

controls and cameras might be considered. The

Royal Oman Police is currently doing awareness

campaigns to encourage consciousness about

driving behaviour. Nevertheless, this action

should be complemented by adopting more

thorough driving tests and procedures to

receive a driving license should be established

in Al Buraimi. Only people who demonstrate

responsibility, ability, and good driving behaviour

in the tests should be allowed to possess a

driving license.

○ Review of the Omani Environmental

Regulations: This law should encompass

the impacts of roads and transportation

infrastructure on the environment. It is currently

focused on emissions and the roads building

process; nevertheless the regulation is not

relevant in terms of protecting the ecosystems.

Moreover, the law should limit the range of

the extensions of lands that are meant to

be developed, in order to integrate all the

environmental issues. Additionally, with the aim

of supporting environmental preservation, it is

highly recommended to establish a branch of

the Environment Society of Oman in the city.

Monitoring and enforcement

It is essential to establish more efficient

and effective instruments and mechanisms

to implement at the local level in order to

comply with the national laws and regulations.

Therefore, strict enforcement, controls, and

inspections are needed in order to follow the

legal framework. By increasing monitoring and

inspections, compliance will also increase.

Thus, the implementation process will follow the

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guidelines, standards and codes stated in the

transportation legislation. The proposal is that

for all new transportation projects in Al Buraimi,

inspections by the Central Government and the

Governorate should be made during the different

stages of the project execution. Consequently,

the transportation implementation agencies

are forced to know the legal framework and

operate according to it. In the case of inspectors

finding an abnormality or non conformity,

the implementation agency should be made

responsible to take the corrective actions.

Decentralization

More autonomy, in the Governorate of Al

Buraimi to decide on transportation plans and

projects in their city-region, is needed. The local

government has more knowledge regarding

the actual needs, priorities, problems, and

challenges of its city-region than the Central

Government of Muscat.

The process of decentralization may take a long

time, nevertheless, efforts have to be made

and there should be more flexibility for the

governorates and municipalities in decision

making. In the process of decentralization, it

is essential to have political acceptance from

the Central Government to transfer certain

powers to the different levels. Additionally, the

transportation legal framework should define

the responsibilities among the different actors

involved.

The first step of decentralization was made in

2011 through the creation of the municipalities in

the Sultanate of Oman. Therefore, the next step

is that the National level considers distributing

additional administrative, political, and fiscal

autonomy to the regional and local levels with a

long term projection.

The process must be gradual in order to not

disrupt the current governmental structure. For

instance, the Governorate of Al Buraimi should

have the autonomy to decide on regional new

roads and linkages according to the priorities in

terms of transportation of goods, tourism and

residents mobility.

The Municipal Council of Al Buraimi should play

an essential role in strengthening the power in

the regional and local level in transportation

planning and decisions. Consequently, when

the process takes place, the levels of public

engagement and involvement will increase as

well. Decentralization is a key tool to promote

urban sustainable development by focusing

more closely in the local community.

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Public involvement

In order to initiate a more integrative and holistic

planning approach in Al Buraimi, it is important

to increase the level of public engagement in

planning and sustainability. Therefore, residents

in Al Buraimi should get progressively more

involved in urban planning procedures. The

residents are a key player in identifying the real

needs and priorities of the community and they

should have the right to express opinions, ideas,

and criticisms on the city’s transportation. Thus,

the decisions would be more inclusive, and

effective, in terms of benefiting the public.

This is a long process which could be started by

involving the schools and university students,

with activities such as student proposals and

competitions regarding transportation. In

the efforts to involve all groups of society, the

Municipal Council of Al Buraimi should play a

key role in attracting the residents to participate.

As a result, new ideas, concepts, and proposals

can arise from the citizens according to their

needs.

Furthermore, the process should integrate the

expatriate residents, which count for around

50% of the total population in Al Buraimi. The

immigrants are part of the city and need to be

Figure 44. New road

in Al Buraimi

Patchy developed area

with a new road for

the accessibility of only

few housing units. The

urbanization does not

follow a coherent process.


113


included and participate in planning as well.

They also have needs for urban and regional

mobility which represents transportation

demand. According to the community surveys,

the non-nationals are the most disadvantaged

group in the city. Consequently, the process

should not marginalize any group and should be

fair and equal by providing the same conditions

for everyone.

Public / political acceptability and

adaptability

It is also necessary to establish a process which

includes the following:

○ Public and political acceptability: The aim

of reducing car dependency depends on public

support. Therefore, the community should be

aware of sustainability and the negative impacts

of the current car based mode of Al Buraimi.

Firstly, the concepts of sustainability should

be clearly conveyed to the residents through

campaigns and programs. Secondly, creating

awareness, consciousness, and education

through campaigns can encourage people to

adopt more sustainable practices.

○ The campaigns can be carried out in

cooperation with the media, schools, the

Buraimi University College, the Royal Police of

Sidewalk in Al Buraimi

There is not space for

pedestrians and there is

an insufficient distance

between the buildings

and the road. There is no

possibility to walk in an

exclusive space.


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Oman, the Ministry of Environment and Climate

Affairs, and the Environment Society of Oman.

Meanwhile public support for change will lead

to political acceptability because this is the main

way to influence political thinking (Banister et

al., 2007).

Adaptability: Once public and political

acceptability has been achieved, the

implementation of a more sustainable

transportation mode in Al Buraimi needs a

complementary process of adaptability. This

encompasses both residents and government.

On the one hand, the citizens need time and

guidance to adapt to walking or biking. It is

challenging to persuade people to stop using

private cars when they offer comfortable

transportation at affordable prices. Nevertheless,

this process of change of behaviour is based

on campaigns and educational programs for

raising consciousness. Thus, people need

to learn how to use the facilities for non-

motorized transportation, and how to respect

the reallocation of sidewalks and public spaces

to pedestrians. It is important to emphasize the

benefits that this shift represents for individuals

and the community in terms of health,

accessibility, environment, etc.

On the other hand, the government of Al

Buraimi needs adaptation as well because

it will be necessary to change institutions,

administration, and governance. This is the

most challenging aspect in the adaptation of

sustainable transportation as it does not only

depend on the local government of Al Buraimi,

but also on the Central Government in Muscat,

due to the strong centralized structure of the

Sultanate. Nevertheless, restructuring the

institutions and reviewing governance is needed

as part of the process.

Technical recommendations

This part is focused on the technical proposals

which would complement the governance

recommendations. Additionally, in order to

contextualize the technical recommendations

in Al Buraimi, it is necessary to consider the

weather conditions, the local identity, and the

local customs. These features will determine,

technically, how to design and implement the

facilities and infrastructure.

Facilities for walking and biking

Al Buraimi should provide the facilities for non-

motorized transportation such as walking and

biking. This effort aims to improve the local

environment and it is focused on a small scale.

Moreover, it would improve the public health,

air quality, security, and overall spatial justice.

Therefore, the following points are proposed:

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○ Pedestrian facilities: It is challenging to

propose pedestrianization due to the weather

conditions and car based culture of the society.

Nevertheless, efforts have to be made in order

to provide quality public spaces to the residents,

supported by the transportation and building

regulations and guidelines.

The benefits of the process of pedestrianization

in Al Buraimi is that it would definitely improve

the accessibility conditions of the community,

including the most disadvantage groups such

as people with special needs, children, elderly

people, and immigrants as well. As a result,

the city would be more inclusive for all society

groups. On the other hand, taking into account

that Al Buraimi has high temperatures over

the year and this condition might discourage

walking, it is important to provide sidewalks

and public spaces that are sheltered from direct

sunlight. As a result, it is proposed to consider

landscaping in planning and urban design.

○ Biking facilities: The network of bike lanes

could be distributed along the main routes. It is

important to point out that the Omani society

is not used to biking. Nevertheless, there is a

significant number of immigrants who do not

own a car and require mobility.

Additionally, a pilot project of renting bikes

could be implemented. In many places of the

world, renting bikes has been successfully

adopted. Al Buraimi might set up this mode as

an experiment at first, in the case that it works,

it can be set up permanently. Al Buraimi would

become a pioneer as it would be the first city in

the Sultanate of Oman to implement bikeways.

Landscaping

Landscaping should be considered in order

to provide shade, road noise attenuation,

separation between the car lanes and pedestrian

paths, improvement of air quality, and better

urban space aesthetics. Additionally, it would

be an opportunity to recover the local identity

through restoring the native species of plants.

Considering that the governorate is a dry place

with scarce water resources, the proposal

focuses on the use of trees requiring less

water which have a significant surface area to

provide shadows. According to the Environment

Society of Oman (2010), there is a group of

native trees proposed in order to conserve the

traditional cultural landscapes. As a result, the

proposed species from this group which meet

the functional needs for sidewalks are: Ghaf

(Proposis cineraria), Sidr (Ziziphus spina-christi)

and Sherish/Naim (Azadirachta indica).

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Furthermore, in case there are sidewalks which

are not suitable for trees or plants (i.e. due to

space constrains), another solution to provide

shade is through the installation of pergolas.

This is a traditional Omani architectural element

which could be used for this purpose in addition

to the identity value that it contains.

Al Buraimi’s own public bus system

The pilot experiment proposed is the

implementation of buses with a dedicated lane.

They should have specific stops strategically

located in the places with higher volume of

people. Additionally, they should operate on the

main distributor routes of the city.

Meanwhile, the local government should

educate the residents on how and why to use

the public transportation system through

campaigns and programs. Furthermore,

considering that Oman has traditionally strict

rules in the relation between men and women,

it is also proposed to provide separated areas in

the buses for each gender. Thus, people would

feel more comfortable when using the service.

The implementation of the public transport

system could create conflicts with the current

taxi service. As mentioned before taxis are the

only available service for local journeys, and

drivers would lose revenues in the event of

having competition. Consequently, the proposal

Figure 45. Public

transportation plan

Source, Author, 2014

117


is to integrate the public transportation network

with the taxi service. Thus, taxis could be

rethought as semi public, sharing the bus stops

and lines.

The aim of the pilot plan is to integrate the

different modes of transportation without

excluding or compromising the existing services.

In addition, the network could be linked with

biking by installing bicycle parking racks at the

bus stops.

On the other hand, it would be important to

coordinate activities between the government

and the public sector through partnerships in

order to manage the operation of the bus service.

Thus small and medium enterprises would have

the opportunity to develop businesses with

services that are efficient for the city and support

the local economy. Another important aspect to

be considered in the implementation stage is the

service pricing. They make private transportation

very affordable for people. Therefore, efforts

have to be made in order to provide the public

transportation service with affordable prices as

well. The key point is to create awareness in the

citizens on the importance to reduce car use

and the benefits of using the public transport

network in terms of efficiency and cost.

Transit oriented development

The TOD model could be implemented

as a model for integration of land use and

transportation. According to experts, the

concept of this model is to concentrate mixed

land uses, dense areas, and pedestrian friendly

developments around the main roads to provide

walking, biking, and alternatives to the use of

private cars. Thus, TOD would be potentially

suitable in the case of Al Buraimi, considering

that the city has concentration of activities and

densities at certain points.

The current activity centers were indicated in the

analysis of local mobility creating factors. As a

result, if these strategic points are focused on

creating nuclei by increasing densities and mixed

land use, in addition to the provision of facilities

for non-motorized and public transportation,

Al Buraimi could adapt and implement this

concept. Therefore, the development process

would be more sustainable by creating a more

compact city. It should be seen as a tool to

slow down sprawl and reduce car dependency.

Moreover, in these nuclei strategically located

in the city, the bus stops proposed in the public

transportation system should be placed.

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On the other hand, it is essential to set a

planning strategy to implement TOD model

which responds to the local priorities. The

strategy contains key principles that must

be fulfilled to guarantee the implementation

success: (1) Make full use of urban land, (2) Plan

with communities, (3) Encourage public over

private transport, (4) Strengthen local sense of

place, and (5) Develop strategies to create local

jobs.

Thus, it is also relevant to include the concept

of “complete neighbourhood”, which provides

choices for housing and employment, as well

as retailers, schools, medical centres, worship,

public spaces, and public transportation.

Consequently, the TOD model implementation

would bring better living conditions to the

city residents by creating green corridors and

more accessibility. The concept of TOD is

schematically visualized in the graph above.

An area that can be considered to start a TOD is

where the market (souk) is located and includes

commercial corridors, hotels, restaurants and

retailers, in addition to heritage sites which will

potentially become tourist attractions.

Another site is the area located in the main

roundabout which contains the main Mosque,

Figure 46. Transit

oriented development

TOD concept

Source: (Institute for

Transportation and

Development Policy, 2013

Modified by: Author,

2014)

119


bus terminal, Governorate office, commercial

areas, health care facilities, among others. This

is a point of the city with density and potential to

become a node in the TOD model. The proposal

is to densify these two areas, providing facilities

for walking and biking, integrating residential

use within the area of influence, as well as

limiting the occupation of public spaces for

parking lots, and using the node centres for the

bus stops.

Furthermore, there is a third area which has low

density, but is strategically located considering

the proximity of different land uses such as

commercial, residential, and recreational. This

Figure 47. Activity

centers

Potential Activity Centers

in Al Buraimi for TOD

Implementation

Source: (Wikimapia, 2014

Modified by: Author, 2014)

area contains the Buraimi Park, the Buraimi Sport

Complex, the Buraimi Hospital, the Buraimi

Hotel, shops, among others. Therefore, it could

be developed as an activity centre by integrating

more varied land uses and increasing densities,

as well as linking it with public transportation.

Additionally, these three potential activity centres

might be connected by the pilot project of public

transportation. The bus routes should operate

in the densest areas of Al Buraimi where there is

more compact development. At the same time,

the public service operation should operate

mainly along the main distributor routes and

partly on the highway.

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The implementation of TOD is envisioned in

the medium term if the planning structure

is reformulated and actions are taken in the

short term. On the other hand, considering the

projected growth of urbanization in Al Buraimi,

which has been planned by the Ministry of

Housing, it is proposed to include activity

centres in the new developed areas. The nodes

should be located along the main distributor

route, which according to the master plan, is

proposed to be built when the area has been

urbanized.

Improvement of regional public

transportation

The current interregional public transportation

system is not operating efficiently and needs

urgent updating. Therefore, the proposal is

to improve the regional linkages by increasing

coverage, frequencies, and punctuality through

the operation of new updated buses which also

provide better conditions for the passengers.

The Oman National Transport Company should

improve the quality and quantity of the bus fleet

operating in the region. Moreover, it is advisable

to improve the bus terminal facilities due to its

size not being appropriate for high volume of

passengers. There are no waiting spaces and the

process of tickets purchase is not functional.

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Figure 48. Action

management plan

Governance/Institutional

Recommendations

Source: (Author 2014)

Figure 49. Technical

recommendations

The action plans for the

implementation of the

governance and technical

proposals are illustrated in

the following page.


Action / management plan

Proposed technical actions

: proposed governance actions

122


Figure 50. Rounda-

bout sign

Source: (Carvajal, 2015)

Conclusions

Sustainable transportation is not about radically

stopping car use, it is about reducing car

dependency through the implementation of

mixed land use, higher densities, proximity,

accessibility, public transportation, non-

motorized transportation, and alternative energy

usage. Thus, Al Buraimi should adopt a holistic

transportation approach that provides access to

citizens minimizing the social, environmental,

and economic impacts. However, it needs

reformulation of governance, planning

procedure, and the legal framework in order

to establish the basis for its implementation.

In addition, it is necessary to achieve public

and political acceptance for a new mode of

planning and transportation. Moreover, political

will in the different levels of the government

could make the difference to overcome the lack

of integration, coordination, and inadequate

planning. The community needs time to adapt

to the new ideas, and the role of the government

is essential in guiding the citizens in this process

through campaigns and programs. These ideas

could be applied to other urban areas of the

Sultanate of Oman in the event of successful

implementation in Al Buraimi, which could

become the first city in the country to adopt a

new approach to transportation.

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125


Part 2.3 Infrastructure DevelopmentPanagiotis Achamnos

There are a lot of factors that have contributed

to the current situation in the city of Al Buraimi,

Oman. Infrastructure provision faces a lot

of challenges in the area, serving to support

the rationale for this research, which focuses

on the three key services: fresh water supply,

solid waste management, and wastewater

treatment. These play an important role towards

the sustainable growth of a city. The land

distribution system in Oman played a major role

in contributing to this scattered development of

the city, and as a consequence to the challenges

and subsequential problems in providing basic

services to inhabitants in a timely manner.

Because of the fast growth of the city, which

happened as horizontal urban sprawl and not

increased vertical urban density, as the city

grew towards the outskirts, the basic services

have not been unable to reach the new areas

of the city in a reasonable time. This happened

because of the time needed for planning and the

expenses, which are higher due to the scattered

development of the city. As a result, the main

fresh water network covers only around 80

percent of the city, the sewage system covers

only a 30 to 35 percent of the city and is located

basically in the city centre. Regarding the solid

waste management of the city, the rapid growth

of the city has consequently led to the rapid

growth in the amount of solid waste. Thus, it

becomes more and more difficult for the city’s

solid waste management authorities to cope.

128

Part 2.3 Infrastructure


state of infrastructure

Taking into consideration the rapid growth

of the city in the last years and the weather

conditions, we can understand the risks that the

basic infrastructure faces, especially the fresh

water supply, solid waste management, and

wastewater management and treatment. These

are:

○ Services arrive after the inhabitation of

the areas in the outskirts. Because of that rapid

growth and the exploitation of the city, the

services that are currently available cannot cope

and serve in the same way they used to with a

much lower population.

○ An increase in solid waste that the city

produces, and at the same time that the solid

waste department is not capable of managing.

The city services lack in personnel and in

facilities.

○ The wastewater management of the city

faces the same problem, as the amount of daily

wastewater that has to be treated rises every

year.

○ The fresh water supply faces the same

challenges, as it has to serve every year more

and more people.

○ Increasing demand for plots to allocated

(RD 81/84 and RD 125/2008)

○ Lacking coordination between institutions

in charge

An interview with the director of the Ministry of

Regional Municipalities and Water Resources

in Al Buraimi complements and adds more

information. The central government wants

to preserve the local architecture character

and personality. There is a minor committee

searching for new ideas to build in a more

environmentally friendly way .

In the last four years, 5000 building permits

were granted from the municipality, 80 per cent

of them for residential houses and villas, and

almost 170 kilometres were added to the city’s

length. In the next five years it is expected that

the whole of Al Buraimi will be full. In 2014

alone, 800 building permits were granted.

Another point is that people working in UAE,

in Al-Ain, prefer to live in Al Buraimi because it

has a lower cost of living. There is also the case

that a lot of the population from the country is

moving to Al Buraimi. It is developing rapidly,

more than any other city in Oman.

Previous page:

Water delivery in Al

Buraimi


129


There is a five-year plan for every project-plan

in Oman, including infrastructure projects. The

municipality applies for the amount of money

they need for basic services in a five-year plan

and usually only 20-50 per cent is granted from

the central government. They are now looking

to clarify what and how many services will be

needed in the future in order to change their

perspective in a long-term plan rather than in

the short-term. Specifically for infrastructure,

there are short-term plans, for one year, but

there are also some five-year plans to apply in

the government, like the sewage system plan.

Only 30-35 per cent of the city is connected to

the sewage system, the rest of the city uses

septic tanks.

Box 14. Land allocation

The land law, Royal Decree No. 81/84, states that every Omani citizen has the

right to be granted a residential plot through a public lottery, a public draw,

which is carried out by the Ministry of Housing. Up until 2008, only men were

granted residential land through that drawing throughout the whole Sultanate.

With Royal Decree No. 125/2008, the previous Royal Decree was amended,

allowing women to also participate in the lottery and receive the rights to a

residential plot. This new Decree also stated that each participant in the public

lottery should not be less than 23 years old, or less than 21 years old if he/she

is married (Al Gharibi, 2013). These plots are between 600 square meters and

1000 square meters and when granted there are no basic services available.

There is not an entire framework where all the departments can take decisions

together and this is the main problem: a fragmentation of responsibilities. After

the people get the plots, they can apply for the basic services, but usually it takes

two to three years for the services to arrive. The distribution of land is so rapid

that at the moment there is a lack of vacant land in Al Buraimi to distribute to

people. But the main problem remains; the basic infrastructure has (yet) to join

the planning (MoH, personal communication, September 22, 2014).

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Solid waste management

Currently, there are negotiations with a private

company. This was arranged by the central

government and sent to Al Buraimi, to take

charge of the whole solid waste management of

the city, as the municipality cannot cope with the

growth of the city. The municipality will just focus

on the supervision of the whole management.

The attempts of the municipality to inform people

through campaigns in schools, universities,

worship sites, newspapers, television, and by

the distribution of three different colours of

plastic bags to the people (in order for them

to recycle), seems to have had no significant

result .There is no recycling taking place in

the city (MRMWR, personal communication,

September 23, 2014).

Moreover, the fresh water supply - arguably the

most important basic service for a city and its

inhabitants - is facing a lot of risks. First of all,

there are the weather conditions and the amount

of rainfall, as previously mentioned, which

have a negative impact in the water resources

of the area. Secondly, the rapid growth of the

population and the increase on the demand of

water make the situation more problematic.

One of the main issues is the shortage of water

in Al Buraimi. That issue causes problems in

different areas of the city. It does not allow the

people to have the facilities and the leisure parks

they need, but also restrains the promotion

of the business sector, as investors are not

attracted to the area (Chambers of Commerce,

personal communication, September 29, 2014).

The Public Authority for Electricity and Water

(PAEW) is responsible for the distribution of

fresh water in the city. After 2008, the city of

Al Buraimi has been supplied with desalinated

water coming from the city of Sohar while

the water from underground resources and

wells is used only in special occasions and

circumstances. PAEW continues to follow the

Government’s policy of reducing reliance on

groundwater for drinking water, and the plans

continue to envisage increasing reliance on

large-scale desalination as the main source

of drinking water in Oman. The authority is

also focusing on the reduction of water losses

(leakages, theft, etc.) and as a result to reduce

the subsidy that is needed (Annual Report,

Public Authority for Electricity and Water, 2013).

The fact is that the access to drinking water and

sanitation has increased in the whole country in

the last 20 years, and the investment in these

facilities played a vital role in the reduction of

the child mortality rate in Oman, with a decrease

of 37.9 per cent between 1990 and 2010.

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In total, the three basic services are facing

challenges and inefficiencies that first arise

from the management and the administration.

There are some administrative obstacles, the

management is highly centralized and there is a

lack in planning within regions. The authorities

inside the governorate do not coordinate with a

vision and strong urban planning management

is absent.

Another side effect of the lack of infrastructure,

which was mentioned in our meeting with the

Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs,

is that there are some industrial activities very

close to residential areas. Despite the ministry’s

attempts to relocate them into the industrial

zone, far enough from the residential areas,

this is not possible because of that lack of basic

services. People are difficult to be convinced to

shift somewhere where no basic infrastructure

is available (MECA, personal communication,

September 28, 2014).

Fresh Water Supply

Water is not only a vital element for our life

but also a resource and foundation for a lot

of different development fields. Nowadays, all

around the world, countries and people are

facing the challenge of water shortages, as well

as its ensuing limitations, and are looking for

different means and solutions to reduce the

waste of water in addition to finding more ways

to maximize the present water resources so as

to increase its availability.

In the Sultanate of Oman there are different

resources of water, but they vary depending on

the region of the country that is being referred

to. First of all, there is surface water — water

from rain and from the mountains that flows

through the rivers that are called ‘wadis.’ Due

to the low precipitation that can be affected by

some factors such as storms and low pressures,

the availability of surface water is declining

and there is a phenomenon of having more

wadis and aflaj throughout the country dry up.

Secondly, there is groundwater. The ground

aquifers can be characterized as renewable or

non-renewable, depending on whether they

can be fed through rainfall or not. Due to little

rainfall, the groundwater resources are declining

throughout the country and the government

is trying to minimize the use of underground

water as much as possible, as will be analysed

below. And thirdly, there are the water springs

where the water flows naturally from the ground

to the surface.

From the sources to the people

Besides these sources, there are different water

systems in order to acquire and transport water.

There is an ancient method, called Al Zajirah,

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which operates by elevating groundwater. There

is also the famous Aflaj system, channels that

transfer and transport water, the reservoirs,

which are storage systems of rainwater, and

the different types of dams (recharge, surface

storage, flood protection, etc.). Furthermore,

there are the water desalination plants where the

salt from the seawater is removed and the water

product can be used as fresh water through

specific processing. The desalination plants

have been exploited over the last few years

in Oman and they are basically providing the

majority of fresh water. The wastewater stations

are only used to provide treated water for

irrigation purposes (MRMWR, Water Resources

in Sultanate of Oman, 2013).

Water in Al Buraimi through the years

Before the connection to the desalination plant

from the city of Sohar, which we will analyse at a

later stage of the study, the city of Al Buraimi was

supplied with water from wells, underground

water, and water coming from the aflaj (water

canals that are used in the whole region for

more than 3000 years, for human settlements

and irrigation purposes). More than a thousand

years ago the people of the Sa’ara village in

Al Buraimi brought water from more than 30

kilometres away, from springs in the mountains

that belong to Oman, making a channel from

the mountains to their settlements in order to

provide water for their farms, their products, and

their animals. That aflaj, which is going through

the Sa’ara village in Al Buraimi, has been dry for

around 30 years. Peoples perception regarding

the reasons why the aflaj is dry, are very diverse.

Religion is common to get mixed with water

issues. In a climate situation as Oman’s, where

it is mountainous and arid, the water is received

underground or below dry riverbeds, which in

Oman are called “wadis”.

Water in the aflaj was carried in open channels

and was distributed to the community firstly

to the mosque and for drinking, and secondly

for washing and irrigation purposes. The

management was so carefully made, that there

were no epidemics recorded in the whole Arab

Region (Ragette F., 2012, Traditional Domestic

Architecture of the Arab Region, American

University of Sharjah, Third, unrevised edition).

According to Parry (1998), despite the research,

no one can be sure about the origins of the aflaj

in Oman and how old the oldest channels are.

However, the aflaj in Yemen may show that those

in Oman came from necessity and not from

outside involvement. In addition, the mining

industry in Oman during the third millennium

BC required a readily available supply of water,

which could be achieved by a system such as

the aflaj.

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Figure 51. Thaqbah

well


Figure 52. Production

from wells,

Al Buraimi

Source: (Annual report

2013, PAEW)

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Water management

The water management in Al Buraimi, as

well as in the rest of the country, is divided

into two sections: The management of the

water resources, which is overseen by the

water resources department of the MRMWR,

and the distribution of the water, which is

the responsibility of the Public Authority for

Electricity and Water (PAEW).

The department of the water resources has three

different sections. The first section handles the

monitoring and the studies that are concerned

with the natural water resources, such as

the wadis, aflaj, wells, rainfall, etc. There are

monthly or quarterly measurements and reports

regarding this monitoring.

The second section deals with the provision of

permits regarding the wells in order to protect

the sources, in accordance with the laws and

regulations of the Sultanate. These permits have

to do with different demands from the people;

such as calls for cleaning a well, making an

existing one deeper, or even digging a new one.

For any project of that kind, public or private,

a study work is needed from that section of

the department in order to proceed and for

the approval of the request. This section aims

to investigate whether the project affects the

ground and the surface water, and if the project

itself is safe from potential floods.

The third and last section of the department

deals with the dams and the aflaj, underground

or on the surface. Regarding the dams, the

studies that the department fulfils serve to

establish if a new one is needed or not. At the

moment, there are about six dams in the area,

five of them are recharging ones and one serves

as storage (above the surface).

The main challenge of the department is to

“protect the underground water and save it,

as population and demand are growing fast”

(Water Resources Department, MRMWR,

personal communication, October 1, 2014).

Extraction, desalinization and

distribution

In the whole governorate of Al Buraimi, there

are around 7000 wells, private and public, in

farms. There is no allowance to have a well in

a house, only under specific conditions and

circumstances. The department is responsible

to grant any permit only after it has conducted

a study, as mentioned above, regarding such

a request. Nevertheless, there are some

occasions during which people proceed with

the construction of their own well without the

permission of the department, but for these

cases there are fees according to the laws for the

act of illegally digging a well.

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The second authority, the PAEW, is responsible

for the distribution of water. PAEW works in

cooperation with the department of water

resources regarding underground and surface

water and its use.

Before 2008, the area of Al Buraimi was served

by groundwater and wells. As the population was

increasing and simultaneously the groundwater

level was declining. The government could not

depend any more on groundwater resources for

the area, and as a result they proceeded with the

connection of the city to the desalination plant of

the city of Sohar, which is the closest coastal city

to Al Buraimi. In the desalination plant in Sohar a

process called “Multiple Stage Flash Distillation”

is used. A most recently developed process for

reliable and efficient water desalination is called

“reverse osmosis”, or R.O., but that type is not

yet used in Sohar. From Sohar the desalinated

water is transported to Al Buraimi through pipes,

pump stations, and transmission connections.

After the reduction in the use of water from the

wells, it can be said that nowadays the level of

the groundwater in Al Buraimi is stable except

during the dry seasons, when that level drops.

In addition, the groundwater from the wells is

being used nowadays only in emergency cases

and in cases of high demand (PAEW, personal

communication, October 1, 2014).

Local water network

The network distribution in Al Buraimi increased

over the last few years as a result of the

improvement and the extension of the water

network system, but also due to the growth of the

population. Another fact that is more important

is the increase of the production from wells that

was very significant for the last year, as it has

increased by 34 per cent. This demonstrates that

the government’s general policy for reducing

reliance on groundwater for the supplies of

drinking water and general use, in most cases,

wells that go to support small isolated networks

Minimum water recharge

In the last 15 to 20 years there has

been a dry period in the area and

because of this there has not been

adequate recharging of the dams,

ground and underground water,

as the precipitation has been low.

Something that is obvious from the

rain gates and the measurements

of rainfall from the department. In

addition to this situation, there is

also the lack of awareness on the

part of people who do not care about

water resources (Water Resources

Department, MRMWR, personal


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or tanker filling stations in areas that are not yet

connected to the main networks is working.

Another objective of the Public Authority for

Electricity and Water is to ensure the best quality

of water is provided to the people. PAEW’s water

quality teams are monitoring, controlling, and

improving the water quality by conducting a

daily sample program that takes place to check

the quality of the water. For that purpose there

is a lab in Al Buraimi’s department of PAEW

formed from a special team to accomplish this

objective. In 2013, there were 1780 samples

collected in Al Buraimi governorate and they

were checked through these monitoring

controls. By the installation of more sampling

points and the employment of more personnel,

the PAEW managed to increase the number of

samples by more than seven per cent between

2012 and 2013. For Al Buraimi, the water quality

compliance of the samples was 96 per cent. In

addition, the number of employees increased by

almost 30 per cent between 2012 and 2013, and

in the Al Buraimi branch there are currently 85

Omanis and no non-Omanis. One fact worth

mentioning is that in the whole company, there

are 1340 male and only 166 female employees.

Another important element is the training

courses that the company delivers in order to

recruit more personnel every year. In Al Buraimi,

around 200 people were trained in 2013

(Source: Annual report 2013, Public Authority for

Electricity and Water).

Nowadays, the main water connection covers

around 80 per cent of the city, whereas private

tankers serve the remaining 20 per cent. The

price for the water through the main connection

with the pipeline is 0.002 O.R./ litres for up

to 5000 litres, and 0.0025 O.R./ litres for any

amount above 5000 litres. The average usage

at the moment in the city of Al Buraimi is

approximately 150 litres/person.

Disconnected households and water

storage

On the other hand, for the houses and the

residential areas that are not being served

through the main water connection system,

there are two ways that they can be supplied

with fresh water. The first way is through the

private sector, through private tankers that

take fresh water from the PAEW and sell it to

people. There are two levels of pricing for these

tankers: below 650 litres is 0.001 O.R./ litres

and above 650 litres is 0.003 O.R./ litres. The

second way, which is applied for houses that are

far away from the city centre as well as for the

villages around the city of Al Buraimi, is the free

distribution of water with contracted tankers of

the PAEW. The PAEW do not supply the whole

amount of water that people need, but the

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agency helps them financially by supporting

them with a basic amount of water. Their main

source of fresh water is the private tankers.

Furthermore, people use roof tanks to store

fresh water. It is not only the houses that are

not connected to the main water network do

this, but also the ones that are being served

from the network. The reason behind that is

that people, even if they have water through

the main connection, store some water for

emergency reasons, in the cases of shortages

of water during the dry season, or even if there

are some problems with the network. Usually

the households have a period of 24 hours that

requires around 300 litres of water reserves. The

houses without a connection to the main system

need more capacity and as a result they use roof

tanks that hold between 600 and 800 litres. The

PAEW informs people to clean their tanks, but it

is up to their own volition to observe that advice

and also it is their decision to select the capacity

and the size of the tank they will have.

Moreover, there is no limitation on the amount

of water that people can use on a daily basis,

however the PAEW is trying to inform them not

to waste water and rather to save it.

Regarding the areas that are not connected to

the main water network yet, there is a committee

and some criteria that should be met in order

Figure 53. Total water

distribution in Al Buraimi

Source: (Annual report

2013, PAEW)

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to decide which area is going to be connected

to the main network. The procedure nowadays

is that after the completion of construction

on a house, the owner applies for the water

service and in a short period of time the water

connection is provided. The houses that are

far away from the main network have to wait

between one and three years for the urban

planning, and ultimately the connection to reach

their area. Nevertheless, in the case that there

are any illegal connections to the main system

after any inspection from the PAEW, there are

fees, but these happen very rarely (PAEW,

personal communication, October 1, 2014).

Strategies for sustainable

development in water management

Education, Awareness, Campaigns

For the development of the city, the protection

of natural water resources, and in order to

cope with the increasing demand of fresh water

supply as a consequence of the rapidly growing

population, the understanding and cooperation

of the inhabitants of the city is essential.

The first step towards that goal is to carry out

different campaigns and programs for the

inhabitants according to different water issues

such as water use, the overuse of water, and

the pollution of the water. These campaigns

and programs should be carried out through

every available means in order to target the

whole population, people of all ages and gender.

Programs and activities should be implemented

in schools and universities to inform students,

but also outside schools through youth clubs

or student workshops and camps. In addition,

advertisements, reports, information, and tips

must be provided on a daily basis via television,

radio, newspapers, and the Internet, means of

information relay that people use every day.

Technological improvement

The second step is to inform the population

about high efficiency appliances and equipment,

modern techniques and technology, which of

course match the Omani context and have a lot

of positive effects on saving water. In the survey

that was made during the field work in Al Buraimi,

as was mentioned in the previous chapter, only

24 per cent of the people that were questioned

already have high efficiency facilities installed

in their households, 42 per cent have not, and

34 per cent are planning to have such installed.

These results show that half the population is

not familiar with high efficiency facilities but also

that quite a big portion is planning to install

such in the near future. There are different high

efficiency appliances, but only some of them

can be applied to the Omani households. There

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are high efficiency toilets with “stop buttons,”

or others called 6/3 l-flush toilets that have two

flush buttons in order to use half of the amount

of the water for liquid waste flushes versus solid

waste flushes. There are also shower heads

that can reduce water usage by up to 70 per

cent. The instalment of sink faucet aerators

can reduce water consumption from the tap by

about 30 to 50 per cent. These examples show

the percentages of water that can be saved in

every household with the instalment of this

equipment. Despite the fact that this equipment

is more expensive than standard equipment,

the cost can be offset in the long-term by the

reduction in water service charges in every

household. A suggestion might be to establish

some initiatives from the government and the

authorities in order to help people to afford to

install this equipment.

The last step should be the monitoring and

evaluation of all the activities, programs, and

initiatives, and to identify if they were successful,

their problems, and the ways that they can

be improved. These activities for the public

awareness are activities and programs that are

not made for one time. This process is a long

and difficult one in order to bring the expected

results in society and to change the inhabitants’

behaviour in the long run.

Figure 54. Water

saving campaign adds

Source: (www.paew.gov.

om)

140


Planning-Training

It is very important to establish knowledge

about water demand in a city and how this

water demand is going to change in the future.

The planning for a sustainable water supply is

needed from the authorities responsible for

the water distribution including resources and

studies of the water demand change in the

future; 5, 10, and 15 years ahead. Studies must

be conducted about the increase or decrease

of population and the expected development of

the city, new residential areas, and other relevant

circumstances that affect the water demand

and supply, such as the climate change. The city

should be prepared beforehand to deal with any

changes and increases in water demand.

Even though there is no limitation in the

water supply for households, there should be

differentiation based on the different amounts

of water each household consumes. A more

complex pricing system is needed that will

take into consideration the number of people

Box 15. Community survey on fresh water

Regarding the questions that were targeting the fresh water supply sector the

answers were varied. 63% did not know the amount of water they use daily in

their household. Furthermore, 16% replied that the current availability of water

is more than enough, 76% that it is enough, whereas only 7% responded that

the availability is low or very low. On the other hand, 23% of the respondents

recognise the price of the water supply as very expensive, 56% as expensive,

18% as being a fair price and only 3% as cheap. From these responses it is

clearly observed that the majority (almost 79%) of the people believe that the

price of the water is expensive. Moreover, to the question if they try to save

water, 93% answered yes whereas only 7% answered no. From them, almost

25% are already using high efficiency facilities, such as high efficiency toilets,

in their house whereas 42% are not using such and 33% is planning to install

such systems in the future. These answers show that people try to save water

but some of them are not familiar with more efficient ways to do such or even

that they do not have the means to do it.

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in every household, and not only the water

consumption. In the current system, the first

level is capped at 5000 litres but it does not take

into consideration if the household consists of

four or fifteen people. In a situation like this, the

price levels should be based on the litres per

person in the household and not per household.

It also makes more sense if considered the

differentiation of the households, as we can find

households of two persons and households of

20.

Furthermore, the country should support

programs for the training of people for water

management. The Public Authority of Electricity

and Water has such programs with a number of

annual participants, but more focus in capacity

building is needed. As an example, a very

successful training program that was carried

out in Egypt can be applied in the whole MENA

region, including Oman. It is called Training

of Trainers Program in Interdisciplinary Water

Management (TOTWAT) and it is a European

Union-funded project under the umbrella of

the TEMPUS Programme. Five partners carried

out this project: the Cairo University (Egypt),

the Alfayounm University (Egypt), the National

Water Research Centre (Egypt), the RWTH

Aachen University (Germany) and the Institute

of Advanced Studies (Austria). This project has

the development of a TOT as a main objective.

Lastly, the Aflaj in Oman represent an important

source of water supply to a major part of the rural

population. The losses from the aflaj systems as

they dry up include losses in agricultural income,

increases in domestic water expenditures

per household, and capital losses related to

changes in house and land values. Although

aflaj in Oman persisted for hundreds of years,

the flow measurements in the last few years

show a huge decline. A survey undertaken in

1996 by the Ministry of Regional Municipalities

and Water Resources (MRMWR) reported more

than 1000 aflaj have dried up. For that reason,

the Omani government, through the MRMWR,

supported 669 projects of Aflaj reparation and

maintenance (Zekri et al., 2012).

Solid waste management

The solid waste management in the city

of Al Buraimi is under the authority of the

municipality. There is a special department in

the municipality that deals with the collection

and the disposal of solid waste. At the same

time, people that work in the department of

solid waste management mentioned that the

department has been waiting for the transfer of

management to a private company since 2008.

Despite that fact, they all agreed that this needs

to be done as the department does not have

adequate personnel and equipment to cope with

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the growth of the city, and as a result with the

management of solid waste. The contradiction

here is that from first glance the city seems

very clean. The main streets, the sidewalks, the

green spaces with lawns, everything is clean,

something that shows not only that the people

are eager to keep the city clean, but also that

the people working on the street cleaning are

efficient enough at their job. So the question

arises about the main problems with this service

remain and depend on the actual management

of the service, as will be analysed below.

Al Buraimi landfill

There are in total six dumps in the governorate

of Al Buraimi, five small ones in the villages

around the city and a big one that receives

the solid waste of the city. The small ones are

between 2000 and 12,000 square meters, and

the big one is 248,888 square meters. This

dump that serves the city of Al Buraimi is in a

very bad condition.

The plan in the future for this dump is that it

will be used as a collecting point for solid waste

before it reaches its final destination, which

will be a new dump further from the city. At

the moment, the Ministry of Environment and

Climate Affairs, which is responsible for granting

the permits for the new dumps, is preparing the

permission for that new dump. The actual site is

not yet decided, but according to the regulations

it should be three kilometres away from the

residential areas, or if it is less, it should be a

natural area in between, like a mountain, so that

the air does not bring the smell to the residential

area.

The authorities did not consider the future

development of the city. As a result, the dump

nowadays is located less than one kilometre

from the residential area (MECA, personal

communication, September 28, 2014). This

issue causes a lot of problems for the residential

areas, such as air pollution and hygiene issues.

Strategies for Sustainable Development

In the city of Al Buraimi, solid waste management

is inefficient and faces a lot of challenges. The

public waste bins are inadequate, there is no

waste separation; there is a total absence of

recycling or reuse of materials, and the landfill

is very close to the residential area causing

environmental and hygiene problems. In

tackling this issue, there is a need to look into

the options of reduction, reuse, and recycling.

Some early steps are likely to include the

extension of the collection to the whole city and

phasing out open dumps. An ISWM approach

is likely to include a focus on improving the

existing recycling rates and on taking measures

143


to bring waste growth under control. This is

particularly important, as every ton of waste

reduced, reused, or recycled is a ton of waste for

which the city does not have to pay for transport

and safe disposal (UN-Habitat, 2010).


development in solid waste

management

Short-term approach: awareness

The first and major step towards effective solid

waste management is the public awareness

on the importance of reducing and recycling

waste towards a healthy environment (Coker

et al., 2010). As the survey of the current study

showed, the residents of Al Buraimi are willing to

participate in projects regarding the separation

of their household waste and in recycling in

general. As a result, the first attempt made by

the local government should be focused on

campaigns and educational projects in schools,

universities, and public spaces in order to raise

the public awareness about the importance of

waste separation and recycling. At this point it

is essential to mention that the role of women

should not be overlooked. According to a survey

by the United Nation’s Children’s Emergency

Figure 55. Landfill


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Box 16. Community survey on solid waste management

A survey was carried out with questions that directly referred to the solid waste

management of the city. Almost 95% of the people said that an improvement in

the solid waste management is needed for their city. 56% responded positively

that they know and understand the meaning of composting. In the next question

regarding recycling, the 80% answered that they know this term. In addition to

that question, people were questioned if they would be willing to separate their

solid waste in order to help a recycling program to work. Almost the 72% said

“yes” whereas the 14% answered negatively. Furthermore, people were asked

if they would be willing to pay for the pickup of these recycling materials from

their houses and the 49% responded positively. Moreover, almost the 60% of

the people would like to participate in a program to compost food. The final

question was if people would participate in a program to return the plastic

bottles to the stores if they were paid for every bottle that they would return.

Almost the 78% answered positively.

Fund (UNICEF), development projects that did

not involve women failed to accomplish their

objectives.

On the same level, the prevention and the

minimization of solid waste is the most efficient

way of reducing the impacts on the environment,

as even the most efficient recycling of waste uses

resources and has impacts on the environment

(Salhofer et al., 2010). For that reason, the

campaigns in raising public awareness should

also focus on informing the people about the

importance of reducing the waste they produce.

Medium-term approach

Besides people’s eagerness to accept future

plans regarding the improvement of solid waste

management of the city and their participation

to it, the adequate equipment and vehicles

must be provided. According to Nilsson (2011),

the collection and the transport of waste from

the source to the treatment or disposal site

involve a lot of different equipment: bins and

containers, collection vehicles, routes, and an

efficient schedule for collection. Moreover, an

adequate numbers of bins should be distributed

throughout the whole city, according to the

145


Figure 56. School

children educated in

recycling programmes

(Source: UN-Habitat,

2010)

needs of each specific area. Where the area has

higher density, a greater number of bins must

be provided to cover the residents’ needs. In

addition, those bins that will be distributed in

the city must be differentiated. There should be

bins only for paper, bins for plastic, and bins for

general waste.

Furthermore, bins or containers for the

collection of glass should be provided. Here,

there is the option that these bins are not

provided to the whole city, but larger containers

can be placed in specific spots so that people

could visit often and dispose of their glass for

recycling. These spots could be outside or near

from the supermarkets or the shopping mall or

even in some central areas in the city.

Moreover, the municipality can provide people

with different waste bags so that people can

be more motivated to separate their waste and

dispose of it in the appropriate bin.

Secondly, alongside with this equipment,

appropriate and adequate waste collection

vehicles should be provided in order to collect

all the waste from the city. These vehicles should

be differentiated according to the waste they will

146


collect, for plastic, paper, glass, and common

waste. Also, there could be different vehicles

regarding their size, small pick-up trucks,

medium and big, in order to serve different

parts of the city. In addition, the important

factors in the whole collection management are

the frequency of collection of solid waste, the

route planning for the vehicles, and the crew

size and truck capacity, as mentioned above.

The frequency of collection will be planned

according to the needs of the city and each area.

In order for that system to be successful the

participation of the people is required. Even

if this equipment and the vehicles exist and

operate in a very sufficient way, nothing will

change and improve if people do not separate

their waste and do not use the equipment that is

provided to do so appropriately.

Long-term approach

As was previously mentioned in the analysis

above, the existing landfill of the city is facing

problems. It is very close to the residential area

and the authorities are planning to close it down

and open a new one that will adhere to all the

regulations. It is very important to mention here

that the management of a landfill does not stop

after the termination of waste acceptance, but it

needs some provisions regarding the aftermath

before it can be retired (Scharff, 2011).

In addition, for a new landfill there are planning,

siting, and design procedures that should be

taken into consideration; these are complex

processes involving environmental issues and

technical features (Raga and Cossu, 2011).

However, except for good siting and design, a

successful landfill requires effective operation

and monitoring throughout its lifetime in order

for it to work properly. Technical equipment and

monitoring of the performance of the landfill are

required in order that a landfill be characterized

as successful and environmentally safe (Berge

et al., 2011). In addition, in the planning and

designing of a landfill it is very important to

understand the environmental impacts that

must be avoided, and that a modern landfill is

able to avoid these impacts (Christensen et al.,

2011).

As a result, a new landfill is highly necessary for

the planning and the design of the city, and at

the same time the safe termination of the use

of the current one. The current landfill, after

the termination of its use, can be used as a

collection and storing place for all the recyclable

waste that the city will produce and dispose of,

before the planning and the creation of different

recycling facilities that will accept the recyclable

waste and will treat them accordingly. This is the

next step for the improvement of solid waste

147


management. New facilities are required that

will receive and process the recyclable materials.

It is clear that in order to create these recycling

centres adequate funding is needed from the

government. But this is a necessary step towards

the improvement of the solid waste management

for the city. Nilsson and Christensen (2011) give

the examples of a collection centre in Herning

and one in Copenhagen (both in Denmark),

where the amount of residential waste that

is being landfilled after treatment, is less than

4 percent. As a result, the life of the landfill is

extended and also the monitoring and operating

costs are reduced. In which case, funding that is

needed here will be covered in the long-term by

the positive effects of the new management and

the new facilities.

These examples show how efficient recycling

centres can be and the positive effects that

have come from an environmental point of

view, as well as from an economic one and for

unemployment or creating job opportunities.

An additional step for the improvement of

solid waste management concerns the laws

and the regulations. This step falls between a

medium- and a long-term plan, and the need

for the current laws and regulations review,

reformulation of the policies, as well as their

enforcement is essential. This procedure can

be done in more than one step and during the

different stages of the new plans. It could also be

done after the full operation of the new facilities

and of the whole network. Anyhow, new laws

and regulations are essential for the function

of any new system or for any improvement in

current state of solid waste management.

Wastewater management

The wastewater collection in the city of Al

Buraimi is done in two different ways. There

is the current sewage system network, which

covers approximately the 30-35 per cent of the

city, and the septic tanks that are used in the

rest of the city. The sewage system network is

connected directly to the wastewater treatment

plant, whereas the wastewater from the septic

tanks is collected and carried to the treatment

plant by privately owned trucks. The plans for the

sewage network and its increase of connections

throughout the city are considered to be big-

scale plans, a five-year plan (MRMWR, personal

communication, September 23, 2014). On the

other hand, any plans or proposals to increase

this network, conflicts with the fact that the city

is very scattered and of very low density. The

government is reluctant to allocate the amount

of money that is needed for this development

(MECA, personal communication, September

28, 2014).

148


Sewage Treatment Plant

The current sewage network consists of 3000

lines that are connected to the main network,

and 5300 household pipes that are connected

to these lines. This covers 35%of the city. The

new treatment plant, which is not far from the

city (approximately one kilometre), can receive

up to 3000 cubic meters of wastewater per day.

Out of this amount of wastewater, the treatment

plant is capable of producing around 400 to 500

cubic meters per day of clean water, which can

be used for irrigation purposes. Trucks from the

treatment plant distribute this treated water to

the irrigation sites. The only direct connection

from the treatment plant through a pipeline goes

out to the big city park. This sewage treatment

plant (STP) consists of two lift stations, one

pump station, and the actual site of the plant

(Wastewater department of MRMWR, personal


Inside this treatment plant is also a

microbiology laboratory where the wastewater

and the treated water are tested throughout the

whole procedure. The laboratory is adequately

equipped. The results from the Microbiology

Laboratory and the Water Quality Laboratory

specify that the samples of treated wastewater

are classified into Group A and therefore the

treated wastewater can be used for irrigation

purposes. For the time being, this treated water

is carried out of the treatment plant with trucks

that delivered it directly to the irrigation sites.

The sites though that receive this treated water

are only trees alongside the streets or in the park,

but not public spaces with grass that people

use. These green spaces with grass are irrigated

with fresh water. There is no clear reason of

why this is happening, as the certificates from

the laboratories specify that the treated water is

classified, as mentioned above, as Group A and

is completely safe and odourless. The reason

might be cultural, as people do not accept

sitting on grass that is being irrigated with

treated wastewater (Wastewater department of

MRMWR, personal communication, October 2,

2014).

Furthermore, further away from the city, there is

a former treatment plant, which receives daily

around 2000 M3 but delivers only around 50 M3/

day of treated wastewater and not in the same

quality as the new treatment plant does. Hence,

there are plans at the moment to increase the

capacity of the new treatment plant in order

to be able to receive also the wastewater that

the old plant receives daily. As a result the old

plant that is of lower standards will not be

needed anymore and it will be finally closed.

Nevertheless, there are currently construction

works taking place in the new plant in order to

increase its capacity (Wastewater department of

MRMWR, personal communication, 2014).

149


Septic Tanks

The areas of the city that are not yet connected

to the main sewage system are serviced with

soak away pits and septic tanks. There are

specific guidelines for the construction of these

septic tanks in the regulations mentioned below,

including information on: the dimensions,

acceptable construction materials, and

connection with the houses.

Service Fees

The amount of money that people pay for this

service is different. For the households of the

residential areas without connection to the

sewage system, the ones that use septic tanks,

the fee is between 12 and 15 Omani Rials per

month, but it depends how often they have to

discharge their septic tank. They pay that amount

to private trucks that collect the wastewater from

their septic tanks and carry it to the wastewater

treatment plant.

For the houses that are connected to the

sewage system the charges are different. For

the residential areas the fee is 0.154 O.R./m3

and an additional fee of 2 O.R. per month. For

the governmental buildings and the commercial

areas the fees are 0,193 O.R./m3 and 0.231 O.R./

m3 respectively. Also for the commercial areas

the standard monthly fee is 5 O.R. These fees

are almost equal to 35 percent of the fees for the

drinking water supply. People pay their bills in

Figure 57. Treatment

plant


150


the Omani Investment and Finance Company

(OIFC) as they also do for their water bills

(Wastewater department of MRMWR, personal



development in wastewater

management

Inadequate provision of water and sanitation

affects hundreds of millions of people in small

urban centres. It is often assumed that it is

more difficult to support good provision of

water and sanitation in small urban centres than

in large cities due to weaker local governments,

fewer economies of scale for infrastructure

and management, and less capacity to pay.

Nevertheless, safe access for everyone is needed

to ensure the safe disposal of human excreta and

adequate wastewater treatment management.

The health and timesaving benefits that come

from good provision for water and sanitation

are well known through different examples from

around the world (McGregor, 2005).

It is essential for the government and the local

authorities to extend the main network across

the city so that every area and every new block of

houses is capable of connecting to that network

in the coming years.

Moreover, a strong advantage of the city of Al

Buraimi is the new wastewater treatment plant.

It is considered to be a modern treatment plant

that can treat wastewater and produce clean

water of good quality. The authorities at the

moment are working towards the expansion

of the new treatment plant in order to stop

using the old one, and to eventually close it

down. It is clear that these are long-term goals,

but it is something that has to be planned

and it is important that the procedures for its

implementation to begin as soon as possible.

Secondly, the issue that must be assessed is

the potential reuse of the treated wastewater

from the treatment plant. The primary problems

associated with reusing insufficiently treated

wastewater are the inherent health risks from

wastewater containing bacteria and viruses

(Sammis et al., 2001). The regulatory practices

and the necessary institutional framework

on both national and local levels need to be

reviewed (Raschid-Sally et al., 2001). In the case

of Al Buraimi, the treated wastewater, even if it

is considered to be of good quality according to

laboratories that check it daily, it is being used

only for irrigation purposes of urban greenery.

An action plan from the government must be

carried out, including regulations and criteria

for the water reuse and the implementation

151


The sewage network in Al

Buraimi


Housing, Oman)

of policies so that the treated wastewater can

be used in more activities. This is happening

nowadays worldwide because of the scarcity of

fresh water and it will be used even more in the

future.

In addition, the authorities need to carry out

surveys and campaigns in order to inform

the people about the quality of the treated

wastewater and the opportunities to use it

for different activities without causing any

health or environmental problems. The treated

wastewater can be used for everyday activities

such as car washing, irrigation of household

gardens, and cleaning house. Furthermore, if

we take into consideration the huge amount of

fresh water that is being used for agricultural

purposes, it is crucial to use treated wastewater

for agriculture. However, as already mentioned,

policies must be established and technologies

improved in the treatment plant in order for the

treated wastewater to be reused.

Some suggestions this study makes, is to

consider new technologies. There is an approach

commonly known as EcoSan, an abbreviation for

ecological sanitation, which is characterized by a

desire to "close the loop." The basic philosophy

152


of ecological sanitation is to recycle all the

nutrients in human excreta. A consequence of

this is that the various ‘streams’ of excreta and

wastewater should not be mixed as they differ

greatly in their volumes and nutrient loads. For

that reason, the ‘yellow water’ (urine), ‘black

water’ (faeces and toilet flush waters) and ‘grey

water’ (wastewater from sinks and showers or

baths) should be kept separated to facilitate

nutrient and water treatment and re-use.

EcoSan can be either on-site or off-site, and it

can even be partially on-site and partially off-site.

TThe separation of “yellow” and “brown” water

minimizes the consumption of valuable drinking

water and treats the separated wastewaters at a

low cost. These can subsequently be used for

soil amelioration, as fertilizer or as service or

irrigation water. There is also the potential for

the re-utilization of nutrients, trace elements,

water, and energy, the conservation of resources

and basically having the material-flow cycle

instead of disposal (Werner et al., 2004).

Moreover, greywater has been used worldwide in

order to promote sustainable development and

resource conservation without compromising

public health and environmental quality. Despite

several environmental and financial benefits

that can be identified by the use of greywater.

However, it would be very beneficial to the

Omani context, if society could be persuaded

to install greywater treatment systems in new

houses, new apartment complexes, and public

buildings, such as mosques and schools, where

existing plumbing may be easily modified to

separate greywater from blackwater.

Lastly, the government and the authorities must

proceed with a plan for the expansion of the

current sewage network for the rest of the city.

A plan that will be for the forthcoming years, it

will be time -intensive and of high expense, but

also an achievement that has to be carried out

in the long term , as it will change the whole

development of the city.

Conclusions

In this study different aspects and factors

of unsustainable management of the basic

services of the city have been analysed. The

proposals and the recommendations that have

been suggested and explained in this study are

divided into short-, medium-, and long-term

approaches. By implementing them, either on a

technical or management level, the coordination

of these basic services of the city will move

towards greater sustainability. There will be an

improvement of the health provisions of the city

and a decrease in the negative effects on the

environment. At the same time there would be

some positive effects in the financial status of

153


Box 17. Community survey on wastewater management

In the questions that were focused to the wastewater management sector

almost the 90% of the answers pointed out that an improvement in the whole

system and in the management of the wastewater is needed. Furthermore, in the

question regarding in what way do residents discharge their wastewater, almost

25% answered through the main sewage network, the 21% answered through

a septic tank and the remaining 54% did not give an answer or answered by

“Do not know”. In addition to this and likely related is the response that the

56% of the people questioned did not know how much money they spend on

their wastewater disposal. Less than the half answered with an average of 25

Omani Rials per month. The conclusions that can be made from the survey

is that maybe people are not familiar with the way their households dispose

the wastewater but they have a basic knowledge and an opinion that the whole

system needs to be improved.

the city in the long-term, as well as employment

benefits.

In addition, by investing in further research in

order to find more solutions (especially technical

ones), the city will manage to reach a point where

it can be considered as a sustainable developing

city. By applying these changes, the city will

“meet its needs without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own

needs,” as defined by the World Commission on

Environment and Development. It will become a

sustainable city as Haughton and Hunter (1994)

described as “one in which its people endeavour

to improve their natural, built, and cultural

environments.”

A report from the Secretary-General’s High-

Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-

2015 Development Agenda (United Nations,

2013), discussed the current millennium

development goals, known as MDGs, and the

154


changes that are likely to take place through

2030. The recommendations of the current

study are working towards the direction of the

post-2015 targets regarding the access to water

and sanitation that are: a) to provide universal

access to safe drinking water at home and in

schools, b) to end open defecation and ensure

universal access to sanitation at school and

work, and increase access to sanitation at home,

c) to bring freshwater withdrawals in line with

supply, and d) to recycle or treat all municipal

and industrial wastewater prior to discharge

(United Nations, 2013).

After the analysis of these three basic services, it

was revealed that the most challenging is solid

waste management. The fresh water supply is at

a very strong level as the scarcity of water in the

whole MENA region is a problem from many

years ago and the government has focused

already on this issue. The sewage network

already exists, and plans for its extension in

order to cover more parts of the city are already

being discussed. In addition, there is a new

wastewater treatment plant with high technology

but also facing the challenge of not being able to

receive all the wastewater in the near future of a

rapidly growing city. In contrast to this, there is

the solid waste management area that lacks any

sustainable improvements or developments.

Recycling projects and centres are totally absent

and the current landfill causes a lot of problems

in the environment and for the health of the

residents. This service is the most challenging of

all in moving towards sustainable development.

Finally, the most important tools in a

development scheme are those employed in

the monitoring of the process, the collection

of data and their evaluation. The need to

improve access to reliable territorial data was

identified during the fieldwork in the city of Al

Buraimi, an improvement that would help in

the development of strategies to implement

the recommendations of the current thesis

and also of any future research. At the same

time, it would help to monitor and evaluate the

results and impacts of these implementations.

Moreover, monitoring of the SWOT analysis is

valuable in order to identify whether the goals

are being met or not. For these reasons, the

current mechanism that already exists in the city

of Al Buraimi, and in the whole country, should

be improved in order to obtain local and reliable

data, and also to monitor and evaluate any

future implementation.

155


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159


Part 2.4 Housing & urban designFlorencia Carvajal

Housing is a complex process responding

to site and local specific conditions. A

focus is laid on social, cultural, regulatory

and institutional factors framing changes

of the physical structure. In order to give

time and spatial context to these categories,

development has been analysed during

a period of the previous 40-50 years

identifying the transitional social, economic

and regulatory processes that contributed

to the present situation. Dynamics of

growth are reflected in the “structure plans”

prepared to fulfill the increasing demand of

residential land.

The findings point out a mixed typology of

housing schemes and planning processes

overlapping and creating a fragmented

urban space following the dynamics

of growth. The proposed measures to

improve the process of housing will focus

on an open space recovery program that

would allow for more livability within

already consolidated and new emerging

residential areas and on urban design as an

intermediate discipline to be introduced as

new planning instrument between ‘structure

plan’ and ‘krookie’.

162

Part 2.4 Housing and Urban Design

Assessment of the current

state of housing

Introduction

This chapter summarizes Oman’s structural

changes, which influenced the housing sector

during the period of 1970 to 2014. There is a

focus on changes in contextual elements as

on regulatory and social aspects which have

resulted from the mechanisms the Sultanate

adopted to establish a nation-wide government

to guide and control urban issues in Oman.

Land regulation and allocation

The discovery of oil and natural gas in the

1960’s marked the economic growth process,

that went along with infrastructure expansion,

mainly improving the road network and it was

the starting point for urbanisation. The year

of 1970 had set the most crucial turning point

in the history of Oman, considered as the

beginning of the ‘modern Omani state’. This

implied the intention to establish basic rights

and duties in an equitable manner. It required

adjusting the accustomed tribal management

of the territory to a single centralized national

government. Since 1970 providing land tenure

to the Omanis has been considered crucial to

development policy.

The first land law (Royal Decree No. 5/80),

announced that all land belonged to the state,

unless possession was proven as owned or

inherited (by providing documents stating

otherwise from the local sheikh or legal courts)

prior to the first of January, 1970. The land law

Royal Decree No 81/84 announced the right of

every male Omani citizen to have a residential

plot granted from the government to him.

The strategy of land allotment required the

creation of the Department of Lands in 1975.

This was to manage the new progressive

urban policies, along with the execution of

operations for urban development purposes

being established in the first Royal Decree, No.

26/1975. These operations went from planning

to preparing, coordinating, distributing, defining,

registering and settling all land issues. The Land

Affairs Committee was formed to regulate the

claiming of lands. Its members were appointed

sheikhs from the Department of Lands for every

province (wilayat).

Previous page:

Housing projects in the

outskirts


163


Equal tenure rights for women

An important event in Oman, which determined

a change of pace for the planned expansion

of cities was women being given the right to

land in 2008 via Royal Decree No.(125/2008),

issued the 16th of November. Considering

the percentage of population, which women

represented in the country in 2012, twice as

much plots were required to accomplish the

equality decree. In addition, the sites to be

granted have increased to a minimum area of

600sqm; almost double the initial area. The

reason for this increase was due to the high

demand from the citizens requiring larger areas

to cope with their bigger internal living space,

as mentioned by the authority Head of Urban

Planning section in Al Buraimi, MOH.

Land allocation procedure

The process of land distribution began granting

benefits to a single plot of land (in the vicinity

of the place of birth or work), to male Omani

nationals after they had reached 21 years of

age. The time necessary to wait for the draw to

happen could not be determined, hence it was

strongly related to the number of applications.

The drawing system was proposed to achieve

transparency and fairness between the people,

in relation to the location within the city where

the plot was granted. To mark out the future

allotted plots for development, the MOH must

first survey, identify, measure, and record with

a specific nomenclature in the land record

document. Further steps needed to finish with

a physical house were not described as the

responsibility of the MOH. Neither was the

relationship to other infrastructure or basic

services needed for the plot. During that initial

time of implementation, after the lottery, the

people received a temporary contract which

would be switched to an ownership certificate

only after developing the site,

Priority is only given to the house as a legal unit

for every male Omani to manage the family and

perpetuate the societal system. The haphazard

results of the lottery sent the male Omanis to

possess land in remote areas of the city being

separated from their initial family. With the

progression of land allocation throughout the

country during the following years, in 1990

a strategic development effort with a 2020

planning vision came forward.

164


Urban planning instruments –

structure plans compared

The zoning distribution which was once

traditionally handled by the local tribes in

response to its contextual needs is now in the

responsibility of the Supreme Committee for

Town Planning based in Muscat. Historical

data available from the MOH helps overview

the development and planning of designated

housing areas in Al Buraimi during the years of

1984 to 2014.

Action plan of 1984

The intention of the action plan was to provide

a broad view of the spatial organization of the

city's development, without presenting details.

The initial zoning categories were: residential,

commerce, industry, roads, services and

individual projects. Health and education were

established in the five year development plans

mentioned earlier. The existing settlements are

encompassed by short, medium and long time

planned roads combined with the electricity

network. Fortunately, there are no plans for road

building within the former villages of Hamasa,

Buraimi or Saara.

Figure 58. Action plan

1984


Housing 1984)

165


An offset from the border is also set in this

plan, almost 2km at the furthest point, and the

intention is to fill the buffer space with housing.

The scale of this is not aligned with the existing

settlements, but rather to the scale of the

proposed new highways that will intersect the

city. Commerce is set along the planned road

connecting with Al Ain, across almost all Al

Buraimi.

In this plan, the intersection of highways is

marked as hierarchy points in the city and the

classification of blocks in the structure plan

is not set. Areas indicating future residential

character have not assigned in detail the number

of blocks they will contain, nor how they will be

distributed within the city.

The first land draw came into force in 1984

granting the Omanis plots ranging in size

from 320 to 350 square meters. According to

this year’s plan, the average number of plots

designated for future housing in the long term is

2600, located at the mentioned buffer area. The

short term plan's housing plots were already

complete in design but not yet constructed. The

medium term plan proposes 574 housing plots.

They corresponded mainly to the New Saara

neighborhood.

Figure 59. Structure

plan 1985


Housing 1985)

166


Structure plan of 1985

In relation to the previous map, the structure

plan of 1985 provides more detailed

information on how the city will be structured

with its corresponding operations. However,

specifications are not provided in the plan due

to its focus and purpose. A specific grid can

already be recognized dividing the spaces the

main road infrastructure had left. Within those

areas the streets correspond to a medium road

hierarchy being less wide. Still, the plan does

not manage to establish roads at the dwelling

level, even though ‘Neighbourhood centres’ are

proposed; 6 in total. Regardless of this, they are

not detailed further. There is also a tendency to

repeat Al Buraimi’s main road pattern from the

previous year's action plan at the immediate

smaller scale, especially for the New Saara area.

This structure plan does not intend to design all

elements until its completion. 8 neighbourhoods

are identified and 2830 plots will be introduced;

totalling 95 hectares of expansion. Most of

them are intended for the area between the

international border and the main highway.

Several others are intended to settle within the

inner borders of the initial villages of the city,

at the north of the Oasis. New consolidated

service structures supply the residential needs

of New Saara and Al Khadara. The outline of the

Figure 60. Expansion

plan 1986-1996


Housing 1985)

167


service areas correspond to the roads, whenever

they are attached to them. When not, the shape

still remains geometrical; however the reference

they follow are not easily distinguishable. The

layout does not intend to specify inner block

space or even neighbourhoods. The priority is

to determine the road network. This defines the

limits of the future buildable area needing buffer

zones or open spaces as sidewalks or setbacks.

Expansion plan 1986- 1996 & 1987-

1990

The figures shown correspond to the previous

official planning which determines the structure

of Al Buraimi nowadays. The performance

of the plans show the set development

prioritizing displacement within the city

by motorized vehicles, and not dividing or

distributing the terrain for a pedestrian scale.

The pattern of further expansion of the grid

eastwards establishes subdivisions within

designated neighbourhood areas. They continue

appearing disconnected among each other in

between areas for other uses, and all together

disconnected from the main hierarchy of roads.

An area of temporary housing is established

at the north of Al Khadra and more expansion

towards the east; two major areas designated

for residential growth. Yet there is no intention

to set a clear network, distributing from the

Figure 61. Expansion

plan 1987-1990


Housing 1985)

168


main roads to the new subdivisions or existing

neighbourhood centres areas.

The arrangement of plots is noticeable

however, there is no clarity on whether they

are contained in a block or not. Areas to be

extensions of the city are shown by surrounding

new infrastructure networks. They have started

to be occupied with construction works which

disregard any potential future expansion or

design of secondary/ internal access roads or

public spaces to serve the area.

On an individual scale, foreign influence over

the residential buildings is observed on Al

Buraimi’s architecture. Also, privacy and security

characteristics remain a constant need.

Figure 62. Road

hierarchy and town access

according to structural

plan

Source: (Ministry

of Transport and

Communications, 2014)

Interpretation: Author,

2015.

The management of territory for the Governorate

occurs within the national level. This is organized

by the Supreme Committee for Planning. Within

this framework the MOH structures regional

plans for the SCP to draw Town Structure Plans,

which will be implemented in Al Buraimi by two

lateral partners at the local level: the Ministry of

Transport and Communications and Ministry of

Regional Municipalities and Water Resources,

MRMWR.

Regarding road design: the main road

connection and town access strategy prevents

direct traffic contact with residential or quiet

areas. Towns and core areas are connected

inside by internal and secondary roads with no

physical link to upper road levels typologies.

169


Figure 63. Current

Al Buraimi map used for

planning

This map is used by

different Ministry

branches in Al Buraimi

that are responsible

for development and

planning.


Housing, Modified by

author, 2014)

170


Finding: Dual reality – dual dynamics

of develoment

The development of the city, triggered mainly by

land policies in Oman and guided by the main

road network, generated ambitious perspective

plans of vast lands, marked with plots and

functions even before the need for them had

appeared.

Al Buraimi city shape is based on two realities.

The first refers to the current city and its

occupied area, driven by the needs and priorities

of the individual plot owners. It is up to them to

decide about when to built up their lands.

The second reality refers to the designed areas

made up of marked plots that have not been

granted yet or have been allocated but not yet

developed. This reality is driven by demand and

supply policy following the land law.

As it is visible in the figures on the previous

page and above, there is fragmentation between

the pace of development and that of planning.

Zoning planning of the country was designated

as responsibility of the Supreme Committee

for Town Planning. The new land management

bodies have been under the supervision of

the Consultative Council (Majlis al- Shura)

Figure 64. Construct-

ed Al Buraimi

Latest built situation


Housing 2014/ Author,

2014)

171


Figure 65. Marked

plots

Latest situation of planned

territory



2014)

Figure 66. Planned vs

granted plots

Plots For residential use

only

Source: (National

Center for Statistics and

Information, 2014/ Author,

2015)

172


since 1991, when it was created to serve as a

channel of information between the Omanis

and the governmental ministries. Their role

is to review works on social, environmental

and economic broad development projects,

with residential land designation being a part

of this. This council operates centrally from

Muscat. All the established departments and

ministries are under the authority of the Sultan.

The Department of Lands continued evolving in

scope and name until becoming the MOH in

1985.

Emerging socio-spatial disparities

The border closing in 2014 was a governmental

strategy to force Al Buraimi’s own development

instead of depending on Al Ain’s. One month

before Buraimi obtained its autonomy from the

Ad Dhahirah Region by becoming a governorate,

two checkpoints were implemented and the

border was relocated 8 km to the east, around

Hilli, within the new governorate. One of the

first major shifts this caused was from people

interested in acquiring land for dwelling

purposes in Al Khadra (next to the border). They

were now looking at areas like New Saara to

Figure 67. Omani

and expat population in Al

Buraimi Governorate

Source: (National

Center for Statistics and

Information, 2014/ Author,

2014)

173


Figure 68. Chronologi-

cal division scheme

Marked in squares: Al

Khadra and Al Guraifa


the east. The new limitations for movement to

Al Ain created the conditions for the citizens to

start considering relocation to the new planned

schemes of previous years.

Expat population

The expatriates are segregated in the city, living

adjacent to or at the rear of the commerce

areas where they are employed. In Al Buraimi

commercial clusters are located mainly within

the centre. Despite the lack of specific data

that would indicate the provenance of the

expatriates, during the on-site research, it was

noticed that the great majority of the work force

of the city does not come from GCC nationals.

174


Figure 69. Expat on

his way home


175


They mostly come from the Indian subcontinent,

as well as other central Asian countries and

Middle Eastern. This creates a gap among the

standards of dwelling conditions in the city,

and it is reflected in the immediate areas in

which they settle. Besides this, foreigners are

not allowed to buy land freely in Oman. As

a result of this, the only option for them is to

rent; either houses or empty terrain. However,

groups tend to share the accommodation in

the traditional quarters; hence the areas have

been left by the Omani owners who moved

to better-off new constructions with modern

improvements as electricity, water and drainage.

The expatriates split the costs of rent which

result in overcrowding. This has the potential to

lead to slum like conditions, influencing the way

in which the city operates.

Box 18. Social aspects of housing

The MOH also includes a department in charge of social housing. There are four

ways the government addresses the need for the physical housing structure,

besides granting a plot of land to people. The first is by providing capital

for people to build on their own, with supervision of the MOH. Second, the

Department manages the process and dispenses the final product. Third, the

Department purchases the desired dwelling to provide and fourth, an interest

free loan (30,000 Omani Riyals) is awarded to the applicant. All the options

for aid apply for low-income nationals, defined to this day as someone earning

more than 300 but less than 500 Omani Riyals a month. This is verified after the

application is submitted. Information from the local authority of the Department

states in total there are between 200 - 300 applications each year for these

options. The process takes a year and the construction of the dwellings usually

takes 8 months.

176


Finding: Change in urban morphology

The growth of Al Buraimi until 1990 had not

boosted accordingly to the proposed plans in

order to require such extensive highways for city

delimitation causing a morphological turning

point. As a consequence of the land allocation

system, the built areas begin to appear unevenly

among the city. The loose scheme of plots

generates empty and large spaces whose

functions are undefined and interrupt the

continuous urban layout. Noticeable contrasts

exist between the compactness of the initial

settlements and the loose sprawl setting the

norm of the current settlements

No subdivision of land on a smaller scale is

found from the plots among each other. Or

from these to blocks, to neighbourhoods and

to its extensions which would fill the spaces

enclosed by roads connecting the city with the

country. Also gaps in the city morphology began

to appear as soon as the first proposed action

plan. Large gaps of unused land contradict the

initial settlement’s morphological structure.

The notion of periphery is set thoughtlessly

but as a consequence of surrounding the initial

settlements with roads.

Figure 70. Preffered

living areas



2015)

177


Figure 71. Neighbour-

hoods in the outskirts


hoods in the city centre


hoods in the city centre 2


178


Figure 74. Built

structure change

Constructions are

appearing further away

from the city core due to

the lottery method used

for designating plots.


When comparing morphological structure in

the traditional pre-oil settlements (before 1970)

and the ones from then onwards until today it

becomes obvious that the former city and its

elements derived from traditional, local culture

and resource availability. Al Buraimi presented a

tribal administrative organization as happened

in the rest of Oman. Regarding economic

performance it presented a thriving landscape

influenced by the productive assets the existing

falaj provided, tightly related to it’s location at

the border of Oman and UAE. This granted

potential growth and diversity to the inhabitants

and contributed to the uniqueness of its scenery.

The traditional disposition of circulation space

in the initial phase appeared random or organic

but they contributed to a functional, structural

and visual integrity that the city followed. The

compactness of the old housing structure

and the city generated a better relationship of

social, cultural and physical functions. Despite

legal instruments to attend the physical growth,

the legislation did not provide an efficient

organization for the use of land. The mentioned

order has grown due to the traffic engineering

setting, the guide for new planned areas and

prescribes setbacks, sidewalks and other open

areas, which were not part of the traditional

morphology.

As the consequence of applying new urban

models, new open area elements have been

established without proper contextualization.

The initial open areas for residential use were

within the dwellings enforcing a private character.

Currently there are open spaces scattered

among the new city neighborhoods to simulate

A B

179


Figure 75. Public

space alteration

The figure above shows

the location of all four

maps on these pages.


these gathering spaces. However they lack the

privacy of having one clan or family surrounding

it. Also the spaces are in a broader sense,

open, not being tightly enclosed by dwellings.

Therefore there is no appropriation of space

due to the deprived relation to these spaces

and their surroundings. As consequence of the

citizens organizing their own open area within

their plot and being able to control its security;

these new open areas become redundant. The

current city has lost its own identity and does no

longer respond to local potentials. The dynamic

of growth and the huge number of families to

be settled ask for new ways and instruments of

guiding the built environment.

Initially, open spaces in between the city served

as arteries and gathering areas in spite of the

strong need for privacy. Currently public spaces

are mismanaged. From the planning of the city,

public spaces are not thought as beneficial to

the surrounding plots. Open spaces considered

public result from a lack of correlation between

the plot and the position given in a block. Urban

design and a new form of compactness on the

neighborhood and city quarter level can bridge

the gap between the ‘endless city ‘ and the

individual family to find a livable place to stay.

A

B

C D

C D

180


Regulations and building codes

Taking into account the standardized process of

plot lottery which began in 1984, there was a gap

of 14 years in which no consideration was given

to build homogeneity in the city. Al Buraimi was

accustomed to clustered spaces within the city,

designated to specific functions with a uniform

character. With the new expansion planning,

directions arranging the operations along road

infrastructure axes needed standards. They

intended to preserve the traditional Omani

features while combining modern ones in the

developing city. Nevertheless these permits

and certificates were only for the built elements

individually and not seen as a composition to

make up the city. This code is not the extension

of the urban plans linking both urban scales

from the city to its final built dwelling elements.

Traffic engineering sets the key for new

community planning, requiring setbacks and

other open areas to set large scale limits

between the network and the city.

The existing building code from the Municipality

to regulate the built environment of the city is

focused on the house unit Little is established

regarding its relation to the city context

surrounding it. As Article 58, section a) about

residential buildings establishes: “1 (. . .)

passages and corridors between two rows of

different residential units of width (1.50) meters

to a passage up to (15) meters long, if the length

exceeded that, then the width shall increase to a

maximum of (2.20) meters. It can be illustrated

in the adjacent figure.

This contributes to the second reality in which

there is a divergence from the real situation

in the city and the utilized plan in which the

MOH bases subsequent city planning, “2 A

main corridor in front of one row of different

residential units of width (1.40) meters for five

units, if the units exceeded this number, then

the width shall be increased by (5%) for every

additional unit provided that the maximum

width shall be (2.0) meters.”

The next, Article (59) displays the car park

situation allowed within the legal boundaries

of the plot specifying at least one car park

for every flat or single family residence for

residential areas. On-site research of the current

specifically in New Saara does not establish this

regulation coming into force. Considering this

neighbourhood being mostly consolidated, we

can infer other areas of the city present more

extreme counterexamples to the article.

181


Figure 76. Article

58 a)1

Source: (Explanation

Inspection and

Engineering Affairs

Department, 2008)

Interpretation Author,

2014

Figure 77. Article 58

a)2

Source: (Explanation

Inspection and

Engineering Affairs

Department, 2008)

Interpretation Author,

2014

182


Recommendations

Urban planning instruments are developed

to guide and control physical and spatial

development. In the Omani context the

given land law as well as land allocation and

distribution practice together with the high

population growth rates have created a situation

where priority is given to supply the demand

of land, according to the law. Designation of

new residential areas to repond to the ever

increasing demand are reflected in the structure

plans, showing more and more a horizontally

expanding city. Qualitative physical planning

however, with guidelines on what kind of urban

qualities are going to be developed, which

density is considered to be appropriate, how

the open space should be integrated and other

qualitative aspects of physical planning were

not met by the structure plans. They focus on

the main road network to structure the city and

assign areas for expansion within a given time

frame.

The second planning instrument in use is the

so called krookie that translates the building

regulations to any single building to be errected.

The krookie only looks on one single plot and

on one single building and prescribes the

percentage of plot surface allowed to be built up,

the setbacks, the maximum number of storeys,

the maximum height of the building and the use

of the building.

A missing link between the city planning level

(structure and expansion) and the building

planning level (individual house) becomes

obvious and has been identified as crucial for

urban sprawl and low quality of life in Al Buraimi

and in other Omani cities as well.

Thus two strategic approaches are proposed

that would react on the current challenges:

First steps to foster quality of life in residential

areas: Open space recovery program in

consolidated areas and areas currently under

construction

○ Open or non-built-up urban space is to be

divided into‚ public open space, meaning that

access is free to everybody and ‚private open

space’ where access is restricted to a selected

number of people.

○ Public open space includes space

dedicated to transportation (roads, car parking

lots), sidewalks, green space and parks, setback

(distance space between road and plot, distance

between two neighbouring plots (sikkha).

○ Private open space is limited to the

non-built-up space within an individual plot,

including roof terraces or balconies that form

part of the build-up space itself.

183


○ The open space recovery program would

follow a specific process, starting with an

inventory of public space, physical performance

and patterns of use.

Second steps to foster quality of life in residential

areas: Introducing the discipline of Urban

Design to mediate between the “structural

plan’” and the “krookie”.

Guidelines for urban design

○ Compactness and connectivity: Social and

spatial units of the city are neighbourhoods

instead of single buildings.

○ Neighbourhoods are organized and

designed in size and in shape (a cluster/

block of a limited, but not too small, number

of plots (about 40-50) and houses, that allow

internal open space for ventilation, shaded

sitting areas, shaded pedestrian walkways,

children's playgrounds, social gathering space

for neighbouring families and friends...)

○ Priority is given to building permits within

one designated neighbourhood, to foster a joint

building process within a limited time span and

to counteract sprawl.

○ A certain number of adjacent

neighbourhoods are interconnected by internal

roads, internal walkways (shown in figure

below). They may even share car parking areas.

○ A cluster of neighbourhoods share their

mosques, small shopping facilities, a health

care point, and other required daily services. Figure 78. Recom-

mendations.

On the left side, open

and un-built space is

highlighted. On the

right hand side, urban

design interventions are

proposed.


184


○ Within the neighbourhoods traffic speed is

limited to 30 km/h. Roads are limited in width,

corresponding to the idea of mixed use street

space (e.g. car, pedestrians, and bikes).

○ Privacy within the neighbourhood is

given to the individual family residences

through respective designs and setbacks. A

neighbourhood may show different house types,

though the attached twin villa, or row-houses or

other compact building complexes should be

preferred in order to save land and to cope with

new regulations on proportional density. (FSR/

FAR)

Further studies are recommended on review

of planning standards and building codes,

and how to adapt them to the envisaged new

neighbourhood design. Best practice cases from

neighbouring countries with similar climatic,

cultural and historic background might be

included.

Moreover a competition on new housing types

for compact settlements could be launched.

This would include better building technologies

and the use of renewable energies.

A pilot project could test urban design on

the neighbourhood level using new housing

types. Through this, strengths and weaknesses

could be explored and documented within a

comprehensive monitoring process. It would

also help to formulate appropriate new building

guidelines.

185


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187


Part 2.5 Heritage management and responsible tourismAna Alcántara

Rapid economic development and social

changes in Oman have led to a neglection of

heritage. In an effort to carry out the overall

“Vision 2020” focusing on diversifying the

economy, it has been identified that the tourism

sector is crucial to develop. Tourism in Oman

is supposed to be diverse responding to the

huge variety of natural and socio-cultural

backgrounds of the many tribes. Despite being

neglected this far, the remaining heritage in

Al Buraimi might be able to contribute to

locally responsible tourism development that

can improve the lifestyle of the community,

increase the income of the families, preserve

the natural and cultural heritage, and reinforce

local attachment to the heritage area. This study

proposes a set of criteria and management plan

for the implementation of responsible tourism.

190

Part 2.5 Heritage Management and Responsible Tourism


state of heritage

“Over the last fifty years tourism has become

one of the largest economic sectors globally,

accounting for some 9% of the world’s GDP

and over 200 million jobs” (United Nations

World Tourism Organization, 2013, p.14). Also

in Oman tourism is considered one of the most

progressive economic activities that can benefit

other economic activities due to its wide scope.

Different assets give value to the tourist sector

such as culture, heritage and art and enable it to

become a key sector to the economic growth of

a country and reduce poverty levels.

In June 2004, the Omani Ministry of Tourism

(MOT) was created (i) to increase the

contribution to the GDP by the tourism sector,

(ii) to increase the level of employment of

Omani nationals in the sector, (iii) to increase

the average annual growth rate for the income

from tourism, and (iv) to be responsible for the

promotion and marketing of Oman as a tourist

destination(Ministry of Tourism, Sultanate of

Oman, 2005).

The MOT has the duty to preserve cultural

integrity and preserve Omani identity; to

promote the historic, cultural and natural

heritage and ethos of traditional hospitality.

Different goals are set for the tourism sector

such as (i) achieving an annual average

growth rate of at least seven percent, (ii)

improvement of employment opportunities

for Omani nationals, and (iii) to continue with

balanced regional development. The MOT’s

strategy also outlines how Oman will achieve

maximum benefits for local communities,

activate domestic tourism, encourage the role of

the private sector in tourism development, and

commit to sustainable tourism development”

(‘Oman: Focusing on diversification’, 2010).

Travel and Tourism in Oman generated 37,000

jobs directly in 2013 (3.3 percent of total

employment) and this is forecast to grow by

11.4 percent in 2014 to 41,000 (3.6 percent of

total employment). This includes employment

by hotels, travel agents, airlines and other

passenger transportation services (excluding

commuter services). It also includes the

activities of the restaurant and leisure industries

directly supported by tourists (World Travel and

Tourism Council, 2013).

In order to promote the importance and benefits

of the tourist sector many educational programs

have been established, such as the annual

schools’ education program with presentations

to around 40 schools and colleges.

Previous page:

The ruins of Hamasa


191


Tourism in Al Buraimi

The development of Al Buraimi in the tourism

sector has been different than that in the national

context. Part of the national budget goes to

tourism in the Governorate of Al Buraimi, but it

has to be distributed to Al Buraimi, Mahdah and

Al Sunaynah.

The workforce in the hotel sector in Al Buraimi

Municipality totaled 168 in 2011 and decreased

to 137 by 2012. The increase in the number of

expats living in the area can be reflected in the

Omani Ratio of workforce in the tourism sector

which was 25.5 percent in 2012 down from 36.9

percent in 2011 (National Center for Statistics

and Information Sultanate of Oman, 2013).

Even though efforts have been made to improve

the “Omanisation” in the tourism sector, the

amount of foreigners working in this sector is

still higher.

Minor projects run by locals and young people

are required. The Chamber of Commerce and

Industry in Al Buraimi wants to encourage young

citizens to become entrepreneurs and to enter

into the private sector, by providing them training

and financing for facilities. “The Ministry of

Tourism...[is] making efforts to support tourism

development, encourage entrepreneurship and

provide the Omani youth with opportunities to

establish their own projects. [sic] The projects

announced to be built at Al Buraimi include a

166,991 square meters hotel and shopping and

entertainment center, an environmental tourism

camp spread over 107,077 square meters, and a

four-star hotel and villas project stretching over

50,000 square meters at Hay Al Nafahat. […] The

Oman Development Bank (ODB) is expected to

Box 19. Responsible and

sustainable tourism

According to the UNWTO

sustainable tourism should “(i) use

environmental sources in an optimal

way, keeping a balance with the

natural ecological processes without

threatening nature due to tourism

development, minimizing adverse

impacts on the environment and

preserving heritage and biodiversity,

(ii) maintain the cultural identity of

the host communities, preserving

their heritage and traditional values

and encourage tolerance and

understanding between the host and

visitor, and (iii) to provide long term

economic benefits to all stakeholders

involved in the tourism sector and to

the destination, and to contribute to

poverty reduction” (United Nations

World Tourism Organization, 2005).

192


play a big role in turning these opportunities

into reality by providing the required funding to

the Omani entrepreneurs (Times News Service,

2014).

Heritage as an asset for responsible

tourism

Oman is a country with a long tradition in

human settlements, handmade art crafts and

the use of oral traditions and expressions to

pass on knowledge, cultural and social values

and collective memory.

According to UNESCO, heritage is defined as

“our legacy from the past, what we live with

today, and what we pass on to future generations.

Our cultural and natural heritage are both

irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration”

(UNESCO World Heritage Center, 2008, p.5).

Cultural heritage refers to monuments, groups

of buildings and sites with historical, aesthetic,

archaeological, scientific, ethnological or

anthropological value and natural heritage

refers to outstanding physical, biological and

geological formations, habitats of threatened

species of animals and plants and areas with

scientific, conservation or aesthetic value.

The preservation of tangible heritage assets

ensures that the memories of the community of

the past and the qualities that provide identity

to places and enable future generations to

have a glance of how the past used to look

like and to create a sense of continuity that is

an essential part of cultural identity. Tangible

heritage assets have an advantage over their

intangible counterparts, as the preservation

and conservation of the tangible assets can

be reached by taking proper care to preserve

their authenticity, while for intangible assets to

be preserved they have to be transferred from

generation to generation.

In order for intangible cultural heritage to be

preserved and conserved, legal measurements

have to be taken in order to maintain their

cultural property, folklore and traditions relative

to the culture.

Negative effects of tourism and

solutions to them

Even though tourism is considered a means to

improve the living conditions of communities,

negative features can be also emphasized such

as (i) the increase of local pollution in the air,

water and land that can be produced by the

tourism facilities, (ii) the use of non-renewable

resources in a mindless way by hotels and

resorts, (iii) the damage of the flora and fauna

around a site, (iv) the degradation to the heritage

site, and (v) the poor working conditions some

of the workers in travel and tourism can face.

193


Thus worldwide and in Oman much attention

is given to more sustainable or responsible

forms of tourism, that take “full account of

its current and future economic, social and

environmental impacts, addressing the needs of

visitors, the industry, the environment and host

communities” (United Nations World Tourism

Organization, 2005).

Sustainable or responsible tourism is tourism

“which minimizes negative social, economic

and environmental impacts, generates greater

economic benefits for local people and

enhances the well-being of host communities,

improves working conditions and access to the

industry, involves local people in decisions that

affect their lives and life chances, makes positive

contributions to the conservation of natural and

cultural heritage embracing diversity, provides

more enjoyable experiences for tourists through

more meaningful connections with local people,

and a greater understanding of local cultural,

social and environmental issues, provides

access for physically challenged people, is

culturally sensitive, encourages respect between

tourists and hosts, and builds local pride and

confidence.” (Responsible Tourism Partnership,

2002). The interaction between host and visitor

is promoted to enable a broader understanding

of the local cultural and social patterns.

Box 20. UNESCO World Heritage

The formal effort to safeguard intangible cultural heritage through UNESCO

began in 1972 with the Convention for the Protection of World Cultural and

Natural Heritage and the creation of the World Heritage List (Kurin, 2004).

The World Heritage list gives international recognition and national support for

the restoration, conservation, preservation of tangible monuments, sites and

landscapes.

According to UNESCO, “tangible heritage” includes buildings and historic

places, monuments, artifacts, etc., which are considered worthy of preservation

for the future. These include objects significant to the archaeology, architecture,

science or technology of a specific culture”(‘Tangible Cultural Heritage | United

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’, n.d.) and “intangible

cultural heritage” was described in the form of a list, as oral traditions and

expressions […] and traditional craftsmanship, as well as the sites and spaces

in which culturally significant activities and events occur” (Kurin, 2004, p.67).

194


Box 21. People perceptions about Al Buraimi’s attractiveness

To understand how the community perceives Al Buraimi, an open question was

posed on the community questionnaires to determine the reasons why people

should go to Al Buraimi. The outcomes were very different, while some of the

survey respondents consider Al Buraimi a place with great commercial activity

and considered it to be a tourist attraction; most of the community prefers to go

to Al Ain for shopping. The ladies tailor shops are very famous in the area with

clients from all around Oman. Also, the repair of cars has become a growing

industry in Al Buraimi.

Even though the community considered the Forts as part of the attractions of Al

Buraimi, only 44 percent of the survey respondents have visited the Al Khandaq

Fort and 37 percent the Al Hillah Fort.

While the living conditions are stated as part of the reasons for visiting Al Buraimi,

since the establishment of the physical border between Al Ain and Al Buraimi in

2009, the free transit between the two cities has become more difficult, and the

advantage of Al Buraimi being cheaper than Al Ain is no longer considered as a

priority because of the long commute.

195


Heritage assets inventory for tourism in Al Buraimi

Figure 79. Location of

heritage sites


This study identifies the

following inventory of

tangible heritage sites

and intangible heritage

features was identified

during the fieldwork in

autumn 2014.

Box 22. Tangible assets criteria

1. Cultural traditions, the assets have to be part of the cultural traditions and belong to

Al Buraimi´s identity.

2. Ancient traditional human settlement should represent human interaction and the

land-use of Al Buraimi.

3. Example of a type of building or architectural typology specific to Al Buraimi; .

4. Significant natural habitats for conservation of biological diversity, including those

containing threatened species.

5. Economic value for the future benefit of the community, if the asset is developed as a

tourist attraction and new job opportunities appear.

The following map shows the location of the

tangible and intangible assets described ahead.

196


Ancient residential village Saára

Located close to the border with the United Arab

Emirates, and part of the Buraimi Oasis, Saára

was occupied by around four to five thousand

people and used to be a very important site for

farming and leisure in the summer; since it was

located in the Buraimi Oasis, the abundance of

palm trees for farming with the use of the aflaj

system around the area provided a very shaded

and comfortable place.

Today, the site is mostly abandoned, due to a

shift in economic activities. Few plots are still

being used for farming.

Ancient residential and market village

Hamasa

It used to be an important market in the area

ruled by the Al Shamsi family. People from

As Sunaynah, Sohar, Dubai and Ibri came to

Hamasa to buy goods, trade animal, fruits,

vegetables, and slaves. There are no existing

written records of the way Hamasa used to look

or how the inhabitants used to live, nor about

the number of inhabitants or market shops. The

use of tents as households was very common;

families used to live all together.

Few structures remain today. It is known that the

market and the houses were separated by the

wadi that crossed through Hamasa.

Figure 80. Decay

situation in Saára.

Saára is mostly

abandoned and is

occupied by eastern

Asian people who pay

a small amount to the

land owners of the plots

in order to use them as

shelter and as small farms


Figure 81. Decay

situation in Hamasa


197


Figure 82. Al Khandaq

fort


The forts and watchtower

Currently, Al Buraimi possesses two forts, Fort Al

Hillah and Fort Al Khandaq, and a watchtower.

They were both centers for political, social,

religious interaction and administrative

activities, including markets, houses and

mosques (‘Ministry of Heritage and Culture,

Sultanate of Oman’, n.d.).

Today, both forts and watchtower are well

preserved, Al Khandaq represents the emblem

of the Governorate. Only maintenance work is

needed as part of the facades and interior have

fractures.

Box 23. The Buraimi Oasis

For years, the Al Ain–Buraimi area was known as the ‘Buraimi Oasis’. The

Buraimi Oasis does not apply only to the palm groves in Buraimi, but also to the

wider Al Ain–Buraimi area.

Before development, the Buraimi Oasis comprised nine small villages. Three of

these were inhabited by tribes loyal to the Sultan of Oman: Buraimi, Hamasa

and Saára. The other six villages were inhabited by tribes loyal to the sheikh of

Abu Dhabi: Al Ain, Muwaiqih, Mataradh, Jimi, Qattara and Hilli.

In the nineteenth and early twentieth century, Al Buraimi was consider an urban

settlement considered to be a strategic city due to its economic activities, such

as manufacturing (pottery, weaving and ironworking), trade (camel trappings,

pottery), and agriculture (dates, alfalfa, sweet and sour oranges, mangoes and

root vegetables) as well as its two lines of falaj and its two forts: the Forts Al

Buraimi and Fort Al Hillah Fort.

198


Intangible assets

Building techniques and materials

Due to the modernization in the 1970s, the

ancient building techniques and building

materials have lost their traditional importance.

New houses with modern building materials

and amenities have appeared, such as air-

conditioning. The cities were left abandoned

and traditional settlements are nowadays in

a very precarious condition. The restoration

of the mud-brick houses is crucial, since they

are a trace of history that could potentially be

transferred to a younger generation.

The main building materials previously

employed in Oman are mud brick, baked brick,

stone, mangrove poles, palm trees and lime,

Box 24. Intangible assets: criteria

○ In order to identify the intangible heritage assets, a set of criteria were established. These

assets have to be related to the following categories:

○ Cultural traditions; the assets have to be part of the cultural traditions.

○ Ownership of cultural property; should belong to the Al Buraimi´s identity.

○ Example of a type of building or craft technique; example of a unique building technique

as well as part of the ancient craft and arts in Al Buraimi.

○ Risk of disappearing; due to modernization, part of the knowledge is in risk of being lost.

○ Economic value for the future benefit of the community; if the asset is developed as part

of a tourist attraction and new job opportunities appear.

used for mortar and plaster. This traditional

earth architecture of has climatic properties that

ensure constant temperature within the building

during the whole year without the existence of

windows.

The traditional summer houses were usually

larger with higher ceilings where small windows

can be seen for the entrance of light; winter

houses were more compact, having lower

ceilings to preserve the warmth inside. “In

the mud-brick houses, the ground floor was

commonly used for storing and the upper floors

for living. Walls were up to 80 centimeters thick

on the ground level (Gaube, Heinz and Gangler,

Anette, 2012, p.80).

199


Traditional craft and arts

Various traditional crafts are inspired by the

local environment and the local resources.

For instance, Pottery making in the interior of

Oman was a highly commercial practice, the

production got into high volume with the use

of the pottery wheel and the creation of small

factories (Richardson, Neil and Dorr, Marcia,

2003).

As in other areas of the country where dates

are found, basketry is a widely practiced craft.

Different types of plaited–strip baskets are

needed at different times of the year, for date-

collection or storage, or for special occasions

like Eid; the request for the large rectangular-

storage basket which also serves as a cooking

bag for shuwa´, the traditional Omani dish of

roasted goat meat (Richardson, Neil and Dorr,

Marcia, 2003).

The conservation of the intangible heritage

assets provides traditions, practices, and forms

of knowledge that help cultural identity survive to

subsequent generations. Due to modernization,

building techniques and everyday appliances

local traditions are devaluated or endangered or

both.

Figure 83. Pottery in

Nizwa


Figure 84. Basketry in

Al Buraimi


200


Figure 87. Dry falaj in

Saára.

Due to over exploitation

and lack of research

from side of the Omani

authorities on the field, the

falaj stopped supplying

water.

Source: (Salcedo 2014)

Box 25. Further tangible assets examples: Falaj irrigation system

In 2006, the Falaj Daris Falaj Al Khatmeen in Willayat Nizwa, the Falaj Al Malaki in Willayat Izki,

the Falaj al Mayssar in Willayat Al Rustaq and the Falaj Al Jeena in Willayat Sur were inscribed in

the World Heritage List due to their ancient engineering technologies, sustainable use of water

resources for the irrigation of palms and crops, the strengthening of the community values and

the mutual community collaboration.

The conservation of the tangible heritage assets provides the future generation with a

concrete notion of the past. They have the greater potential to provide economic benefit to

the community, providing new job opportunities as a tourism attraction. Proper management,

including information centers and staff, is required in order to increase the tourism value as well

as to preserve the economic, social and environmental responsibility stated previously in this

study.

201


Hamasa: an example

for responsible tourism

development

The area of Hamasa can exemplify how to

preserve cultural heritage, and how to put

heritage into value for a responsible tourism

concept that would improve the entire

community, increase the income of the families,

and reinforce the local attachment.

Hamasa is overlooked by the Hamasa

Watchtower and divided by the wadi into the

residential area and the market area. The

remains of two falaj entering into the area can

be tracked with the remaining inspections wells,

one leading north to south across the wadi

towards the Hillah Fort and the other directly in

the middle of the Hamasa area.

The remaining buildings are precious in value

due to the building techniques used to construct

them. The actual physical situation of the mud-

brick houses however is very critical, shifting

sands has covered most of the remaining

buildings.

According to the Ministry of Housing, the land

use of Hamasa still remains as agricultural;

reason why some farms are still in use.

Nowadays, other types of economic activities are

taking place in Hamasa, such as coffee shops,

restaurants and small grocery shops, mostly run

by expatriates though owned by Omanis.

New markets have absorbed the role of the

Hamasa market, such as the souqs close to the

Al Hillah Fort. These are not only considered as

trade centers but as important meeting points

for the local community. The new souq is a small

white building with a watchtower in the center.

While inside the market mostly male expatriate

vendors sell imported products mainly from

China; including earth and clay artifacts, spices,

shoes, food and traditional walking sticks that

can be found outside the stalls. Female vendors

sell plaited-strip baskets, traditional goods and

some pottery. Fresh fish from Sohar and other

ports of Oman can also be bought daily.

Spatial configuration

Hamasa used to be a very compact village,

mainly accessed by donkeys/camels to enable

the transport of goods into and out of the

market. The construction of asphalt roads inside

Hamasa was stopped in order to preserve the

traditional identity of the place.

202


Vernacular architecture

The remaining mud-brick houses in Hamasa

can be categorized by location, type of

building, (residential, mosques, shops) and by

construction materials such as stones, baked

bricks, and mud bricks.

Most of the mud-brick houses used to have

pitched palm-frond (barristi) roofs and the

bigger houses had flat earth roofs supported

by palm trunks or mangrove poles. They had

rooms with high ceilings for the hot weather

season and low ceilings for the cold weather.

Few windows can be found on ground level due

to the importance of privacy; whereas many

can be found above. Some renovations can be

observed and appreciated where earth roofs

have been changed to wooden roofs.

The foundations are shallow or have been built

directly on the ground. Only the houses as

well as the shops close to the wadi, had higher

foundations made of irregular stones. This was

to protect them from the high water levels during

the rainy season. The falaj system infrastructure

is still noticeable in some households, although

in a bad condition.

Tenure

Since plots in Hamasa have been inherited, the

delimitation of some plots can be distinguished

by stone fences or concrete walls recently built

in order to delimitate property. Even though

abandoned, plots in Hamasa are extremely

valuated because of the long history of

inheritance they posses.

Identity at stake

In general, the new lifestyle in Hamasa and in

Al Buraimi has led to the threat of the loss of

the intangible assets mentioned above. The

oral transmission of knowledge was considered

a tradition, covering literature, graphic arts

and performed arts. Moreover, the knowledge

related to building techniques using mud-brick

is liable to get lost if it is no longer preserved

and transmitted. Hamasa is an extraordinary

example of how vernacular architecture used

to look like, thus if it is not safeguarded it is

possible that this part of the Al Buraimi identity

will become extinct.

203


Guidelines and Action plan

towards responsible tourism

in Hamasa

The purpose of this section is to provide a set

of strategies towards responsible tourism based

on the heritage assets in Hamasa, addressing

the issues of management, revitalization

centered on re-habitation, conservation, training

and skill development.

In order to become a tourist attarction based

on these assets, the guidelines include ancient

settlements for housing purpose, the agriculture

and animal breeding as economic activity and

the reuse of ancient handicraft techniques.

It is important to tackle the characteristics of

responsible tourism, and to cover the aims of

the Omani “Vision 2020” by increasing the

importance of the tourism sector, fostering the

preservation of social, cultural and environmental

resources of the country, including more

Omanis in the tourism sector and improving

the lifestyle of the host community.

For the sake of elaborating guidelines and

recommendations for responsible tourism, a set

of criteria have been taken into consideration:

a. The identification of opportunities and

weaknesses

b. The recognition of the stakeholders

involved and the development of

linkages between them

c. The design of specific projects,

including a trial area

d. The impact on the local community

e. The creation of new job opportunities

f. The improvement of capacity building

g. The raising of awareness

One of the main purposes is to promote active

collaboration between the state, the private

sector and civil society. It is for the sake of the

diversification of the tourist sector, to develop

high qualified and well-trained human resources.

The following action plan is developed in three

different phases. The responsibilities and

interactions between the diverse stakeholders

vary.

204


Phase I (short term)

Physical planning

For Phase I, it is required to select a trail

area, where the remaining buildings will be

categorized in three degrees of preservation, the

ones that are in an adequate state, those that

can be preserved, and those where only small

intervention are needed, such as refurbishments.

The ones that are in an adequate state, that

needs to be restored, and the ones that are in

ruins. The classification of the buildings has to

be coordinated with the Ministry of Heritage

and Culture in order to have accurate criteria of

classification.

The trial area, Hamasa I, should be restored,

preserving the heritage resources and

minimizing further destruction.

Actions and activities

The creation of man-made attractions is required

such as a small-scale museum, for the display

of local artwork as well as local handicrafts.

Small restaurants and coffee shops should be

run inside the trial area. These places should

provide local food and be run by the community.

New gift shops should be established where

local handicrafts can be sold and workshops can

take place.

Parallel to these actions, awareness programs

have to be implemented to encourage local

communities to participate; capacity building

is also required to improve the hospitality, and

tourism management skills to provide quality

services. Additionally, training for the community

is required for the development, management

and operation of small businesses.

205


Stakeholders involved

In this phase, an active collaboration between

most of the stakeholders is required from the

beginning of the action plan and for its overall

success. Even though building interventions

are needed in Hamasa; the Ministry of Heritage

and Culture is the main entity responsible for

the protection and preservation of the ancient

building; the ministry has to provide guidelines

on how intervention should proceed. The

involvement of the civil society is essential

to run the new local activities. The Chamber

of Commerce and Industry has the ability to

provide trainees with capacity building in the

tourist sector and for the creation of small

businesses. The media, academia and the

Ministry of Tourism are the bodies responsible

for awareness programs and campaigns to

promote participation in tourism. The media

in collaboration with the Ministry of Tourism is

also responsible for the marketing of the newly

developed pilot project.

Outputs/Goal

A certain number of jobs will be created with

the new economic activities The promotion

of tourism will increase the community

involvement in the sector, giving them the tools

to have a say in the development of their own

home area.

Figure 88. Interven-

tions in Phase I


206


Phase II (medium term)

Physical planning

Phase II will follow the same guidelines as

in Phase I, Hamasa II will be created. The

restoration of the decayed buildings, the

preservation of the heritage resources as well as

the minimization of further destruction remain

as the main priorities.


In phase II, linkages are developed to local

agriculture and local products as part of the

activities. The falaj system should be also

included in order to revive the Oasis’ life, and

provide an example of how life used to be. The

breeding of animals should also be integrated

as part of the activities.

To develop a structured holistic tourism

experience based on the available heritage

resources, walking night tours can be

established to visit the Old souq – the Al

Hillah Fort – the New souq – the Al Khandaq

Fort – and the Hamasa Tower – Hamasa. In

every spot, informational brochures as well as

trained representatives should be available.

This includes the establishment of a tourist

information centre.


In this phase, the labor of the local community,

mainly the ones with agricultural knowledge, is

required. The main responsibility of the Ministry

of Heritage and Culture remains the protection

and preservation of the ancient buildings. The

creation, promotion and enhancing of cultural

events, such as festivals in Hamasa have to be

run and supervised by the Ministry of Tourism,

with the aim to involve the community in

cultural events as well as to attract more tourists

to Al Buraimi.

The cooperation between the Ministry of Tourism

and the private sector in this phase is important

for the promotion of tourism though the private

enterprises and for the development of tourism

products, such as maps and brochures.

Outputs/Goal

New jobs will be created with the new economic

activities and with the integration of agriculture.

With new tourist activities created, trained people

will be required for the delivery of information

along the different spots of the walking tour,

as well for running the tourist information

center. Providing economic incentives in

tourism, agriculture and the production of local

merchandise, will add value to Hamasa and to

Al Buraimi.

207



tions in Phase II

including interventions in

Phase I


Figure 90. Night tour

walking route

The Walking night tours

are intended to provide

and holistic tourism

experience based on

the available heritage

resources. Trained people

will be required for the

delivery of information

along the different spots

of the walking tour.


208


Phase III (long term)

Physical planning

Phase III will follow the same guidelines as in

Phase I, Hamasa III will be created. Small-scale

accommodation facilities can be established,

such as “Bed and Breakfasts” and small scale

hotels. Large-scale renovation will be required to

enable the provision of high quality service.


With the trial project running in different areas

in Hamasa, the provision of accommodation

can be made in order to extend the visit of the

tourist to more than a day.


The private sector is the main actor in this phase,

for running accommodations that fulfill the need

of the tourist and reach high quality standards.

The engagement of the entire community in

of high importance for the success of phase

III since the aim is to provide an example of

responsible tourism in an Oasis settlement.

Outputs/Goal

The number of new jobs will increase in the

different areas of the accommodation facilities.

The objective is to improve quality standards

in the tourism sector and to extend the stay of

visitors by providing an example of traditional

way of life.

Further actions: festivals

According to the outcomes from the survey

conducted in Al Buraimi, different actions have

to be taken in consideration of attracting more

tourists to the area. 56% percent of the survey

respondents have not visited the Al Khandaq

Fort and 63 % have also not visited the Al

Hillah Fort. In order to foster more visits, the

Ministry of Tourism in collaboration with the

local authorities, could promote the creation of

festivals in the area taking place in both forts.

As part of the areas to improvement, the lack

of information provided on the heritage assets

in Al Buraimi make it difficult for visits by non-

Arabic speakers to partake, since information is

only transmitted orally.

209



tions in Phase III,

including interventions in

Phase I and Phase II


Figure 92. Summary

of the action plan


Action plan

210


National action plan

As part of a national action plan, a National Fort

Route will be created, where the Al Hillah Fort

and the Al Khandaq Fort could be integrated to

promote the area and to attract more tourists.

Al Buraimi should be promoted more often both

inside and outside Oman. It should be included

in national brochures and national tourist maps.

The great potential of Al Buraimi has not been

fully realized.

Figure 93. National

Fort Route


211


Conclusions

Modernization has played an enormous role in

the transformation of lifestyle and economical

behavior in Al Buraimi. The “Vision 2020” has

been taken on as criteria for the diversification

of the economy, and tourism has been selected

as the main sector for development.

How might this apply to some heritage assets,

such as those in Al Buraimi, which have

remained in a long state of abandon and decay?

How can proper heritage management recover

and preserve the tangible/intangible assets to

become part responsible tourism development

for the sake of the improvement of the lifestyle of

the community, in order to increase the income

for the families, to preserve of the natural and

cultural heritage assets and the reinforcement of

the local attachment to the heritage area?

This study shows that Al Buraimi has substantial

tangible and intangible heritage assets thereby

making it an ideal segment of a responsible

tourism development plan. The benefits gained

will involve not only the civil society, but the

private sector and the local government. Most

notably the improvements required for the

development of the traditional settlement of

Hamasa must go beyond it and involve the

oasis as a whole and Al Buraimi as an exemplary

part of it. It is crucial to reinforce the sense

of ownership and cultural identity in the new

generations.

Figure 94. Ruins in

Hamasa


212


References

Anon (n.d.) Chronicle of the Middle East &

North Africa. Available from: http://fanack.

com/en/countries/oman/history/

Anon (n.d.) Ministry of Heritage and Culture,

Sultanate of Oman. Available from: http://www.

mhc.gov.om/tabid/358/Default.aspx

Anon (n.d.) Tangible Cultural Heritage | United

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization. Available from: http://www.

unesco.org.

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Country Report. Available from: http://www.

bti-project.org.

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Profile. Available from: http://cmrsdb.

aucegypt.edu/index.php/eng/content/

download/1900/11324/file/10.%20Oman_2012.

pdf.

Ennis, Crystal A. & Al-Jamali, Ra’id Z. (2014)

Development Planning and Labour Market

Trends in Oman. Available from: http://www.

chathamhouse.org

Gaube, Heinz & Gangler, Anette (eds.) (2012)

Transformation Processes in Oasis Settlements

of Oman. Muscat, Oman: Al Royal Press and

Pulishing Hoswe.

Gössling, S. (1999) Ecotourism: a means

to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem

functions? Ecological Economics. 29 (2),

303–320.

Kurin, R. (2004) Safeguarding Intangible

Cultural Heritage in the 2003 UNESCO

Convention: a critical appraisal. Museum

International. [Online] 56 (1-2), 66–77.

Ministry of Tourism, Sultanate of Oman (2005)

Tourism Strategy in Oman. Available from:

http://www.omantourism.gov.om


Sultanate of Oman (2013) Statistics Tourism.

Available from: http://www.ncsi.gov.om

Responsible Tourism Partnership (2002) Cape

Town Declaration. Available from: http://www.

responsibletourismpartnership.org/CapeTown.

html.

Richardson, Neil & Dorr, Marcia (2003) The

Craft Heritage of Oman. Vol. 1, 2 vols. Dubai,

UAE: Motivate Publishing for the Omani Craft

Heritage Documentation Project.

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Smith, David & Talwar, Rohit (2007) The Future

of Travel & Tourism in the Middle East - A

Vision to 2020. Available from: http://www.

thegff.com/Publisher/File.aspx?id=14985.

Times News Service (2014) Oman tourism

ministry declares details of 22 locations,

projects development plans. Times of Oman.

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Heritage Information Kit. Available from: http://

whc.unesco.org.

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(2005) Definition | Sustainable Development

of Tourism [online]. Available from: http://sdt.

unwto.org.


(2013) Sustainable Tourism for Development

Guidebook. Available from: http://www.ilo.org.

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and Tourism Economic Impact 2014 Oman.

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WWF International (2001) Guidelines for

community-based ecotourism development.

Available from: http://www.widecast.org

Part 3 Further recommendationsSonja Nebel

contributors: Panagiotis AchamnosAna AlcántaraPedro BecerraFlorencia CarvajalJesús Salcedo

The key fields of strategic interventions as

presented in the preceding chapters demand

besides the “what to do” also for the “how to

do”. Urban governance reffers to “the sum of the

many ways individuals and institutions, public

and private, plan and manage the common

affairs of the city. It is a continuing process

through which conflicting or diverse interests

may be accommodated and cooperative action

can be taken. It includes formal institutions as

well as informal arrangements and the social

capital of citizens”.

We follow hereby this definition of urban

governance given by UN-Habitat and would

like to focus on a few key aspects that have

been turned out as cross-sector or cross-cutting

issues to be mentioned as crucial for a successful

process towards a resilient urban development

in Al Buraimi. The following chapter presents the

issues and also recommends a set of tools that

can be implemented. Next, the topic of capacity

development is explained and recommendations

are made as well. Finally, a recommended list of

further studies is presented.

216

Part 3. Further Recommendations

Cross cutting issues

Cross-cutting issue: Decentralization

It has been proved that the strong top-down

decision-making process is (i) a time-consuming

one and (ii) often not responding properly to the

local needs and potentials. The legal framework

i.e. physical planning standards, building codes

or road design manuals, is supposed to allow

equal living conditions nation wide but do not

consider diverse natural-geographic settings

within the country, diverse micro-cultural

background and diverse economic conditions.

Any sustainable future development concept

however would rely rather on local needs

and potentials than on general regulations.

Interviews with experts from different local

governmental institutions in Al Buraimi have

proved the importance of locally based human

resource and revealed the high expertise and

knowledge of the governmental staff.

Locally based decision-making power might

be able to react faster on dynamics of change,

might understand better and exploit the local

potentials for development. It may also be

better prepared for planning and managing

the common affairs of the city. Establishing

the Municipal Council in Al Buraimi seems to

be a good precondition for a locally based and

promising urban governance for sustainability.

Cross-cutting issue: Inter-sectoral

cooperation and coordination

All sector-related assessments have mentioned

the difficulties arising from uncoordinated

planning and implementation and from

missing interdepartmental coordination and

cooperation. When it comes to strategic planning

for a sustainable development, coordination and

cooperation however becomes crucial. As all

relevant Ministries are represented with their Al

Buraimi branches, we recommend to establish

an interdisciplinary and interdepartmental

council, kind of “task-force resilient Buraimi”.

This council representing all governmental

bodies involved will discuss and decide about

priorities of action and implementation and will

accompany the strategic procedure. The council

should also decide about further responsibilities.

Cross-cutting issue: Participation

The many interviews that could have been

conducted with residents during the field

studies in autumn 2014 have proved besides

the citizens’ vital interest in urban issues

as well competent attitudes and ideas on

what quality of life would mean to them.

Furthermore people expressed their willingness

and readiness to actively contribute i.e. in new

forms of waste collecting and recycling, their

openness towards appropriate forms of public

transport, and a strong identification towards

Previous page:

Mountain range in the

south-east border of Al

Buraimi Governorate


217


the place of residence. Thus one main challenge

regarding governance is enhancing the citizen

participation in a general strategy towards

resilient development. The Municipality has to

keep in mind that the measures proposed in

this study are intended for the well being of the

vast majority as well as for the environment;

therefore the active participation of the citizenry

is encouraged in order to strengthen the strategy

as well as finding points to be re-formulated.

This study recommends the following activities

to take place once the Municipality agrees with

the Municipal Council on the steps to be taken

in order to proceed with the strategy.

Participatory approaches in urban development

and urban planning include phases of

information, dialogues and consultation for

participatory decision-making and long term

involvement of all parties concerned. A few

tools are presented below that might foster a

participatory urban management process.

Tool: Public urban talks

Urban development is a public affair. Thus

city planning and urban design are topics

of general public interest. The media in

Oman is continiously reporting on envisaged

projects in the urban sector and their stage of

implementation. Also the local media in Al

Buraimi has started to inform about the ongoing

studies on the future development in Al Buraimi

Municipality and Governorate.

This important channel of communication

between the Governmental institutions and the

citizens could be fostered and complemented

by series of urban talks to be organized by the

Municipal Council and the respective Buraimi

branches of the Ministries concerned in

cooperation with Buraimi University.

Urban talks could cover a variety of topics,

emphasizing i.e. on the heritage assets, on

possibilities of waste recycling, on renewable

Box 26. Tools for participation

○ Public urban talks: heritage assets,

waste and recycling, renewable energies,

urban design.

○ Urban design and planning

competitions: new open spaces, new mixed

typologies, etc.

○ Pilot projects and campaigns: public

transport, bike rental, environmental and

heritage awareness campaigns, open space

recovery.

○ e-Governance: Al Buraimi’s web portal

218


energies, on public transport, on urban

design and local identity, just to mention a

few. Introducing the formate of urban talks as

an instrument to address local communities,

professionals and citizens alike would highlight

the importance of a public discourse on urban

development.

Tool: Urban design and planning

competitions

Competitions in urban planning, urban design,

and architectural design have a long standing

tradition worldwide and are highly estimated as

an instrument to create a variety of proposals

and thus show the scope of alternatives. They

also offer interesting incentives for professionals

to prove their capabilities and expertise.

Competitions need to be prepared carefully by

a committee that clearly defines the tasks to

be fulfilled and the goals to be achieved. A jury

out of experts will evaluate the contributions

and decide about a ranking. The results will

be displaced to the interested public in an

exhibition.

Muscat Municipality had started in 2011 a

widely recognized initiative for 24 selected

locations in Greater Muscat to be developed by

international and national companies including

i.e. the Muttrah Fish Market where realization

is close to be finished. An exhibition under the

title “Magestic Muscat –our city our future”

exposed the results to the public. Similar

initiatives adapted to the local context could be

realized in Al Buraimi as well. Competitions can

be launched on an international level, or region

wide (GCC, Arab countries) or on a national and

local level. Also students’ competitions should

be thought of, to explore young professionals’

creativity. Focussing on the local capacities

through competitions and projects would as

well strengthen the private sector for diversifying

economy and encourage young Omani

professionals to invest in their hometown

creating ownership and responsibility for their

city.

Tool: Pilot projects and campaigns

A pilot project is a small-scale preliminary project

conducted in order to clarify and test conditions

and impacts of the project prior to a full-scale

intervention. Whenever new approaches are

proposed where less or even no experience

has been achieved before, it is recommendable

to go through that kind of test phase before

establishing bigger programs and projects.

Pilot projects have another useful secondary

effect that is their potential for creating awareness

among the public. As they are conducted during

limited time, and they are carefully evaluated the

219


results can be discussed within professionals

and governmental institutions but as well

with representatives from citizens, and from

the private economic sector. It is an efficient

instrument to foster a broad dialogue and a

consensus on future ways to go. Pilot projects

have been suggested in the sector of solid waste

management (see part 2.3.) and in the sector of

heritage management (see part 2.5).

Example: Public transport pilot project

The city of Al Buraimi is growing fast and the

urban area will be much bigger according to

current projections. Therefore, it is important

to consider the implementation of alternative

modes of transportation than private cars.

As a first step, a pilot project is suggested in

order to measure the service performance and

adjust the proper size and scale for the public

transportation system operation.

Example: Bike rental pilot project

A pilot project in bike rentals could be

established in order to measure the performance

of biking. This initiative is aimed at the foreign

residents in the city, which could be included

in their transportation mode as it is currently

challenging for them to own a car. The bike

rental points could be located in strategic points

of the city that concentrate residential areas of

immigrants.

Example: “Save the environment”

campaign

Re-launch the national energy and water saving

campaign (started in 2009) on the local Al

Buraimi level

Example: plastic bottles collection

campaign

A pilot project of returning plastic bottles to

specific collection points could be established,

as the residents are willing to participate in

such a project. This initiative will succeed in a

first attempt of separating the solid waste by

collecting all the plastic bottles for recycling

purposes. Moreover, people will be more eager

to participate if by returning the plastic bottles

they get back a small refund.

Example: Smart Car wash campaign

Another pilot project that can be introduced

and promoted is a facility where the residents

can have their cars washed by using treated

wastewater from the sewage treatment plant

(STP). The residents could be charged a small

fee and save potable water from their own

domestic supply.

220


Example: Open space recovery

campaign

it is important to reduce car dependency by

providing facilities for pedestrians. This means

that the improvement of public spaces is a

must. Thus, capacity on urban design and

landscaping is requested in order to minimize

automobile use. There is also a need for a more

compact development by increasing densities

and mixed land uses in the urban area, which

would facilitate proximity and accessibility.

Tool: e-governance/ internet

performance/social media

During the past years more and more families

and individuals use the internet for easier

access to information and communication.

E-government plays a vital role in Oman as well.

Oman’s e-Governance initiative has the vision

of transforming Oman into an advanced, world-

class e-Government by seamlessly integrating all

Ministries and Government entities to provide

faster and more effective public services online.

“eOman seeks to empower people and

transform Oman for the better. Be a part of

eOman today, and discover a brighter future”

(http://www.oman.om).

By facilitating better interaction between

citizens, businesses and Government, eOman

will take Oman forward to a new age of progress

and prosperity.

Following the omanuna /e-oman web page Al

Buraimi Governorate und Municipality may

become a strong member of the e-governance

movement and establish their regional and local

e-governance frame. A particular website on Al

Buraimi could be linked to the overall e-oman

web, informing about ongoing activities, services

and about the urban projects undertaken by the

local government.

Interviews with residents during the field

research in September/October 2014 have

proved the willingness of the citizens to play

an active role in the development of their

daily living environment. Thus the interest

in communication and dialogue via internet

and via social media is increasing in particular

among the younger population that takes over a

high percentage of the residents.

221


Capacity Development for

sustainable development Al

Buraimi

“Problems cannot be solved with the same mind

set that created them.” Albert Einstein

Why capacity development?

The paradigm shift that has been elaborated

and argued for in this report would be followed

by changed overall urban development goals

as well as changed planning methods and

instruments. Thus we suppose an emerging

need for additional professional skills and further

capacity that go beyond the current planning and

management practice in Al Buraimi in particular

and in the Sultanate of Oman in general.

Current challenges have been identified such as

low experience in participatory and cooperative

planning, lacking skills in best practice methods

and management tools including integrated

monitoring, highly centralized and time

consuming decision making processes, low

technical skills in up to date GIS an CAD, to

name a few. Long term successful interventions

in the urban sector however rely to a great

extend on the professional qualification of

individuals, their personal skills and abilities

and their power to trigger down their capacities

to the institutions and organizations they

work with. Both individuals and organisations

will need what is often called an “enabling

environment” that is given by the nations

political and legal background where institutions

and organizations are embedded in.

What is meant by “capacity” and

“capacity development”?

We follow the definition of UNDP defining

capacity as: “the ability of individuals,

institutions, and societies to perform functions,

solve problems, and set and achieve objectives

in a sustainable manner.” (UNDP 2007)

“Capacity development is the process whereby

individuals, groups, and organisations enhance

their abilities to mobilize and use resources in

order to achieve their objectives on a sustainable

basis”. (UNDP 2007)

Whenever starting a capacity development

pogram it has to respond to the specific Al

Buraimi/Omani context but we would however

recommend to follow the well experienced

methodological steps within the process of

capacity development as proposed by UNDP.

222


STEP 1Engage stakeholders in

capacity building

Capacity

development

process

STEP 2Asses capacity assets

and needs

STEP 3Formulate a capa-city development

program

STEP 4Implement a ca-

pacity development response

STEP 5Evaluate capacity

development

Enabling environment• Policy and legal framework• Policy commintment and accountability framework• Economic framework and national public budget allocations

• Governance and power

Organizations• Motivation• Strategic, organizational and managements functions (strategic leadership, inter/intra

institutional linkages, programme management).• Operational capacity (processes, systems, procedures)• Human and financial resource• Knowledge and information

• Infrastructure

Individuals• Job requirements and skill levels (technical and managerial skills)• Training and competency development

Figure 95. Capacity

development process

(Source: Salcedo 2015 /

based on UNFAO)

Figure 96. Three levels

of capacity development


based on UNFAO)

223


Individual level• Experience, knowledge, technical skills

Organizational level• Internal policies, arrangements, procedures, frameworks

Enabling environment• Policies, legislation, power relations, social norms

Capacity can be identified and

developed on three levels:

○ level of individuals (human resource/

human skills/ knowledge/ experience/ values)

○ level of groups and organisations

(management systems/ management culture/

work processes

○ level of society (legal administrative

framework/ policies/ cooperation between state,

private sector and civil society)

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations describes the three levels as

the figure on the previous page shows, and

these three levels are interrelated and mutually

influence each other as shown in the graph

below.

Efforts to strengthen abilities of individuals,

groups, and organisations can comprise a

combination of (i) human skills development;

(ii) changes in organisations and networks; and

(iii) changes in governance/institutional context

(ADB 2004)

Figure 97. Interrela-

tion of levels in capacity

development


based on UNFAO)

224


Capacity needs assessment

In order to identify the appropriate interventions

for capacity development in Al Buraimi a

systematic and comprehensive capacity

needs assesssment is recommended. “Needs

assessment” is a process targeting all parties

involved in strategic urban development, urban

planning and management.

Without anticipating future results we assume

certain gaps between the academic background

of the professionals (no bachelor nor master

programs run in the Sultanate in the field of

sustainable urban management) and their

qualification needed; there might be a lack

of methodological competency in meeting

the challenges of rapid growth management,

infrastructure and land management,

participatory decision making, planning and

implementation; there might be out-dated

regulations that don’t cope anymore with

dynamic needs and changes; there might

be highly centralized and top-down decision

making procedures that don’t respond to local

needs and potentials.

Pilot training program

Output of the training needs assessment for

sustainable urban management in Buraimi

could lead to a Pilot Training Program to test

and specify training needs and to answer the

crucial questions of:

○ Who is in need for training?

○ What kind of training is needed?

○ Who will do the training?

Without anticipating a capacity development

program that has to be tailormade for the

Buraimi/Omani context after a comprehensive

capacity needs assessment process we

recommend in general a capacity development

program that would start on the individual level

with a training program comprising:

○ advanced training courses combining

international experience with locally acquainted

know-how („tandem training“ through 1

international and 1 local expert in order to train

future trainers as well).

○ advanced training should combine

external training with on-the-job training carried

out during working hours and closely related to

real life tasks and challenges of the trainees;

225


○ advanced training should be held for a

group of interdisciplinary professionals to foster

cross-sector thinking and problem-solving,

and to support inter-departmental and inter-

institutional cooperation;

○ advanced training modules should be

developed within a participatory process among

trainers and trainees to better achieve ownership

among the trainees.

○ advanced training should be based on state

of the art teaching and learning methods and

techniques including case studies, workshops,

self-directed studies, internships, site visits, role

plays, teamwork, et al.

These few remarks may emphasize the

importance of life-long learning of professionals,

within flexible and adaptive structures and

institutions backed by state policies and legal

frames that are a precondition of long term

sustainable development based on resource

efficient and responsible management for a

high quality of life for all citizens.

Further Studies recommended

The presented studies –which had to be carried

out within a limited time span and limited man-

power- revealed further in depth studies to be

conducted in order to promote and sustain

the recommended approaches towards a

more resilient development for AL Buraimi

Governorate and Municipality.

Of foremost need seems to be a critical review

of urban planning standards and building

regulations, as they are not in all points of

view responding to the urban and regional

development goals aiming at a particular and

locally relevant sustainable growth management,

sustainable transport, and sustainable housing

design and construction standards.

A general review of current environmental laws

and regulations should be included in order

to verify if the law is taking into account the

long-term conservation of natural resources

for the Governorate. This is linked to the

water management of the Governorate within

the Ministry of Municipalities and the Public

authority for Water and Electricity. If a sound

review of the general environmental law is

made, weaknesses in it can be identified, and

opportunities for better practices regarding

water can be made possible.

226


Exploring the possible use of

renewable energies:

The Sultanate of Oman has the potential to

exploit renewable energy resources (wind,

sun, tidal power) due to its advantageous

geographical location and climate. Other

countries in the region -foreseeing the long-term

oil depletion- have already seriously considered

alternative energies. It is important that Oman

starts taking into account the consumption of

non-renewable energies to face the challenges

of oil dependency. Though this might be an

issue on the national level, there are some local

and regional aspects that should be studied

more in depth. Related to the hereby presented

urban development strategy we mainly refer to

research on the implementation of alternative

energy sources in the transportation sector.

The availability of updated technologies

and renewable sources of energy provide

opportunities to reduce emissions and

contamination of the environment.

The Municipality of Al Buraimi could also aim

at adopting clean energies at the household

level. This shall not be understood as simply

implementing innovative technologies and

supplying the energy demand harnessing solar

or wind resources. Urban design, building design

principles and construction techniques, as well

as use of appropriate materials and insulation

favour decreasing the energy demand to achieve

interior living comfort, commonly known as

bioclimatic architecture. It intends to balance

the design and natural environmental elements

such as rain and vegetation, in addition to the

sun and wind for the optimization of resources.

Heritage preservation manual

In order to make the most accurate decision on

the classification of the remaining buildings in

Hamasa (for the development of responsible

tourism), the Ministry of Heritage and Culture

has to develop regulations and codes related to

the preservation and conservation of heritage

buildings in a decaying state. It is important to

have a detailed inventory of the current state of

the remaining buildings in order to maintain

records for future studies.

Physical planning law review

The existing physical planning regulatory

instrument has a traffic fluidity planning criteria

in the projection of several year times which

explains today’s scenery of over dimensioned

roadways. Regarding residential areas, a study

to develop a physical planning instrument to

address dwelling areas is necessary. It would

help setting the restrictions and standards for

different areas in the city. For example: the speed

limit around neighbourhoods, sidewalk width,

etc. It would constitute spatial considerations

lacking in the current codes.

227


Highway Design Manual Review

The road regulations and codes should

encompass the standards for transportation

facilities at the local level. At the same time,

the regulation should consider the facilities for

non-motorized transportation (walking and

biking). It is important to regulate the spaces

for parking lots and encourage the reduction of

car use through the legal framework. However

the transportation manual should establish the

criteria for the implementation of the codes,

by including strict procedures of monitoring

and inspection. Thus, the regulation would be

enforced in the different transportation projects.

It should also specify clearly the standards for

the National, Regional and Local network and

the responsibility of the actors involved.

Land allocation review and monitoring

via data

Even though this study is focused on the issues

and proposals at the Governorate level, it is

important to state that a review on the land

allocation policy needs to be done. This has

to take into account the consequences of the

physical planning law, and the land tenure

allocation system. A review should take into

account the main components of this law and

how can it be transformed in order for a brand

new paradigm on development and land tenure

to occur progressively and in consideration of

the population. Revising the current land law

would bring adjustments in several aspects

as the size of the plot. This is a delicate issue

requiring strict modifications in order to

manage the current problem of land exhaustion.

Ways of compensation would be derived from

decreasing the plot size, which must be at

least being considered for housing purposes.

Eligibility of the applicant related to the time

plan/schedule for the development intention.

Times should be set apart for housing than

for other uses. Specification is also required

for each land use. The intention of equality

among citizens is a well-established principle.

However, new well-researched strategies are

indispensable to determine a link between

receiving land and developing it, in a systematic

order without encouraging piecemeal horizontal

growth. That is, the location of plots should only

be within infrastructure-serviced areas, as part

of the lottery. Another crucial aspect of high

significance is the calculation of the cost of land

in relation to its maintenance, whether rural or

urban. As highlighted, there are many topics

which derive from the study of the land law with

specific applications, that nationals would be

the best entitled to analyse and organize such

information.

Examination is needed to adopt existing

indicators in agreement for the evaluation of

achievements the plan or project has had. The

most common for housing is to establish a

228


relationship between housing and the market

in terms of affordability. Quantity and quality

is more subjective and its parameters need

specific contextualization.

Finally, in order for this to occur, this study

identifies the need for the following statistics

and information to be produced with the use of

geographical information systems, surveys, etc.

○ Geographical data of all land plots

allocated and whether they are developed or not,

in order to obtain a ratio between how much land

is allocated and how much land is developed

within a determinated time span. In addition

information that shows where land is developed

the fastest, with what density (people/km2), and

at what rate (time) are needed.

○ Data on where are the fastest poles of

development, regarding: housing, agriculture,

commerce and industry; in order to know where

are this activities prosperous. Likewise, similar

studies are needed for the areas where the same

activities are decreasing or even disappearing.

○ Data on where people are living and

working, studying, spending time, etc.; in order

to portray how this land allocation is fostering or

preventing livelihoods to occur.

229


Conclusions

Integrated strategies are essential for

sustainable urban development. For the five

intersecting topics presented in this report:

regional development, transportation, service

infrastructure, housing and heritage; the

consideration on the government with its

top-down decision-making structure makes

evidence of its key contribution for hindrances

in urban management redirection.

Mechanisms to structure new criteria for the

regional development of Al Buraimi Governorate

recognize three scenarios to empower, first by

small scale actions. The objectives set are for

the city to lead the way towards a more resilient

society in economic, social and environmental

terms, for both the major city and its

surrounding town and villages. In the long-

term, improved management of public services

guarantee enhanced delivery of city systems as

living conditions and economic opportunities.

Figure 98. Agriculture

in As Sunainah

Source: (Salcedo 2015)

Annex

232

Annex

Methodological remarks

This report developed from five master

degree theseses corresponding to the Urban

Management program from the Technische

Universität Berlin. The research engaged in

writing each thesis stemmed from the joint

interest between the Governorate of Al Buraimi

and the university. The goal, to produce an

assessment of the urban condition of the city

from five specific topics: Regional development,

Transportation, Infrastructure, Housing and

Heritage.

Both empirical and theoretical methodological

approaches were utilized for the analysis in all

topics. Qualitative data from semi structured

interviews with a wide range of Governorate

Ministries and their sub-departments, official

institutions, academics, the private sector, local

population, all contributed to the development

of the five subjects. Besides this, quantitative

data obtained from governmental statistics,

site visits, photographic documentation and

mapping support the qualitative evaluation on

site.

233


List of Institutions visited

Al Buraimi Governorate Office

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Al Buraimi Branch

Ministry of Environment & Climate Affairs Al Buraimi Branch

Ministry of Housing Al Buraimi Branch

Ministry of Regional Municipalities & Water Resources Al Buraimi Branch

Ministry of Tourism Al Buraimi Branch

Ministry of Transport and Communications Al Buraimi Branch

Ministry of Transport and Communications in Muscat

Municipal Council of Al Buraimi

Oman Chamber of Commerce & Industry Al Buraimi Branch

Transit Department of the Royal Oman Police of Al Buraimi

234

Annex

Glossary

Accessibility

It is the ability to reach desired goods, services,

activities and destinations (collectively called

opportunities). Access is the ultimate goal of

most transportation, except a small portion of

travel in which movement is an end in itself

(jogging, pleasure drives), with no destination.

Bioclimatic architecture

The design of built structures considering the

local climatic context to harness thermal and

visual comfort using the natural resources

at hand the most as possible while reducing

artificial systems.

Compact city

An urban design and planning concept that

considers compactness more sustainable than

sprawl by means of high density. It aims for

closer relations and improved accessibility via

mixed land use and preference on short walking

distances. It concentrates on the human scale

dictated by community oriented guidance.

Compactness

A characteristic recognized by the tightness

of space between objects or the relations

in systems. The tight space translates to a

proximate fixed distance for all the containing

aspects.

Connectivity

The state or quality represented by the capacity

of establishing a direct link to form a closed

network. It is measurable by the density of

bonded relationships in a system or between

objects.

Density

It is the number of people or jobs per unit of

land area. It increases the proximity of common

destinations, and the number of people who

use each mode, increasing demand for walking,

cycling and transit.

Ecotourism

Is environmentally responsible travel and

visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas,

in order to enjoy, study and appreciate nature,

that promotes conservation, has low visitor

impact, and provides for beneficially active socio-

economic involvement of local populations.

Heritage

Is that which is inherited from past generations,

maintained in the present and bestowed for the

benefit of future generation.

Inclusive Transportation Planning

It considers all significant objectives, impacts

and options. Moreover, it is integrated (decision-

making is coordinated among different sectors,

235


jurisdictions and agencies), and inclusive (all

affected people are able to participate).

Intangible cultural heritage

Consist of the oral traditions and expressions

[…] and traditional craftsmanship, as well as the

sites and spaces in which culturally significant

activities and events occur for a specific culture.

(UNESCO).

Integrated housing

Is as a process so as a product where the

house is a cultural and urban product linked

to historical, physical (morphological) and

social processes. This builds a morphological

structure with character and specific features.

In this regard, not only a physical form is

defined but a function and interaction within

the city and housing systems. The resulting

form and function define the specification of

the urban layout and how it is read and used.

All the imbalances and potentials of residence

are related to this process and the physical form

which it generates.

Krookie

It refers to the A4 document which details

different information from the plot as its

serial number, dimensions, area, site location,

coordinates and the building restrictions it

possess. The krooki’s metadata results from

the detailed surveys the Ministry of Housing

performs before land is subdivided into

plots. The term is used specifically in Oman.

It is believed to stem from the French term

“croquis”: a presentation of brief description in

broad strokes of a current situation.

Land Use Mix

It refers to locating different types of activities

close together, such as shops and schools within

or adjacent to residential neighbourhoods. It

reduces the amount of travel required to reach

common activities.

Mobility

It refers basically to the movement of people or

goods.

Mode of transport

It is also known as means of transport, types

of transport, transport modality or form of

transport. It is a term used to distinguish

substantially different ways to perform transport.

Non-motorized transportation

It is also known as Active Transportation and

Human Powered Transportation and includes

Walking and Bicycling. These modes provide

both recreation (they are an end in themselves)

and transportation (they provide access to

goods and activities).

236

Annex

Paradigm

A theory or a group of ideas about how

something should be done, made, or thought

about.

Proximity

The concept of urban proximity requires that

cities should be built with appropriate population

and landmark density so that destinations

are reached with reduced time. This reduced

commuting allows for reduced fuel expenditure

and also opens the door to alternative means of

transportation such as bike riding and walking

Replicability

A literal and conceptual approach on the ability

of replicating or reproducing in other location

and also in a different scale. The approach can

be literal or conceptual.

Resilience

An ability to recover from or adjust easily to

misfortune or change. In the planning field

the term resilience studies human actions as

cycles that are adaptive, just as in ecology. The

interest in resilience, in acquiring this capacity

to regain the original state or form, to withstand

change or to recover quickly from a problematic;

lies in the fact that resilient planning strategies

acknowledge that this natural adaptive cycles

can be modified with planning intervention.

Responsible tourism

Is tourism which minimizes negative social,

economic and environmental impacts, generates

greater economic benefits for local people and

enhances the well-being of host communities,

improves working conditions and access to the

industry, involves local people in decisions that

affect their lives and life chances, makes positive

contributions to the conservation of natural and

cultural heritage embracing diversity, provides

more enjoyable experiences for tourists through

more meaningful connections with local people,

and a greater understanding of local cultural,

social and environmental issues, provides

access for physically challenged people, is

culturally sensitive, encourages respect between

tourists and hosts, and builds local pride and

confidence.

237


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241


242

Annex

Dr. Sonja Nebel

graduated in architecture and urban planning

from RWTH Aachen-Germany. She earned her

PhD at the same university. Sonja has been

teaching for more than 25 years at different

universities in Europe and in Arab Countries in

the field of urban design, urban planning and

urban conservation.

She is currently lecturer at the Urban

Management Masters Programme of Berlin

University of Technology (TU Berlin) where

she has been teaching since 2000. From 2008-

2014 she was Professor for Urban Planning

and Urban Design at GUtech Oman - German

University of Technology and principal

investigator of an interdisciplinary research

project on “Sustainable Urbanization Patterns

in Oman“. Sonja has focused for many years

on cross cultural and interdisciplinary scientific

research i.e. in Zambia, Bolivia, Thailand, China,

Syria, Oman and other Arab countries.

Furthermore, she works as a consultant within

the international development cooperation

in the field of urban development and urban

management, sustainable urban conservation,

strategic and participatory planning.

Jesús Salcedo Villanueva

graduated in architecture at the National

Autonomous University Mexico, at the Max

Cetto School and has experience on social

development projects in Mexico’s rural areas

with NGO “Natura y Ecosistemas Mexicanos

A.C.”. He is also a DAAD scholar who recently

obtained a Master of Science degree in Urban

Management at the Technische Universität Berlin

with a thesis on Omani Regional Development.

Further work includes an internship with the

Institute for Transport Research at the German

Air-Space Centre and research on the fields of

resilience and regional development.

About the authors

243


Pedro Becerra Rodriguez

is an architect from Colombia. He has worked in

projects related to landscape architecture, design

and construction in Bogota. He has recently


Management at the Technische Universität

Berlin. During the last stage of his studies he

was selected to conduct an investigation on

sustainable transportation in Al Buraimi for the

Government of Oman.

Panagiotis Achamnos

is a civil engineer from Greece. He studied at

the National and Technical University of Athens.

He started his career in civil engineering as an

assistant civil engineer in construction sites in

Athens. He has recently obtained a Master of

Science degree in Urban Management at the

Technische Universität Berlin. He was selected

to conduct his master thesis on infrastructure

provision in Al Buraimi for the government of

Oman.

244

Annex

Florencia Carvajal S.

is an architect from Ecuador. She studied

at the Pontificia Universidad Católica in

Quito. She has built her professional career

in urban design with architecture firms in

China in addition to having independent work

experience in design-related projects. She

has recently graduated as an urban manager.

During her preparation time she participated

in the Knowledge and Innovation Community

of the European Institute of Innovation and

Technology and was selected to conduct her

master thesis on housing in Al Buraimi for the

government of Oman.

Ana Alcántara

is an architect from the Instituto Tecnológico

y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey,

Mexico. She has been working in a Canadian-

Mexican Architecture Firm and gained

experience in the development of urban and

architectural plans. During her studies she

was CONACYT scholarship holder given by

the Mexican government. She has recently


Management at the Technische Universität

Berlin. She was selected to conduct her master

thesis on heritage sites and responsible

tourism in Al Buraimi for the government of

Oman.

245


Panagiotis Achamnos, Pedro Becerra, Mohammed Al-Bhadi, Dr. Hammad Al Gharibi, Florencia

Carvajal, Ana Alcántara, Jesús Salcedo, Dr. Johannes Kuechler, HE Al Sayed Ibrahim Bin Said Al

Busaidi, Dr. Sonja Nebel, Dr. Bettina Hamann.

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