Altering Cooking and Eating Habits during the Romanian ...

EncountersinTheoryandHistoryofEducationVol.19,2018,141-162

ISSN2560-8371Dateofsubmission:2017-06-22http://doi.dx.org/10.24908/eoe-ese-rse.v19i0.6752Dateofacceptance:2018-11-15 ÓEncountersinTheoryandHistoryofEducation141

AlteringCookingandEatingHabitsduringtheRomanianCommunistRegimebyUsingCookbooks:ADigitalHistoryProject

InaGhitaDepartmentofEducation,UniversityofBarcelona,Spain

Abstract:Thisdigitalprojectexaminestheroleofacookbook,SandaMarin’sCartedeBucate,firstpublishedin1936,asavehicleforsocialeducationinCommunistRomania.ThebookwascensoredandtransformedduringtheCommunistregimeastwointerconnectedphenomenaweretakingplace:thereinforcingoftheideologyoftheCommunistmodelandanincreasingeconomiccrisisthatledtoscarcityoffood.Thepaperalsopaysattentiontohowthelanguageandtoneusedinthebookchangeddependingontheunderstandingofgenderrolesindifferentdecades.InspiteofCommunistclaimsofanequaldivisionofresponsibilities,procuringoffoodandcookingwasconsideredawoman’stask.Byaddressingequalresponsibilityinthepublicsphere,notathome,theprogresstowardgenderequityreachedaftertheWarwascompletelyerasedduringcommunismsincewomenhadtoworkandalsoberesponsibleforalldomesticdutiesathome,asituationthathasbeensimilarinothereasternEuropeancountriestothisday.

Keywords:cookbooks,Romania,communistregime,women,digitalhistory.

ModificationdelacuisineetdeshabitudesalimentairesenutilisantdeslivresderecettesdurantleRégimecommunisteenRoumanie:unprojetdigitald’histoire

Résumé:Cetexposéprésenteunprojetdigitalquiexplorelerôledeslivresderecettesalimentairescommevéhiculedel’éducationsocialeenRoumaniecommuniste.L’auteurexaminecommentl’undeslivresderecettesroumains:LaCartedeBucatedeSandaMarin,publiéoriginairementen1936,futédité,censuréettransformédurantlerégimecommuniste,alorsquedeuxphénomènesséparésbienquereliésavaientlieu:leparticommunistecherchantàrenforcerl’idéologiedumodèlecommuniste,etlapénuriecroissantedesdenréesalimentairescauséesparlacriseéconomiquegrandissante.L’auteurexamineaussilechangementdulangageetdutondulivreselonl’évolutionperçuedesrôlesdesgenresaucoursdesdifférentesdécades.Bienqueleparticommunisteprétendaitdiviserégalementlestâchesetlesresponsabilitésentrehommeetfemme,l’achatdelanourritureetlacuisineétaientencoreconsidéréscommeresponsabilitédesfemmes.Enabordantladivisiondestâchesdansledomainepublicseulement,etnonaufoyer,leprogrèsversl’égalitédesgenresaprèslesdeuxGrandesGuerresavaitétécomplétementoblitérédurantl’èrecommunistealorsquelesfemmesavaientunemploijournalieretassumaientlaresponsabilitécomplètedesdevoirsdomestiques.Cetteattentepersisteencoreaujourd’huidansmaintesfamillesroumainesetenEuropedel’Est.

Mots-clés:leslivresderecettes;laRoumanie;lerégimecommuniste;l'histoirenumérique.

I.Ghita AlteringCooking

142•Encounters19,2018,141-162

Alterandohábitosdecocinaycomidaduranteelrégimencomunistarumanopormediodeloslibrosdecocina:unProyectodehistoriadigital

Resumen:Esteproyectodigitalexaminaelpapeldeunlibrodecocina,CartedeBucatedeSandraMarín,publicadoporprimeravezen1936,comounvehículodeeducaciónsocialenlaRumaníacomunista.Ellibrofuecensurado,editado,ytransformadoduranteelrégimencomunistaalmismotiempoquedosfenómenosinterconectadosteníanlugar:elre-enforzamientodelmodelocomunistacomoideologíayunacrecientecrisiseconómicaquellevóalaescasezdealimentos.Eltrabajotambiénprestaatenciónacambiosenellenguajedellibroyeneltonousadodependiendodelcambiodelosrolesdegénerosendécadasdiferentes.Apesardelaretóricacomunistasobreladivisiónigualitariadelasresponsabilidades,lacompradecomidaylacocinaeranconsideradasresponsabilidaddelamujer.Dadoqueseproponíaigualresponsabilidadenlaesferapúblicaynoenlacasa,elprogresohaciaigualdaddegéneroquesehabíaalcanzadodespuésdelaguerrafuecompletamenteborradoduranteelcomunismo,lasmujeresteníanquetrabajarafueraysertambiénresponsablesdelastareasdomésticas,situaciónquehasidosimilarenotrospaísesdelestedeEuropahastaestosdías.

Palabrasclave:librosdecocina,Rumanía,régimencomunista,mujeres,historiadigital

Editor’snote:

Thisisapdfversionofadigitalnativework.Forafullerappreciationofthework,weencourageyoutoviewthehtmlversion,whichiscurrentlyhousedat:https://ojs.library.queensu.ca/public/journals/6/content/ghita/index.html.

______________________________________________________________________

Cookbooksaregivenmodestattentionandvalueandareoftenoverlookedasinstructionalbooks.Theyareperceivedashavinglittleacademicvalue,andtheyarecategorizedashobbyorentertainmentpublications.Attheirbesttheyareperceivedasmanualsforteachingpracticalskills:prepping,cutting,boiling,mixingingredients,choosingthecorrectcookingtemperature.Yetcookbookshaveahiddenrole,thatofteachingtheirreaders,notonlyhowtocookandappreciatecertaindishes,butalsoteachingthemhowtobehaveandthinkinaspecificway.Asavehicleforsocialeducation,cookbooksteachcultureandhelpconservedoctrine.

Inrecentwork(Ghita,2016),whichculminatedinthecreationofadigitalprojectthatcanbeviewedathttps://thisfoodie.com/dhp,Iinvestigatedanddiscussedhowfoodconsumptionpatterns,aswellascookingandeatinghabitshavechangedinRomaniaduring


143•Encounters19,2018,141-162

thecommunistera.TheprojectlookedathowoneofthemostpopularRomaniancookbooks,SandaMarin’sCartedeBucate,publishedforthefirsttimein1936,hasbeenedited,censoredandtransformedduringthecommunistregime,astwoseparate,yetinterconnected,phenomenaweretakingplace:thecommunistpartyreinforcingtheideologyofthecommunistmodel,andtheincreasingeconomiccrisis,whichmadebasicfoodstuffsincreasinglyscarce.

Aprocessofeducationalization(Tröhler,2016)throughfoodandcookingoccurred,duringthecommunistregime,ascookbooks,likeallbooksoftheera,wereadaptedtothecommunistideology.Thecookbookchangedfromitsoriginalversionin1936to1969,whenitwaslastedited:recipeswereremovedcompletelywhentheyseemedtoocosmopolitanandthenamesofsomerecipeschanged,inanefforttomakethemsoundmoreRomanian(éclairbecameecler,charlottebecameșarlotă);quantitiesandingredientsintraditionalrecipeswerescaleddownastheingredientsnecessarytomakethembecamemoredifficulttoprocure(suchascozonacimoldovenești);recipesthatsoundedtooforeigndisappearedcompletely(Beignets,Chateaubriant,Kugelhupf);andnewrecipeswereintroduced,usingnewingredientstoreplace(atthattime)difficulttofindones(suchasateriniprăjiți)orsuggestingnewrecipevariationswithavailableingredients(replacingfreshfishinrecipeswithcannedtuna,usingamortadella-likesoysalamiinsteadofbeefandpork,usingwhitebeansinsteadoffishroe).

Thedigitalprojectpresentedinthispaperalsoaimstobecomeaneducationaltoolbypresentingculturalhistoryinawaythatsupportscriticalthinkingandencouragesideaexchange,whileatthesametimeengagingandmotivatingusers.

OneofthereasonsforwhichIchosetoexploreRomanianidentityandhistorybycreatingaprojectfocusedonfood,isthatthetopicoffoodmakesparticipationmoreaccessibletoavarietyofusers.Non-academicusersrarelycontributetoresearchinhighlyspecializedfields,yetinthefieldoffoodstudies,scholarscanbenefitfromtheknowledgeoftheirstudentsorthesocietyatlarge(Pilcher,2016).

Fromatheoreticalpointofview,Pilcher(2016)notedthattheconnectionbetweentasteandsocialdistinctionbecameacentralfocusinsociology,whenPierreBourdieuobservedthattastepreferencesinternalizegroupvalues,whichinturnexpressandhelpmaintainsocialhierarchies(p.863).

Inthecontextofthecommunistregime,wherethecommunistleadershipaimedtoreshapeandreorderthesocietalstructure,whereindividualismwassuppressedinfavourofcollectivism,yetatthesametime,whereCeaușescu’sregimeofnepotismandcorruptionwasinstalled(Hitchins,2014),anyparticularchangesinthewayofeatingandcooking,andthuschangesintastepreferences,canshedlightuponculturalchangesdifficulttoobserveinothercollectionsofnumbers,statisticsandfacts.

Themainhistoricalquestion,whichthisdigitalprojectaddresses,referstothosepartsoftheidentityofRomaniansthatmayhavebeensuppressedandlostduringthecommunistregime.OneofthewaysIamexploringthisquestionisbylookingindetailathowMarin’scookbookchangesduringthecommunistregime.Anotherisbyaddressingcookingandtastepreferencesduringcommunismandcomparingthemwithfoodpreferencesahundred,respectivelytwohundredyearspreviously.Finally,thedigitalprojectisopentobothscholars


144•Encounters19,2018,141-162

andnon-scholarstoshareanddiscusstheirownopinionsandideasregardingRomanianfoodandtasteandhowitmighthavechangedinthelastdecades.

ProjectMethodologyandTheoreticalFramework

Thedatausedinthisprojectwere:fiveeditionsofSandaMarin’scookbookpublishedin1943,1954,1966,1968and2005,andtwootherpopularRomaniancookbookspublishedin1749and1984,respectively.ThisdatawasoverlaidwithfoodproductionandconsumptiondatafromTheYearlyStatisticsVolumeoftheSocialistRepublicofRomania(AnuarulStatistical

RepubliciiSocialisteRomania),1985,Romaniannewspapersoftheera(Scînteia)andotherpubliclyavailablearchivaldatafurthermentionedinthischapter.Archivalinterviews,videofootageandphotographsarealsousedtoillustratethisdigitalhistoryproject.

Thedatahasbeenanalysedbyusingthehistoricalmethod,whereafactfromthepastistransformedthroughselection,analysis,andinterpretationintoafactofhistorythroughthefollowingsteps:1)identifyingtheproblemstoclarify,2)gatheringprimaryandsecondarysources,conductingarchivalresearch,and3)usingtheoreticalframeworksandconceptualtoolstobuildaninterpretation(Carr,1961).

ProjectLimitations

Thisdigitalhistoryprojecthadsomelimitationsintermsoftimeandresources.Digitalhistoryprojectsareusuallycomplexconstructsbuiltoveralongperiodoftime,usuallybyteamsofresearchersandspecialistswhosharetheirworkbetweencreatingcontent,representingdata,codinganddesign.Thisprojectisanapplicationoftheoreticalconceptsanddesignprinciplesdescribedinpreviouswork(Ghita,2016).Whiletheapplicationoftheseconceptstakesitsmoststraightforwardshapeinmyworktodate,theconceptscanbeappliedinsimilarwaysusingmoresophisticateddatavisualization,interactivityandstorytellingapplications.

AnotherlimitationofthisprojectisusinganeditionofMarin’scookbookpublishedin1943,whichhasbeendescribed(Marin,2005)asbeingverysimilartotheoriginal1936edition,astheoriginalisnotcurrentlyavailableinRomaniannationalpubliclibraryorarchives.

AsPotterandRomano(2012)suggested,investigatingcontemporaryhistorycanbemoredemandingandchallengingthanwritinghistoryabouttimesandpeoplelonggone.Suchchallengesincludeconstructingnarrativesintheabsenceofrealmomentsofclosure,workingwith,andinterpretingincontext,newkindsofsourcesthatwerenotavailableafewdecadesago,andensuringdataprivacywhencollectinginformation.

Inthefollowingsectionsofthispaper,IgiveanoverviewofthehistoricalandculturalcontextafterWorldWarII,andofsomeofthemostpopularRomaniancookbooksinthelastthreecenturies.Second,Igiveanoverviewofthedatausedinthisproject.Third,Idescribethedigitalhistoryproject,whichcanbeaccessedonlineathttps://thisfoodie.com/dhp,specificallydiscussingthewaysinwhichtheprojectwasdesignedtosupportcriticalthinkingandidea


145•Encounters19,2018,141-162

exchange,aswellasthewaysinwhichitwasdesignedforbeinginteractiveandmotivatinguserstoengagewiththecontent.

FoodinCommunistRomania

Romaniabefore,andRomaniaaftercommunism,aretwoverydifferentcountries(Hitchins,2014).AfterWorldWarI,RomaniahadaKinglinkedtothemajorhousesofEuropeandaQueenwhowasQueenVictoria’sofEnglandownniece,aswellasaforeignpolicythat“skilfullybalancedrelationswiththeAlliesandtheAxis”(King2007).

In1848,KarlMarxandFriedrichEngelswrote“TheCommunistManifesto”.Feelingthattheworkingclasswasbeingexploited,theyenvisionedaworldwheretheproletariatwouldriseagainstthebourgeoisieandestablishanewsociety.In1917theBolsheviksseizedpowerinRussia,changedtheirnametotheCommunistPartyandstartedpromotingtheiridealstoothersocialistpartiesinEurope.

Communistleaderswatchingthemilitaryparadein1966,imagesource:Fototecaonlinea

comunismuluiromânesc,271/1966

TheRomanianCommunistParty(RCP)wasformedin1921andwasatthetimeonlyaminorforcewithverylittleprospectofeverreachingmassrecruitment,yetafterWorldWarII,inthecontextoftheriseofpoweroftheUSSRandthedefeatofGermany,withsoviettroopspresentinthecountry,theRCPsawamassenrolment(Gilberg,1990).In1947theRCPtookpoweroverthecountrybyforcingthe26-year-oldKingMichaelIofRomaniatoabdicate,subsequentlycreatingadefamationcampaignagainstthe“cowardly”king(Boia,2014).In1965,afterthedeathofGheorgheGheorghiuDej,whowasRomania’sfirstcommunistleader,NicolaeCeaușescucametopower,institutingnationalcommunism,“ahybridformofMarxism-Leninismthatrepresentsablendoftraditionalvalues,elementsofMarxistclassicsandtheparticular(andpeculiar)personalaspectsthatCeaușescubroughttothedevelopmentofthetheory”(Gilberg,1990,p.49).King(2007)describesthecommunistregimeinRomaniaas:


146•Encounters19,2018,141-162

“atotalitariansystemfromitsfoundingtoitsfall,(…)onebasedonthecontinualviolationofhumanrights,onthesupremacyofanideologyhostiletoanopensociety,onthemonopolyof power exercised by a small group of individuals, and on repression, intimidation, andcorruption”(p.627).

Communistpropaganda–NicolaeandElena;Ceausescuplantingatree,imageby

Gabriel,sharedwithCCBY4.0

ThecommunistmodelinRomaniawasimposedbytheSovietUnion,anddidnottakeshapefromwithinthesociety,afactofwhichthemajorityofthepopulationwasaware.Romaniancommunistsaimedtofundamentallyreorderthesocietalstructure,thelifestyleandthespirituallifeofthepeasant.Individualismwassuppressedinfavourofcollectivism;individualfarmsweretransformedintofactoriesandpeasantsintofactoryworkers(Hitchins,2014).AsoneofthemaingoalsofthesocialrestructuringworkdonebytheCommunistPartyinRomaniawasthecreationofclasses,theemphasiswasputondevelopingtheworkingclass,onobedienceandconformity.Theschoolcurriculumwasselectedtorepresentthesocialistideologyandtheimportofwesternbooksorideaswasprohibited(Whitmarsh&Ritter,2007).

Ceaușescuruledthecountryuntiltherevolutionof1989,when,afterorderingthearmytocrushtherebellionusinganymeansnecessary,includingthekillingofnumerousdemonstrators,hewascaptured,quicklyjudgedinashamtrial,foundguiltyofgenocideagainsttheRomanianpeopleandswiftlycondemnedtodeathbyagroupofcommunistsledbyIonIliescu,whobecamethenextRomanianpresident(Hitchins,2014).

DuringCeausescu’sregime,nepotismandcorruption,togetherwithdespotismandthecultofpersonality,becameanewwayoflife(Hitchins,2014).After1989,thecountrywasstillruledbyformercommunists.Membersofthesecretservices(Securitatea)becamepowerfulbusinessmen,leavingbehindacommunistmentalityandalegacyofcorruption.“Romania’smisfortune”suggestsKing(2007),was“asystembuiltnotjustbyabandofmiscreantsbutbyanentirecountrythatspentthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcenturyatwarwithitself(p.723).”From1965to1989,CeaușescuimplementedaseriesofchangesinthedevelopmentstrategyofRomania,oneofwhichwastofocusontheindustrialisationandurbanisationofthecountry,tothedetrimentofagriculturalinvestment(Gilberg,1990).Asaresultofthispolicy,


147•Encounters19,2018,141-162

from1948to1984,27%ofthecountry’spopulationmovedfromruralcommunestocitiesandtowns(AnuarulStatisticalRepubliciiSocialisteRomania,1985),dependingonthegovernmenttomanagetheproductionandthesaleoffoodasopposedtoprocuringitthemselves.

Theperiodfrom1960to1975wasaperiodofrelativeconsumerabundancewhenRomaniansreportedthattheycouldbuyluxuryproductssuchasFrenchcognac,AmericanWhisky,andblackcaviar;andtheyhadaccesstonewelectro-domesticproducts,suchasvacuumcleanersandwashingmachines(Massino,2012).Yet,bytheendofthe1970s,theseproductsbecameunavailableandbasicfooditemshadstartedtobecomescarce(Massino,2012).

ThetraditionofstudyingfoodconsumptioninRomaniawasinterruptedandevenforbiddenduringthecommunistregime(PetroviciandRitson,2000).Consumptiondatawas“protected”andcounterfeited,withdataconsumptiononfoodstuffsoftenoverestimated.Therefore,thedataavailablefrom1944to1989isunreliableandsometimesnon-existent.

Theprolongedunderinvestmentinagriculturequicklyledtoadramaticloweringofproduction.Intheearly80’s,CeaușescudecidedtopayRomania’sforeigndebtbyexportinggasoline,clothingandfoodstuffs,whichhaddireconsequencesforRomanians,asqualityproduceandmeatwenttoexport,whileonlysecondandthirdqualityfoodstuffswereavailabletoRomanians(Hitchins,2014,Massino,2012,Gilberg,1990).

Fromthebeginningofthe1980s,meat,oilandsugarstartedtoberationed,asbasicfoodproductsbecameinsufficientforthepopulationconsumption.Onthe17thofNovember,1985,Ceaușescupublishedinthenationalnewspaper,Scînteia,thenew"scientificdiet",whichaimedatconvincingRomaniansthattheywereeatingtoomuch,anddrasticallyreducedtheirallowedconsumptionofbasicfoodproductssuchasmeat,wheatandflour,oilandfruit(seefig.3)(Scînteia,1985).

The"scientificdiet"describedthemaximumlimitsoffoodstuffspermittedtoeachcitizen,yet,inreality,notallthelistedfoodstuffswerealwaysavailable(Massino,2012).Peopleneededtoqueueforhoursinordertogettheirrationsofsugarandeggsorbuybread,milkandmeat,whichwereincreasinglydifficulttofind(Gilberg,1990).

The"scientificdiet"allowedeachindividualamaximumdailyintakeof150gramsofmeat(theequivalentofapieceofmeatthesizeofthepalmofahand),threegramsofmargarine(butterwasverydifficulttofind),orhalfateaspoon,fiveandahalfteaspoonsofoil,twocupsofflour,1mediumsizedpotato,asmallpieceoffruitthesizeofatennisball,andonceeverythreedays,anegg.Soapanddetergentwerealsorationed,allowingindividualstousearoundthreegramsasoapperdayandtengramsofdetergent,whichapproximatestowashingafullloadeverytendays.


148•Encounters19,2018,141-162

The“scientificdiet”,publishedin1985,delineatedthemaximumamountofeach

ingredientsanindividualwasallowedtoconsume,inoneyear.

Asindustriallaborerswereconsideredtodothemostproductiveworkinthecommunistsociety,theyweregivenpriorityintermsofhousinganddistributionoffood.Ontheblackmarket,highstatusworkershadaccesstoavarietyofgoodsthroughclosedstores(magazineleinchise),whileworkersinrestaurantsandfactories,whohadaccesstofood,wouldusethoseforpersonalandbarteringneeds.FortherestofRomanians,themostcommonmeansofprocuringfoodwasthequeue(Massino,2012).

Asfoodstuffsbecamemoreandmorescarce,thedailyexperienceofpreparingfoodbecameaburdenforwomen,whowereinchangeofcookingforthewholefamily(Massino,2012).Theyhadtomakedo,cookingusingseasoningsandinferiormeattrimmings,cannedfishandmeat,soysalamiandproduceofinferiorquality.Theeggrationturnedbakingintoanactivityreservedforfestivitiesorspecialdays.

Alocalnewspaperadportraysasmiling,perfectlycoiffedwoman,pointingatthevegetablesectionofafoodshopalongwithacopythatreads:"Freshvegetablesandlegumes:theycan

alwaysbefoundatBrailaFactory",imagebyGabriel,sharedwithCCBY4.0

AquotefromMasino’s(2012)interviewwithaRomanianwomanfromBrasov,Romania,illustrateshowchallengingcookingorfollowingarecipehadbecome:

“I’dcomehome,sitdownonthechairinthekitchen,andbegintoinventmeals…becauseIcouldn’tfollowacookbook…hmmm…Idon’thaveparsley…Ican’tmakethisbecauseIdon’thavecheese…sothenIpreparedfoodthatyouwouldn’tfindinanyrecipe…IwouldmakethefirstandsecondcourseandIonlyhadpotatoes…I’daddavegetable…someeggswithflour…andalsomakea(n.red:pretend)goulashsoup”(p.242)


149•Encounters19,2018,141-162

Inhisautobiography,Sandru(2013)remembersthefoodstuffsthatwereavailabletohiminhisdaytodaylife:

“BasicfoodstapleswereavailableincommunistRomania,someinmoreabundancethanothers,forwhichpeoplehadtowait longlines,comerain,comeshine.Vegetablesandfruitswereavailableonlyinseason.Thevarietyoffoodwaslimited,andmostofthedailydietwasaboutthesame.Irecallmydailydietbeingbreadandmilkinthemorning;asandwichwithlard,or butter, ormarmalade, for lunch and breadwith fried potatoes or cabbage, or soups, fordinner.OnSundays,myfamilyhadachickenorothermeat insoupsorstews.Andmymombakedacakeforsweets.Trythisdietforamonth.Onebenefitisthatyoumightloseweight”(p.87)

Bylookingattheinstitutedrations,theconsumptionpatternchanges,thepersonalinterviewsandhowthemostpopularcookbookatthetimewascensoredandedited,togetherwithothersocietalissueshappeningatthesametime,wecanseeaglimpseofwhatitmusthavemeanttoliveanormallifeduringthecommunistdictatorship.

DespiteCommunistclaimsofdividingworkandresponsibilityequally,procuringfoodandcookingwasconsideredtheresponsibilityofwomenduringcommunismandafter1989.Duringtheinterwarperiod,feminismandtheequalityofthegenderswereconceptsconsideredimportantinthemakingofpublicpolicy(Bucur,2008).Duringbothworldwars,womenexperienceaninitialperiodofeconomicandemotionalvulnerability,yetaswomentooktheroleofheadsofthehouseholdandbreadwinnerduringthistime,theybecamemoreindependentandself-reliantandhavestartedtoquestiontraditionalgenderrolesattheworkplaceandathome(Wingfield&Bucur-Deckard,2006).

By1945,thecommunistregimeinEasternEuropestoppedanykindofprogressinclosingthegapbetweentheCommunistrhetoricofgenderequalityandthereality,byonlyaddressinglabourdivisioninthepublicsphere,butnotathome(Bucur,2008).Womenheldaworkdayjobandwerealsoresponsibleforalldomesticdutiesathome,expectationthathascarriedoutinmanyfamilies,untiltoday.Themainargumentwasfollowingthelawsofnatureandhelpingwomenachievetheirmainfunctionsinthenewsociety:maternityandrunningthehousehold.(Wingfield&BucurDeckard,2006).TheCommunistPartyputagreatemphasisontheroleofwomenasMothersofthePeople,encouragingfamiliestohavemanychildren,evenwhentheresourceswerescarce.Mothersofmorethantenchildren,forinstance,wouldreceiveastatemedalandcalled“HeroMothers”.Itiswhy,Bucurargues,intheyearsafter1989,feminismfeltlikeyetanotherimportedforeign,capitalistconceptandnotasanationalphilosophy.

SomeofthemostImportantCookbooksinRomania

Calistru(2011)saweatingasoneofthemostinsightfulwaysoflookingintotheeverydaylifeofapeople.Acookbookisatoolcreatedtoofferlifestylesolutions,whichisthencrystalizedintoaformofculture(p.21).

TheoldestRomaniancookbookwasCarteîntrucaresăscriumâncăriledepeşteiraci,stridii,melci,legumi,erburişialtemâncăridesecşidedulce,despreorânduialalorathreehundredyearoldmanuscriptwritteninchirilicletters(Gaster,1749),volumelatertranscribed


150•Encounters19,2018,141-162

tothelatinalphabetbyIoanaCantacuzino,inhervolumeOlumeîntr-ocartedebucate:manuscrisdinepocabrâncovenească(Cantacuzino,1997).Thecookbookis

acollectionof293culinaryrecipes;sometranslatedfromItalian,FrenchandGermanandadaptedtotheingredientsavailabletotheRomaniancook(Calistru2011).

In1841,writersCostacheNegruzziandMihailKogălniceanupublishedthefirsteditionofanotherwell-knowncollectionofrecipes,200dereţete

cercatedebucate,prăjiturişialtetrebigospodăreşti(Negruzzi&Kogălniceanu,1942).Thecookbookfeatured200recipes,outofwhichonlyfourwerefish-basedandnineforfreshwaterlobster(rac).31recipeswereformeat-baseddishes,outofwhichthemajorityfeaturebeefandmuttonandonlyveryfewusingasamainingredientporkham.18recipesaskedforpoultryasthemainingredient,while27recipeswerededicatedtovegetable-basedrecipes.Abigportionofthiscookbook,80recipes,featuredpastryrecipes,suchaspies,cakesandjellies(zalatină).Thecookbookalsofeaturedsixrecipesforsoup.


151•Encounters19,2018,141-162

In1936SandaMarin(CeciliaMariaZapan,bornSimionescu)publishedherCartedebucate,acookbookthatwasgoingtobecomeoneofthemostpopularRomaniancookbooksinthenextdecadesuntiltoday.SandaMarinwasborninDecember1890intoarichfamilyofintellectuals,thedaughterofnaturalsciences,professorIonSimionescuandmusichigh-schoolteacherFloricaMusicescu.ShelatermarriedMihaiZapan,professoranddoctorinchemistry.ShehadstudiedliteratureandmusicinParisandfluentlyspokeFrench,EnglishandGerman.Inthe1930’sMarinmovedbacktoRomania,where,disappointedbythecookbooksshecouldfindonthemarketatthetime,decidedtowriteoneandtoprovethatcookingcanalsobeart(Boerescu,2017).

LiviaBodea,thecoordinatorofthelatesteditionofMarin’sCartedeBucate(Marin,2005)describedMarin’scookbookas“themostlastingRomaniancookbook”(SandaMarin,odoamnăcubungust,n.d.).BodeabelievedMarinwantedtoalsoteachgoodmannerswithherCookbook,suchasproperlysettingthetable,orpairwinewithfood.Thebookwaspresentineverykitchenanditspopularityturneditintoasortofmagicaltoolforfixinganyprobleminthekitchen.ThecookbookoriginallyhadacosmopolitandimensionwhichcanbeattributedtoMarin’sinternationaleducationandtravels.However,during1944and1989,whenThePeoplewereexpectedtoonlythinkandeatwiththedetaileddirectionandtheapprovaloftheParty,thebookwasdrasticallycensored:anythingthatsoundedforeignwasremovedorrenamedandthequantitiesusedintheoriginalrecipeswerehalvedorreplaced(SandaMarin,odoamnăcubungust,n.d.).


152•Encounters19,2018,141-162

Acomparisonofthethreecookbooks,showingthenumberofrecipesbasedonmeat&fish,crustaceans,vegetables,anddesserts.

Marin’sCookbook

Marin’sCookbookchangednumeroustimesduringthecommunistregimeandevenintheyearsaftertheregimeended.Thevolumewasfirstpublishedin1936attheeditorialCarteaRomânească[1]andcontainedmorethan1400recipes.Until1945ithadalreadybeenpublishedinatleast13editions[2],withaprefacewrittenbywriter,lawyerandgourmand

AlexandruOsvald“Păstorel”Teodoreanu[3].Teodoreanuwasrumoredtohaveauthoredthecookbook,ashewasalreadypublishingshortstoriesthatincludedrecipesinliterarymagazines,andhewasawell-knownintellectualoftheera.

From1950,whichcoincideswiththemomenttheRomanianCommunistPartytookfullpartycontroloverthecountry,thebookwaseditedbyaneweditorial,EdituraTehnică,whichpublishedfoureditionsinthe1950sandanotherthreeinthe1960s,withthelasteditionbeingpublishedin1969[4].The1954edition,calledbyBârnăintheprefaceofthe2005volume(Marin,2005),“theaustereedition”onlyfeatured855recipesandstartedwithanintroductionwrittenbyMirceaPetrescu.

The1966edition,publishedafterDej’sdeathandoneyearintoCeausescu’sruleoftheCommunistPartyandofthecountry,startedwithahighlyeditedversionofPetrescu’spreface,signedbyassistant-dieticianRodaVișinescu.Thiseditionfeatured1324recipes,somepublishedintheoriginaleditionandothernewrecipes.The2005editionfeatured1486recipes,includingtherecipesintheoriginaledition,butalsosomerecipesintroducedinthe60svolumes.

Thethreeprefaces,writtenbyTeodoreanu,PetrescuandVișinescu,areverydifferent:whilethefirstisrichandentertaining,includinganecdotesandanalmostliterarydescriptionoftheingredients(aswastheTeodoreanu’sstyle),thelasttwoareincreasinglyrigid,instructional


153•Encounters19,2018,141-162

andhaveanmarkededucationalpurpose:givingdetailedinstructionsaboutthequantityoffoodindividualsindifferentworksituationsshoulduseandhowtoavoiddiseasesthatappearasaconsequenceofbadeatinghabits.

Teodoreanu’sprefaceincludedlongdescriptions,suchas:

“Fromthemountains,totheDanubeandthesea,Romaniapresentsthemostvariedlandinsceniclandscapesandriches,amongothersgastronomical…Allkindsoflivestockandpoultry,game,fish,fruits,obtainedbythemercyoftheCreatorofthisblessedland,wherephraseslike‘butterandhoneyflowedinthestreets’symbolizeamythicalstateofaffairs.

TheBlackSea,withitsmackerel(whichisfromtheDanube,butalsoofsaltwater…)withits Pinchuk’s gobies, horse mackerels, red mullets, rays, OldWorld silversides, mussels andshrimpanditsriversandlakeswithfreshwaterlobsterofallsizes,fromtheCăldăruşanione,bigas a stagbeetle, to theBrateş,DorohoiorBrașovones, big as a lobster, then trouts, hucks,sterlets,carps,sturgeons,perch,northernpike,tench,dwarfcatfish;withitsgiantsmountainsandwoodedvalleys,teemingwithpeltgameandmovingwithfeatheredgame,withitsvineyardsand orchards filledwith themostwonderful kind of fruit, from the lemon of Balchik to thebramble-berries,raspberries,strawberries,andwildstrawberriesoftheCarpathians;itsflocksandherdsacross thewholecountry,not tocount thewheatandcorn ineternalabundance,couldsatisfyawholecontinent…”(Marin,1943)

Thepreface,poeticinitself,alsoincludedananecdoteaboutafriendwhowantedtoofferTeodoreanusixpheasants,ashewasunablecookthem,“becausehiscookwasstupidandhiswifelearned”,andaconfessionthat,asaresultofreadingthecookbook,thewriterwasgoingtoignorehisdoctor’sadvice,gotoarestaurantandorder“everythingIamnotallowedtoeat,startingwithfreshwaterlobster(strictlyforbidden!),tospitethedoctor”(Marin,1943).Morethanthreedecadeslater,Teodoreanupublishedhisowncookbook,Gastronomice,whererecipesaredescribedinhisusualstyle,throughamixofstories,poemsandlegends,volumeinwhichheagainmentionsandpraisesMarin’scookbook(Teodoreanu,1972).

Petrescu’sintroduction(Marin,1954),ontheotherhand,wascompletelydifferent.Itwasfocusedontheimportanceofhavingabalanceddiet,whichwasconsideredasbeingof“greatsocialimportance”(p.4).Petrescuaddressedthewomancook(gospodină)directlyandmentionedtheimportanceofcookingeconomicallyanddescribedindetailthe“rationalandbalanced”diet.Petrescucomparesthehumanorganismtoamachineneedingfuel:

“Fromanenergeticpointofview, thehumanorganismcanbecompared toa thermicmachine,becausetheenergyproducedbytheorganismresultsfromtheoxidationofthefoodsubstances, which can be compared with the fuel necessary for amachine. But, unlike thethermicmachine,thehumanorganismcanfunctionforalimitedtimeevenwithoutfood,usingitsownsubstancesforproducingtheenergynecessaryforitsnormalfunctioning”(p.4-5)

Vișinescu’sintroduction(Marin,1966)wasevenmoreeducational,theinstructionfeaturingmorethantenpagesdescribinginpainstakingdetailthenutritivespecificsofdifferentfoodstuffs,theidealamountoffoodeachindividualshouldeatdependingontheir


154•Encounters19,2018,141-162

ageandlifestyle.Herprefaceusesstrict,cumbersome,medicallanguageanditcouldhavebeeneasilyconfusedwithachapterinamedicalnutritionbook:

“Thequantityofproteinnecessaryfor24hours,foranadultwhoperformsmoderateworkis1-1.5gforeachkilogramofbodyweight.Forexample,foramanof1.70m,70-105gramsofproteinarenecessary.Ofcourse,theproteinrationvariesfromanindividualtoanother.Thus,forexample,children,teenagersandpregnantwomenneed1.5-2gofproteineachforkilogramofbodyweight,thesameasthosewhoworkinatoxicorcontaminatedenvironment”(p.7)

ThisprecisioninVișinescu’sintroductionisstriking,sincebytradition,Romaniancookbookspublishedbeforethesecondhalfofthe20thcenturycontainvagueindicationsinthetermsofquantitiesused(Neț,2017),volume,dimensions,lengthsofcookingtime,addressingreaderswhoalreadyknowhowtocookandusingdescriptionssuchas“addalittlebitofsugar,asmuchasitneeds”(NegruzziandKogălniceanu,1842)or“addcornmealasitrequires”(Marin1943,1954).

Apartfromteachingwomenhowtocook,Marin’scookbook,beingthemostpopularRomaniancookbookandtheonebookeveryonehadintheirpersonallibrary,becameaneducationaltoolintherepertoireofcommunistideologyduringthecommunistdictatorship,suggestingthatcookingandtheprocurementoffoodwastheresponsibilityofwomen.

Romaniancookbookshaveoftenbeenavehicleforneologismstomaketheirwayintothelanguage,manyofthemusingthenewwordsmuchbeforethewordswereformallyintroducedintheRomanianDictionary(Chivu,2012).FollowingtheTurkishandGreekneologisms,acquiredduringthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,thechangingpoliticalenvironmentofthe20thcenturybroughtnewwordsborrowedfromFrenchandGerman.

From1936to1969thecookbookhasgonethroughmanychanges.Somerecipeswereremovedcompletelyastheingredientsnecessarytomakethembecamemoredifficulttoprocure.Atthesametime,recipesthatsoundedtooforeigndisappearedcompletely,suchasBeignets,Chateaubriand,Kugelhupf,Bouiabesse.The1954editionlistsfourrecipesforcookingeggs,whiletheothereditionslistover20,forexample.Awholesectiononflavouredbutterspublishedinthe1943editiondisappearedfromthe1954,1966and2005editions.The1943editionfeatured70recipesforfish,whilethe1954editiononlylisted30.The1966editionfeaturedonly67recipes.

IllustrationofthecaketinusedtomakeBlancmangerandBavarois(Marin,1943)This

illustrationdisappearsfromthenexteditionspublishedinthe50sand60s


155•Encounters19,2018,141-162

Someofthenamesofrecipeschanged,inanefforttomakethemsoundmoreRomanian(éclair became ecler, charlotte became șarlotă and quantities and ingredients in traditionalrecipeswerescaleddownorhalved.TherecipeforMoldovanCakes(cozonacimoldovenești)publishedinthe’43editionandpresumablyintheoriginaledition,askedfor100eggyolksand3-4eggsand5kilogramsofflour.Thisrecipedisappearedinthe1954and1966editions.Thereasonforitsremovalfromthelistofrecipesissimple:theeggrationsmadeitimpossibleforanyonetocookit.Inthe1954edition,therecipewasreplacedwithanewonecalledCozonacieconomici(economicalcakes),whichonlyaskedforthreeeggsforeachkilogramofflourandreplacedtheoriginal250gramsofbutterwithonly100gramsofporklard(untură).

Apartfromrecipesdisappearedcompletely,newrecipeswereintroduced,usingnewingredients(aterini[5]prăjiți),orsuggestingnewrecipevariationsforavailableingredients(suchaspotatoes).Manyrecipesintroducedinthe1954editionuselessingredientsandarecalled“economical”,suchasomletăeconomică(economicalomelette),whichonlyaskedforfoureggsandalittlebitofbakingyeast,asopposedtotheoriginalrecipewithsixeggs[6].Othernewaustererecipesweresalatădeicreimitate(imitationcaviarsalad)orpateuimitat(imitationpâté),whichtaughtnewwaystocreate“caviar”fromsemolinaandpâtéfromeggsandonions.

The2005volume,describedbytheeditorsasthe“completeedition”,featuredrecipesinitiallypublishedinthe1936edition,butalsosomeofthemoreeconomicalrecipesintroducedinthe1966edition.The1943editionthushasmorethan1400recipeslistedinitsindexofrecipes,whilethe2005editionlistsalmost1500recipes.The1954editiononlylistsabout800recipes,whilethe1966editionlists1324recipes,wheremanyoftheoriginalrecipeswereremovedandnewones,morefittotheeconomicallandscapeoftheRomaniancook,wereintroduced.

Intheprefaceofthe2005edition,OanaBârnănotedthedisappearanceofthoserecipesthatcouldseem“tooopulent,toocosmopolitan,ormaybeboth”(p.7),andtheintroductionofnewrecipes,someverysimple,suchasmashedbeans(salatădepiuredefasole)orRussianrecipeslikepiroștiorvatrușchi.Bărnănotedthatinthelatereditionssomeoftheingredientsandquantitieshadbeenchanged:tunawaslaterchangedtofishinoil,gooseliverbecamepoultryliveroranykindofliver,hamisreplacedwithsoybasedsausage(parizer),whitepepperisreplacedwithjustanykindofpepper(p.7).

DesigningtheDigitalProject

Thedesignofthisdigitalprojecthadtwoconsiderations:first,tocreateaspacewherecriticalthinkingandideaexchangewouldbesupported,andsecond,todesignforinteractivityandmotivation.

Criticalthinkingisdefinedas“theprocessbywhichthethinkerimprovesthequalityofhisorherthinkingbyskillfullytakingchargeofthestructuresinherentinthinkingandimposingintellectualstandardsuponthem”(Paul&Elder,2004).

CriticalthinkingislinkedtocriticalinquiryasDewey(2004)seesit:atoolwhichindividualswithinademocraticsocietyuseastheyworktogethertosolveeachother’s


156•Encounters19,2018,141-162

problems.(Bruno-Jofré&Johnston,2014,p.4).Throughtheuseofcriticalinquiry,asDeweyseesit,individualsextracttheidealtraitsofexistingsocietiesandusethemtocriticizetheundesirablefeaturesoftheirownsocietyandfindwaystoimprovethem(p.47).Dewey’sphilosophyispartofthepragmatistschoolofthought.

InanefforttorecreateHabermas’publicsphere,withinthisdigitalhistoryproject,theprojectispubliclyaccessibleandoffersuserstheabilitytocommentandsharetheirideasinthesamespacewherethedigitalhistoryprojectishosted,viaanembedded,moderatedcommentsystem.Tocreateaspacethatsupportscriticalthinking,thedatapresentedislinkedtotheirsources,sothatuserscanaccesstheoriginalsources(whentheycannotbepresentedonthewebsiteduetocopyrightissues).Throughouttheproject,usersareinvitedtosharetheirownpointofview,theirowninterpretationsandmemories.Asectionoftheprojectinvitesuserstosharetheirpersonalhistoriesrelatedtofood,identityandcultureincommunistRomania.

Asecondimportantconsiderationforthedesignofthisprojectwastocreateavirtualenvironmentthatwouldbeinteractiveandthat,thoughitsexperiencedesignwouldmotivateuserstoexploreit.Thewholeprojectisinteractive,inthesensethatthecommunicationisalwaystwo-way,madepossiblebythecommentsystemembeddedintheproject,butitalsoallowsuserstointeractwiththedatapresented.Onthe“Educationalizationofcooking”pagesomeofthetextisonlyreadablewhentheaccordion-likestructureisopened.Theactofmakingachoiceclosesanotherpartofthetext,inanefforttosuggestuserstodecideaboutwhattheywanttoread.andinwhichorder.

Thewholeprojectisbuiltwithintheconceptoflearnerhero,havingsomeofthesecondarysectionsofthedigitalprojectavailableonlythroughfurtherexplorationofthemicrosite.An“abouttheauthor”pageisonlyavailablewhenhoveringwiththemouseoverthe“Aboutthisproject”sectionandsomeoftherecipesmentionedherearehiddenthroughoutthemicrosite.

Userscaninteractwiththedatausedtocreatetheinfo-graphicsthroughwhichthenarrativeoftheprojectisconstructed.

Immersionisbuiltthroughstorytelling,photographyandvideofootageoftheera,andwherephotographywasnotavailable,withillustrationsfromthecommunistera.Lastbutnotleast,theprojectincludesanautobiographicalsignature,describingtheauthor’spointofview,purposeandassumptions.

Anotherconsiderationinthisprojectwastoengageusersandpullthemintoanindividualexperience.Forthisreason,theprojectdoesnotuseaclassicaldrop-downtopmenuandinsteadhasanon-lineardesign,whichallowsuserstochoosewhichsectionstoexploreandtheorderinwhichtoexplorethem,whileallthesectionsareconnectedthroughvariousintralinks.Usersareinvitedtosharetheirownstoryandtheyareaskedquestionssuchas“HowdoyouthinkthewayyoucooktodaywasinfluencedbythecommunistregimeinRomania?”and“Istherearecipeyourgrandmotherorgrand-grandmotherusedtomakeyouorusedtotalkaboutthatnobodyelseistalkingabout?Haveyouaskedthem?”


157•Encounters19,2018,141-162

Descriptionoftheproject

Thedigitalprojecthas6mainsections:a)AbouttheProject,b)WhydoesFoodMatter,c)TheEducationalizationofCooking,d)FoodinCommunistRomania,e)SandaMarin’sCookbookandf)ShareYourownStory.

The“AbouttheProject”sectiongivesanoverviewoftheprojectgoalandresearchquestions.

Inthesectionentitled“WhydoesFoodMatter”IdescribehowcookingandfoodconsumptioncouldberelevanttounderstandingidentityandcultureandIincludethreeinteractivevisualizationsofthetypesofrecipes,organizedbyingredient.Astheusersscrollsdownthroughthepagetodiscovernewcontent,theinfo-graphics,startmoving,populatingthespacewithdata.Thissectionalsoincludesaphotooftheoriginal1749manuscript,aswellasalinktoanarchivewherethemanuscriptcanbereaditsentirety.

Thesectionfocusedon“TheEducationalizationofCooking”describestheconceptofeducationalizationandpresentsapartofthestorythroughtheinteractive“accordion”describedabove.

“FoodinCommunistRomania”aimsatrecreatingtheatmosphereofthesocio-culturalcontextthroughtext,archivalphotography,propagandistillustrationandavideocreatedbyRomanianTVstationRealitateaTV,showingarchivalfootageofemptyfoodshops(alimentara)andcommentaryfromRomaniansrememberingthenever-endingquestforfoodduringcommunism.Thisvideoisembeddedfromthestation’sYouTubeChannel,whichallowsusersofthedigitalhistoryprojecttowatchthevideoonthesameplatformtheyareon,whilestillrespectingcopyrightlaws.Theintervieweesoftheprogramlistedthekindoffoodyoucouldfindintheshops:piglegs(informallycalledsportsshoes),chickenwings,clawsandnecks,rice,semolinaandtomatosauceandcannedshrimp.Thecannedshrimpwasmanytimestheonlyfooddisplayedinfood-shops,describedbyoneintervieweeas“shuttersofcannedshrimp”.Oneintervieweerememberedthatsincetheshopsweremostlyempty,theshopsseemedtobemadeonlyoutofglass.Thevideoalsoincludesashortcommunistpropagandavideo,wherethefoodshopslookedfullandanoffvoicepraisedtheplentyandrichlifestyleoftheRomanians.ClickingonthevideoleadstousertotheYouTubechannelwherethevideo,anepisodeofalargerseries,wasoriginallypublished.Thissectionalsooffersavisualizationofthe“scientificdiet”proposedbytheCommunistPartyin1985,aswellasjokesfromtheeraandsomeofthequotesincludedinthischapter.

Thesectioncalled“ShareYourownStory”includesanautobiographicalsignatureandinvitesuserstocontributetheirownstoriesandideas,aswellastoasktheirmothers,grandmothersandgrand-grandmothersaboutfoodtheyusedtocookwhentheywereyounger.

Asperitsscope,theprojectincludesonlyafewsections,butthewayitwasbuilt,affordsittogrow,becomingvisibletonewreadersandenrichingtheconversationaboutfoodinRomania.Inthefuture,ablogsectionwillbecreatedandtheprojectwillincludeaversioninRomanian.


158•Encounters19,2018,141-162

Discussion

Intheworldofdigitalhumanities,andspecificallydigitalhistory,thereisaneedformovingbeyondusingtechnologytoplotdataandshowcontent.Thereisaneedtogobeyondofferingread-onlyexperiences.Itisimportanttousedigitaltechnologyinwaysthataffordatwo-wayconversationbetweentheuserorthedigitalhistoryprojectandthehistorian.

Ibelievehistory,likemanyotherhumanisticdisciplines,suchasphilosophy,canbenefitgreatlyfromdebate,conversationandsharingofideas.Itisonlythroughdialoguethatproblemswithinacontent,beitadigitalhistoryproject,oranentiresociety,canbeidentified(Habermas,1989)anditisthroughdialogueandsharingofideasthatsolutionsforsolvingthecanbeidentified(Dewey,2004).

Thereareotherbenefitsthatemergefromcreatingdigitalhistoryprojectsandvirtualenvironmentsthataffordatwo-waycommunicationandinviteuserstosharetheiropinions.Ibelieveeveryonecouldbenefitfromknowing,understandingandrememberingmorehistoryandthat,inpart,itisthejobofthehistoriantonotonlywritehistory,butalsowriteitinawaythatisaccessibleforavarietyofreaders.Bycreatingahabitofhavingatwo-wayconversationwithreaders,historianscanidentifyandaddressanyareasoftheirspeechthataredifficulttounderstandorfrequentlymisunderstood.

AsPilcher(2016)writes,itisuncommonfornon-specialisttoparticipateinthecreationofthesciences,yetinthecaseofhistoryingeneral,andculturalhistoryinparticular,invitingnon-specialiststoparticipateintheprocessofwritinghistorycanactbothasawaytoverifythethesisofthehistorian,butalsoasawaycontinuouslybuildhistory,includingnew,relevantdata.

“Everythingisrepeated,inacircle.Historyisamasterbecauseitteachesusthatitdoesn’texist.It’sthepermutationsthatmatter”saysUmbertoEcoinhisvolume,Foucault’sPendulum.Manyareawareofandevenagreewiththeformulaof“historyrepeatingitself”,yetmaybemoreconversationsshouldbestartedonthetopicofthefluidityofhistory;howittransformsthroughtime,asmoreevidenceisdiscoveredandnewinterpretationsaregiventothealreadyexistingevidence.Allowingforamultitudeofvoicesandperspectivestohelpbringmeaningtohistoricalevidencecanonlyenrichhistory.

Implementinghabitsofdialogueandcontinuouslycreatingnewpointsofcontactbetweenindividualsandgroupsinasocietycanhelpusgetclosertotheidealofanintentionaldemocracy,asDewey(2004)understoodit.

Yetintoday’swesternsocietiesthereisverylittlethattheindividualcansayordoregardingthewayrealityisunderstood,problemsareidentified,andpoliciesareimplemented.Groupsofinteresthavereplacedindividualexpression(Habermas,1989)and,eventhoughmoderndemocraciesarebuiltwiththeideaofintegratingavarietyofopinionswhenmakingdecisionsforthewholesociety,theactualparticipationoftheindividualislimitedtoavoteeveryfouryears.Pollsandsurveys,andthewholenotionof“thepublicopinion”areconstructedpiecesofinformation,designedtotellthestorytheorganizersareinterestedin


159•Encounters19,2018,141-162

hearing.Pollsandsurveysareanillusionofindividualrepresentation,astheyareorganizedinaccordancetoaspecificagenda,ofaspecificgroup.Anothercharacteristicofthiswayofintegrating“publicopinion”isthatthefocusisputonthevoiceoftheloudest(orthevoiceofthemany),notneccesarilyonthenuancesinthevoiceoftheindividual.

Theresultisapassivesociety,whereindividualsarerathertoldwhattheythink,thaninvitedtocontribute,buildanargument,andsharetheirpointsofview.

Futurestudy

Inregardtothedatausedinthedigitalhistoryproject,thefactthatnoneofthecontentinthecookbookshadbeendigitized,madeprocessingitmuchslowerandcumbersome.Itwasbeyondthescopeofthisprojecttodigitizethecontentinthesevaluablecookbooks,yetIbelievesuchaworkwouldbebeneficialforcomparingandvisualizingthedifferencesandsimilaritiesbetween,notonlyMarin’sedition,buttheoldercookbooks.

OneparticulardirectionforfutureresearchcouldbeinvestigatinghowtheuseoffreshherbsandcondimentschangethroughoutthecenturiesinRomaniancuisine.IhavefoundmanyherbsIhadnotpreviouslyheardofintheoldercookbookspresentedinthisprojectandInoticedhowcertaincondiments,specificallydriedspices,onlystartappearingincookbooks,laterinthehistoryofRomania.

References

AnuarulStatisticalRepubliciiSocialisteRomania,1985,Direcțiacentralădestatistică,InstitutulCentraldeStatistică,București.

Baciu,C.L.(2011).PeekintotheKitchenoftheElitesoftheOldKingdom.BengescuFamily,RevistaArhivelor,2

Bibl.Metropolitană–Căutaredebază.(n.d.).Retrievedfromhttp://aleph20.bmms.ro:8991/F/LP6LTFDFC18ASU4LS2118841MBFVKUJMTGFG2DVPGNJCHMRQ32427?func=find-b

Bibl.NaționalăaRomâniei–Cataloggeneral–Căutaredebază.(n.d.).

Retrievedfrom

http://alephnew.bibnat.ro:8991/F/DB1YI1XLIKKMXJ1A186V9SBR1QXQ3MUNBBRK3GYE8RK6E4D29651?func=find-b

Boerescu,D.S.(2017).SandaMarin.Viatacaocartedebucate.București:Integral

Boia,L.(2014).SuveraniiRomâniei:Monarhia,osoluţie?București:

Humanitas

Bruno-Jofré,R,&Johnston,J.S.(2014).Teachereducationinatransnationalworld.Toronto,Ontario:UniversityofTorontoPress.


160•Encounters19,2018,141-162

Bucur,M.(2008).Anarchipelagoofstories:GenderhistoryinEasternEurope,TheAmericanHistoricalReview,no5:1375-1389

Calistru,D.(2011).Gustulmodernizării:primeletreicărţidebucatedinŢaraRomâneascăşiMoldova,BuletinulMuzeuluideIstorieaMoldovei.Iași:ComplexulMuzealNationalMoldova

Cantacuzino,I.(1997).Olumeîntr-ocartedebucate:manuscrisdinepocabrâncovenească.București:Ed.FundaţieiCulturaleRomâne

Carr,E.H.,(1961).WhatisHistory?London,GreatBritain:PenguinBooks.

Chivu,G.(2012).Cărţiledebucate,unizvorlexicograficinsuficientexploatat.LIMBAROMÂNĂ.

Dewey,J.(2004).Democracyandeducation.Mineola,N.Y:DoverPublications.

Fleisz,J.(2007).Metamorfozaunuioraș.Oradea1850-1940,Oradea:EuroPrint

Floroiu,M.(2014).BancuridinEpocadeAur–saucumfăceahazdenecazromânulpevremealuiCeaușescu.Retrievedfromhttp://www.historia.ro/exclusiv_web/general/articol/bancuri-epoca-aurcum-f-cea-haz-necaz-rom-nul-vremea-lui-ceau-escu

Gaster,M.(1749).Carteîntrucaresăscriumâncăriledepeşteiraci,stridii,melci,legumi,erburişialtemâncăridesecşidedulce,despreorânduialalor,AcademiaRomână:București

Ghita,I.(2016).Digitalhistory:Designingvirtualenvironmentsthatsupportcriticalthinkingandideaexchange,motivateandengageusers(Master’s

thesis).Retrievedfromhttp://hdl.handle.net/1974/14815

Habermas,J.(1989).Thestructuraltransformationofthepublicsphere:Aninquiryintoacategoryofbourgeoissociety.Cambridge,Mass:MITPress.

Habermas,J.(2006).BetweenFactsandNorms:ContributionstoaDiscourseTheoryofLawandDemocracy.Cambridge,Mass:MITPress.

Igu.(n.d.).LaTrecut.Retrievedfromhttp://www.latrecut.ro/2010/01/bancuridin-perioada-de-dinainte-de-astia-top-10/#comments

Hitchins,K.(2014).AconcisehistoryofRomania.NY:CambridgeUniversityPress.

King,C.,(2007).RememberingRomaniancommunism.Cambridge:AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofSlavicStudies.

Marin,S.(1943).Cartedebucate,EdițiaaVII-a,București,EdituraCartea

Românească

Marin,S.(1954).Cartedebucate,București,Edituratehnică

Marin,S.(1968).Cartedebucate,EdițiaaVI-a,București,Edituratehnică

Marin,S.(2005).Cartedebucate,Edițieintegrală,București,EdituraHumanitas


161•Encounters19,2018,141-162

Massino,J.,(2012).FromBlackCaviartoBlackouts:Gender,Consumption,andLifestyleinCeausescu’sRomaniap.226-254inCommunism

unwrapped:consumptioninColdWarEasternEurope/editedbyBren,P.andNeuburger,M.NY:OxfordUniversityPress

Negruzzi,C,&Kogălniceanu,M.,(1842).200dereţetecercatedebucate,prăjiturişialtetrebigospodăreşti,Iași:CantroraFoiiSatesti.

Neț,M.(2017).Construcțiilingvisticecuverbulatrebuiîncărțiledebucateromânești,București,EdituraAcademiei.

Petrovici,D.A.,&Ritson,C.(2000).FoodconsumptionpatternsinRomania.BritishFoodJournal,102(4),290-308.doi:10.1108/00070700010327724

Pilcher,J.M.(2016).Theembodiedimaginationinrecentwritingsonfoodhistory.TheAmericanHistoricalReview,121(3),861-887.doi:10.1093/ahr/121.3.861

SandaMarin,odoamnăcubungust.(n.d.).Retrievedfromhttp://www.digi24.ro/Media/Emisiuni/Digi24/Bonton/Secventeemisiune/SandaMarinodoamnacubungust

Sandru,D.,(2013),EscapefromCommunism,ChivileriPublishing

Scînteia,(1985).17Noiembrie

Teodoreanu,A.O.(1972).Gastronomice,București:Editurapentruturism

Tröhler,D.(2016).EducationalizationofSocialProblemsandthe

EducationalizationoftheModernWorld,EncyclopediaofEducational

PhilosophyandTheory.SpringerScienceBusinessMediaSingapore

10.1007/978-981-287-532-7_8-1

Pilcher,C.B.,&Romano,R.C.(2012).Doingrecenthistory:onprivacy,copyright,videogames,institutionalreviewboards,activistscholarship,andhistorythattalksback.UniversityofGeorgiaPress.

Whitmarsh,L.,&Ritter,R.(2007).TheinfluenceofcommunismoncareerdevelopmentandeducationinRomania.CareerDevelopmentQuarterly,56(1),85–94.https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.2007.tb00022.x

Wingfield,N.M.&Bucur-Deckard,M.(2006).GenderandwarintwentiethcenturyEasternEurope.IndianaUniversityPress.

Footnotes

[1] OanaBârnadatedthisfirsteditionofMarin’scookbookintheprefacetothe2005edition(Marin,2005).


162•Encounters19,2018,141-162

[2] Theauthorofthisthesishasdeducedthenumberofeditionbyconsultingboththe2005volume,whereBârnămentioned„atleast12editiondbefore(probably)1945”andconsultingtheexemplariesthatwerelistedinRomania’sNationalandMetropolitanlibraries,aswellasforsale,secondhand,inRomanianonlinebookshops.

[3] Teodoreanupublishedin1972hisowncookbookGastronomice,whererecipesweredescribedthroughamixofstories,poemsandlegends(Teodoreanu,1972).

[4] Boththeauthor’sindividualresearchandBârnăinthe2005editionprefacesuggestthenumberofeditionsandthecorrespondingyearsofpublishingmentionedhere.

[5] Oldworldsilversideisatypeofsmallsaltwaterfish,thatappearsinMarin’scookbookinthe1960s,atthe“EdituraTechnică”editorial,butnotintheearliereditionspublishedatthe“CarteaRomânească”editorial

[6] Alltheeditionsmentionthattherecipesarecalculatedforsixpeople.

Date post:	25-Oct-2021
Category:	Documents
Upload:	others
View:	6 times
Download:	0 times

Altering Cooking and Eating Habits during the Romanian ...

Documents