Tracking the Global Goals in India
February 2016
Report by : Development Alternatives
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Team : Zeenat Niazi,
Radhika Ralhan, Senior Manager, Development Alternatives
Anshul Bhamra, Deputy Manager, Development Alternatives
Harshini Shanker, Consultant, Development Alternatives
Rohan Jain, Deputy Manager, Development Alternatives
Design & Layout : Jay Vikash, Development Alternatives
© 2016 Development Alternatives
About Development Alternatives (DA)
Development Alternatives (DA), the world's first social enterprise dedicated to sustainable development, is a research and action organisation striving to deliver socially equitable, environmentally sound and economically scalable development outcomes. DA's green technology innovations for habitat, water, energy and waste management, which deliver basic needs and generate sustainable livelihoods, have reduced poverty and rejuvenated natural ecosystems in the most backward regions of India.
Supported by
About Heinrich Böll Stiftung
The Heinrich Böll Stiftung / Foundation (HBF) is the Green Political Foundation from Germany. Headquartered in Berlin and with about 28 international offices, HBF conducts and supports civic educational activities and projects world-wide. HBF is present in India since 2002, with the HBF India office in New Delhi coordinating the interaction with local project partners. HBF India's programme activities are focused on three areas: Climate and Resources; Gender & Socio-Economic Policies; and Democracy & Dialogue.
Disclaimer
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Contents
Tracking the Global Goals in India 01
Tables, Figures and Boxes ....................................................................................... 2
Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. 3
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 4
Foreword ..................................................................................................................... 6
Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... 8
Background ................................................................................................................ 18
About the Study ......................................................................................................... 22
Part I: Strengthening India’s Statistical Capacity ..................................................... 24
Strengthening India’s Statistical Capacity ...................................................................... 25
Part II: Analysis of Indicators .................................................................................... 32
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) ............................................................ 34
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) ..................................... 57
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) .................................. 74
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) ........................ 85
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) ..................... 102
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) .......... 132
Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 156
Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 158
Tables, Figures, and Boxes
Tracking the Global Goals in India02
Tables
Table 1: Key Principles of the 2030 Agenda 19
Table 2: IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 2....................................................... 37
Table 3: Reference periods for collecting consumption data
in Schedule 1.0, Type 1 & Type 2 ................................................................................... 41
Table 4: Consumer Units by Age .................................................................................... 42
Table 5: IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 6 ..................................................... 59
Table 6: IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 7 ..................................................... 76
Table 7: India’s Energy Sustainability Index 2014 ........................................................... 82
Table 8: IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 8 .................................................... 87
Table 9: A Comparison of the NSSO and Labour Bureau Surveys
of Employment and Employment .................................................................................... 91
Table 10: Categories of Employment .............................................................................. 94
Table 11: Surveys on Wages in India (Excluding NSSO Surveys) ................................... 96
Table 12: IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 11.................................................... 105
Table 13: IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 12 ................................................. 134
Figures
Figure 1: The Basic Tenets of SDGs ............................................................................... 19
Figure 2: Food Insecurity Experience Scale ................................................................... 47
Figure 3: Availability of data on wastewater generation, treatment and reuse ................ 69
Figure 4: Components of a Country’s Statistical Capacity ............................................. 107
Boxes
Box 1: Classification of SDG Indicators by IAEG-SDG .................................................... 20
Box 2: Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 2 in India ............................... 55
Box 3: Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 6 in India ............................... 72
Box 4: Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 7 in India ............................... 83
Box 5: Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 8 in India ............................... 100
Box 6: Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 11 in India ........................... 130
...................................................................
Abbreviations
Tracking the Global Goals in India 03
AOI Agriculture Orientation Index MNRE Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency MoSPI Min is t ry o f Sta t is t ics , P lann ing and Implementation BRT Bus rapid transit
MoUD Ministry of Urban Development CDSB Climate Disclosure Standard Board MPCE Monthly per capita consumption expenditure CEA Central Electricity Authority MSME Micro, small and medium enterprises CESD Centre of Excellence for Sustainable
Development MSW Municipal solid waste
CETP Common Effluent Treatment Plants MTW Motorized two wheelers
CIPET Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and NCEUS National Commission for Enterprises in the Technology Unorganised Sector
CIPHET Central Institute for Post-Harvest Engineering NEERI National Environmental Engineering Research and Technology Institute
CoP Communication of Progress NEET Not in Employment, Education or Training
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board NFHS National Family Health Survey
CPHEEO Central Public Health and Environmental NMEEE National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency Engineering Organisation NPOP National Programme for Organic Production
CR Corporate responsibility NSSO National Sample Survey Office CRS Climate Resilient Strategy NTDPC National Transport Development Policy CSO Central Statistical Office Committee
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility NULM National Urban Livelihoods Mission
DA Development Alternatives NWP National Water Policy
DES Directorate of Economics and Statistics O&M Operations and maintenance
DFPR Delegation of Financial Powers Rules OGD Open Government Data
DMA Disclosures on Management Approach PAI Pesticides Association of India
EITI Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative PAT Perform, Achieve and Trade
ESG Environmental, social and governance PCC Pollution Control Committees
EWS Economically weaker section PDS Public distribution system
FAI Fertiliser Association of India PPP Purchasing-power-parity
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization PRI Principles of Responsible Investment
FCI Food Corporation of India PWM Plastic Waste Management
FDI Foreign Direct Investment RBI Reserve Bank of India
FIES Food Insecurity Experience Scale RFID Radio Frequency Identification
GAP Global Agriculture Productivity RG Recreation grounds
GCF Gross Capital Formation RPM Respirable Particulate Matter
GDP Gross Domestic Product RSA Road Safety Audit
GFLI Global Food Loss Index RTI Right to Information
GIS Geographic Information Systems RU Resource use
GPS Global Positioning System SCMC Supreme Court Monitoring Committee
GRI Global Reporting Initiative SCP Sustainable consumption and production
GVA Gross Value Added SDDS Special Data Dissemination Standard
HCES Household Consumption and Expenditure SDG Sustainable Development Goals Survey SEBI Securities and Exchanges Board of India
HVAC Heating, ventilation, air-conditioning SEEA System of Environmental-Economic Accounting IEA International Energy Agency SPCB State Pollution Control Board IIP Index of Industrial Production STP Sewage treatment plants ILO International Labour Organization SWM Solid Waste Management IMD Indian Meteorological Department TFP Total factor productivity IPT Intermediate public transport TOD Transit-Oriented-Development IR Integrated Reporting TRW Transport Research Wing IWRM Integrated water resources management UDPFI Urban Development Plan Formulation and JNNURM Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Implementation
Mission ULB Urban Local Bodies LIG Lower Income Group UNEP United Nations Environment Program LMA Land-use Management Areas UNGC United Nations Global Compact LUS Land Use Statistics UNSC United Nations Statistical Commission MA Management Approach UT Union Territories MCA Ministry of Corporate Affairs VWSC Village Water and Sanitation Committees MDG Millennium Development Goals WBSCD World Business Council for Sustainable MF Material footprint Development
MHUPA Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty WPI Wholesale Price Index Alleviation
MLD Million litres per day
Acknowledgements
We thank Heinrich BöllStiftung for supporting this study.
We are grateful to Mr. Ashish Kumar, Director General, Central Statistical Office, Ministry of
Statistics and Programme Implementation (MosPI), for his significant inputs that helped define
the direction of the study.We are also grateful to Mr. Krishna Kumar, Deputy Director General,
Social Statistics Division, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MosPI), for
extending his valuable insights to the research. We are thankful to Mr. Ashok Baran
Chakraborty, Head – Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Development (CESD),Indian
Institute of Corporate Affairs (IICA) , for extending his expertise and feedbackon the overall
study. We would like to take this opportunity to also thank Ms. Zeenat Niazi, Vice President,
Development Alternatives, for her constant guidance and support provided at every stage of the
research exercise.
We would also like to extend our gratitude to the following esteemed individuals from leading
organisations whose expertise was crucial in building the perspectives presented in the study.
The insights, feedback and contribution of each individual mentioned were imperative towards
formulating an objective research study.
Ashish Kumar
Director General,
Central Statistical Office,
Ministry of Statistics and
Programme Implementation
Krishna Kumar
Deputy Director General
Social Statistics Division,
Ministry of Statistics and
Programme Implementation
George C Varughese
President,
Development Alternatives
Jitesh Khosla
Former Chief Secretary,
Government of Assam
Aditya Pundir
Country Manager,
The Climate Reality Project
India
Ashok Baran Chakraborty
Head – CESD,
Indian Institute of
Corporate Affairs
Tracking the Global Goals in India04
Dr Madhav Gadgil
Founder,
Centre for Ecological Sciences
Meera Mishra
Country Coordinator,
International Fund for
Agricultural Development
Pooran Chandra Pandey
Executive Director,
United Nations Global Compact
India
Dr Pronab Sen
Chairman,
National Statistical Commission
Pradeep Mohapatra
Secretary,
Udyama
Rajib Kumar Debnath
Director – Advisory Services,
Ernst & Young India
Ravi Bhatnagar
Manager, External Affairs,
Reckitt Benckiser India
Dr Ravindra Srinivas
Executive Director,
Centre for Sustainable
Development
Ritesh Sinha
Director – CSR,
DLF Ltd.
Santhosh Jayaram
Director – Sustainability and
Climate Change,
Tushar Pandey
Senior President and Country
Head-PSPM Group,
Yes Bank
Zeenat Niazi
Vice President,
Development Alternatives
Tracking the Global Goals in India 05
Foreword
The seventeen Sustainable Development hygiene, education, natural resource
Goals (SDGs) were adopted by member conservation and management, waste
nations of the United Nations in September management, climate change response,
2015 and are set to be achieved between and empowerment of women. Action points
2016 and 2030. The first seven SDGs are for some of these areas are outlined below.
an extension of the MDGs; they cover goals Food Securitysuch as eradicating poverty, ending hunger,
and providing universal access to Food security is one of the top priorities to healthcare, education, clean water, achieve the SDGs. Agriculture production is sanitation and clean energy. There is also a dependent upon soil fertility, adequate goal that calls for the empowerment of water, suitable techniques/practices and women and girls. The eighth, ninth and adaptation to climate change. The tenth SDGs cover economic growth and availability of food is also dependent upon decent jobs, industrialisation and reduced reduction in wastage in the supply chain inequality. The eleventh to fifteenth SDGs from field to market to consumer. This provides a framework for sustainability, requires an interlinked perspective in touching issues relating to urbanisation, interventions for food security. Every step of consumption and production, climate food production and access, including change, natural resources and the storage and distribution, has to be taken environment. The sixteenth goal focuses on into consideration. A clear roadmap, peace and justice, while the seventeenth c o n s i s t i n g o f n o d a l p o i n t s f o r g o a l d e s c r i b e s t h e m e a n s o f implementation, monitoring and reporting, implementation for all SDGs, emphasising is required.the global partnerships required for
countries to together achieve the Affordable Housing, Power, Water development agenda. and Sanitation
To attain the SDGs in the specified time India released a list of the first 20 cities frame of fifteen years, it is necessary to shortlisted so far under the Prime Minister’s h a v e a c l e a r r o a d m a p f o r t h e ‘Smart Cities Mission’. Prime Minister Modi implementation process. The compilation has vowed to create 100 new smart cities by of data pertaining to development 2022. Important elements of these Smart indicators in India’s 600+ districts against Cities include adequate water supply and specific targets, and the study of sanitation, reliable electricity, efficient solid effectiveness and impact of interventions and wastewater management, efficient implemented in these districts, would be public transport, effective use of IT helpful in monitoring and mid-course techno log ies , e -governance and correction. India’s development trajectory sustainable environment. Other focus will have to address key concerns in the areas include creating walkable localities; areas of food security, livelihoods and reducing congestion, pollution and income generation, affordable housing, resource depletion; spurring the growth of power, water, sanitation, health and the local economy; developing safe and
Tracking the Global Goals in India06
secure open public spaces; and revitalising partnership model would be essential to
the cultural identity of the city. move fast towards achieving the SDGs in
India.Education
I am p leased that Deve lopment The paradigm of poverty, illiteracy and child Alternatives, with support from Heinrich labour can only be addressed through BöllStiftung, has developed the current holistic education. Holistic education study to map the global goals in India. The models include quality teaching, availability study analyses India’s indicator framework of teaching aids, mid-day meals, water, and statistical capacity, highlighting the hygiene, toilets, playgrounds and periodic challenges and opportunities in monitoring medical care. India’s demographic dividend and reporting progress towards the SDGs. would remain untapped if girl children’s The analysis conducted in this study is education does not receive the attention it particularly pertinent as the global deserves.Therefore it is extremely vital to community is reviewing and finalising the focus on the education of girls through indicators that will be used to track the a l igned government pol ic ies and SDGs, and nations are grappling with the programmes which entail adequate challenge of aligning their national data incentives and motivation to send the girls collection and reporting mechanisms with to schools. international requirements. The study has
developed narratives on the indicator Climate Change
framework for six goals that are important
national priorities for India, as highlighted Climate change affects the poor,
above: SDG 2 (zero hunger), SDG 6 (clean marginalised and disadvantaged the most.
water and sanitation), SDG 7 (affordable It is important to work on improving
and clean energy), SDG 8 (decent work and simultaneously India’s energy intensity and
economic growth), SDG 11 (sustainable emissions intensity, targeting all key
cities and communities) and SDG 12 industry sectors, and measuring outcomes
(responsible consumption and production). through suitably developed metrics.
This report may be used as a guideline for Greening of core operations of businesses
policymakers and statistical agencies to and investing in positive impact sectors and
strengthen India’s statistical systems, and technologies would be essential to tackle
also by private stakeholders who have an emerging global challenges of climate
important role to play in financing many of change. Suitable adaptation programmes
the interventions and reforms required to for all the districts of the country need to be
achieve the SDGs in India.prepared and worked upon particularly in
the focus areas of water and agriculture.
Partnerships
Implementation of plans and programmes Ashok Baran Chakraborty
in a time bound manner is possible only Head – Centre of Excellence for
through suitable partnerships and Sustainable Development
participation of all key stakeholders Indian Institute of Corporate Affairs
including civil society organisations in every (Ministry of Corporate Affairs)
district in the country. A decent, transparent
Tracking the Global Goals in India 07
Executive Summary
About the Sustainable Development recommendations to policymakers and
Goals and Indicators s takeho lders w i th a purpose o f
strengthening data systems for the The 17 Sustainable Development Goals
indicators.(SDGs) and 169 targets under these goals,
adopted by 193 member states of the Scope - The study focuses on indicators
United Nations in September 2015, outline pertaining to six SDGs which are as follows:
the future that the world aspires to achieve SDG 2 (zero hunger), SDG 6 (clean water
in from 2016 to 2030. The SDGs cover a and sanitation), SDG 7 (affordable and
broad range of interconnected issues, from clean energy), SDG 8 (decent work and
economic growth to social issues to global economic growth), SDG 11 (sustainable
public goods. cities and communities) and SDG 12
(responsible consumption and production).The indicators to track the SDGs are
currently being developed by the Inter- Methodology - The method of inquiry
Agency and Expert Group on SDG includes primary and secondary research.
Indicators (IAEG-SDG). It is significant to Primary research included interviews with
outline this current process for an overall leading experts, and a national multi-
comprehensive understanding of the stakeholder consultation. Secondary
situation with respect to the SDGs. Around research encompassed an analysis of the
229 indicators were finalised as of statistical capacity of India. Specific Indian
December 2015, with the complete list indicators are analysed through the
scheduled to be released in March 2016. following frame of analysis: methodological
Countries need to put in place appropriate issues in data collection and dissemination,
mechanisms for timely, transparent and and appropriateness of indicators to local
reliable data collection, monitoring context and/or national priorities.
protocols, data analysis and research, as Part I - Strengthening India’s Statistical
well as sufficient means and resources to Capacity
carry forward these exercises.
This section explores the role of About the Study
government agencies in tracking the global
Objectives - The objectives of the present goals, and describes some challenges and
study are two-fold. The first objective is to opportunities in strengthening India’s
describe the existing statistical capacity of statistical capacity. Specific areas of
India while highlighting the challenges, intervention are identified for the use of
gaps and opportunities to track the SDGs. various stakeholders such as statisticians,
The second objective is to explore the civil society organisations, government
extent to which existing Indian indicators statistical agencies, and data analysts.
are aligned with global requirements, i.e. Who will Track the Global Goals in India?
the IAEG-SDG indicators, as well as in the
local context; to describe challenges in NITI Aayog is the nodal government agency monitoring, measurement and evaluation of for coordinating SDG implementation in t h e i n d i c a t o r s ; a n d t o p r o v i d e India and monitoring progress. The Ministry
Tracking the Global Goals in India08
o f S t a t i s t i c s a n d P r o g r a m m e time and effort required to access OGD.
Implementation (MosPI) is the nodal Media reports acclaim India’s OGD
government agency for tracking and platform for its flexibility, robustness and
reporting data on progress towards SDGs. n o n - i n v o l v e m e n t o f c o m m e r c i a l
application. However, a key challenge is the India’s Overall Statistical Capacity
absence of metadata for many datasets.
India scored 77.8 in 2015 on a scale of 0-Ease of Understanding - Due to the large
100 in World Bank’s Statistical Capacity range of poverty estimates derived from
Indicator. It is encouraging that India varying methodologies and sources, the
performed better than comparable general public often does not understand
developing nations; China scored 70.0 and what to make of poverty in India. Moving
Brazil scored 65.6 in the same year. A 2004 forward, as India progresses towards
study by the International Monetary Fund achieving the SDGs, it is important that
found thatIndia’s macroeconomic statistics, indicators used reflect the target they
on balance, follow international statistical represent to the greatest extent possible,
recommendations. This indicates that the for objective representation and ease of
reforms required to strengthen India’s interpretation.
statistical capacity are not major structural
or systemic reforms but smaller (but crucial) Periodicity - Surveys conducted one-time
fine-tuning reforms. and not repeated periodically make it
difficult to analyse trends. Progress towards India is one of the few countries conducting
SDGs has to be benchmarked, with target a Census, nation-wide sample surveys and
indicator values for intermediate years various thematic periodic surveys at the
between 2016 and 2030. This has been a state and national level. Hence the
major problem in India.The last two statistical capacity and its strengthening
National Family Health Surveys were in would not require major structural reforms
2005-06 and 2014-15 respectively, at the national level. However, in the context
indicating almost a decade long gap in the of the SDGs, a large onus of assessing the
collection and dissemination of critical data implementation will be on the States and
on the population’s health outcomes. the data collected at the district level will be
NSSO conducts surveys every year on a extremely significant. Therefore statistical
range of socio-economic indicators; capacity needs to be improved at the
however survey topics are repeated only bottom rung – the district level.
once in five years. Therefore, data on
several important indicators is available Ensuring Data Transparency, Ease of only once in five years.Understanding and Periodicity
Plugging Data GapsTransparency - India‘s Open Government
Data (OGD) Platform at is Both of India’s largest surveys – the NSSO
a web portal with the aim to allow and Census surveys – are household-
government agencies to publish datasets, based, which means that within-household
documen ts , se rv i ces , t oo l s and disaggregated data is not available in India
applications collected by them for public for many crucial indicators. For example,
use. The government also runs portals that there is not even basic information available
collate data on specific themes in one on women’s ownership of assets.Similarly,
place.Such initiatives have reduced the
www.data.gov.in
Tracking the Global Goals in India 09
water and toilets are two critical concerns SDG 2 (Zero Hunger)
for women, but gender-disaggregated data The Sustainable Development Goal 2 deals
on access to these essential services is not with targets of food consumption and
available. production to ensure food security. The
Another data gap is non-availability of data consumption indicators are captured by
at the sub-state level. There are other data NSSO survey, the main source of
gaps in India in various sectors. In the information and data. The NSSO survey
health sector, information on preventive, captures changes in the dietary
promotive, rehabilitative and palliative consumption of food and nutrition by the
services;access/use of primary care Indian population. There are concerns
services, mental health, injuries, nutrition, about the length and extensive nature of the
chronic disease treatment, acute illness in NSSO survey that can lead to under/over
children, etc. is not available. In energy, the estimation of nourishment in India due to
most prominent gaps in availability of errors of recalling, fatigue and over-
energy data in India are with respect to multiplication.
consumption sectors and decentralised It is also important for India to measure the
small scale generation sources, and also availability of and access to food (inclusive
data on grid electricity quality and reliability. of micro-nutrient) for all its population. Apart
Major data gaps on economic indicators are from farmers directly growing their own
also faced in monetary policymaking. food, Public Distribution System in India is
Sector-wise methodological studies are responsible for availability of and access to
recommended to ascertain how to best plug food to all its citizens. This requires
data gaps in each sector.indicators to measure the efficiency and
Available technology may be leveraged or effectiveness of Public Distribution System.
new technologies innovated to plug data Ministry of Agriculture is the nodal ministry
gaps. Big data – the flood of information for collecting and reporting on agriculture
made possible by interactions on the production targets in the IAEG-SDG list of
internet – may be used to gather individual ind ica to rs . The unava i lab i l i t y o f
data points directly from people, albeit with disaggregated data on different classes
due caution as big data may or may not and categories of labour constrains the
possess desirable statistical properties. assessment of the labour productivity of
Global partnerships should be leveraged each class and thus measures of the overall
for countries to cross-learn and work well-being of the marginal groups like
together to enable the data revolution marginal and small farmers.
needed for effectively tracking SDGs.
The indicators for the production target in Part II - Analysis of the Indian Indicator
the IAEG-SDG list are inadequate with Framework
respect to the conditions of India. It is
The indicators that have been finalised by important to track value of food production
IAEG-SDG as of December 2015 were per unit resource used – water, land,
analysed to identify Indian counterparts, energy. Without this, one cannot track the
point out methodological issues and extensive natural resource consumption by
explore the appropriateness of indicators to agriculture sector which in turn impacts the
local context and/or national priorities. achievement of other goals using natural
Tracking the Global Goals in India10
resources (SDGs 6, 7, 11) and the ones that the method of collecting data from one
aim to improve the health of these natural member of the household.
resources (SDGs 14,15). Water use ?The NSS survey list of food has a total of
efficiency to track the progress of irrigation 209 elements including cereals,
status is critical in this case, for which the vegetables, cash crops, etc. Dropping
Ministry of Water Resources has begun to or combining certain items will reduce
set up mechanisms for collecting adequate data collection fatigue of surveyor and
data. The Ministry is in the process of the one being surveyed. A suggestion of
conducting base line assessment of water combining food items that can which
use efficiency of various micro and macro have similar base food may be helpful in
irrigation projects.this case. The grouping of food items
There is no indicator in the IAEG-SDG list and the specificity of the food list must
for the total use of fertilisers and the a l so ensu re t ha t i n t ake and
efficiency of fertiliser use. The Department consumption of micro-nutrient is not
of Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture collects missed.
the data for the use of chemical fertiliser, ?Implementation of Food Insecurity
which is an important indicator in the Indian Experience Scale Survey in India that
context.collects data for a 12 month period as
Based on the analysis, the following is a opposed to 7 day and 30 day recall
summary of recommendations. periods used by NSSO. Method and
timing of both surveys need to be ?Concern of seasonality on food
designed such that any abstract consumption is a critical factor in a
multiplication error can be prevented.country wi th huge rural -urban
temporary migration records. The ?It is recommended that the government
NSSO survey design (that is he revise the method of collecting
predominant source of information on agriculture land data in the Agriculture
food and nutrition status) should take C e n s u s a g a i n s t t h e g l a r i n g
into account spatial and temporal discrepancies with NSSO survey data.
variation in order to prevent distortions This may involve changing the
of the sample. approach of collecting data, or
developing systems to ensure changes ?The NSS survey collects information of
in land use pattern are informed at the a l l fami ly members f rom one
patwari or district level.representative family member who may
not be aware of the actual food SDG 6 (Safe Drinking Water and
consumption outside home of all other Sanitation)
members. In rural India, there are The Indian definition of ‘safe drinking water’
studies that show that one member may requires amendment, as there is evidence
not aware of the food consumption of to suggest that what Indian authorities call
the entire household as incidences of ‘safe’ is often not safe.
food outside home are higher in such
areas due to movement for labour work. The practice of focusing on only ‘access’ Addressing this will require change in indicators does not highlight concerns
Tracking the Global Goals in India 11
relating to quality and efficiency of service • The Strategic Plan (2011-22) of the
delivery. The poor performance of water Ministry of Drinking Water and
access models – in particular inadequate Sanitation proposes the development of
operations and maintenance, and slippage a Management Devolution Index based
of habitations – is a pertinent problem and on selected indicators that measure the
requires monitoring. depth of management devolution for
use in allocation of incentive grants. Further, there is a need to track the
Such an Index should be developed existence, adequacy and effectiveness of
soon in consultation with stakeholders, the end-to-end sanitation chain in India as
and mainstreamed into planning current indicators do not adequately
processes.address the safe collection, transportation
and disposal of waste. • It is recommended that the existence,
adequacy and effectiveness of the end-In the area of sewage and effluent
to-end sanitation chain in India be treatment, there is scope to measure
tracked. This can be accomplished by performance metrics of facilities.
slightly amending existing indicators in
the Census and NSSO surveys. For Based on the analysis, the following is a starters, the percentage of population summary of recommendations.that defecates in the open despite
• The characterisation of groundwater access to a toilet may be measured. sources as ‘safe’ should be abandoned, Further, the extent to which toilets unless evidence from scientific tests constructed under the Swachh Bharat exists to back the claim. Data on water Mission are covered by a reliable water quality indicators are readily available supply and a safe disposal mechanism as they are tracked using IMIS by the for waste may be measured.Ministry of Drinking Water and
• Given India’s inadequate end-to-end Sanitation. Such data should now take management of sewage, additional the centre stage in policy planning.indicators pertaining to the performance
• Since per capita adequacy of water in and usage of wastewater are required, India is a major concern, it is namely i) percentage of STPs adhering recommended that the government to operations and maintenance track per capita availability of water and standards prescribed under the consumption of water, disaggregated Environmental (Protection) Rules for by use, and benchmark progress discharge into streams, ii) percentage towards contextually appropriate of conventionally treated sewage for threshold values. irrigation of crops not eaten raw, and iii)
percentage of STPs in which treated • A useful indicator that captures the
effluent conforms to prescribed quality effects of adequate operations &
standards. These indicators, however, maintenance, and source sustainability
are likely to be expensive to physically of water resources is slippage. It is
measure. One possible solution is to recommended that slippage, which
have STPs self-report this information.directly reflects the aforementioned
variables, be tracked actively as an • Installed capacity for effluent treatment indicator. in CETPs is the only currently available
Tracking the Global Goals in India12
indicator that is somewhat aligned with capita or household electr icity
the IAEG-SDG indicator for the target in consumption thresholds for rural and
question. However, performance urban areas may be set and adherence
metrics including capacity utilisation to these thresholds measured
should be tracked more frequently by • To measure affordability of energy,
CPCB or SPCBs (the last CPCB study percentage of per capita income (or
was in 2005). Alternatively, CETPs household income) spent on energy
should be asked to self-report this may be measured. The government
information.may want to set threshold values for this
SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) indicator to monitor that affordable
electricity is available to all. The The first challenge for a researcher or
government threshold for this indicator policymaker is the definition of electricity
should be applied only for low income access in India, which allows villages that
households (as it may not have much are not adequately electrified to still count
meaning for high-income households) as electrified. Another challenge is to
to ensure that these households are not reconcile the divergence of data available
paying more than their due share for from NSSO and Census surveys.
electricity.
Further, given India’s local context of • To measure reliability of electricity,
unreliable intermittent power supply and number of hours of load shedding per
low per-capita energy consumption, there is day (or per month) disaggregated by
a need to move beyond access indicators region may be used as an indicator.
and measure other aspects of energy
consumption such as energy affordability, • To assess “modernity” of energy
reliability and modernity. access, the government should first
define what kind of “modernity” it aims Disaggregated data on renewable energy
for and accordingly choose indicators share by source of renewable energy is not
for monitoring and evaluation.easily available in India.
• In addition to energy intensity, With regard to energy efficiency, ‘energy
emissions intensity should also be intensity’ and ‘emissions intensity’ present
closely monitored in line with India’s themselves as important variables. The
INDC commitments.IAEG-SDG framework only includes the
former. • The government should also closely
monitor the Energy Sustainability Based on the analysis, the following is a
parameters generated by the World summary of recommendations.
Energy Council, and ensure that these
scores improve as India makes • To ensure timely availability of reliable progress towards SDG 7.data and avoid divergence of data
available from NSSO and Census SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic
surveys, the NSSO and Census Growth)
questionnaires may be aligned.
There are two major employment and • To measure access to electricity, per
unemployment surveys in India, conducted
Tracking the Global Goals in India 13
by the NSSO and Labour Bureau part time work for usually active
respectively. The surveys have similar workers, number of hours of work per
concepts and definitions; therefore the day etc.) may be included in the
question arises whether both need to be Employment and Unemployment
conducted, especially in the same year as Surveys of NSSO and Labour Bureau.
has happened in the past. Methodological studies should be
undertaken to identi fy specif ic India’s informal economy can be described
indicators and data.in terms of enterprises and/or conditions of
employment. There is scope to include • To track the much-desired formalisation
probing questions to ascertain the of the informal enterprise, an “ease of
conditions of employment of people in doing business by MSMEs” index may
employment surveys. be formulated by including a few
probing questions in India’s existing Some wage surveys in India are conducted
enterprise surveys. These questions quite infrequently, and in some cases one
should provide insights on the degree of wage survey is found to be duplicating the
formalisation in MSMEs’ regular effort of another.
activities. One such question, for
example, could be whether the Further, with regard to child labour, enterprise has a bank account.statistics are simply derived from age-wise
distribution of workers, demoting child • Further research on methods to
labour to a mere economic phenomenon estimate earnings of the self-employed
and ignoring its social and human rights is recommended.
characteristics.
• An International Labour Organization Based on the analysis, the following is a
(ILO) study notes that the occupations summary of recommendations.
covered in the Occupation Wage
Survey were identified almost 40 years • Reflection is recommended on whether ago and have not been revised to reflect it is necessary to conduct both NSSO changes in rural occupations. A revision and Labour Bureau surveys for the is therefore required at the earliest.same indicators on employment and
unemployment, especially in the same • The Occupational Wage Survey is the
year as happened in 2011-12.only source of occupation-wise wage
data. However, it seems to be quite • Labour market data, particularly irregular and there appears to be a large employment and unemployment data, delay between the administration of should be tracked at least quarterly. The survey and publishing of the findings, frequency of data collection should often rendering the findings irrelevant. match the frequency with which There is a need to determine the important policy decisions relevant to appropriate frequency of this survey the sector are made.and administer the survey according to
• More probing questions on the nature of this frequency. It is also recommended working conditions, job security, safety that the time taken to compile and and durability of employment(for publish data be reduced.example, non-regularity of work and
Tracking the Global Goals in India14
Tracking the Global Goals in India 15
• A new definition of child labour that there is no metric that is followed by a
looks at the issue from a social and government agency. Town planning policies
human rights angle in addition to an need to expand to include holistic usage of
economic angle is recommended. public spaces.
• It is recommended that at least a Based on the analysis of indicators under
decennial survey of t ime use, SDG 11, following is a summary of
particularly of children, be attempted, recommendations:
learning from the pilot experience of the • A “bottom-up” approach, where local
Time Use Survey.data can be fed upstream, through a
• Disaggregated data on children’s sometimes complex system of statistics
involvement in various hazardous as well as policies and strategies, is
occupations and processes (as defined required. This would contribute to
by the Child Labour (Protection and further strengthening the cities as
Regulation) Act) is not available but is stakeholders and significant actors for
important. It is recommended that sustainability work. Importantly, this
collection of this data be integrated into also can be seen as an important step
existing NSSO surveys. forward in terms of the inclusion of local
and regional policymakers, as well as SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and
citizens all over the world, in this work. Communities)
• Many indices on mapping and tracking India’s urban population grew from the 290
urban deve lopment has been million reported in the 2001 census to an
developed by diverse stakeholders estimated 340 million in 2008, and could
Siemens with cities Index, in our own soar further to 590 million by 2030. This will
interviews with Centre for Sustainable pose an unprecedented policy and
Development and urban index is in the managerial challenge.
process, academic institutions such as
ISB has also released their smart cities There is no universal definition of index and green city index, CSO and ‘affordable housing’ in India and thus, national level data collectors need to estimating the demand and shortfall is a also observe the methodologies, key challenge. Further, the definition of findings from these respective sources. ‘convenient access’ to public transport Especially in the context when the requires thorough expansion since it is not government has released the list of first made clear by the concerned government 20 smart cities, the responsibility to agency. Hence, tracking of this indicator will measure the urban development has pose an immense challenge. increased for CSO and statistician.
Aspects of participatory decision-making in What metrics they will follow needs to be the case of land use for housing, closely observed.development, agriculture, etc. are virtually
• A direct engagement with the issue of absent. There are policies that aim to deal land value and land-value “capture” as a with these issues, but there is scope for means of financing and maintaining exploring this indicator in greater detail.inclusive and accessible public spaces
With regard to access to open public space, to achieve Target 11.7.
Tracking the Global Goals in India16
• The measuring indicator for India to There is currently no periodically measured
monitor public spaces needs effective indicator in India on food loss or food waste.
examin ing and wi l l requ i re a There are two possible tracks for estimating
combination of geospatial data and food loss as described above – one is the
user-perception surveys, especially physical measurement of food loss at each
when the indicator in consideration is a stage of the supply chain, and the other is
quantitative one that would specify the the GFLI method which estimates overall
area of public space in proportion to a food loss by observing physical factors that
city’s total space. contribute to food loss.
There is a need to develop a national To report on the current SDG target, India
information system and knowledge base needs to have robust administrative
with a focus on urban poverty and slums for records to supply information that is
better planning, policymaking, project required to calculate the GFLI. Whether
formulat ion, implementat ion, and India has the required data for this can only
monitoring and review, especially in the be analysed after the development,
area of slum development. This is in validation and publication of GFLI.
accordance with the objective of the Data on recycling in India is scarce. There is
Eleventh Five-Year Plan, which adopted the no established practice of periodic
concept of “inclusive growth” as the key measurement of waste generated and
development pattern for the country.recycled.
SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and The Public Procurement Bill, 2012 is under
Production)discussion in the parliament, which seeks to
The study develops a matrix to identify and regulate and ensure transparency in
map existing policies that address procurement by the central government
sustainable consumption and production and its entities. However, the focus of the
(SCP), and to identify gaps in the existing bill is to bring transparency in the
policy framework. The matrix includes six procurement procedures. Comparing it with
sectors and three categories of policy the expectations laid by the UNEP analysis
instruments – regulatory, economic and of indicators, it is clear that to fulfil the target
planning. Policies mapped in the matrix on sustainable public procurement the bill
address the four critical SCP concerns should aim to promote responsible
(critical thresholds, resource decoupling, c o n s u m p t i o n , r e d u c e a d v e r s e
impacts decoupling, social benefits). environmental impacts and enhance social
benefits.With regard to material footprint, it is found
that pressures on raw materials do not The ethos of the target on corporate
necessarily decline as affluence grows but sustainability requires thorough integration
o n l y g e t s e x p o r t e d t o o t h e r of sustainability into the corporate
developing/under-developed countries. sustainability reporting mechanisms.
This demonstrates the need for policy-Based on the analysis, a summary of
makers to consider new accounting recommendations is as follows.
methods that more accurately track
resource consumption.
• The Ministry of Statistics, Planning and • India may adopt a useful data collection
Implementation (MoSPI) may utilise the tool created by the World Bank for urban
matrix developed in this study for solid waste management. Intended to
mapping the policies in the sector that be used at the city level, the tool covers
regulate, incentivise and plan for SCP varied activities including waste
patterns. collection, recycling, transfer station,
landfi l l /dump (open or closed), • As pressures on raw materials do not
composting, and waste-to-energy necessarily decline as affluence grows
initiatives.but only gets exported to other
developing/under-developed countries, • India’s public procurement policy, it is recommended that policymakers cur rent ly under d iscuss ion in consider new accounting methods that Parliament, should aim to promote more accurately track resource responsible consumption. It should consumption. incentivise sustainably produced goods
and hence contribute in influencing • There are two possible tracks for
manufacturing patterns in business. estimating food loss as described above
This element is missing in the current – one is the physical measurement of
public procurement bill. Further, the food loss at each stage of the supply
public procurement policy should not chain, and the other is the GFLI method
only aim for reducing adverse which estimates overall food loss by
environmental impacts but also observing physical factors that
enhancing social benefits.contribute to food loss. In the Indian
context, it is important for both tracks to • While corporate sustainability reporting be used to estimate food loss for at least is widely practiced in the country, the one year, to see the extent to which the Ministry of Corporate Affairs should two tracks converge or diverge in their formulate a universal Corporate estimates for that year and thereby Sustainability Reporting Framework establish the reliability of GFLI in comprising of selective indicators drawn capturing the actual physical losses of from global and domestic reporting food. practices. The sustainability reporting
should be directly mandated from the • It is recommended that CPCB initiate a
government and its applicability should system for periodic studies of MSW
be extended to all business entities. management in a sample of cities, with
Further, a relook into the prescribed earmarked funds for the purpose. All
annual reporting format under Section studies should be made available in the
135 of the CSR Act, 2014 is suggested. public domain.
Currently, the format has a restricted
scope of measuring project based • Data on safety, hygiene and worker
modalities. It should be extended welfare should also be tracked within
towards the SDG principles and include existing sector-specific surveys and
certain indicators which enable a also general employment surveys
company to align its CSR initiative with described in the SDG 8 section.
the relevant SDG target, i.e. target 12.6.
Tracking the Global Goals in India 17
Background
health, education and other social needs by About the Sustainable Development 2015. This enabled the United Nations to Goalsmonitor the progress made on these counts
The 17Sustainable Development Goals by member countries and helped ascertain (SDGs) and 169 targets under these goals, the success and failure with respect to each adopted by 193 member states of the goal. Likewise, the SDGs also provide for a United Nations in September 2015, outline framework of global development that can the future that the world aspires to achieve be measured, monitored and reported on in from 2016 to 2030. The predecessor of by individual countries. Each signatory to the SDGs, the Millennium Development the 2030 Global Agenda for sustainable Goals (MDGs), implemented from 2000 to development, while on one hand is 2015, allowed countries to learn from the responsible for contextualising the goals to successes and challenges of achieving a their own realities for implementation, on global development agenda. The end of the the other, has the primary responsibility for MDG period stressed the need of a new follow-up and review, at the national, order that would demonstrate the scale and regional and global levels.build of the MDGs, and integrate and
Notwithstanding the broad, generic and synergise the three dimensions of ambitious nature of the SDGs,the indicator sustainable development: economic, framework for SDGs sets indicators within social, and environmental well-being.The each target under each goal such that SDGs are more ambitious than the MDGs, progress can be accounted and reported. covering a broad range of interconnected These indicators will form the backbone of issues, from economic growth to social monitoring progress towards the SDGs.issues to global public goods.Collective
action and collaboration form the very The indicators to track the SDGs are
foundation of achieving the SDGs (see currently being developed by the Inter-
Figure 1 & Table 1).Agency and Expert Group on SDG
Indicators (IAEG-SDG). The IAEG-SDG Tracking the Sustainable has been mandated by the United Nations Development GoalsStatistical Commission (UNSC) to develop
The MDGs stressed onconcrete and an indicator framework for the SDGs at the
measurable improvements on an eight-fold global level. The indicators are scheduled
agenda comprising of eradication of to be finalised in March 2016.
poverty and hunger, and advancement in
1 (Jakarta, 2016)
“The 17 SDGs are our shared vision of humanity and a social contract between the world's
leaders and the people; they are a to-do list for people and the planet, and a blueprint for
success.”1 - Ban Ki-moon, UN Secretary General
Tracking the Global Goals in India 18
Figure 1: The Basic Tenets of SDGs
Table 1: Key Principles of the 2030 Agenda
Global
Participation
Inclusion of voices of various stakeholders in the process of
creating the Agenda and seeking their efforts towards its
effective implementation.
Transformational
Governance
Inclusion of all forms of political, corporate and civil governance
to step up effective leadership commitments to achieve SDGs.
Leaving No One
Behind
Inclusion of people in the development process especially from
the ones placed at last mile post.
Following the Bangkok meeting in October the process the indicators were classified
2015 in which IAEG-SDG met for the as ‘green’ and ‘grey’ – green implying
second time to review the draft list of generally agreed indicators and grey
indicators, 4,588 comments were received implying the need of further discussion (see
on the global indicators marked green in a Box 1).
three-day consultation process. As a part of
2 Source: Developed by Radhika Ralhan, Senior Manager DA, for Development Alternatives on Piktochart (www.piktochart.com)
Tracking the Global Goals in India19
Box 1: Classification of SDG Indicators by IAEG-SDG
In November 2015, the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDG)
released the results of the list of indicators reviewed at the second IAEG-SDG meeting held
in Bangkok in October 2015. The indicators are currently classified in two categories:
Green Indicators - well established and have a general agreement
Grey Indicators - require in-depth research and discussions and are currently being
discussed
The final list of indicators will be released in March 2016. The current report looks at
indicators in the ‘green’ category.
At the conclusion of the Bangkok meeting, communication and advocacy campaigns.
159 indicators were coded green. Many of The indicators are crucial toensure
the comments received outlined that SDG consistency and collaboration in data
indicators were required to be relevant and compi la t ions , harmon isa t ion and
disaggregated by income, gender, age, rationalisation of development indicators,
ethnicity, migration status, disability, and policy-oriented statistics and statistical
g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n o r o t h e r capacity building (DESA, 2015).
characteristics.A target specifies actions and interventions
The grey indicators are being addressed by that governments need to undertake to
the IAEG-SDGs from 1st December 2015 to ensure achievement of a goal. However, a
15th February 2016. The global indicator target does not immediately indicate how it
framework developed from the above is to be achieved or what is the benchmark
processes is mandated to be agreed upon for progress. This is well illustrated in the
during the 47th Session of the UNSC in the language of the goals. If we observe Goal
month of March 2016. This will eventually 1,“End poverty in all its forms everywhere”,
be adopted by the Economic and Social Target 1.4 states “by 2030, ensure that all
Council (ECOSOC) and the UN General men and women, in particular the poor and
Assembly. Governments may also develop the vulnerable, have equal rights to
their own national indicators to enable economic resources, as well as access to
monitoring on the goals and targets in basic services…” Similarly, under Goal
localised country contexts. The follow–up 6,“Ensure access to water and sanitation
and review process will be undertaken on for all”, Target 6.1 states “by 2030, achieve
an annual basis by the High Level Political universal and equitable access to safe and
Forum on Sustainable Development affordable drinking water for all”.The
through a SDG Progress Report to be wording clearly demonstrates the broad
prepared by the Secretary–General(Iyer, and subjective nature of the targets in the
2015). absence ofa numerical framework that
enables assessment of the progress The task before IAEG-SDG is, however, not
achieved over time. It is here that indicators without challenges, as the indicators form
play an important role in providing the the basis for the discussion of the
numerical framework that enables development agenda and in form
measurement of progress. If we observe
Tracking the Global Goals in India 20
the proposed indicator for Target 1.1, The Need to Identify Indicators in
“p ropor t i on o f popu la t ion be low Country Contexts
international poverty line disaggregated by While global processes for identifying and
sex and age group and employment status developing indicators are underway,
(or proportion of employed people living countries especially developing countries
below the international poverty line)”, or that such as India need to reflect on their current
for Target 6.1,“percentage of population status of data collection for these indicators.
using safely managed drinking water The indicators will exert immense burden
services”, it is clear that indicators set a on the capacities of countries to collect data
benchmark for each target and a pragmatic for each of the 169 targets. Therefore,
methodology for each country to realise the appropriate mechanisms for timely,
specified goal. Determining appropriate transparent and reliable data collection,
indicators to support each target for each monitoring protocols, data analysis and
goal is, however, a daunting and critical research, as well as sufficient means and
cha l lenge tha t the in te rna t iona l resources to carry forward these exercises,
development community needs to need to be put in place. This will enable
undertake in order to ensure that goals do countries to generate periodic progress
not remain purely aspirational.The social reports for indicators, enable evidence-
aspect of sustainable development also based decision-making, and ensure
highlights the role of qualitative indicators, transparency and accountability of
which have deep connotations of cultural, government initiatives. The SDG process
governance, lifestyle, habits and related will outline an imperative role for the
human development issues. Therefore a statistical units, offices and commissions as
careful consideration of indicators at local primarily they will be assigned with the task
and state level contexts has to be observed of collecting the data, conducting analysis
as to whether they have covered the broad and report ing to their respective
spectrum of sustainable development. governments.
Tracking the Global Goals in India21
About the Study
• SDG 11 - Make cities and human Objectivessettlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
The objectives of the study are two-folds. sustainableThe first objective is to highlight the
• SDG 12 - Ensure sustainable challenges and opportunities in India to
consumption and production patternsstrengthen statistical capacity for tracking
the SDGs. Part I covers this objective.Part II The study considers only those indicators
of this report covers the second objective, that have been finalised by the IAEG-SDG
which is:as of December 2015, i.e. indicators in the
‘green’ category. Indicators still in the ‘grey’ • To explore the extent to which existing
category, i.e. indicators that require in-Indian indicators are aligned with global
depth review by IAEG-SDG, are not requirements, i.e. the IAEG-SDG
analysed in this study.indicators, as well as local context
• To describe challenges in monitoring, Methodologymeasurement and evaluation of the
The mode of inquiry of the study consisted indicatorsof both secondary and primary research.
• To provide recommendations to Secondary Research - The study policymakers and stakeholders to conducted a thorough perusal of strengthen data systems for the government publications, especially indicatorspublications emerging from India’s
statistical offices such as National Sample ScopeSurvey Office and Office of the Registrar
The study focuses on indicators pertaining General & Census Commissioner. This was to the following SDGs: done to identify existing indicators in India
relevant to each SDG target as well as the • SDG 2 - End hunger, achieve food data collection mechanism for these security and improved nutrition and indicators. promote sustainable agriculture
Tools Utilised - The indicators were • SDG 6 - Ensure availability and mapped against corresponding IAEG-SDG sustainable management of water and indicators. Information on parameters such sanitation for allas the data collection agency, frequency of
• SDG 7 - Ensure access to affordable, data collection and the definitions used was reliable, sustainable and modern a lso co l lec ted f rom government energy for all publications and other existing literature.
Using this information, the indicators were • SDG 8 - Promote sustained, inclusive
analysed as per the objectives outlined and sustainable economic growth, full
above. In particular, methodological issues, and productive employment and decent
and appropriateness of indicators to local work for all
Tracking the Global Goals in India 22
context and/or national priorities were indicators. Instead, indicators areanalysed
studied. from one or both of the below perspectives,
as applicable:Primary Research - The study gained
further inputs through interviews with Methodological Issues - The definitions
stakeholders and a national multi- used, process of data collection, periodicity
stakeholder consultation. of data collection, and availability of data in
the public domain were studied among Tools Utilised -
other parameters. This led to the
identification of methodological issues in • Interviews with Stakeholders - data collection and dissemination. For Representatives from the United example, under Goal 6 (clean water and Nat ions and a l l i ed agenc ies , sanitation), it was found that definitions of Government of India, civil society ‘safe drinking water’ used in India are organisat ions, corporates and inappropriate and require to be changed. consul t ing organisat ions were Such issues are described in the report for interviewed. A diverse group of those indicators for which they are stakeholders was chosen for the a p p l i c a b l e . W h e r e p o s s i b l e , interviews so as to collate diverse recommendations are provided to perspectives for this study.strengthen the method of data collection
• N a t i o n a l M u l t i - S t a k e h o l d e r and dissemination.Consultation - A consultation titled
Appropriateness to Local Context “Locating the SDG Indicators in the and/or National Priorities - Emerging Indian Context” was organised on 28 local ground-level situations as well as December 2015. It was attended by a national priorities were drawn out for each diverse group of stakeholders including target. It was then assessed whether the r ep resen ta t i ves f r om l ead ing Indian indicator captures these emerging corporates, civil society, UN agencies issues and priorities. Gaps in the indicator and Indian official statistical agencies. framework with respect to these priorities The experts extended their insights on are highlighted. For example, under Goal 7 the indicators, statistical systems and (affordable and clean energy), it was found the challenge of integrating the global that indicators of energy access completely agenda with national plans and miss out some qualitative aspects of access priorities.such as reliability of power supply, which is
Framework of Analysis pertinent in India given its notoriously
intermittent power supply and frequent In the process of developing indicators,
power cuts. The chal lenges and IAEG-SDG invited inputs from various
opportunities are described in the report for stakeholders, including countries and
those indicators for which a misalignment multilateral agencies as well as civil society.
was found between what the indicator The assessment of indicators was done on
captures and India’s local contexts and/or the basis of 3 criteria: feasibility, suitability
national priorities. Where possible, and relevance, based on which the
recommendations are provided to improve indicators were then strengthened. This
the appropriateness of indicators.study therefore refrains from further
critiquing the language of the IAEG-SDG
Tracking the Global Goals in India23
Part IStrengthening India’s Statistical Capacity
Strengthening India’s Statistical CapacityThe Sustainable Development Goals reporting data on progress towards SDGs.
(SDGs) and their 169 targets present a NITI Aayog clarifies its role on its website as
mammoth task of data collection and follows (NITI Aayog):
reporting. This would pose a challenge to
especially developing nations. Consider the “The task at hand for NITI Aayog is not first SDG of ending poverty. During the 10 merely to periodically collect data on SDGs year period between 2002 and 2011, as but to act proactively fructify the goals and many as 57 countries have zero or only one targets not only quantitatively but also poverty estimate (Serajuddin, Uematsu, maintaining high standards of quality. Wieser, Yoshida, & Dabalen, 2015). Ministry of Statistics and Programme Without periodic, reliable and relevant data, Implementation (MoSPI) has already it is impossible to make evidence-backed undertaken a parallel exercise of interaction decisions address inconsistencies in with the ministries to evolve indicators progress towards targets, expose reflecting the SDG goals and targets.”underlying reasons and undertake
Given the interconnected nature of the corrective action.SDGs and the corresponding need for inter-
India, too, has several gaps to close in the Ministerial collaboration as well as way it measures and reports data on crucial collaboration among national and sub-indicators. This section explores the national governments, cooperative challenges and opportunities India faces in federalism in India assumes fresh improving its statistical capacity. The next significance as the SDG agenda cannot be sub-section explores the question of who achieved without it. NITI Aayog assumes an will track the global goals in India; and is important responsibility of coordinating the followed by a brief on the overall strength of efforts of a large number of agencies.India’s statistical capacity as evaluated by
The NITI Aayog has already undertaken the leading multilateral agencies; and the exercise of mapping each SDG target to a challenges and opportunities in ensuring nodal Ministry (while also specifying other that India’s existing indicator framework is related Ministries whose roles will influence transparent, easy to understand and the target in question). Each Ministry will periodic. Finally, an illustration of some data also be responsible for reporting on gaps still prevalent in India and how these indicators that reflect the SDG targets they may be plugged is provided.are responsible for to the MoSPI, which will
Who will Track the Global Goals in then provide data to the NITI Aayog. This
India? data will then be used by the NITI Aayog to
track progress and change the course of NITI Aayog is the nodal government agency
action where required. The NITI Aayog will for coordinating SDG implementation in
work closely with the Ministries, who will in India and monitoring progress. The
turn work with state and distr ict Ministry of Statistics and Programme
governments as required, to implement the Implementation (MosPI) is the nodal
SDG agenda at the local level.government agency for tracking and
Tracking the Global Goals in India25
For the physical process of data collection, scored around 90), it is encouraging that
India has numerous surveys to track India performed better than comparable
indicators, especially those relating to developing nations; China scored 70.0 and
social and economic outcomes. The two Brazil scored 65.6 in the same year.
largest surveys in India are the Census of Further, India was able to execute its 2011
India and National Sample Surveys, Census at a reasonable cost of USD 0.5 per
conducted by the Office of the Registrar person, compared to the world average of
General and Census Commissioner, USD 4.6 per person (Chandramouli, 2011).
Ministry of Home Affairs; and the While it is possible that India’s massive
National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), population enables economies of scale in
MoSPIrespectively. The bulk of indicators the Census survey, the statistic is still
studied in this report are captured through impressive considering the challenges
either one or both of these two surveys. posed by India’s tremendous geographical
Both surveys cover a large number of and cultural diversity.
indicators ranging from employment to
access to toilets to household consumption A 2004 study by the International Monetary characteristics. Other sector-specific Fund (IMF, 2004) assessed the quality of surveys also exist in India to track specific India’s national accounts, consumer price indicators – such as the Annual Survey of index, wholesale price index, and Industries to track key economic government finance, monetary, and characteristics of formal manufacturing balance of payments statistics, as well as enterprises, and the Wage Rates in Rural India’s dissemination practices. The India survey to capture wage data of rural f ind ings of th is assessment are workers. encouraging; some of them are as follows:
India’s Overall Statistical Capacity • India is in observance of the
i n t e r n a t i o n a l S p e c i a l D a t a The World Bank defines statistical capacity
Dissemination Standard (SDDS) of IMF.as nation’s ability to collect, analyse and
disseminate high-quality data about its • Indian statistical agencies demonstrate
population and economy. The World Bank’s awareness of quality as the cornerstone
statistical capacity indicator is a composite of statistical work, although there is
score assessing the capacity of a country’s scope to improve coordination among
statistical system. It is based on a various ministries, state agencies and
diagnostic framework assessing the local bodies responsible for data
following areas: methodology; data collection and dissemination.3
sources; and periodicity and timeliness , • India’s macroeconomic statisticians
and provides an overall score on a scale of display a high degree of integrity.
0-100.
• India’s macroeconomic statistics, on It is interesting to note that India scored 77.8
balance, follow international statistical in 2015. While clearly there is scope for
recommendations, although there are improvement (the top performing countries
deviations.
Tracking the Global Goals in India 26
3Countries are scored against 25 criteria in these areas, using publicly available information and/or country input. The overall Statistical Capacity score is then being calculated as simple average of all three area scores on a scale of 0-100.
The above observations provide a sense of research by academia, civil society, private
the degree of reforms India would require to sector and other stakeholders, often
strengthen its statistical capacity. The leading to formulation and dissemination of
Statistical Capacity score is high enough to diverse perspectives, important insights
indicate that India has the basic structures and recommendations for policymakers.
and systems it requires to collect data on India‘s Open Government Data (OGD)
socio-economic indicators. However, the Platform at www.data.gov.in is a web portal
score also indicates that there is enough with the aim to allow government agencies
potential for improvements within existing to publish datasets, documents, services,
structures. The reforms required are not tools and applications collected by them for
major structural or systemic reforms but public use. This platform was extensively
smaller (but crucial) fine-tuning reforms. used for the research in this report. It was
This is confirmed by the analysis of specific found to have an easy and intuitive user
data collection mechanisms in part II of the experience, a useful search option, and a
report.broad range of datasets on topics ranging
from government budgets to railway Ensuring Data Transparency, Ease of statistics to prices, all available for Understanding and Periodicitydownload.
For each UN member country, theSDG The government also runs portals that indicators will define their respective SDG collate data on specific themes in one processes and translate each target into place. For example, the Ministry of manageable units of information to facilitate Environment, Forest and Climate Change decision-making processes. Indicators are has set up the Environmental Information communication tools that report the System as a comprehensive network in progress against targets and will play an environmental information collection, essential role in the creation of substantive co l la t ion , s to rage, re t r ieva l and reporting, drawing out accountability of dissemination to varying users. The portal governance structures at all levels.includes data on sanitation, hygiene,
To perform these crucial functions sewage systems and technology collated effectively, data should be transparent, from various sources. The Ministry also easy to understand and collected at an manages a “State of Environment Atlas of appropriate periodicity to measure trends, India”, an interactive online atlas that among other properties. These properties provides swift and precise data on the state contr ibute to the methodological of environment by state and by district. robustness of data. The challenges and States input data into this portal. The atlas opportunities in achieving the same are allows one to visualise geo-spatial data on described below. environment under various themes.
Transparency The MoSPI publishes a yearly “Statistical
Year Book” consisting of datasets on vital The practice of making data transparent
social aspects such as housing, and open to all, subjects data to the
env i ronmen t , educa t i on , hea l t h , technical scrutiny of stakeholders, which
infrastructure and tourism.helps improve quality of data. Further,
transparency of data enables useful In India, such initiatives have reduced the
Tracking the Global Goals in India27
time and effort required to access OGD. higher than 40% in 2005; the Asian
While previously those looking for data Development Bank arrived at almost 50%;
would need to peruse various Ministry and the current World Bank estimate pegs
websites, now much of this data is collated poverty at around 21% (ibid).
in one place. To some extent, this also Due to the large range of estimates, the
reduces the dependency on Right to general public often does not understand
Information (RTI) applications for gathering what to make of poverty in India. Further,
data on government institutions in India. poverty is multi-dimensional in nature,
Additionally, such portals reduce the consisting of deprivations beyond income.
burden on the government itself to locate This is recognised in the Socio-Economic
data for both internal use and for Caste Census of India, which in 2011
responding to RTI applications. Media tracked seven types of deprivations. Clarity
reports acclaim India’s OGD platform for its is important on which deprivations are
flexibility, robustness and non-involvement considered in each poverty estimate and
of commercial application (Ujaley, 2015).what thresholds are used. Otherwise, the
The aforesaid portals are not without range of estimates allows the politicisation
chal lenges and opportuni t ies for of poverty for targeting and other purposes.
improvement. A key challenge is the Such politicisation neither helps in effective
absence of metadata for many datasets. planning and implementation, nor provides
One has to refer to other sources for reliable data for research and decision-
descriptions of key variables and making.
methodology used in data collection. Moving forward, as India progresses
Integrating metadata into these portals towards achieving the SDGs, it is important
would further increase the convenience of that indicators used reflect the target they
data access.represent to the greatest extent possible,
Ease of Understanding such that the general public, if aware of the
target in question and the indicator It is important that the data collected and
associated with it, can correctly interpret the disseminated by the government is easy to
data. This has not been observed in the understand and communicate.
case of “access to safe drinking water”, as
what Indian authorities call “safe” is not Consider the data on poverty. The erstwhile actually safe, as elucidated in part II of this Planning Commission estimated poverty report. Inappropriate definitions often result using methodologies suggested by various in deduction of diverse forms of subjective expert groups. In the last decade, the derivations, which in turn result in Rangarajan committee estimate put the misinterpretation of facts by general public. poverty rate at roughly 30%, the Suresh Amendments to such definitions need to be Tendulkar committee at 37% and the done with a view for better comprehension Saxena committee at 50%, while the Arjun for the general masses.Sengupta commission identified 77% of
Indians as "poor and vulnerable" (Ghosh, Periodicity
2011). Comparing these estimates to
international estimates of Indian poverty Surveys conducted one-time and not
creates still more confusion. The World repeated periodically make it difficult to
Bank's PPP estimate of Indian poverty was analyse trends. Progress towards SDGs
Tracking the Global Goals in India 28
has to be benchmarked, with target The Index of Industrial Production (IIP), one
indicator values for intermediate years of the most important economic indicators
between 2016 and 2030. For this, it is in India indicating the level of domestic
essential that data be collected with an industrial activity, faces a similar problem. It
appropriate periodicity, so that trends may uses data from 22 different manufacturing
be analysed. sectors. Some of these sectors do not
report data to their respective Ministries as In defining the appropriate periodicity, an
periodically as they are required to. When important consideration is that the
data is not made available, the estimation of periodicity of data collection should match
IIP uses past data available from that sector the periodicity of important policy decisions
or past averages, which often leads to or interventions, while simultaneously
inaccuracies. This could be a possible keeping in mind feasibility concerns. This
reason for the frequent dips and spikes has been a major problem in India.
often found in IIP trends (Krishnan, 2015).
Similarly, the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) For example, consider the case of health for coal, bauxite and limestone in India has indicators. Health indicators are critical not changed throughout 2014, despite the social development indicators, and are turmoil in global commodity prices during intricately linked to a range of other social that time (Krishnan, 2015) – this is certainly development initiatives ranging from dubious and could be due to lack of access to food, to access to safe water and periodically available data.sanitation. An important source of data on
health indicators in India is the National The time taken for publishing and
Family Health Survey (NFHS). The last two dissemination of data is just as important as
NFHS surveys were in 2005-06 and 2014-the timely and periodic collection of data. In
15 respectively, indicating almost a decade India, it often takes several years after the
long gap in the collection and dissemination administration of surveys for data to be
of critical data on the population’s health published in the public domain, as in the
outcomes!case of the Occupational Wage Survey –
the latest available set of data was collected NSSO conducts surveys every year on a in 2002, published in 2010 and is of almost range of socio-economic indicators; no relevance now given the dynamic and however survey topics are repeated only fast-changing nature of labour markets.once in five years. Therefore, data on
several important indicators is available Plugging Data Gaps
only once in five years. The NSSO
Employment Unemployment surveys Both of India’s largest surveys – the NSSO
provide labour market data once in five and Census surveys – are household-
years; whereas many nations monitor their based, which means that within-household
labour markets on a quarterly or even disaggregated data is not available in India
monthly basis, as that is the approximate for many crucial indicators. A consequence
frequency at which important monetary of this is that for many crucial indicators,
policy decisions are made. In fact, only for a gender-disaggregated data is not available,
very small number of social development as this requires surveys to either use
indicators in India is data available on an individuals rather than households as the
annual or more frequent basis. primary unit (or probe specifically for data
on women within household surveys).
Tracking the Global Goals in India29
For example, there is not even basic “Non-availability of data at sub-state level
information available on women’s prevented statistical monitoring at bottom
ownership of assets. All data collected on level. In order to generate estimates at sub-
the subject use the household as the unit of state level, sufficiently large samples are
a n a l y s i s , w i t h t h e o n l y g e n d e r required from each district making the total
disaggregation being the sex of the head of sample size so large, that, it is not found
the household. This holds for assets feas ib le due to cos t and o ther
ranging from land to livestock to housing. In organisational considerations.”
the case of land, the only estimate that can From the MoSPI’s statement it appears that
be derived from available data is the land India will have to live without sub-state level
area owned by female-headed households, data for some indicators for the time being.
which is itself only a residual category in the
Census. In the case of housing, Census There are other data gaps in India in various collects data on ownership status of houses sectors. Some gaps in health statistics are b u t t h e r e s p o n s e i s g i v e n a s enumerated in (Garg, 2014). These include 'owned/rented/other. ' There is no information on preventive, promotive, information on the owner: whether it is r e h a b i l i t a t i v e a n d p a l l i a t i v e singly or jointly owned and whether the services;access/use of primary care women in a household have any ownership services, mental health, injuries, nutrition, rights (IndiaToday.in, 2015). While it may be chronic disease treatment, acute illness in possible to obtain data on land or housing children, etc. A critical deficiency is in the ownership of women from official land and area of non-communicable diseases. It is housing records, this data has not yet been also well known in India that civil digitised for the whole nation, and is registration statistics in India require currently not consolidated and published for tremendous work. Birth registration is public use (Swaminathan, 2013). Similarly, estimated to range from as low as 50% in water and toilets are two critical concerns Bihar and Chhattisgarh to 100% in 13 states for women, but gender-disaggregated data (Garg, 2014).on access to these essential services is not
In the energy sector, (Prayas, 2015) has available.analysed the data gaps in India and
A possible way to provide gender- concluded that on the energy supply side, disaggregated data for asset ownership is while Ministries are already collecting data to digitise official records. While this is a on most indicators, there is insufficient time consuming and resource intensive publishing and dissemination of data. The process, it will in future substantially most prominent gaps in availability of increase convenience in accessing data. energy data in India are with respect to Another opportunity is to include probing consumption sectors and decentralised questions in existing household surveys on small scale generation sources, which women. service a large number of rural areas that
are not connected to the grid. Further, data Another data gap is non-availability of data
on grid electricity quality and reliability are at the sub-state level. MoSPI in its report on
not published.India’s progress towards the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) (MoSPI, With regard to economic indicators, a 2015) outlined the issue as recent Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
Tracking the Global Goals in India 30
publication (RBI, 2014) describes major First, available technology may be
data gaps faced in monetary policymaking. leveraged or new technologies innovated to
Data gaps include indicators such as plug data gaps. Big data – the flood of
producer price index, services sector output information made possible by interactions
and price index, labour force survey, urban on the internet – may be used to gather
wages, retail sales, construction activity individual data points directly from people,
survey, and surveys of household without the need for field investigators. Big
indebtedness. RBI monetary policy affects data should of course be treated with
the entire economy and therefore, it is caution as it may not possess important
crucial that decisions are backed by sound statistical properties, however a well-
data; the data gaps mentioned should informed approach may be able to make
therefore be plugged at the earliest. use of big data despite this drawback.
Similarly, with respect to data on another Further, mobile phones, satellite imagery,
important economic phenomenon – social media, online transactions etc. may
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) – a study all be leveraged (providing due respect to
(NCAER, 2015) finds that there is lack of privacy of individuals).
data on the operations of foreign firms in Second, global partnerships should be
India, state and district break-up of FDI leveraged. MDG mon i to r ing has
inflows, specific nature of FDI activity within demonstrated the effectiveness of inter-
a sector, and the correct country source of agency collaboration on data collection and
FDI inflows. Another major gap that exists is review. During the MDG implementation
the absence of a complete inventory, phase, over thirty international agencies
location-wise, of foreign direct investors in worked effectively together to produce
the country. Indian political discourse often yearly reports on MDG progress, oversee
emphasises FDI as an important growth methodological developments on the
engine, therefore it is crucial that data on indicators, and ensure that the best and
FDI be collected and disseminated.most up-to-date data on the goals and
Sector-wise methodological studies are ta rge ts were made ava i lab le to
recommended to ascertain how to best plug policymakers and to the citizens (Global
data gaps in each sector; the current study Social Justice, 2015). These collaborations
attempts this exercise for indicators under 6 and partnerships need to be fortified in the
SDGs. Two broader recommendations are future to ensure effective data collection
as follows. and review for tracking the progress in
SDGs.
Tracking the Global Goals in India31
Part IIAnalysis of Indicators
1.6 tonnes
per hectare of
top soil lost
every year
50%women aged
between
15-49 years
are anaemic
Domestic
production will
only meet 59%of food demand
by 2030
End Hunger
Achieve Food Security
Improved Nutrition
Sustainable Agriculture
Tracking the Global Goals in India 34
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 2(Zero Hunger)
“End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture”
s e c t i o n a l s o h i g h l i g h t s t h e Structure of this Sectiondiscrepancies in total agriculture land
This section is organised as follows: and total farmers in India, which form
the base data used for calculating Introductionagriculture value per labour unit.
• Overview of SDG 2: A brief overview of • Usage of Irrigation Systems: The the targets under SDG 2 is provided.
approach of the Agriculture Census to • India and SDG 2: India’s current collect this information and the
scenario with respect to some of the constraints of the same are highlighted.SDG 2 targets is described.
• Usage of Eco-friendly Fertilisers: • Comparing the IAEG-SDG Indicators The source of information and method
with Indian Indicators: A tabular of calculation in India for eco-friendly comparison of IAEG-SDG indicators fertiliser use are described. It also throw with corresponding indicators currently light on the measuring the efficiency of measured in India for SDG 2 is given. fertiliser use in India.
Analysis of SDG 2 Indicators Indicators not in IAEG-list but critical for
India• Prevalence of Undernourishment:
This sub-section discusses what India • Water Use Efficiency in Irrigation: This measures as undernourishment, some section discusses the methodology of critical definitions and critical analysis of calculating water use efficiency and the the methods, and the design and data sets required for the same. It also structure of the household surveys provides recommendations after conducted by India to col lect assessment o f the da ta and information relevant to prevalence of methodology used.undernourishment.
• Evaluation of Public Distribution • Food Insecurity Experience Scale: A Systems: This section studies the
brief on the food insecurity experience components to assess the impact of scale, developed by FAO, is provided public distribution. It studies the surveys along with caveats for introducing the conducted to assess the common survey in India. errors in the data of these systems.
• Value of Production per Labour Unit: Summary of Recommendations: Based A brief on the method of calculating on the ana lys is , a summary o f value of agriculture production per recommendations for policymakers is labour unit in India is provided. This sub- provided.
Tracking the Global Goals in India35
cent of India’s food demand by 2030. This Overview of SDG 2indicates that greater attention is needed to
SDG 2 deals with ending hunger and i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y t h r o u g h improving nutrition, promoting sustainable technologies and practices that do not agriculture and achieving food security. stress the natural resource base.While targets 2.1 and 2.2 deal with ending
Non-judicious and unbalanced use of hunger and end ing ma lnu t r i t i on
inorganic fertilisers and unsustainable respectively, targets 2.3 and 2.4 deal with
irrigation practices over the years resulted sustainability in food production systems
in deterioration of soil fertility in large parts especially agriculture, with a focus on
of productive agricultural land in India. strengthening resilience of these systems
About one millimetre of top soil is being lost to climate change. The goal recognises the
each year due to soil erosion and the rate of complex nature of food security, spanning
loss is 16.4 tonnes per hectare (The Hindu, food production, to access food, to
2010).absorption of nutrition by the body as
reflected in health outcomes.Food security is influenced by a number of
factors, including those that determine food India and SDG 2availability – domestic food production and
Despite rapid economic growth and gains in the capacity to import food – as well as reducing its poverty rate, India is saddled determinants of food access, including the with one of the highest levels of hunger and distribution of food among various malnutrition in the world. More than half of segments of the population. While the Indian women aged between 15 and 49 consumption and absorption indicators are years are anaemic, and more than one-third covered by Census and National Sample have a low body mass index. Among Survey Office, the Agriculture Ministry looks children younger than age five, 48 per cent closely at the data and indicators for have low height-for-age, and 42.5 per cent production end of food security. have low weight-for-age (DES, 2015).
Comparing the IAEG-SDG Indicators India’s agriculture production changed with Indian Indicatorsdramatically from 1957 to 1968, when the
The following table compares IAEG-SDG expansion of the country’s research
indicators with corresponding indicators capacity and initiation of price support 4programmes for farmers set the stage for currently measured in India for SDG 2 . The
the Green Revolution. However, there has table only includes indicators that have
been a drop in the productivity growth over been finalised by the IAEG-SDG as of
time. According to the Global Agriculture December 2015. Indicators still in the “grey”
Productivity (GAP) Report 2014 (Global category, i.e. indicators that require in-
Harvest Initiative, 2014), at the current rate depth review by IAEG-SDG, have been
of total factor productivity (TFP) growth, omitted. In the case of SDG 2, the targets
domestic production will meet only 59 per and indicators omitted in this study are:
4The table only includes indicators that have been finalised by the IAEG-SDG as of December 2015. Indicators still in the “grey” category, i.e. indicators that require in-depth review by IAEG-SDG, have been omitted. In the case of SDG 2, this includes indicators under Targets 2.a and 2.c
• Target 2.a Increase investment, • Target 2.c Adopt measures to ensure
i n c l u d i n g t h r o u g h e n h a n c e d the proper functioning of food
international cooperation, in rural commodi ty markets and the i r
infrastructure, agricultural research and derivatives and facilitate timely access
extension services, technology to market information, including on food
development and plant and livestock reserves, in order to help limit extreme
gene banks in order to enhance food price volatility. The indicator under
agricultural productive capacity in discussion is “Indicator of (food) Price
developing countries, in particular least Anomalies (IPA)”.
developed countries. The indicator
under discussion is “The Agriculture
Orientation Index (AOI) for Government
Expenditures”.
Tracking the Global Goals in India 36
Tracking the Global Goals in India 37
Table 2: IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 2
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of Data Collection in India
Data Collecting Agency in India
Target 2.1 By 2030, end hunger and en sure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round
Prevalence of undernourishment Intake of dietary energy Quinquennial National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
Prevalence of population with moderate or severe food insecurity, based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)
Food Insecurity Experience Scale
Currently piloted by FAO, aim to align it with national surveys for disaggregation
Potentially, National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
Target 2.2 By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on st unting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons
Prevalence of stunting (height for age <-2 SD from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards) among children under five years of age
Prevalence of stunting among children under five years of age (height for age)
Quinquennial National Family Health Survey, International Institute of Population Studies
Prevalence of wasting Prevalence of wasting (weight for height)
Quinquennial National Family Health Survey, International Institute of Population Studies
Target 2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small -scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment
Value of production per labour unit (measured in constant USD), by
Total production and value of production
Annual Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture
Tracking the Global Goals in India 38
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of Data Collection in India
Data Collecting Agency in India
classes of farming/pastoral/ forestry enterprise size Number of farmers/
agriculture workers Decennial
Census of India – lffice of the oegistrar deneral C Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs
Target 2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality
Percentage of agricultural area under sustainable agricultural practices
Not available
Percentage of agricultural households using irrigation systems compared to all agricultural households
Estimated number of operational holdings by size classes and irrigation status (fully irrigated, partially irrigated and un-irrigated)
Quinquennial Agriculture Census, Ministry of Agriculture
Percentage of agricultural households using eco-friendly fertilizers compared to all agricultural households using fertilizers
Cultivable land under organic certification
Annual Agriculture and Processed Food products Export Development Authority, Ministry of Commerce and Industry
2.b Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets, including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha Development Round
Per cent change in Import and Export tariffs on agricultural products
Import and export tariffs on agriculture products
Annual Central Board of Excise and Customs, Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance
Target 2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including
infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round
Tracking the Global Goals in India 39
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of Data Collection in India
Data Collecting Agency in India
Prevalence of undernourishment Intake of dietary energy Quinquennial
National Sample Survey Office, Ministry
of Statistics and Programme
Implementation
Prevalence of population with
moderate or severe food
insecurity, based on the Food
Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)
Food Insecurity Experience
Scale
Currently piloted by
FAO, aim to align it
with national surveys
for disaggregation
Potentially,National Sample Survey
Office, Ministry of Statistics and
Programme Implementation
Target 2.2 By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and
wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and
older persons
Prevalence of stunting (height for
age <-2 SD from the median of the
WHO Child Growth Standards)
among children under five years of
age
Prevalence of stunting among
children under five years of
age (height for age)
Quinquennial
National Family Health Survey,
International Institute of Population
Studies
Prevalence of wasting Prevalence of wasting (weight
for height) Quinquennial
National Family Health Survey,
International Institute of Population
Studies
Target 2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous
peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and
inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment
Value of production per labour unit
(measured in constant USD), by
classes of farming/pastoral/
Total production and value of
production Annual
Directorate of Economics & Statistics,
Ministry of Agriculture
Number of farmers/ Decennial Census of India – lffice of the
Tracking the Global Goals in India 40
Tracking the Global Goals in India 41
basis of data on household monthly per Prevalence of Undernourishmentcapita consumption expenditure (MPCE).
How FAO Measures Prevalence of The last four NSS reports on nutritional Undernourishment intake in India have been those based on
NSS 50th round (1993-94), 55th round Intake of dietary energy per person (1999-2000), 61st round (2004-05) and continues to be the most widely used 66th round surveys. The household indicator of the level of nutrition of a consumer expenditure schedule used for population. FAO estimates the prevalence the survey collected information on quantity of undernourishment, defined as the and value of household consumption. The proportion of the population in the country schedules of enquiry used are of two types. with a level of dietary energy consumption The two types had the same item break-up lower than the dietary energy requirements. but differed in reference periods used for For the indicator of “prevalence of collection of consumption data. Schedule undernourishment”, the FAO methodology Type 1, as far as reference periods are accepts the view that (FAO, 2001): concerned, is a repeat of the schedule used
• N o u r i s h m e n t a s a s o c i a l l y / in most quinquennial rounds. For certain demographically relevant phenomenon categories of relatively infrequently refers to food intake, purchased items, including clothing and
consumer durables, it collects information • Food intake can be measured through
on consumption during the last 30 days and the amount of dietary energy, on the
the last 365 days. For other categories, account that the correlation between
including all food and fuel and consumer dietary energy and quality of the diet is
services, it uses a 30-day reference period. expected to be close to one.
Schedule Type 2 used ‘last 365 days’ (only)
for the infrequently purchased categories, What India Measures
‘last 7 days’ for some categories of food The household dietary energy consumption items, as well as pan and tobacco, and ‘last is calculated by NSS surveys, conducted by 30 days’ for other food items and fuel. The National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). table below summarises the reference Household food consumption at the periods used for collection of consumption national and state levels is computed on the data in the Schedules.
Table 3: Reference periods for collecting consumption data in Schedule 1.0, Type 1 & Type 2
Source: (NSSO, 2012)
Category
Item Groups
Reference Period for
Schedule Type 1
Schedule Type 2
I Clothing, bedding, footwear, education, medical (institutional), durable goods
Last 30 days & 365 days
Last 365 days
II Edible oil; egg, fish & meat; vegetables, fruits, spices, beverages and processed foods; pan, tobacco & intoxicants
Last 30 days Last 7 days
III All other food, fuel and light, miscellaneous goods and services including non-institutional medical, rents and taxes
Last 30 days Last 30 days
Tracking the Global Goals in India42
Consumer unit: The data on food Key Definitionsconsumption is collected for households as
Energy intake: The three components of a whole and not for individual members. food which provide this energy are The distribution of calorie intake over carbohydrates, fat and proteins. Proteins persons is derived by deriving per capita normally supply 10-12% of energy in most calorie intake of the household from diets; energy that carbohydrates and fat consumer unit. Consumer unit is a unit used contribute may vary from diet to diet. as an indicator of the energy requirement of Quantitative food requirements are usually a group of persons of different sexes and set in terms of energy. The unit of ages. Taking the calorie requirement of an measuring energy is kilocalorie (Kcal) average male in the age group 20-39 doing which is the amount of heat necessary to sedentary work as the norm, the average raise the temperature of one kg of water by calorie requirements of males and females 1 degree Celsius from 14.5 to 15.5 degrees of other age groups are expressed as a ratio Celsius. This is also called 1 Calorie and to this norm (see table).equals 1000 calories.
Table 4: Consumer Units by Age
Source: (NSSO, 2012)
Meal: A ‘meal’ is composed of one or more daughter residing in a hostel for studies is
readily eatable (generally cooked) items of excluded from the household of his/her
food, the major constituent of which is parents, but a resident employee or
usually cereals. The meals consumed by a resident domestic servant or paying guest
person twice or thrice a day provide him/her (but not just a tenant in the house) is
the required energy (calorie) and other included in the employer/host's household.
nutrients for living and for pursuing his/her Household consumer expenditure: The
normal avocations. A ‘meal’, as opposed to expenditure incurred by a household on
‘snacks’, ‘nashta’ or ‘high tea’, contains a domestic consumption during the reference
larger quantum and variety of food. Even period is the household's consumer
then, if the quantum of food in a plate is as expenditure. Expenditure incurred towards
heavy as a usual meal, the contents of the productive enterprises of households is
food plate are considered as a ‘meal’.excluded from household consumer
Household: A group of persons normally expenditure. Also excluded are expenditure
living together and taking food from a on purchase and construction of residential
common kitchen constitutes a household. land and building, interest payments,
The word "normally" means that temporary insurance premium payments, payments of
visitors are excluded but temporary stay- fines and penalties, and expenditure on
aways are included. Thus, a son or gambling including lottery tickets. Money
given as remittance, charity, gift, etc. is not What Critics Say
consumer expenditure. However, self-1. Recall period used for measurement – 30
consumed produce of own farm or other days or 7 days?
household enterprise is valued and
inc luded in household consumer The arguments given below are found in expenditure. (Sridhar, 2000).
Calculation of Household Intake of Recall periods are one of the most Calories, Protein and Fat important parameters in a Household
Consumption and Expenditure Survey The quantities of food recorded as
(HCES), and yet there is no obvious or consumed based on the food consumption
commonly agreed-upon recall period. In expenditure by the household are
part, this is because the choice is likely to be converted into the equivalent amounts of
conditioned by other characteristics of the calories, protein and fat on the basis of a
survey — such as whether data are Nutrition Chart largely based on an ICMR
collected using a diary or an interview, pub l i ca t i on (Gopa lan , Sas t r i , &
whether or not there are multiple visits, how Balasubramanian, 1991) which gives the
long the food list is, and the amount of time calorie, protein and fat content per unit of
required to conduct the survey — and other different foods in the Indian diet. Household
contextual factors — such as the diversity of food consumption is measured by the
the diet, the rate of literacy, degree of quantity of the article actually used by the
urbanisation and the level of income.household during the reference period,
irrespective of the expenditure incurred on Until the 50th round of the National Sample it. The consumption may be out of: Survey in 1993-94 the NSSO had been
using a method by which respondents were • purchases made in cash or credit during
asked to provide details about their food the reference period or earlier;
consumption in the previous 30 days. In the
• home-grown stock; 50th round, the concept of a seven-day
recall was introduced, because of the • receipts in exchange of goods and
suspicion that the longer time scale caused services;
respondents to miss from memory certain
items that they had actually consumed. In • any other receipt like gift, charity, the 1993-94, the nationwide sample was borrowing and divided into two separate samples, one
• free collection. using the seven-day recall and the other the
30-day recall. Indeed, the shorter recall Consumption out of purchase is evaluated
period did reveal higher consumption at the purchase price. Consumption out of
expenditure levels and, consequently, home produce is evaluated at ex farm or ex-
lower poverty levels. In 1993-94, poverty factory rate. Home produce is evaluated at
levels based on the seven-day recall were the ex-farm or ex-factory rate. Value of
about 16-17 per cent lower than those consumption out of gifts, loans, free
based on the 30-day recall.collections, and goods received in
exchange of goods and services is imputed There is a tension between, on the one at the rate of average local retail prices hand, having a longer recall period — in prevailing during the reference period. order to avoid the relatively greater
Tracking the Global Goals in India 43
susceptibility of staples to telescoping both temporal and spatial aspects can be
errors — and, on the other hand, having a addressed simultaneously.
shorter recall period — so as to avoid the 2. Underestimation of the growth of per
relatively greater susceptibility of less capita expenditure
commonly consumed foods like fruits and
vegetables which are relatively more likely Angus Deaton and Jean Drèze (Deaton & to be important sources of micronutrient Drèze, 2009) interpreted the data on food rich foods. and nutrition in India and found chances of
underestimation in the growth per capita In setting a recall period, do we need to
expenditure. Income is notoriously difficult choose between better measurement of
to measure in rural India, especially for self-staples and calories/energy intakes, or
employed cultivators, and measurement alternatively, doing a better job measuring
error can easily cause the Engel curve to be micronutrients and assessing the quality of
s p u r i o u s l y f l a t t e n e d . H o w e v e r, the diet? To better understand the trade-offs
measurement error will only turn a negative involved in using different recall periods, we
slope into a positive one if richer people need a better understanding of diet
systematically report lower incomes than patterns. We need, for instance, to identify
poorer people, which is quite unlikely. One the key food sources of each essential
possible source of bias in the NSS Engel micronutrient and understand more about
curves arises from the fact that, in the NSS those foods. To the extent that differential
surveys, both total expenditures and total recall periods are used, this suggests we
calories are estimated by “adding up” should have longer recall periods for
expenditures and quantities applied to staples and shorter recall periods for fruits
various goods (in the National Nutrition and vegetables. This is consistent with the
Monitoring Bureau surveys, by contrast, findings of an experiment done in India
there are independent questions on income which lead the to the introduction of a 7 day
and food intake). Thus, measurement recall period for fruits, vegetables and
errors in reported quantities of goods will select other items, while retaining the 30
find their way both into total expenditures day recall period for cereals, milk and dairy
and totals (or subtotals) of calories, and this products which Indians consume more
common measurement error biases the frequently and more regularly.
estimated slope of the calorie Engel curve
Concern o f seasonal i ty on food towards unity, and could conceivably
consumption is a critical factor in a country convert a true negative slope into an
with huge rural-urban temporary migration apparent positive one. It is difficult to deal
records. It is important to note, however, with this problem in a convincing way. The
that seasonality has both spatial and standard treatment is to look for some
temporal aspects. While lengthening the variable that is correlated with total
recall period can help ameliorate its expenditure, but which is measured in a
temporal variations causing biased way that is not contaminated by the
estimates, spatial variations in seasonality measurement errors that are common to
within a country may still be a source of calories and to expenditures. For example
distorted estimates. It is only through use of ownership levels of the various
implementing the survey in a way that equal durable goods that are collected in the NSS
shares of the interviews are done in each surveys. Better-off people are more likely to
region of the country in the same month that own a bicycle or an electric fan, and
Tracking the Global Goals in India44
compute an index of durable ownership that 4. Length and specificity of the food list –
can be thought of as a proxy for living Fatigue concerns
standards.The NSS survey list of food has a total of
3. Data of food consumption outside home 209 e lements inc lud ing cerea ls ,
vegetables, cash crops, etc. The NSS Food away from home includes ‘meals and
Survey overall is an extensive exercise with snacks prepared outside the home’. There
detailed food items which may cause data are three levels of detail to take into
collection fatigue and surveyor fatigue in consideration to cover the concept. First,
answering each of them in detail. A whether the food is consumed at home or
suggestion of combining food items that away from home. Second, whether the food
can which have similar base food may be was purchased or consumed in kind. Third,
helpful in this case. For example, instead of the source of the food, which can be a
retaining two items as “milk liquid”, “milk commercial outlet, a government or social
condensed”, just include “milk”. The program, another household, the employer,
grouping of food items and the specificity of among others. This framework clearly
the food list must also ensure that intake highlights the complexity of the concept,
and consumption of micro-nutrient is not whose measurement in traditional multi-
missed. This may include food groups in purpose household surveys may well span
accordance to the nutrition it provides that over mul t ip le modules (Smi th &
helps in mapping the trajectory of micro-Frankenberger, 2012).
nutrients.
The NSS survey does consider food 5. Questionnaire Design
outside home as one of the components,
but it misses the mention of “snacks”. How This criticism relates to what information to
serious this omission is will depend on the collect from respondents. Some of the
context. A priori, however, we expect possibilities are: differentiate between
snacking to be an activity that will most meal, drink and snack; ask by eating
likely take place outside the home. Another occasion (breakfast, midday snack, lunch,
challenge arising relates to who reports the afternoon snack, dinner); report source of
information. In interview surveys it is usually preparation (commercial, government or
a designated household informant who soc ia l p rogram, employer, o ther
reports on household’s food consumption household) ; d i f ferent ia te type of
or expenditures. However, when the establishment (fine dining, fast-food
consumption takes place outside the home restaurant, street vendor, cafe, …); report
it is less likely that one individual is aware of day of the week (or weekday / weekend).
the consumption behaviour of all household There are two things to consider when
members. In a small-scale study in an thinking whether to differentiate along these
urban slum in India, where husbands and dimensions or not, and these are: a) the
wives were interviewed about the men’s intrinsic value of the information (which will
dietary intake, it was found that women are depend on the research question at hand);
not aware of the foods consumed by their and b) the influence that the structure of the
spouses outside of their home (Sujatha, questionnaire has on the information
Shatrugna, Rao, Reddi, Padmavathi, & collected. It is evident that more
Vidyasagar, 1997). methodological research is needed to
establish an optimal questionnaire design.
Tracking the Global Goals in India 45
Additionally, findings suggest that survey Some researchers have also explored the
design might significantly matter to the potential for using regression modelling
measurement of food security. Differences rather than the AME algorithm to determine
in the manner in which food items were intra-household distribution of foods and
recorded (primary ingredients versus nutrients from household data (Rogers,
finished recipes) and differences in the Coates, & Blau, 2012) (Naska, Paterakis,
recall periods led to large differences in Eeckman, Remaut, & Trygg, 2001)
estimates of calorie consumption (Smith, (Vasdekis, Stylianou, & Naska, 2001).
Dupriez, & Troubat, 2014).Caution
6 . Househo ld ve r sus i nd i v i dua l 1. Quality of food data collected
consumption: Arguments for and against
consumer unit Disregarding the method of data collection,
food data collected in Household The assumption of ‘equitable’ intra-
Consumption Expenditure Surveys across household distribution based on energy
the world are never collected primarily to requirements has only rarely been tested, in
infer on the habitual food consumption of part because dietary data from more than
the household. The approach used to one individual per household is scarce. A
collect food data may influence the quality study (Rogers, Coates, & Blau, 2012)
and/or adequacy of data collected. Each analysed pr imary data f rom 600
approach presents some limitations. households in Bangladesh to assess the
Consumption type surveys often collects question of whether an Adult Mail
quantities in unit of measurement that are Equivalent distribution rule (used to derive
not easily convertible into standard unit, the consumer unit by NSSO in India)
they quite often fail in capturing accurately predicts intra-household
expenditures of food consumed outside the allocation across a range of foods and
house as well as the exact number of nutrients. The predicted and actual intakes
people who participated to the meals (Smith converged for many important nutrients for
& Frankenberger, 2012).certain age-sex groups; however, across all
nutrients studied, children under five and 2. Two common types of recall errors are pregnant/lactating women consistently omission and telescopingreceived less than what would be predicted
The process of forgetting some of the by the AME distribution rule (i.e. less than details of the event is referred to as their predicted energy requirements). “omission”. The other common type of There are other alternatives tried by recall error, telescoping, occurs when the researchers to prevent this error. In the time of the occurrence of the event is not absence of household and individual-level correctly remembered, and events that data from the same households to use for occurred before or after the recall period are purposes of validating the AME distribution included in it. Increasingly shorter recall assumption, other authors have sought to periods generally result in increasingly compare the results of “individualised” larger over-estimates of consumption estimates of intake derived from household (Sudman, 1973). More empirical analyses consumption survey data, using the AME quantifying the terms of the trade-offs and distribution rule, to the estimates derived more experiments to control for more from a different survey, of individual dietary confounding influences are needed.intake, drawn from the same sample frame.
Tracking the Global Goals in India46
Tracking the Global Goals in India 47
4. You had to skip a meal because there Food Insecurity Experience Scale was not enough money or other (FIES)resources to get food?
The aspect of food insecurity measured by 5. You ate less than you thought you the FIES, developed by FAO, is a condition
should because of a lack of money or by which people are unable to access food. other resources?The severity of the food insecurity condition
is not directly observable but is manifested 6. Your household ran out of food because
by certain food-related experiences and of a lack of money or other resources?
behaviours. Food insecurity is measurable
on a one-dimensional scale using 7. You were hungry but did not eat
information from a set of questions because there was not enough money
analysed together. The survey module of or other resources for food?
the Food Insecurity Experience Scale has a 8. You went without eating for a whole day
set of 8 questions. The surveyor asks the because of a lack of money or other
surveyed whether during the last 12 resources?
months, there a time when:
A reference period of 12 months is used to 1. You were worried you would run out of
ensure comparability of surveys conducted food because of a lack of money or
in different months. Country sample sizes of other resources?
5000 individuals in India, representative of
2. You were unable to eat healthy and the male and female resident population
nutritious food because of a lack of aged 15 and over, is sought to be framed.
money or other resources? The answers from this questionnaire map
the food insecurity on the following scale:3. You ate only a few kinds of foods
because of a lack of money or other
resources?
Figure 2: Food Insecurity Experience Scale
Source: FAO
The Indian Food Insecurity Experience Caution
The global institutions aim for Inclusion of Until the 50th round of the National Sample
the FIES in nationally representative Survey in 1993-94 the NSSO had been
surveys carried out by countries that can using a method by which respondents were
produce sub-national prevalence levels. asked to provide details about their food
This indicates a possible integration of FIES consumption in the previous 30 days. In the
in the NSSO surveys at the national level in 50th round, the concept of a seven-day
India, which are conducted quinquennially. recall was introduced, because of the
Tracking the Global Goals in India48
suspicion that the longer time scale caused What India Measures
respondents to miss from memory certain There are no national estimates of
items that he/she had actually consumed. agriculture value added per worker.
In the 1993-94, the nationwide sample was However various studies have calculated it
divided into two separate samples, one using the available measures of Gross
using the seven-day recall and the other the Domestic Product (GDP), Gross Capital
30-day recall. However, what has raised the Formation (GCF) from agriculture; and
hackles of critics is the fact that the same number of agriculture workers available
set of respondents was quizzed about their from the Government estimates. FAO
consumption expenditures using the two estimates agriculture value per unit labour
methods.for each of the country but the methodology
Experts in statistics have argued that this of it is not available in the public domain.
kind of a survey would seriously There is a need for two data sets in order to
"contaminate" the data because measure agriculture value added per
respondents would tend intuitively to worker:
multiply the seven-day recall by four when
responding to the questions based on the 1. Total agriculture value30-day recall. Field staff would also tend to
Total agriculture value is calculated by total commit the same error when compiling the contribution to GDP by agriculture which is results. Critics have argued that this calculated by total Gross Value Added sequencing would contaminate the results (GVA) by agriculture using the production even more because the four-fold approach. The estimation of GVA involves multiplication would come even more easily valuation of products, by-products and to the respondents.ancillary activities at the price received by
An FIES scale that collects data for a 12 producers after deducting the value of month period as opposed to 7 day and 30 inputs of raw materials and services day recall periods used by NSSO can consumed in the processes of production at generate confusion or multiplication error purchasers ’ pr ice. Directorate of by people surveyed or data collectors. A Economics & Statistics, Agriculture caveat is in place, where the method and (DESAg), in the Ministry of Agriculture is the timing of this survey needs to be designed prime source for agricultural statistics used such that any abstract multiplication error for the estimation of GVA. can be prevented.
Following information is required to
Value of Production per Labour Unit calculate the GVA:
What the IAEG-SDG Indicator Measures• Land Use Statistics (LUS): Statistics on Agriculture value added per worker is a
land utilisation flow as by-product of a measure of agricultural productivity. Value normal activity of the State Revenue added in agriculture measures the output of Departments, collecting various data for the agricultural sector less the value of administrative needs of land revenue intermediate inputs. Agriculture comprises collection.value added from forestry, hunting, and
fishing as well as cultivation of crops and • Area and outturn of principal crops: livestock production. Periodic estimates of area and outturn
Tracking the Global Goals in India 49
of major crops generally known as The Agriculture Census, conducted by the
forecast crops initially prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture, says that total area
State agencies are consolidated by the under operational holdings was 159.6
DESAg and issued in the form of crop million hectares. The Agriculture Census is
estimates. primarily based on land records with states,
except some states including West Bengal, • Cost of cultivation studies: For the
Odisha, and Kerala where these are not purpose of obtaining estimates of cost
available. In such states, a household of cultivation of major & minor crops, a
survey is carried out, but this category s c h e m e b y D E S A c o l l e c t s
constitutes only 9% of the total operated representative data on inputs and
area in the country. The method of outputs in physical and monetary terms.
collecting land use statistics for calculating Data available with respect to items like
Gross Value Added by agriculture also uses electricity, insecticides, fertilisers etc.,
state collected information similar to are not utilised as better and more
Agriculture Census. However, the National reliable data on such items are available
Sample Survey Office (NSSO) report on from sources like Central Electricity
land and livestock holdings estimates that Authority (CEA), Fertiliser Association
around 95 million hectares of land were of India (FAI), Pesticides Association of
classified as operational holdings in 2012-India (PAI) etc.
13. The NSSO figure is about 65 million
hectares lower than the numbers put out by The estimates of GVA are arrived at by the ninth agricultural census conducted in deducting the total value of intermediate 2010-11.consumption from the value of output of this
sector and then adding to it the GVA from While the Agriculture Census’s definition of
government irrigation system. operational holdings is also broadly similar
to NSSO’s, there are differences between 2. Number of agriculture workersthe two surveys in collecting information.
The number of agriculture workers is The divergence between the two estimates measured decennially by Census of India. has increased in the last two decades. The The NSSO survey, generally conducted increasing gap is largely on account of a once in 5 years also indicates on the sizeable decline in NSSO estimates.number of agriculture workers in the
Some academicians say that the NSSO country. Directorate of Economics & report probably indicates that active Statistics, Agriculture (DESAg), in the participation in farming is declining. Ministry of Agriculture compiles information Households, including absentee landlords, about cultivators and agriculture labourers might be shown operating agricultural which together constitute agriculture holdings in land records, but they might not workers every year in the “Agriculture be engaged in farming anymore, which is Statistics at a Glance”.reflecting in NSSO surveys. Indeed the
What Critics Say agricultural census admits that the situation 1. How much land is actually cultivated in reflected in land records might be different India? from the actual situation on ground.The arguments presented here have been
The glaring divergence in estimates of developed from (Kishore & Jain, 2015).
agricultural land is not of academic interest Usage of Irrigation Systemsalone. For the government to calculate total
In the Agriculture Census, India estimates value from agriculture, and the actual land the number of operational holdings by size under cultivation for estimating the total classes and irrigation status - fully irrigated, production, it is essential for estimates partially irrigated and un-irrigated (rain-fed) closest to reality. Given such large-scale quinquennially.differences in estimates of agricultural land,
according to its own data, and the number In India, the Agriculture Census data is of people dependent on each tract, policies collected following two broad approaches.for supporting farmers and agriculture in
In States where comprehensive land India has the possible of mis-judging the records exist (Land Record States), the scale and quantum of problem and the information on number and area of consequent support. operational holdings are collected by
2. How many farmers does India have? patwaris from a register popularly known as
Khasra. The Agriculture Census data Agriculture workers are categorised as (Phase-I / Phase-II) is collected and cultivators and labourers in the data compiled through re-tabulation of collected by Census, available in information available in the Village Land “Agriculture Statistics at a Glance” book by Records.Ministry of Agriculture, every year. For
knowing the agriculture value per unit For other states (Non-Land Record States), labour, it is important to differentiate this data is collected on a sample basis. In between full time agriculture cultivators and Phase-I of the Census, data on primary part time labourers. This means that the characteristics like number of operational number of hours put by cultivators and the holdings and area operated by different size number of labour hours put in a farm vary class (marginal, small, semi-medium, and each category of workers need to be medium and large), social groups (SC, ST, weighted according to the hours of work put Others), gender (male/female), types of in agriculture. The data provided by Census holding (individual, joint and institutional), of India has to be used with a caveat, as it etc. is collected. This operation covers all assumes the total number of labour hours villages in land record states and 20 per put in by agriculture cultivators and cent of the villages in non-land record agriculture labourers to be equal. states. During, Phase-II, holding schedule
is canvassed in selected 20 per cent There is an interesting piece of information villages in each tehsil for collecting detailed in the NSSO report (Kishore & Jain, 2015). data on irrigation status, tenancy For the first time, there is data on the particulars, cropping pattern and dispersal number of members who are engaged in of holdings, etc. The estimates of farming apart from the main operator of a agricultural characteristics of operational given operational holding. At the all-India h o l d i n g s a r e p r e p a r e d a t level, around 60% of operational holdings tehsil/district/state/national levels.have one to two members engaged with the
main operator. In 17%, there is nobody The Agriculture Census does not collect working with the main operator, while in data by agriculture households but can be 24% of operational holdings, three or more used as a dummy indicator assuming the than three people work.
Tracking the Global Goals in India50
each unit of operational holding represents provide information about agriculture
one farming household. In depth analysis households. This can however be gathered
may be required to calculate in detail the by learning about the number of
omissions and other cautions while doing certifications issued and assuming one
the same. certificate represents one household. In
depth analysis may be required to calculate Since 60 per cent of the cultivated area in
in detail the omissions and other cautions India is under rain-fed agriculture (Ministry
while doing the same.of Agriculture, GoI, 2013), producing 44 per
cent of the country’s food requirement, it is The assumption here is that eco-friendly
essential to focus on indicators of efficiency fertilisers are organic fertilisers. Organic
and climate proofing for sustainable fertilisers are derived from animal matter,
agriculture in these areas. Water use human excreta or vegetable matter (for
efficiency in irrigation in one way of example, compost and manure).
mapping the use and overuse of water in Apart from eco-friendly fertilisers’ use as
agriculture. mentioned in the indicator, it is also
important for India to reach balanced Usage of Eco-friendly Fertilisersfertilisers use. Balanced fertilisation refers
The Government of India has implemented to the application of essential plant nutrients the National Programme for Organic in optimum quantities and proportions. Product ion (NPOP). The nat ional Balanced nutrient supply is a best programme involves the accreditation management practice (BMP) that should programme for Certification Bodies, also include proper application methods standards for organic production, and timing for the specific soil crop-climate promotion of organic farming etc. The situation. The nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), NPOP standards for production and and potassium (K) use ratio is valuable as accreditation system have been recognized an index of balanced fertilisation if by European Commission and Switzerland comparing large regions of diversified crops as equivalent to their country standards. and soils such as a states or countries. Similarly, US Department of Agriculture has Grain based systems in developing recognised NPOP conformity assessment agriculture systems such as in India have a procedures of accreditation as equivalent to target NPK use ratio of 4:2:1. However, the that of US. The certified area includes 15% nutrient use ratio provides no indication of cultivable area with 0.72 million hectare and the actual amounts of nutrients being rest 85% (3.99 million hectare) is forest and applied in that region and does not give an wild area for collection of minor forest accurate assessment of fertiliser use produces. among crops (Dev, 1998). It is critical to
measure the balanced use of fertilisers The total area under organic certification is required and in actuals in order to measure 4.72 million hectare (2013-14).This is the the health and sustainability of the only measure available in India on organic agriculture practices. agriculture.
Water Use Efficiency in IrrigationCaution
Irrigation sector consumes 80 per cent of The Programme only measures the land the total water use in India. Estimates by under organic agriculture and does not
Tracking the Global Goals in India 51
5 It is a process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces and by transpiration from plants.
Ministry of Water Resources predict analysis of data be initiated in selected
reduction to about 70 per cent by 2050 due basins to assess the extent to which the
to competing demands from other sectors estimates of total rainfall in the basin would
(Central Water Commission, Ministry of be affected under different assumptions
Water Resources, 2014). In addition, about the margin of error in the estimates
increasing vulnerabil it ies of water for high rainfall segments.
resources due to climate change further Evaporanspiration (ET) data constitutes an
add to the reduction in availability of water objective basis for estimating the
for irrigation. Current use efficiency or consumptive water requirements of crops.
productivity of irrigation water is so low that Despite widespread application of the ET
most, if not all, of our future water needs concept, there has been considerable
could be met by increased productivity or ambiguity in the use of terms such as
efficiency alone, without development of potential ET and reference crop ET. To
additional water resources (Sharma, overcome this, the Food and Agricultural
Molden, & Cook, 2012). In this context, Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
water use efficiency in irrigation becomes a brought out a report, commonly referred to
critical indicator for ensuring availability of as FAO-56. This report has introduced
water for irrigation and its efficient use in the uniformity and standardization in the
scenario of increasing resource demand interpretation and use of various terms such
and depleting resource base. as potential ET and reference crop ET.
5 FAO-56 discourages the use of the term Data on rainfall, evapotranspiration and
potential ET because of 10 ambiguities in its soil moisture, and other aspects of climate
definition. FAO recommended that a are collected by observatories maintained
hypothetical reference surface ‘closely and operated by Indian Meteorological
resembling an extensive surface of green Department (IMD). Rainfall data are also
grass of uniform height, actively growing, collected by the CWC, state governments
completely shading the ground and with and numerous non-governmenta l
adequate water’ be adopted as the organisations, which together maintain
reference sur face. The Planning some 8500 rain gauges. Currently
Commission Working Group recommends generated data and gaps are as follows
that IMD adopts the FAO-56 PM method to (Planning Commission, GoI, 2011).
estimate RET and publish the data IMD uses data from 2500 observatories to (preferably at daily timescales) and maps of estimate daily, weekly and average rainfall RET annually for at least each agro-climate during the year. A Planning Commission region and at a finer resolution, if possible.Working Group (Planning Commission,
Water use efficiency in agriculture has two GoI, 2011) has observed that the
components: distribution of the observation points for the
rainfall data fails to capture the geographic 1. The ratio of effective, or consumptive,
distribution, since there is a lopsided water use per unit of crop area as a
concentration of the observatories in the proportion of the total average water
plains, while those in the upper catchment supply per unit of crop area (technical
areas of the basins are sparse. It was efficiency of water use)
suggested that studies for sensitivity
Tracking the Global Goals in India52
2. The value of output per unit of crop area sources and agro-climatic regions, and also
per unit of its effective or consumptive suggest that, contrary to expectation,
use of water (productive efficiency of productivity per unit of consumptive use
water use) under irrigation is not always and
significantly higher than that of rain-fed Technical Efficiency of Water Use
crops (Planning Commission, GoI, 2011).
But given the limitations of official data, and Crops get water from rainfall and supplies the fact that they involve a number of from irrigation sources. For un-irrigated assumptions, these estimates need to be crops rainfall is the only source of water. interpreted with caution. The usual working assumption that the
contribution of rainfall to soil moisture in The irrigation system perspective of water
cropped area is equal to 80% of the local use efficiency depends upon the water
precipitation is an approximation. The accounting where losses occur at each
Central Water Commission has initiated a stage as water moves from the reservoir
program for systematic assessment of (storage losses), conveyed and delivered at
these losses and the factors that cause the farm gate (conveyance losses), applied
them, mainly to help in planning corrective to the farm (distribution losses), stored in
measures to contain the losses to a the soil (application losses) and finally
minimum. consumed by the crops (crop management
losses) for crop production (Sharma, Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) Molden, & Cook, 2012).has estimates of evapotranspiration, by
agro-climatic regions and seasons, based Managing water in agriculture should not
on empirical formulae and detailed data on exclusively focus on improving the
irrigated areas. Based on these the actual productivity of the 2,500 km3 of water
total consumptive use of irrigated crops can diverted to irrigation, but must also include
be estimated. The ratio of consumptive use improving the productivity of the 16,000
of irrigation water to gross volume of water km3 used in rain-fed agriculture (Singh,
supplied is a measure of the technical Kundu, & Bandyopadhyay, 2010).
efficiency of use of irrigation water.
Recommendations by the Working Group, Productive Efficiency of Water Use
P lann ing Commiss ion (P lann ing
Commission, GoI, 2011): Official statistics provides quite detailed
data on land use, and crop wise irrigated • Estimates of evapotranspiration are
and un-irrigated areas. Estimates of yield of conducted annually. Computing norms
irrigated and un-irrigated areas based on of consumptive use using the actual
sample crop-cutting surveys are available values of Potential Evapotranspiration
for major irrigated crops. and rainfall observed in the selected
periods. This is possible using the daily IMD has estimates of evapotranspiration in weather observations that are made a normal year for different agro-climatic available by IMD. It would then be regions. These can be used to estimate poss ib le to t rack the overa l l overall output per unit of irrigated and rain-performance of irrigated and rain-fed fed areas and per unit of consumptive use agriculture in terms of crop yields and at the state and district levels. They show productivity per unit of consumptive wide differences in all dimensions across
Tracking the Global Goals in India 53
water use across different States and well as efficacy targeting are required. This
over time. requires assessment of method of targeting
adopted. In India, the identification of the • Making an independent and objective
poor for Targeted PDS (TPDS) has been left estimate of irrigated and un-irrigated
to state governments which follow different areas under different crops or, as a next
methods to identify the poor. Therefore the best alternative, of the extent of green
targeting method is a crucial factor to be cover at different points of time in each
examined.season. Satellite imageries, which are
available for at least the last 30 years, The evaluation of PDS is not conducted by
can be used to compile independent any national statistical body; however, there
estimates of irrigated and rain-fed crop are various studies (Ray & Ray, 2011)
areas in different seasons at different (Balani, 2013) (Panigrahi, 2014) conducted
points of time. by universities and institutions. A study
conducted by Planning Commission in • The density required to get sufficiently
2005 assesses the performance and disaggregated estimates for different
impact of TPDS in India (Programme agro-climatic regions, and to provide
Evaluation Organisation, 2005).information for management of water in
major projects and phased programs Food and nutrition programs face two types
covering design and costs, to achieve of targeting errors: error of exclusion (of the
optimum density over the next 10 years poor) and error of inclusion (of non-poor). A
needs to be worked out. low value of error of exclusion, ceteris
paribus, is an indicator of a well-functioning • Soil moisture status can also be
PDS, while high values are indicative of estimated through remote sensing
serious weaknesses in implementation and techniques, which needs to be
welfare loss. I f h igh values are corroborated/ validated through actual
disaggregated into identification error measured ground data. These
(which may be due to imperfect information estimates need to be validated by actual
on household characteristics, wrong measurements on the ground in
methodology for identification and agricultural research stations that have
deliberate policy to exclude some groups by experimental plots which are monitored
vested interest groups) and error due to by scientists.
administrative malpractices (such as
distortion of incentives and information to Evaluation of Public Distribution raise cost of participation for some BPL
Systemshouseholds or simply denying BPL cards to
genuine BPL families), insights can be Public distribution system (PDS) has the
derived on the quality of implementation of mandate for access, availability and
PDS (Programme Evaluation Organisation, affordability of the food to all the citizens of
2005).the country. The PDS warrants a diagnostic
evaluation of its different aspects; its impact The measurement of targeting errors is
on the target group, factors affecting important to understand whether and to
impact, effectiveness of targeting, leakage what extent the benefit of PDS is reaching
in delivery and its causes, etc. Indicators to the target group. Identification and
measure the impact on the target groups as
Tracking the Global Goals in India54
measurement of targeting errors require a PDS, apart from the efficiency and
formal analytical framework because, a effectiveness of reaching the targeted
number of factors relating to data base on citizens also needs to ensure the quality of
household characteristics, methodology of food that it provides. Indicators to measure
BPL identification, cost of participation and the availability of a balanced nutritious diet
various administrative malpractices have a at affordable prices via PDS is thus crucial
bearing on the types and magnitudes of for measuring of reach of nutritious food for
errors in the implementation of PDS. all in the country. It is critical for India’s food
Another kind of error discussed in the report security to evaluate the performance of its
deals with double counting error (large public distribution and identify ways to
numbers of excess ration cards over the corrects errors mentioned above for
number o f households) , miss ing access, availability and affordability of food
households’ error (no cards issued to the for all its citizens.
households), etc. (Programme Evaluation
Organisation, 2005).
Box 2: Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 2 in India
Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 2 in India
• Concern of seasonality on food consumption is a critical factor in a country with huge rural-urban
temporary migration records. The NSSO survey design (that is he predominant source of
information on food and nutrition status) should take into account spatial and temporal variation in
order to prevent distortions of the sample.
• The NSS survey collects information of all family members from one representative family
member who may not be aware of the actual food consumption outside home of all other
members. In rural India, there are studies that show that one member may not aware of the food
consumption of the entire household as incidences of food outside home are higher in such areas
due to movement for labour work. Addressing this will require change in the method of collecting
data from one member of the household.
• The NSS survey list of food has a total of 209 elements including cereals, vegetables, cash crops,
etc. Dropping or combining certain items will reduce data collection fatigue of surveyor and the
one being surveyed. A suggestion of combining food items that can which have similar base food
may be helpful in this case. The grouping of food items and the specificity of the food list must also
ensure that intake and consumption of micro-nutrient is not missed.
• Implementation of Food Insecurity Experience Scale Survey in India that collects data for a 12
month period as opposed to 7 day and 30 day recall periods used by NSSO. Method and timing of
both surveys need to be designed such that any abstract multiplication error can be prevented.
• It is recommended that the government revise the method of collecting agriculture land data in the
Agriculture Census against the glaring discrepancies with NSSO survey data. This may involve
changing the approach of collecting data, or developing systems to ensure changes in land use
pattern are informed at the patwari or district level.
• The usage of eco-friendly fertilisers is only measured as land accredited as fully organic under
National Programme for Organic Production in India. There is a need to track the ratio of the use
of eco-friendly fertilisers to chemical fertilisers in other land under agriculture to fully calculate the
use of eco-friendly fertilisers. This may require revisions in the NSSO survey or Agriculture
Household Survey for collecting the required information.
Tracking the Global Goals in India 55
Per capita
availability of
fresh water down 3from 3,000m to
31,108m in
50 years
Only 35%of the rural
population has
access to
'adequate'
drinking water
Only 31% rural
households have
access to toilets
Ensure Availability of Water
Sustainable Management of Water
Sanitation for All
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 6(Clean Water and Sanitation)
Tracking the Global Goals in India 57
“Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”
• The Sani ta t ion Conundrum: Structure of this SectionInadequate end-to-end sanitation
This section is organised as follows: solutions hamper the achievement of
the target of universal sanitation Introductioncoverage. Ways to track the end-to-end
• Overview of SDG 6: A brief overview of sanitation chain are discussed.the targets under SDG 6 is provided.
• Wastewater Treatment: The tracking • India and SDG 6: India’s current of wastewater treatment in India shows
scenario with respect to some of the tremendous scope for improvement, SDG 6 targets is described. both procedurally and in terms of the
indicators tracked. The challenges and • Comparing the IAEG-SDG Indicators
opportunities are analysed here.with Indian Indicators: A tabular
comparison of IAEG-SDG indicators • Water Quality Monitoring: India’s with corresponding indicators currently current system to monitor water quality measured in India for SDG 6 is given. is described.
Analysis of SDG 6 Indicators Summary of Recommendations: Based
on the ana lys is , a summary o f • Convenience Definitions for Safe
recommendations for policymakers is Drinking Water: Definitional issues
provided.with regard to safe drinking water are
described. Overview of SDG 6
• Adequacy of Water: The tracking of SDG 6 covers a wide range of water and availability and adequacy of water for all sanitation issues that span across is discussed. government ministries. The first two targets
look at drinking water and sanitation for all. • Strengthening Service Systems: The third focuses on water quality, correctly Weak service systems are a pertinent recognising that end-to-end water and problem in India in the delivery of sanitation solutions require handling essential services. Ways to track the wastewater safely. The SDG also focuses performance of service systems for on water use efficiency, integrated water drinking water are discussed.resources management, and the health of
• Water Priorities: The prioritisation of water-related ecosystems.
water resources for various competing
uses is discussed.
Tracking the Global Goals in India58
users. The website allows easy and quick India and SDG 6access to information available in the
India has a long way to go in ensuring safe database (SulabhEnvis). water and sanitation for all. Globally, India
has the largest number of people still Comparing the IAEG-SDG Indicators defecating in the open (UNICEF). India with Indian Indicatorsreports the highest number of deaths due to
The following table compares IAEG-SDG diarrhoea in children under five in the world indicators with corresponding indicators (ibid). Diarrhoea is caused by contaminated currently measured in India for SDG 6 .water and poor hygiene. The current
government is on an aggressive toilet The table only includes indicators that have construction spree under the Swachh been finalised by the IAEG-SDG as of Bharat Mission, intending to end open December 2015. Indicators still in the “grey” defecation in India by 2019. India’s category, i.e. indicators that require in-wastewater treatment capacity is also only depth review by IAEG-SDG, have been a small fraction of the total wastewater omitted. In the case of SDG 6, the targets actually generated, raising serious and indicators omitted in this study are:concerns about the health of water
• Target 6.4 By 2030, substantially ecosystems.
increase water-use efficiency across all Water is a key natural resource for human sectors and ensure sustainable well-being as well as economic growth. The withdrawals and supply of freshwater to majority of the indicators under SDG 6 are a d d r e s s w a t e r s c a r c i t y a n d output- and outcome- oriented. Policy and substantially reduce the number of government interventions are often people suffering from water scarcity. targeted at improving the values of specific The indicatorsunder discussion are indicators, which makes the definitions of “percentage change in water use these indicators a critical issue. As this efficiency over time” and “percentage of section describes, definitions of safe total available water resources used, drinking water in India are somewhat t a k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l w a t e r problematic. requirements into account (Level of
Water Stress)”.It is useful that the Indian government has
sponsored a portal for easy accessibility of • Target 6.5 By 2030, implement data pertaining to sanitation, hygiene, i n t e g r a t e d w a t e r r e s o u r c e s sewage systems and technology. The management at all levels, including Ministry of Environment, Forest and through transboundary cooperation as Cl imate Change has set up the appropriate.The indicator under Environmental Information System as a discussion is “Degree of integrated comprehensive network in environmental water resources management (IWRM) information collection, collation, storage, implementation (0-100)”.retrieval and dissemination to varying
6The table only includes indicators that have been finalised by the IAEG-SDG as of December 2015. Indicators still in the “grey” category, i.e. indicators that require in-depth review by IAEG-SDG, have been omitted. In the case of SDG 6, this includes Targets 6.4 and 6.5.
Table 5: IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 6
Tracking the Global Goals in India 59
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of
Data
Collection in
India
Data Collecting Agency
in India
Target 6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all
Percentage of population
using safely managed
drinking water services
Number and percentage of rural habitations covered under National Rural Drinking Water Programme
Annual Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation
Percentage of households (disaggregated as rural/urban) using [1) tap water from treated source, 2) tap water from untreated source, 3) covered well, 4) uncovered well, 5) handpump, 6) tubewell/borehole, 7) spring, 8) river/canal, 9) tank/pond/lake, 10) other sources] as main source of drinking water
Decennial
Census of India - Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs
Percentage of households using [1) bottled water, 2) piped water into dwelling, 3) piped water to yard/plot, 3) public taps/stand, 4) pipe tubewell/borehole, 5) protected well, 6) unprotected well, 7) protected spring, 8) unprotected spring, 9) rain water collection, 10) tank/pond, 11) other surface water, 12) others] as main source of drinking water
Not fixed
(previously
done in 1998,
2002, 2008-09,
2012)
National Sample Survey
Office, Ministry of
Statistics and Programme
Implementation
Target 6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying s pecial attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations
Percentage of population using safely managed
Percentage of rural households with access to toilet facilities Annual Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation
Tracking the Global Goals in India 60
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of
Data
Collection in
India
Data Collecting Agency
in India
sanitation services Percentage of households using
1) Flush/pour flush latrine connected to
a. Piped sewer system
b. Septic tank
c. Other system
2) Pit latrine
a. With slab/ventilated improved pit
b. Without slab/ open pit
3) Night soil disposed into open drain service latrine
a. Night soil removed by human
b. Night soil serviced by animals
4) No latrine within premises
a. Public latrine
b. Open
Decennial
Census of India - Office of
the Registrar General &
Census Commissioner,
Ministry of Home Affairs
Percentage of households using
1) Flush/pour flush latrine connected to
a. Piped sewer system
b. Septic tank
c. Pit
Not fixed (previously done in 2008-09 and 2012)
National Sample Survey
Office, Ministry of
Statistics and Programme
Implementation
Tracking the Global Goals in India 61
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of
Data
Collection in
India
Data Collecting Agency
in India
d. Elsewhere
2) Others
a. Ventilated improved pit latrine
b. Pit latrine with slab
c. Pit latrine without slab/ open pit
d. Compositing toilet
e. Others
f. Not used
Target 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
Percentage of wastewater
safely treated, disaggregated
by economic activity
Installed sewage treatment capacity (in million litres per day)
as a percentage of total sewage generation Not fixed
Central Pollution Control
Board
Installed effluent treatment capacity (in million litres per day) in Common Effluent Treatment Plants
Not fixed Central Pollution Control Board
Percentage of receiving water bodies with ambient water quality not presenting risk to the environment or human health
Percentage of aquatic sources meeting ambient water quality criteria. Ambient water quality of each aquatic source is measured in terms of range of temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, conductivity, biochemical oxygen demand, nitrate-n, faecal coliform and total coliform
Monthly or quarterly for surface waters, half-yearly for ground water
Central Pollution Control Board
Target 6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water -related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes
Tracking the Global Goals in India 62
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of
Data
Collection in
India
Data Collecting Agency
in India
Percentage of change in
fresh water ecosystems Not available
Target 6.a By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity -building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies
ODA for water and sanitation related activities and programmes
ODA for water and sanitation related activities and programmes
Annual Ministry of External Affairs
6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management
Percentage of local administrative units with established and operational policies and procedures for participation of local communities in water and sanitation management
Percentage of Gram Panchayats (GPs) / Village Water and Sanitation Committees (VWSCs) managing in-village water supply
Percentage of single-village/in-village water supply schemes
implemented by GPs/VWSCs
Number of village drinking water security plans developed
Number of village drinking water security plans implemented
Number of district drinking water security plans developed
Number of district drinking water security plans implemented
Annual Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation
Tracking the Global Goals in India 63
data, yet diarrhoea—associated with Convenience Definitions for Safe contaminated drinking water —is common Drinking Water?across India and the third-most-common
India’s indicators on drinking water access cause of death among children under five, for target 6.1 are aligned with the IAEG- killing 13% of the 300,000 who die every SDG requirement. In fact, India’s indicators year in this age group (Kelkar-Khambete, are well disaggregated to cover various 2015). The Indian definition of safe drinking sources of drinking water. The information water allows this paradox. The Census is collected in a timely fashion by the considers groundwater supplied from Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, handpumps, tubewells and borewells as the Census as well as the National Sample safe as piped drinking water. However, data Survey Office (NSSO). The Ministry submitted to the Parliament in 2012 by the publishes data regarding coverage of Ministry of Water Resources show that habitations, while the Census and NSSO groundwater sources in large parts of India publish data on the percentage of are contaminated by arsenic, fluoride, iron, population using each source as primary nitrate, and salinity (Sethi, 2012). The data source of drinking water. shows the following:
According to Census 2011, 91.4% of urban • groundwater in pockets of 158 out of the
and 82.7% of rural population has access to 639 districts has gone saline
‘safe drinking water’ facilities. In the • in pockets across 267 districts,
Census, safe water is defined as water from groundwater contains excess fluoride
taps, handpumps and tubewells (Kumar & • in 385 districts, groundwater has Das, 2014). The NSSO data paints a similar
nitrates beyond permissible levelspicture. According to the 69th round of
NSSO survey (July – December 2012), • in 53 districts, groundwater contains 94.2% of urban and 85.2% of rural arsenichouseholds use bottled water, piped water,
• in 270 districts, groundwater contains public taps, standpipes, tubewells or
high levels of ironboreholes as their primary source of
drinking water. • aquifers in 63 districts contain heavy
metals like lead, chromium and From these statistics, it appears that India is
cadmium, the presence of which in any on track to achieve target 6.1 by 2030 and
concentration poses a danger to health.India has the necessary data to track its
progress. However, the indicator masks The deeper and deeper drilling of aquifers
important concerns with regard to water to meet increasing water demand
safety. (especially for agriculture) has led to the
contamination of ground water with natural There is evidence that ground water,
contaminants like fluoride, arsenic and typically considered ‘safe’, is no longer as
salinity (Department of Drinking Water and safe as one would think. This could have
Sanitation). Open defecation and lack of serious implications for both Indian and
proper sanitation facilities are known to global definitions of ‘safe drinking water’.
cause bacteriological contamination of
water resources, causing diarrhoea that More than 85% of Indians have access to claims the lives of countless children.‘safe drinking water’ according to official
There is, therefore, no reason that past 50 years, and future projections of this
groundwater should be defined as ‘safe’ by trend makes it obvious that demand will
the government. The IAEG-SDG indicator outstrip supply by 2050 (Singh, 2015).
for the target in question specifically Since per capita adequacy of water in India
includes the phrase ‘safely managed’. The is a major concern, it is recommended that
current Indian definition of ‘safe’ does not do the government track per capita availability
justice to the intent of this target or to the of water and consumption of water,
n e e d s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . T h e disaggregated by use, and benchmark
characterisation of groundwater sources as progress towards contextually appropriate
‘safe’ should be abandoned, and threshold values.
government publications should refrain
from indicating that these sources are Strengthening Service Systems‘safe’, unless evidence from scientific tests
Development policies and interventions exists to back the claim. Data on water
often target specific indicators. Therefore, quality indicators are readily available as
indicators should appropriately capture the they are tracked using IMIS by the Ministry
problems that the intervention is trying to of Drinking Water and Sanitation. Such data
combat. Otherwise, the systemic response should now take the centre stage in policy
to these problems is likely to be limited. In planning.
the context of drinking water access, it is Adequacy of Water useful, therefore, to explore some of the
challenges on the ground and what The National Rural Water Supply
indicators could be used to capture these Programme defines an ‘adequate’ quantity
challenges.of drinking water in rural areas as 40 litres
per capita per day, to increase to 70 litres Two key challenges are as follows 7per capita per day soon (the XII Five Year (Department of Drinking Water and
Plan has set a target of 55 litres per capita Sanitation):per day as an interim target for the plan
• Operations and maintenance (O&M): period (2012-17), with 70 litres per capita 8 Many parts of the country are faced with per day as the eventual target) . The
dilapidated infrastructure (handpumps, Central Public Health and Environmental tubewells etc.) due to the lack of proper Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO) sets institutional arrangements at the norms for water supply and requirement per community level to carry out operations capita. However, India is far from meeting and maintenance.these norms. In 2011, only 35 per cent of the
rural population had access to 40 litres of • Source sustainability: The over-water per capita per day or more (Planning extraction of groundwater, in large part Commission, 2011). due to irrigation demand for agriculture,
has stressed water availability in many Further, water availability is another major regions and raised concerns about the concern – per capita availability of fresh sustainability of water sources.water has declined sharply from 3,000
cubic metres to 1,123 cubic metres over the
Tracking the Global Goals in India64
7 Mentioned on the website of the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (http://indiawater.gov.in/IMISReports/MenuItems/AboutSite.aspx)
8 Urban norms are higher.
A major challenge facing the delivery of this tracked, alongside the capacity building
essential service is to move from a project support provided to these institutions to
mode wherein the focus is solely the carry out these activities. The Strategic
installation of infrastructure to a programme Plan (2011-22) of the Ministry of Drinking
mode wherein there is focus on providing, Water and Sanitation proposes the
improving and sustaining high standards of development of a Management Devolution
water supply services (Department of Index based on selected indicators that
Drinking Water and Sanitation). measure the depth of management
devolution for use in allocation of incentive A useful indicator that captures the effects
grants. Such an index should be developed of adequate O&M and source sustainability
soon in consultation with stakeholders, and is slippage. Slippage is defined as the
mainstreamed into planning processes.percentage of habitations fully covered that
9slip back to partial or nil coverage . It is a Water Prioritiesuseful indication of the system life of the
India’s National Water Policy (NWP) was installed infrastructure. The main reason first introduced in 1987. It specified a priority identified for slippage is the lack of principle for allocation of water resources sustainability in the source of water and as follows: drinking water, irrigation, hydro-inadequate O&M expenditure. Slippage power, navigation, and industrial and other was over 30% at the national level in 2008 uses, in order of decreasing priority. The (Safe Water Network, 2014). Similarly the most updated NWP was introduced in Strategic Plan 2011–2022 by the 2012. NWP 2012 did away with the Department of Drinking Water and aforesaid allocation priority, and instead Sanitation found that in 2010, out of 1.66 states, “Safe water for drinking and million habitations in India, 30 per cent (0.49 sanitation should be considered as pre-million) had slipped back to partial coverage emptive needs, followed by high priority and a further 9 per cent (0.14 million) saw allocation for other basic domestic needs their water quality affected negatively (Safe (including needs of animals), achieving Water Network, 2014). There is therefore food security, supporting sustainable clear evidence that service delivery does agriculture and minimum eco-system not sustain over time in India. While source needs. Available water, after meeting the sustainability and the quality of O&M are above needs, should be allocated in a somewhat difficult to quantify and track, it is manner to promote its conservation and recommended that slippage, which directly efficient use.” The drafting committee reflects the aforementioned variables, be
10 justifies the removal of the explicit allocation tracked actively as an indicator .priority by stating that different geographic
Decentralised management of water zones have different priorities and needs,
resources has been the objective of several and the earlier policy was “creating
rural water reform programmes. It is confusion” (Seth, 2012). For example,
therefore high time that the devolution of agriculture may become irrelevant and
functions and funds to local institutions be industrialisation may gain significance in an
Tracking the Global Goals in India 65
9 Covered’ means that at least one public investment has been made to create drinking water sources and/or systems. Partially covered indicates that the investment has been made but service delivery norms are not fully met.
10 The difficulty lies in isolating the cause of slippage – as it can be caused by inadequate O&M; or due to water contamination due to, say, floods; or depletion of source due to climatic shifts.
area, due to which a rigid allocation priority Defecating in a toilet which is not safely
may create conflict, and therefore it is best managed may be just as harmful to health
to treat water as an economic good after as open defecation.
basic needs are met. This is intended to Globally, India has the largest number of
ensure sustainability of water resources; people still defecating in the open
however it is not clear how water resources (UNICEF). India reports the highest number
may be treated as an economic good in of deaths due to diarrhoea in children under
practice. Market failures such as negative five in the world (ibid). According to Census
externalities and the tragedy of the 2011, only 30.7% of rural households had
commons may continue to lead to the sub-access to toilets, compared to 81.4% of
optimal allocation of water resources in the urban households.
absence of well-functioning markets.
Setting up of these markets is dependent on The current government is on an the extent to which governance structures aggressive toilet construction spree under at sub-national levels are equipped to the Swachh Bharat Mission, intending to ensure that water is treated as an economic end open defecation in India by 2019. good only after its allocation for fulfilling Contemporary discourse clamours that basic needs as specified in NWP 2012. construction of toilets is not enough; cultural However, on a positive note, NWP 2012 reasons and lack of awareness of the health recognises the ecological needs of rivers hazards associated with open defecation for the first time, stating that a quantum of lead many people to continue to defecate in water, in proportion to a river’s natural flow, the open despite having access to toilets. should be conserved.
The cultural influences are evident from In light of the above analysis, it is reiterated National Family Health Surveys which that an important indicator of relevance – show that Muslims are more likely to use a consumption of water, disaggregated by toilet than Hindus, despite being poorer on use, be actively tracked in order to ensure average. This is because many Hindus tend that the mandates of NWP 2012 are met. to view toilets as ritually impure and are This indicator is important to ensure that all reluctant to have a toilet in the vicinity of basic needs of water are met, post which their household. Ideas of ritual purity are water is allocated for other uses. different among Muslims, because of which
they are much less averse to using latrines The Sanitation Conundrum
(Coffey, 2014).
Target 6.2 calls for adequate, equitable Obviously, such cultural factors cannot be
sanitation and hygiene for all and an end to directly measured due to their qualitative
open defecation. For many developing nature. However, the effects of these
countries, while open defecation is easy to cultural factors may be observed through
define, defining ‘sanitation’ is a challenge. toilet use data disaggregated by religion,
Sanitation should ideally cover the safe caste, gender etc. Such data may be useful
collection and disposal of waste especially in designing customised information
human excreta. It should also cover campaigns for different groups of people.
environmental, domestic and personal
hygiene. However it is frequently Public information campaigns are being run
misunderstood as ‘access to toilets’. by both the government and non-
Tracking the Global Goals in India66
government stakeholders to spread also extremely limited. Just 30% of
awareness on the benefits of using toilets. urban sewage from only the largest
cities reaches sewage treatment plants Besides awareness, there are other issues
(STPs) (ibid). STP inefficiencies ensure that need to be addressed, such as the
that a large part of this sewage flows following:
into our rivers untreated. In short, even
when people use toilets, land and our • Water availability for toilets: It goes drinking water sources continue to get without saying that toilets have to be contaminated (ibid).serviced by water, which should be
available and accessible in proximity.While the construction and availability of
toilets in rural habitations across the • Maintenance: In the case of privately country are tracked annually by the Ministry owned toilets constructed using of Drinking Water and Sanitation, this government grants or subsidies, it has indicator does not reflect whether the toilets been observed that households do not are actually used. The Census supplies this exhibit a sense of ownership over the information but only decennially. NSSO toilet and do not undertake its surveys may provide this information maintenance, eventually leading to the intermittently.dilapidation of the facility (Chikersal,
2015). The same problem is prevalent Tracking the existence, adequacy and
in community toilets. Often institutional effectiveness of the end-to-end sanitation
arrangements at the community level to chain in India may be accomplished by
undertake maintenance are not slightly amending existing indicators in the
sufficient – either the institution does not Census and NSSO surveys. For starters,
exist or does not have the capacity to the percentage of population that defecates
execute its responsibilities.in the open despite access to a toilet may be
measured. Further, the extent to which • Disposal of excreta: Toilets are only the toilets constructed under the Swachh initial collection point of excreta. Bharat Mission are covered by a reliable Sanitation includes not only safe water supply and a safe disposal collection but also disposal of waste in a mechanism for waste may be measured. safe manner so as to not contaminate Community level institutional arrangements land and water sources. Just about 34% to manage these operations and of the population’s latrines are maintenance are necessary, and a relevant connected either to septic tanks or indicator to track the same has been underground sewage; the rest have pit specified as the IAEG-SDG indicator under latrines where the waste decomposes, Target 6.b. Similarly, a measure of the safe usually in unhealthy conditions disposal of waste is covered under Target (Chikersal, 2015). Local bodies provide 6.3, and may be complemented by another little or no services for septic tank indicator – number and percentage of local cleaning – leading the gap to be filled by government bodies with technical and an informal industry, which lies outside administrative capacity to treat sewered regulatory jurisdictions and dumps excreta.polluting waste on any available empty
lot or water body. Government The intention is not to overburden already
capacities to treat sewered excreta are under-resourced statistical systems in India
Tracking the Global Goals in India 67
by increasing the number of indicators. capacity (in million litres per day) as a
Most of the new indicators suggested percentage of total sewage generation; and
above require minimal additional cost to installed effluent treatment capacity in
measure. The intention, however, is to CETPs (in million litres per day). The
ensure that data that is used for decision- sewage generation is estimated by CPCB
making is reflective of the challenges on the using population figures from the Census.
ground in providing end-to-end sanitation While these indicators specify treatment
solutions.capacity, they do not provide information on
the actual utilisation of capacity. Utilisation Wastewater Treatmentof capacity is required to know what
The first IAEG-SDG indicator under target percentage of wastewater generated 6.3 reads “percentage of wastewater safely actually undergoes treatment, as per the treated, disaggregated by economic IAEG-SDG indicator. The actual capacity activity”. To understand the corresponding utilisation has been measured in the past by Indian official indicators, it is useful to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) understand the following: for a sample of STPs but this information is
not currently available in the public domain • Most wastewater is generated from for all STPs and CETPs, nor is it collected domestic and industrial sources. and reported on a periodic basis. However, Accordingly, wastewater treatment in this information can be easily gathered from India is classified into two types – STPs and CETPs as each plant is likely to sewage treatment and eff luent have information pertaining to its own treatment.operations.
• Sewage t reatment dea ls w i th
wastewater consisting of human waste, Clearly, the information currently available
generated from domestic sources and in the public domain is insufficient to report
treated in Sewage Treatment Plants periodically on the IAEG-SDG indicator.
(STPs). From the perspective of Sustainable
Consumption and Production (SCP), it • Effluent treatment deals with industrial would have been extremely useful to know wastewater. Large-scale industries are how much of the wastewater generated is responsible to treat their wastewater safely disposed and how much of it is before discharge. Micro, small and treated sufficiently to be ploughed back into medium enterprises (MSMEs) account industrial and domestic use. However, such for the vast majority of industrial an analysis, while possible for a sample discharges in India but rarely have the geographic region or a sample of technical and financial resources to STPs/CETPs, is not yet possible at a implement e ffec t ive t reatment national level due to inadequate data. The (Banerjee). To address this problem, following figure shows the data available for the government runs a subsidy scheme each stage of the water reuse process – for setting up Common Effluent wastewater generation, treatment and Treatment Plants (CETPs) to treat actual reuse. It is clear that inadequate effluents for clusters of MSMEs.information on the capacity utilisation of
Accordingly, India has separate indicators wastewater treatment plants prevents the
pertaining to sewage treatment and effluent estimation of total wastewater successfully
treatment: installed sewage treatment reused.
Tracking the Global Goals in India68
Tracking the Global Goals in India 69
Figure 3: Availability of data on wastewater generation, treatment and reuse
Wastewater generated
•Indicator: Total amount of wastewater generated•Method of estimation: Estimated using population data from Census by CPCB
•Data available
Wastewater treatment capacity
•Indicator: Total capacity for wastewater treatment•Method of estimation: Survey of STPs and CETPs•Data available
Wastewater treated
•Indicator: Quantity of wastewater treated•Method of estimation: Estimated using total treatment capacity and capacity utilisation of STPs and CETPs, obtained from a survey of STPs and CETPs
•Capacity utilisation data is available for only some plants and only irregularly; therefore quantity of wastewater treated is not known for all plants.
Wastewater reused
•Indicator: Quantity of wastewater made reusable and/or reused•Method of estimation: Derived from total quantity of water treated sufficiently for reuse in plants, which is in turn derived from capacity and capacity utilisation of plants
•Capacity utilisation data is not available nationally for all plants, therefore total amount of treated wastewater is not known, therefore total wastewater reused is not known.
An analysis of available and desired assuming 30% decadal growth in urban
indicators relating to sewage treatment and population. Against this, there exist STPs
effluent treatment is given below. having 6190 MLD capacity while another
1743 MLD capacity is in the process of Sewage Treatment
planning or construction. This means that
the presently existing treatment capacity is In India, both the total installed sewage just 18.6% of present sewage generation, treatment capacity of STPs and the capacity with another 5.2% capacity being added. utilisation of these STPs are concerns. However, the actual capacity utilisation of CPCB (CPCB) est imates sewage STPs is only 72.2%. This means that only generation from Class I cities and Class II 13.5% of the sewage is treated.towns (as per 2001 census) to be 29129
million litres per day (MLD), which is Therefore, there is a dire need to increase
expected to be 33212 MLD at present available capacity and capacity utilisation of
Tracking the Global Goals in India70
sewage treatment plants. While data on influenced by policy planning processes.
available capacity is readily available, Indicators required to do so are i)
capacity utilisation could also be tracked. percentage of STPs adhering to operations
and maintenance standards prescribed A CPCB study (CPCB, 2005) conducted in
under the Environmental (Protection) Rules 2005 analyses the performance of 115
for discharge into streams, ii) percentage of STPs in India. Two of the observations from
conventionally treated sewage for irrigation the study are as follows.
of crops not eaten raw, and iii) percentage
of STPs in which treated effluent conforms One, operation and maintenance of existing to prescribed quality standards. These plants and sewage pumping stations is a indicators, however, are likely to be neglected field, as nearly 39% plants expensive to physically measure. One studied were not conforming to the general possible solution is to have STPs self-report s tandards p resc r ibed under the this information. The CPCB also surveys a Environmental (Protection) Rules for sample of STPs intermittently – we have discharge into streams. To the extent that data from the aforesaid 2005 and 2013 this could lead to the discharge of water studies.inadequately treated or not treated
according to prescribed safety standards, it Effluent Treatment
is an important concern.
Effluent treatment in India happens at two Two, utilisation of conventionally treated
levels. Large-scale industries are sewage for irrigation of crops not eaten raw
responsible for treating their own effluents. is important to i) save fresh water, ii) prevent
Effluents generated by clusters of small-nutrient pollution of our water bodies and iii)
scale industries are treated by Common utilise nutrient value of sewage in irrigation.
Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs).Importance of utilisation of treated sewage
in irrigation was emphasized in Water For effluents generated by large-scale
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act industries, the CPCB has developed
1974, but this issue continues to be largely detailed industry specific discharge
neglected by State Governments. standards for 104 categories of industries.
Enforcement rules, often backed up by Another CPCB study (CPCB, 2013)
court rulings, allow for shutting down conducted in 2013 evaluates the
industries that are out of compliance. performance of 152 STPs in India and
However, concerns remain about found that the actual capacity utilisation
inadequate monitoring and enforcement was only 66%. Out of the 152 STPs, the
resources at the State Pollution Control treated effluent from 49 STPs exceeds the
Boards. Policy analysts have pointed out biochemical oxygen demand standards.
that the current enforcement model is With respect to chemical oxygen demand, 7
inefficient in that it only allows for drastic STPs are violating the general standards of
action, such as shutting down, for grave discharge.
non-compliance. Instead, they have urged
the CPCB to move towards a market-based All the above concerns speak to the system of fines/levies based on the amount inadequate end-to-end management of of pollutant discharged which will act as an sewage. Data pertaining to these concerns incentive for industries to continuously should therefore be carefully monitored and
Tracking the Global Goals in India 71
decrease their effluent discharges; shutting CETPs should be asked to self-report this
down may be reserved for extreme information.
violations (Banerjee). What is required is A concern that still remains is that CETPs
the development of appropriate indicators exclude dispersed MSMEs that are not part
to track compliance and the upgrading of of any industrial cluster. Currently there is
exist ing report ing and monitoring no way to know the quantum of effluents
frameworks and capacities at CPCB.discharged by these MSMEs and whether
For effluents generated by small-scale these effluents are treated.
industries, it is useful to look at performance Water Quality Monitoringmetrics of CETPs. CPCB conducted a
performance study of 78 CETPs throughout The second IAEG-SDG indicator under India between 2002 and 2005 (CPCB, target 6.3 is “percentage of receiving water 2005). Among others, a key conclusion was bodies with ambient water quality not that the performance of CETPs was very presenting risk to the environment or unsatisfactory, largely because of poor human health”. India has its own official operations and maintenance. For example, indicator quite aligned with the IAEG-SDG only 5 out of the 78 CETPs complied with all requirement: “percentage of aquatic q u a l i t y p a r a m e t e r s . T h e r e p o r t sources meeting ambient water quality recommended that State Pollution Control criteria”. Ambient water quality of each Boards (SPCBs) conduct regular aquatic source is measured in terms of monitoring of CETPs and persuade CETPs range of temperature, dissolved oxygen, to ensure proper operations and pH, conductivity, biochemical oxygen maintenance, failing which SPCBs should demand, nitrate-n, faecal coliform and total initiate action against negligent agencies coliform.and wilful defaulters.
CPCB in collaboration with concerned The report does not specify capacity SPCBs/Pollution Control Committees utilisation, although it specifies installed (PCCs) established a nationwide network capacity for effluent treatment, which is the of water quality monitoring comprising 2500 only currently available indicator that is stations in 28 States and 6 Union somewhat aligned with the IAEG-SDG Territories. The monitoring is done on indicator for the target in question. monthly or quarterly basis in surface waters However, performance metrics including and on half yearly basis in case of ground capacity utilisation should be tracked more water. Water quality data is reported in frequently by CPCB or SPCBs (the last Water Quality Status Year Book.CPCB study was in 2005). Alternatively,
Box 3: Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 6 in India
Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 6 in India
• The characterisation of groundwater sources as ‘safe’ should be abandoned, unless
evidence from scientific tests exists to back the claim. Data on water quality indicators
are readily available as they are tracked using IMIS by the Ministry of Drinking Water
and Sanitation, and should now take the centre stage in policy planning.
• Since per capita adequacy of water in India is a major concern, it is recommended that
the government track per capita availability of water and consumption of water,
disaggregated by use, and benchmark progress towards contextually appropriate
threshold values.
• A useful indicator that captures the effects of adequate O&M and source sustainability of
water resources is slippage. It is recommended that slippage, which directly reflects the
aforementioned variables, be tracked actively as an indicator.
• The Strategic Plan (2011-22) of the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation proposes
the development of a Management Devolution Index based on selected indicators that
measure the depth of management devolution for use in allocation of incentive grants.
Such an Index should be developed soon in consultation with stakeholders, and
mainstreamed into planning processes.
• It is recommended that the existence, adequacy and effectiveness of the end-to-end
sanitation chain in India be tracked. This can be accomplished by slightly amending
existing indicators in the Census and NSSO surveys. For starters, the percentage of
population that defecates in the open despite access to a toilet may be measured.
Further, the extent to which toilets constructed under the Swachh Bharat Mission are
covered by a reliable water supply and a safe disposal mechanism for waste may be
measured.
• Given India’s inadequate end-to-end management of sewage, additional indicators
pertaining to the performance and usage of waste water are required, namely i)
percentage of STPs adhering to operations and maintenance standards prescribed
under the Environmental (Protection) Rules for discharge into streams, ii) percentage of
conventionally treated sewage for irrigation of crops not eaten raw, and iii) percentage of
STPs in which treated effluent conforms to prescribed quality standards. These
indicators, however, are likely to be expensive to physically measure. One possible
solution is to have STPs self-report this information.
• Installed capacity for effluent treatment in CETPs is the only currently available indicator
that is somewhat aligned with the IAEG-SDG indicator for the target in question.
However, performance metrics including capacity utilisation should be tracked more
frequently by CPCB or SPCBs (the last CPCB study was in 2005). Alternatively, CETPs
should be asked to self-report this information.
Tracking the Global Goals in India72
India imports
80% of
its crude oil
rdAlmost 1/3
of the population
lacks access
to electricity
Per-capita
electricity
consumption isth1/4 of
the world's
average
Affordable and Reliable Energy
Sustainable Energy
Modern Energy for All
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 7(Affordable and Clean Energy)
“Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all”
• Measuring Renewable Energy Structure of this SectionShare: Challenges in tracking
This section is organised as follows: renewable energy share are described.
Introduction • Energy Intensity vs Emissions
Intensity: Two distinct concepts, • Overview of SDG 7: A brief overview of energy intensity and emissions the targets under SDG 7 is provided.intensity, are defined and a case is
• India and SDG 7: India’s current made for actively tracking both.scenario with respect to some of the
• Energy Sustainability: A measure to SDG 7 targets is described.track the overall sustainability of India’s
• C o m p a r i n g t h e I A E G - S D G energy systems is provided.Indicators with Indian Indicators: A
Summary of Recommendations: Based tabular comparison of IAEG-SDG on the analys is , a summary of ind icators wi th cor responding recommendations for policymakers is indicators currently measured in India provided.for SDG 7 is given.
Overview of SDG 7Analysis of SDG 7 Indicators
SDG 7 deals with the provision of • Are India’s Access Indicators sustainable energy for all. Target 7.1 calls Sufficient: The definition of electricity for universal access to affordable, reliable access in India allows villages not and modern energy services, while Target adequately electrified to still count as 7.2 calls for an increased share of electrified. The issue is described here.renewable energy in the energy production
• Access versus Consumption: A case mix. The goal also calls for an increase in is made for tracking consumption the rate of improvement of energy indicators in addition to access efficiency.indicators for electricity, as India’s
India and SDG 7current consumption standards are
quite low compared to international India is an energy poor country – according
norms.to the 2011 Census of India, 81 million
Moving Beyond Access: households or close to 400 million people • In line with
do not use electricity as their main source of the requirements of the target in
lighting.question, in addition to access,
affordability, reliability and modernity of India also faces an energy deficit. During
energy need to be assessed.the fiscal year 2014-15, the electricity
Tracking the Global Goals in India 74
generated in utility sector is 1,030.785 December 2015. Indicators still in the “grey”
billion KWh with a short fall of requirement category, i.e. indicators that require in-
by 38.138 billion KWh (-3.6%) against the depth review by IAEG-SDG, have been
5.1% deficit anticipated (Jog, 2015). omitted. In the case of SDG 7, the target
and indicator omitted in this study are:Moving ahead, it is expected that India’s
energy demand will rise at unprecedented • Ta rge t 7 .b By 2030 , expand
rates for all kinds of energy – conventional infrastructure and upgrade technology
and renewable, residential and industrial. for supplying modern and sustainable
The demand will be fuelled by the changing energy services for all in developing
lifestyles and increasing aspirations of countries, in particular least developed
India’s 1.25 billion strong population and an countries and small island developing
anticipated economic boom over the next States. The indicator under discussion
decade (Patra, 2015). is “ratio of value added to net domestic
energy use, by industry”An analysis of the suitability and relevance
of indicators – both IAEG-SDG and Additionally, the indicator for Target 7.a,
corresponding Indian ones – against the which is that same as that for Target 13.1, is
backdrop of India’s current energy situation not included. Target 7.a reads “by 2030,
is attempted in this section. enhance international cooperation to
facilitate access to clean energy research Comparing the IAEG-SDG Indicators and technology, including renewable with Indian Indicators energy, energy efficiency and advanced
and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and The following table compares IAEG-SDG
p r o m o t e i n v e s t m e n t i n e n e r g y indicators with corresponding indicators
in f ras t ruc tu re and c lean energy 11currently measured in India for SDG 7 . technology”.
.The table only includes indicators that have
been finalised by the IAEG-SDG as of
11The table only includes indicators that have been finalised by the IAEG-SDG as of December 2015. Indicators still in the “grey” category, i.e. indicators that require in-depth review by IAEG-SDG, have been omitted. In the case of SDG 7, this includes indicators under Targets 7.b. Additionally, the indicator for Target 7.a, which is that same as that for Target 13.1, is not included.
Tracking the Global Goals in India75
Table 6 : IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 7
Tracking the Global Goals in India 76
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of Data
Collection in India
Data Collecting Agency in
India
Target 7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy service
7.1.1 Percentage of population
with electricity access (%)
Number and percentage of towns and villages electrified in India
Annual Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power
Percentage of households using electricity as main source of lighting
Decennial
Census of India - Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs
Percentage of households with electricity access
Not fixed (previously done in 2004-05, 2005-06, 2006-07, 2007-08, 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2012)
National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
7.1.2 Percentage of population
with primary reliance on clean
fuels and technology
Number and percentage of households using [1) electricity 2) kerosene 3) solar 4) other oil 5) any other 6) no lighting] as main source of lighting
Decennial
Census of India - Office of the
Registrar General & Census
Commissioner, Ministry of
Home Affairs
Number and percentage of households using [1) firewood 2) crop residue 3) cowdung cake 4) coal/lignite/charcoal 5) kerosene 6) LPG/PNG 7) electricity 8) biogas 9) any other 10) no cooking] for cooking
Decennial
Target 7.2 By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix
Tracking the Global Goals in India 77
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of Data
Collection in India
Data Collecting Agency in
India
7.2.1 Renewable energy share in the total final energy consumption (%) or renewable energy share in the total primary energy consumption (%)
Installed capacity and percentage of renewable energy sources in total installed capacity
Annual Central Electricity Authority,
Ministry of Power
Gross generation of electricity in utilities and non-utilities. For utilities, breakup provided by source: thermal (includes RE), hydro, nuclear
Annual Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power
Target 7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency
7.3.1 Rate of improvement in
energy intensity (%) measured in
terms of primary energy and
GDP
Energy intensity in terms of mega joules per
rupee of GDP Annual
Multiple agencies. Data
compiled by Central Statistics
Office, Ministry of Statistics
and Programme
Implementation
Tracking the Global Goals in India78
measure progress towards the SDG target Are India’s Access Indicators in question. The second indicator – Sufficient?percentage of households using electricity
In India, as demonstrated in the table, there as main source of lighting – serves this are three indicators to measure access to requirement, however the issue is that data electricity as specified in Target 7.1 – for this indicator is available only once in ten number and percentage of towns and years by means of the Census. Somewhat villages electrified in India measured similar to this indicator is the third indicator – annually, percentage of households using the percentage of households with electricity as main source of lighting electricity access – which is measured measured decennially, and percentage of slightly more frequently by the National households with electricity access collected Sample Survey Office (NSSO). The issue is intermittently. that the NSSO data and Census data on
electricity access are slightly different. For In collecting data for the first indicator, a
example, according to Census 2011, 55.3% village in India would be declared as
of rural households had access to electrified by the definition of the Ministry of
electricity, whereas according to NSSO Power if 1) basic infrastructure such as
66th round (July 2009 – June 2010), 65.7% distribution transformer and distribution
of rural households had access to lines are provided in the inhabited locality
electricity. The difference could be due to as well as the dalit basti / hamlet where it
the difference in the Census and NSSO exists (for electrification through non-
questionnaires (the exact wording of the conventional energy sources a distribution
question in the NSSO survey is not transformer may not be necessary); 2)
available for free public access), or perhaps electricity is provided to public places like
also due to the fact that NSSO is a sample-schools, panchayat office, health centres,
based survey while the Census surveys the dispensaries, community centres etc.; and
entire population.3) the number of households electrified
should be at least 10% of the total number If the Census data is considered more of households in the village. Naturally, it is reliable and used for tracking progress possible for a village to be considered towards the SDG target in question, the electrified even if 90% of the households in question that emerges is whether data the village are not electrified. Indeed, over availability at such a low frequency is 90% of India’s villages are electrified sufficient to enable effective monitoring and according to this definition, but a little less evaluation of such a crucial target. But at than a third of the population still lacks the same time there are feasibility access to electricity according to Census considerations that work against more 2011. frequent measurement of this indicator –
since data collection is a door-to-door The number and percentage of towns and
household-level exercise, it is resource-villages electrified is an essential indicator
intense in terms of time, manpower, t o m e a s u r e w h e t h e r e l e c t r i c i t y
paperwork and financial costs. Perhaps an infrastructure is available in villages
alignment of the NSSO questions with (particularly important in India as there are
Census questions can provide more timely still remote villages that do not have this
availability of reliable data.infrastructure), however it is not sufficient to
Tracking the Global Goals in India 79
Similarly, the other indicator for target 7.1, consumption thresholds for rural and urban
i.e. percentage of population with primary areas, and measuring this consumption as
reliance on clean fuels and technology, an additional indicator of access to
finds a match among the list of Indian electricity.
indicators as shown in the table above, The analysis and evaluation of per capita or
however this indicator is also measured household electricity consumption as an
only decennially.indicator does not require much additional
effort or physical capacities for data Access versus Consumptioncollection, as this data is readily available
The International Energy Agency’s (IEA) from distribution companies / utilities that s u g g e s t e d t h r e s h o l d e l e c t r i c i t y supply electricity to households.consumption is 250 kWh and 500 kWh per
Moving Beyond Accesshousehold per year for rural and urban
households respectively. In rural areas, 250 Target 7.1 reads “By 2030, ensure universal
kWh can power a floor fan, a mobile phone access to affordable, reliable and modern
and two light bulbs. In urban areas, energy service”. Although both the IAEG-
consumption might include a small SDG indicator and corresponding Indian
refrigerator, a second mobile phone and a indicators measure the level of access, but
small television (International Energy neither speak to the “affordability”,
Agency, 2011). According to IEA data , “reliability” or “modernity” of access.
India’s per capita consumption of electricity
in 2012 was 760 kWh – while this is above To measure affordability of energy, a the IEA thresholds, it is also interesting to possible indicator is the percentage of per note that no country in the world with an capita income (or household income) spent income per capita above USD 10,000 has on energy. Using existing data on average electricity consumption below 3,880 per capita consumption of energy (easily kWh/person/year – nearly eight times the available from distribution companies / IEA target for a whole urban household utilities in the case of electricity, and various (Kenny, 2015)! regional and national estimates for other
forms of energy) and average per capita The causal relationship works both ways –
income (available from various publicly and higher incomes allow individuals to spend
privately funded socio-economic surveys), more and therefore consume more
this indicator can easily be monitored and electricity; and higher consumption of
evaluated without additional effort to collect electricity fosters economic growth by
data from the ground. The government may enabling healthier lives, an educated
want to set threshold values for this workforce, and a wide range of productive
indicator to monitor that affordable activities. India’s 760 kwh/person/year is
electricity is available to all. However, a quite meagre compared to US’s 12,950
drawback of this indicator is that in the case kWh, China’s 3480 kWh and Brazil’s 2150
of high income households, a high kWh. In light of these facts, the Indian
percentage need not be indicative of lack of government may want to consider setting
affordability but of overuse and wasteful per capita or household electricity
12 Available on the website of the IEA: www.iea.org
Tracking the Global Goals in India80
consumption, or of use for luxury purposes productive purposes. Dim lighting, often
rather than basic needs. Low income caused by low voltage, affects eyesight.
households are much less prone to Voltage and its stability should be
consumption of this nature, therefore the monitored carefully and targeted in policy
indicator may have some value when interventions.
applied to low income households. As such, As for modernity of energy access,
the government threshold for this indicator definitions may range from the source of
should be applied only for low income fuel used in production to the efficiency of
households to ensure that they are not generation to the quality of infrastructure. It
paying more than their due share for is not clear what is meant by modern, and in
electricity.any case no indicator to assess “modernity”
Reliability of energy access, particularly exists in the IAEG-SDG set of indicators. It
electricity access, is a major concern in is important for the Indian government to
India. Most Indians would remember the therefore define what “modernity” it aims for
massive collapse of the electricity grid in and accordingly choose indicators for
2012 across the northern tier of the country. internal monitoring and evaluation. For
The two successive blackouts that resulted example, the share of grid electricity in total
represented the biggest power outage in electricity consumption, or that of emission-
history, affecting more than 620 million free sources in energy access, could be
people. Airports, railways, and offices shut used as indicators of modernity. Another
down. Streets were gridlocked. Miners example is the ability of the infrastructure to
were trapped underground. Hospitals prevent electricity theft, for which a possible
struggled to keep patients alive with back- indicator could be estimates of revenue lost
up generators (Black, 2014). Even today, due to theft.
power outages are extremely common in Measuring Renewable Energy Shareurban and especial ly rural India.
Intermittent power supply for only a few To measure renewable energy share in hours a day can hardly be considered India, there are two indicators – a) installed “ re l iable” e lectr ic i ty. The current capacity and percentage of renewable government has already announced 24x7 energy sources in total installed capacity, power supply to all families by 2022 (Black, and b) gross generation of electricity in 2014), therefore it is imperative that utilities and non-utilities. In the second indicators for this endeavour are also indicator, for gross generation in utilities, a monitored and evaluated. Possible breakup is available by source (thermal, indicators of reliability could be “percentage nuclear and hydro). Strangely, renewable of population with access to electricity sources have ben clubbed with thermal.24x7” and “number of hours of load
The quantity of installed capacity is useful to shedding per day (or per month)”
assess the renewable energy potential in disaggregated by region.
India, but is not by sufficient in itself for India Besides outages, another issue in India is to report on the IAEG-SDG indicator of that of poor voltage. This causes several “renewable energy share in the total final problems. Besides damaging home energy consumption (%)” or “renewable appliances, fluctuating voltage makes it energy share in the total primary energy difficult to effectively use electricity for consumption (%)”. It is possible for capacity
13 published by the Central Electricity Authority and available in the Statistical Year Book 2015 web portal of the Ministry of Stat ist ics and Programme Implementation at http:/ /mospi.nic. in/Mospi_New/ upload/SYB2015/index1.html
14 It may be possible in the future to measure end consumption of electricity by source through technologies that, say, enable customers to choose energy by source.
Tracking the Global Goals in India 81
to lie unutilised, or much of the production to Energy efficiency, or energy intensity, is the
be lost in transmission or distribution, ratio of energy used to work done using that
therefore such indicators should energy, which could be GDP. In other
supplement the existing one. The second words, energy efficiency is the amount of
indicator in India – gross generation in energy used to produce one unit of GDP. It
utilities – solves these problems to a certain is desirable for this indicator to have as low
extent and therefore can be used as a proxy a value as possible, as that would mean we
for the IAEG-SDG indicator. However, the are able to generate more GDP for each
data available in the public domain clubs unit of energy used.
renewable energy with thermal energy, and However, one related, important indicator
a breakup of electricity generation from that has been left out of the list of indicators
renewable sources is not easily available. for SDG 7 is the emissions intensity of GDP,
Nevertheless, data of this nature is easily which is distinct from the energy intensity
available as it is closely tracked by both indicator specified by IAEG-SDG.
electricity generation units and utilities, and
therefore India should not have a problem The emissions intensity of GDP is simply tracking and reporting this data. the carbon emissions (or GHG emissions in
general) generated per unit of GDP. It is, in It is important to note that both the
fact, this measure that India aims to reduce indicators used in India for the target 7.2 are
as specified in its Intended Nationally only proxies for the IAEG-SDG indicator –
Determined Contribution – India aims to India does not currently measure electricity
improve its emissions intensity of GDP by consumption by source at the final
33-35% from 2005 levels by 2030.consumption end. Data is only available
from the generation end, although it is Energy intensity of GDP indicates how reasonable to expect that the proportion of much energy is used per unit of GDP. electricity generated from a source and fed Emissions intensity of GDP indicates the into a centralised grid, would equal the quantity of emissions produced per unit of proportion consumed from that source GDP. It is possible for one indicator to through the grid . improve without a correlated improvement
in the other. For example, transitioning to Energy Intensity vs Emissions
renewable energy would reduce the Intensity
emissions associated with each unit of
GDP, and therefore reduce emissions Target 7.3 reads “By 2030, double the intensity of GDP, but this does not mean global rate of improvement in energy that the amount of energy used to produce efficiency”. The IAEG-SDG indicator each unit of GDP would necessarily change suggested for this target reads “rate of – i.e. the energy intensity of GDP may be improvement in energy intensity (%) left unchanged.measured in terms of primary energy and
GDP”.
SDG 13 on addressing climate change, the reliability of energy infrastructure,
surprisingly, does not include either of these and the ability of participating energy
two indicators. It is important that the companies to meet current and future
indicators suggested here be actively demand.
t racked by government agencies c. Energy environmental sustainability:
responsible for climate change mitigation. the achievement of supply and
Therefore it is recommended that India demand-side energy efficiencies and
closely monitor both energy intensity and the development of energy supply from
emissions intensity of GDP.renewable and other low-carbon
sources.Energy Sustainability
The Index rank measures overall An additional concern for India is the overall performance of 129 countries and the sustainability of its energy systems, given balance score highlights how well a country that India has a massive population and a manages the trade-offs between the three rapidly growing economy to service with competing dimensions: energy security, energy. The Energy Sustainability Index energy equity, and environmental ranks 129 countries in terms of their likely sustainability. The best score ‘A’ is given for ability to provide sustainable energy a very high performance. India’s rank and policies through the 3 dimensions of the scores in 2014 are shown in the table below energy trilemma:and they indicate extremely poor
a. Energy equity: the accessibility and performance (Patra, 2015).
affordability of energy supply across the It is recommended that the Indian population.government also closely monitor India’s
b. Energy secur i ty : the effect ive energy sustainability through this Index,
management of primary energy supply and ensure that these scores improve as
from domestic and external sources, India makes progress towards SDG 7.
Tracking the Global Goals in India82
Table 7: India’s Energy Sustainability Index 2014
Source: World Energy Council
Rank Score
Energy Equity 105 D
Energy Security 76 C
Energy Environmental Sustainability 123 D
Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 7 in India
• To ensure timely availability of reliable data and avoid divergence of data available from
NSSO and Census surveys, the NSSO and Census questionnaires may be aligned.
• To measure access to electricity, per capita or household electricity consumption
thresholds for rural and urban areas may be set and adherence to these thresholds
measured
• To measure affordability of energy, percentage of per capita income (or household
income) spent on energy may be measured. The government may want to set threshold
values for this indicator to monitor that affordable electricity is available to all. The
government threshold for this indicator should be applied only for low income
households (as it may not have much meaning for high-income households) to ensure
that these households are not paying more than their due share for electricity.
• To measure reliability of electricity, number of hours of load shedding per day (or per
month) disaggregated by region may be used as an indicator.
• To assess “modernity” of energy access, the government should first define what kind of
“modernity” it aims for and accordingly choose indicators for monitoring and evaluation.
• In addition to energy intensity, emissions intensity should also be closely monitored in
line with India’s INDC commitments.
• The government should also closely monitor the Energy Sustainability parameters
generated by the World Energy Council, and ensure that these scores improve as India
makes progress towards SDG 7.
Box 4: Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 7 in India
Tracking the Global Goals in India 83
116 million
unemployed
persons in
the country
Third largest
economy with
a GDP (PPP) of
US$ 8
trillion
43.53 lakhchildren aged
5 to 14 employed
in some form
Sustainable Economic Growth
Full Employment
Decent Work for All
Tracking the Global Goals in India 85
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 8(Decent Work and Economic Growth)
“Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all”
• Child Labour: Current surveys on child Structure of this Sectionlabour do not explicitly define child
This section is organised as follows: labour; they simply enumerate the
number of workers in different age Introductiongroups. Child labour is looked at from an
• Overview of SDG 8: A brief overview of economic angle but not from a human the targets under SDG 8 is provided. rights angle. The implications of such a
perspective are discussed here.• India and SDG 8: India’s current
scenario with respect to some of the Summary of Recommendations: Based SDG 8 targets is described. on the ana lys is , a summary o f
recommendations for policymakers is • Comparing the IAEG-SDG Indicators
provided.with Indian Indicators: A tabular
comparison of IAEG-SDG indicators Overview of SDG 8with corresponding indicators currently
SDG 8 deals with decent jobs and measured in India for SDG 8 is given.sustainable economic growth. While Target
Analysis of SDG 8 Indicators 8.1 deals with a sustained rate of per capita
economic growth, Target 8.2 aims for an • Employment and Unemployment: increase in economic productivity and There are two major employment and Target 8.3 calls for enhanced development-unemployment surveys in India. The oriented policies. Subsequent targets aim two are described and compared.for full and productive employment, labour
• The Informal Economy: The informal rights, eradication of child labour, financial
economy is highly complex and diverse. inclusion, reduced proportion of youth not in
To what extent do existing surveys education or employment or training etc.
capture this complexity and diversity is India and SDG 8discussed here.
India is the third largest economy in the • Wages: There are multiple surveys on world after the US and China in terms of its the subject, some of which duplicate the GDP (purchasing power parity) – its GDP in work of others. There are also
152015 was over USD 8 trillion . However, significant data gaps. due to its large population, India has low
• Youth Not in Employment, Education levels of per capita GDP. The Indian or Training (NEET): The NEET rate, an economy is characterised by a large IAEG-SDG indicator, is a relatively new informal sector. According to NSSO 68th
16concept in India. It is explained here. round, among workers in AGEGC and
Tracking the Global Goals in India86
non-agriculture sectors, about 72 per cent been finalised by the IAEG-SDG as of
were employed in the informal sector. December 2015. Indicators still in the “grey”
category, i.e. indicators that require in-India has a large proportion of young people
depth review by IAEG-SDG, have been in its population and is thus at a strategic
omitted. In the case of SDG 8, the omitted advantage to reap a demographic dividend.
indicators are as follows:However, whether it will actually benefit
from this demographic dividend would • Target 8.4 Improve progressively,
depend on how and how much India invests through 2030, global resource
in its human capital. India has a massive eff ic iency in consumption and
proportion of the workforce in the informal production and endeavour to decouple
economy, low levels of skill in its youth, low economic growth from environmental
levels of productivity especially in degradation, in accordance with the 10-
agriculture and social evils such as child year framework of programmes on
labour. The successful achievement of sus ta inab le consumpt ion and
SDG 8 will enable India to effectively reap production, with developed countries
the demographic dividend. taking the lead. The indicator under
discussion is “resource productivity”.With regard to indicators for SDG 8, most of
the IAEG-SDG indicators are fairly • Target 8.9 By 2030, devise and
straightforward and are already measured implement pol icies to promote
in India. sustainable tourism that creates jobs
and promotes local culture and Comparing the IAEG-SDG Indicators products. The indicators under with Indian Indicators discussion are “tourism direct GDP (as
% of total GDP and in growth rate)” and The following table compares IAEG-SDG
“number of jobs in tourism industries (as indicators with corresponding indicators
% total jobs and growth rate of jobs, by 17currently measured in India for SDG 8 .
gender)”. The table only includes indicators that have
15Gross domestic product based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) valuation of country GDP (Current international dollar) according to International Monetary Fund data, available on www.imf.org
16[ag]riculture sector [e]xcluding [g]rowing of [c]rops, plant propagation, combined production of crops and animals without a specialized production of crops or animals
17The table only includes indicators that have been finalised by the IAEG-SDG as of December 2015. Indicators still in the “grey” category, i.e. indicators that require in-depth review by IAEG-SDG, have been omitted. In the case of SDG 8, this includes indicators under Targets 8.4 and 8.9.
18 Once in five years
Table 8: IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 8
Tracking the Global Goals in India 87
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of
Data Collection
in India
Data Collecting Agency in India
Target 8.1 Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least developed countries
GDP per capita, PPP GDP per capita, PPP Quarterly Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
Target 8.2 Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-intensive sectors
Growth rate of GDP per employed person
Growth rate of GDP per employed person
Quarterly Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
Target 8.3 Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity
and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access
to financial services
Share of informal employment in non-agriculture employment by sex
Share of informal employment in non-agriculture employment by sex
Quinquennial14 National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
Annual Labour Bureau, Ministry of Labour and Employment
Target 8.5 By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value
Average hourly earnings of female and male employees by occupations (Wages/Gender wage gap)
Average daily wage rate of female and male employees by occupations
Annual Directorate of Economics and Statistics (DES),
Ministry of Agriculture
Not fixed Various surveys of Labour Bureau, Ministry of Labour and Employment
Tracking the Global Goals in India 88
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of
Data Collection
in India
Data Collecting Agency in India
Unemployment rate by sex, age-group and disability
Unemployment rate by sex, age-group and disability
Quinquennial National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
Annual Labour Bureau, Ministry of Labour and Employment
Target 8.6 By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training
Percentage of youth (15-24) not in education, employment or training (NEET)
Percentage of youth not in
education, employment or
training
Quinquennial National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of
Statistics and Programme Implementation
Target 8.7 Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms
Percentage and number of children aged 5-17 years engaged in child labour, per sex and age group (disaggregated by the worst forms of child labour)
Percentage and number of children aged 5-14 engaged in work by sex, disaggregated by occupational categories
Decennial Census of India – lffice of the oegistrar deneral C Census CommissionerI jinistry of eome Affairs
mercentage of children aged RJ9 and NMJN4 by sexI disaggregated by sector
nuinquennial kational pample purvey lfficeI jinistry of ptatistics and mrogramme fmplementation
qarget UKU mrotect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workersI including migrant workersI in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment
Frequency rates of fatal and non-fatal occupational injuries and time lost due to occupational injuries by gender
Not available
Tracking the Global Goals in India 89
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of
Data Collection
in India
Data Collecting Agency in India
and migrant status
Target 8.10 Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to banking, insurance and financial services for all
Number of commercial bank branches and ATMs per 100,000 adults
Number of commercial bank branches and ATMs per 100,000 adults
Annual Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Finance
% adults with a formal account or personally using a mobile money service in the past 12 months. Possible to have a break down by income e.g. bottom 40% of income share or <$1.25/day, by gender, age (youth) and rural. Adults: ages 15+
Number and percentage of households availing banking services
Decennial Census of India – lffice of the oegistrar General & Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs
Target 8.a Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries
Aid for Trade Commitments and Disbursements
Aid for Trade Commitments and Disbursements
Annual Ministry of External Affairs
Target 8.b By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization
Total government spending in social protection and employment programmes as percentage of the national budgets and GDP and collective bargaining rates
Total government spending in social protection and employment programmes as percentage of the national budgets and GDP and collective bargaining rates
Annual Various Ministries
Tracking the Global Goals in India 90
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of
Data Collection
in India
Data Collecting Agency in India
and migrant status
Target 8.10 Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to banking, insurance and financial services for all
Number of commercial bank branches and ATMs per 100,000 adults
Number of commercial bank branches and ATMs per 100,000 adults
Annual Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Finance
% adults with a formal account or personally using a mobile money service in the past 12 months. Possible to have a break down by income e.g. bottom 40% of income share or <$1.25/day, by gender, age (youth) and rural. Adults: ages 15+
Number and percentage of households availing banking services
Decennial Census of India – lffice of the oegistrar General & Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs
Target 8.a Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries
Aid for Trade Commitments and Disbursements
Aid for Trade Commitments and Disbursements
Annual Ministry of External Affairs
Target 8.b By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization
Total government spending in social protection and employment programmes as percentage of the national budgets and GDP and collective bargaining rates
Total government spending in social protection and employment programmes as percentage of the national budgets and GDP and collective bargaining rates
Annual Various Ministries
Tracking the Global Goals in India 91
• the quinquennial Employment and Employment and UnemploymentUnemployment Survey of the National
Background Sample Survey Office (NSSO)
The IAEG-SDG indicators for targets 8.3 • t h e a n n u a l E m p l o y m e n t a n d and 8.5 are, respectively, “share of informal Unemployment Survey of the Labour e m p l o y m e n t i n n o n - a g r i c u l t u r e Bureauemployment by sex” and “unemployment
Comparing NSSO and Labour Bureau rate by sex, age-group and disability”.
S u r v e y s o f E m p l o y m e n t a n d There are two major surveys that supply
Unemploymentthis information in India:
Table 9: A Comparison of the NSSO and Labour Bureau Surveys of Employment and Employment
There are no significant differences in the rates in the 2 surveys. The NSSO rate was
methodology adopted and in concepts and 2.8% in 2007-08, while the Labour Bureau
definitions followed by NSSO and Labour rate was 9.4% in 2009-10.
Bureau in their Employment and Given that the sample sizes and
Unemployment Surveys.geographical coverage of both surveys are
Although the Labour Bureau survey is more comparable, it is worth pondering whether
frequent, the NSSO survey is used more the NSSO and Labour Bureau surveys both
often in literature, perhaps due to need to be conducted in the same year for
availability of data for a longer duration. the same set of indicators, as was done in
Further, NSSO surveys have the 2011-12. The Labour Bureau and NSSO
advantage of unit-level data. surveys diverge in their estimates despite
similar concepts and definitions. This With regard to unemployment data, it is
creates additional confusion. There is a dire important to note that unemployment has a
need, therefore, to reflect whether the seasonal character. It is likely to be affected
conduction of both surveys is required, and by duration of survey fieldwork. Indeed,
why the estimates diverge.there is a divergence in unemployment
19 Although an employment and unemployment survey was conducted in 2011-12 just two years after the previous one.
20 Households.21 Except a few remote/interior villages in Nagaland and Andaman & Nicobar.
Tracking the Global Goals in India92
It is worth noting that most advanced explores the informal economy in further
countries track labour market data on a detail.
quarterly and even monthly basis, The Informal Economywhereas India relies on Labour Bureau’s
annual survey and NSSO’s quinquennial This sub-section is organised as follows.surveys for the same. The labour market
• First, the dimensions and definitions is quite dynamic; the lack of frequent real-
of the informal economy used in the time data on the characteristics of labour
NSSO and Labour Bureau surveys markets is a major macroeconomic
are described.handicap in India. The Ministry of
S t a t i s t i c s a n d P r o g r a m m e • Second, the question of why an
Implementation is planning to launch enterprise perspective of the informal
quarterly surveys in urban areas and economy is important in addition to an
annual surveys across the country to employment perspective is explored.
a s s e s s t h e e m p l o y m e n t a n d
unemployment situation (Surabhi, 2015). • Third, an attempt is made to visualise This is a welcome move that would plug a the informal economy by combining serious gap in India’s macroeconomic the enterprise and employment data. While monthly data reporting on perspectives together.labour markets may not be feasible in
• Fourth, recommendations to improve India due to its large informal workforce the effectiveness of NSSO surveys and numerous unregistered enterprises, are provided.at least quarterly data on labour markets
is necessary to inform crucial policy Dimensions and Definitions of the decisions. The frequency of data Informal Economycollection should match the frequency
In accounting for the informal economy, with which important policy decisions
NSSO and Labour Bureau surveys follow relevant to the sector are made. For
the same classification of activities. instance, in the US, the Fed monitors the
There are two broad dimensions of the labour market on a monthly basis to
informal economy: enterprises and the decide when to start tapering its bond
conditions of employment.purchase stimulus (The Indian Express,
2013). The initiation of such a survey in There are 8 categories of enterprises,
India can allow the discontinuation of among which the ‘proprietary’ and
NSSO and Labour Bureau surveys, ‘partnership’ enterprises are classified as
although it may be useful to retain one of i n f o r m a l ( N a t i o n a l S t a t i s t i c a l
the two surveys as quarterly or monthly Commission, 2012). It is worth noting that
data collection does not afford the large there are two other prominent enterprise
survey coverage that NSSO and Labour surveys in India – the MSME Census
Bureau provide.conducted by the Ministry of MSMEs, and
the Economic Census of the Ministry of Both NSSO and Labour Bureau surveys
S t a t i s t i c s a n d P r o g r a m m e unanimously indicate that a major share
Implementation. However, this section of India’s non-agricultural workforce
deals primarily with the NSSO surveys.works under informal terms of
employment. The sub-section below
22 [ag]riculture sector [e]xcluding [g]rowing of [c]rops, plant propagation, combined production of crops and animals without a specialized production of crops or animals
Tracking the Global Goals in India 93
As for conditions of employment, jobs are MSMEs. NSSO surveys of enterprises
classified as informal or otherwise on the can enumerate the enterprises in the
basis of the following conditions of informal sector (most of which tend to
employment in the NSSO 61st and 66th be MSMEs), which is the starting point
rounds (National Statistical Commission, to design and execute policies to
2012): formalise these enterprises.
• type of contract (no written job contract, • Two, formalising MSMEs is also a
written job contract: for 1 year or less, national priority. Informally operated
more than 1 year to 3 years, more than 3 MSMEs find it difficult to access formal
years) channels of credit, which is important for
their growth. An enumeration of • whether eligible for paid leave
unincorporated non-agricul tural
enterprises along with data on their • availability of social security benefits o p e r a t i o n a l a n d e c o n o m i c (provident fund / pension / gratuity / characteristics, as done in NSS 67th health care and maternity benefits)round (2010-11), is essential to meet
Both surveys exclude agriculture sector national priorities as well as target 8.3, and agricultural workers. These surveys which reads, “promote development-supply exactly the data needed for the or iented pol ic ies that support IAEG-SDG indicator “share of informal productive activities, decent job e m p l o y m e n t i n n o n - a g r i c u l t u r e creation, entrepreneurship…”employment by sex” under Target 8.3.
Given these considerations, the current According to NSSO 68th round, among report strongly advocates a combined
22workers in AGEGC and non-agriculture employment-enterprise perspective of the sectors, about 72 per cent were employed informal economy. Such a perspective can in the informal sector. The proportion was provide crucial insights for policymakers. about 75 per cent in rural areas and about Some of these insights are described 69 per cent in urban areas (NSSO, 2014). below.
While the remainder of this section deals Looking at Employment and Enterprises primarily with NSSO surveys, much of the Together: The Employment-Enterprise analysis and recommendations provided Matrixhere may also be applied to Labour Bureau
The National Commission for Enterprises in surveys as their concepts and definitions the Unorganised Sector (NCEUS) has been are similar.set up by the government of India to act as a
Why Look at Enterprises in Addition to watchdog and advisory body on issues Employment? relating to the informal sector. NCEUS
extensively uses the concepts and results An enterprise perspective, in addition to a
of NSSO surveys, and has grouped nature of employment perspective, is useful
employment in India into four categories. to track the current target for two reasons.
The categories may be visualised using the
matrix given below.• One, the target calls for formalising
Tracking the Global Goals in India94
Table 10: Categories of Employment
Source: Adapted from (NCEUS, 2009)
As is visible from the figure above, there are each category. Its report (NCEUS, 2009)
four categories of workers in non- notes that between NSSO 55th and 61st
agricultural employment in India: rounds, “the entire increase in the
employment in the organised or formal • Workers informally employed in the
sector over this period has largely been informal sector (category A)
informal in nature i.e. without any job or
social security. This constitutes what can be • Workers formally employed in the termed as informalisation of the formal informal sector (category B)sector, where any employment increase
• Workers informally employed in the consists of regular workers without social formal sector (category C) security benefits and casual or contract
workers again without the benefits that • Workers formally employed in the
should accrue to formal workers.“ This is an formal sector (category D)
important insight for policymakers.
Each of these categories is interesting to The question of why formal sector
study and provides its own set of insights. enterprises are hiring workers under
Category A represents the largest category informal terms of employment is an
of workers in India and it is this category, interesting one. It is possible that informal
along with category C, which needs to be hiring provides firms with greater flexibility
minimised. Category B represents a rare to respond to demand fluctuations, as
category – workers working in the informal informal labour comes with lower marginal
sector but under formal terms of costs. Further, a recent study (Castillo &
employment (i.e. with written job contracts, Montoro, 2012) points to the benefits of the
eligible for paid leave, and/or receiving informalisation of labour markets – the
social security benefits). Category C presence of informal labour markets
represents a somewhat low-hanging fruit – generates a "buffer" effect that diminishes
it shows workers who are employed the pressure of demand shocks on inflation,
informally but in the formal sector. To the implying that in economies with large
extent that formal sector enterprises fall informal labour markets, changes in
under the government regulatory net, they interest rates are more effective in
can be targeted relatively easily to convert stimulating real output and there is less
their informal employees into formal ones. impact on inflation. An important question to
Category D is what is required to be address, therefore, is whether these
maximised, i.e. formal workers in formal benefits come at the cost of worker welfare.
enterprises.In order to address this question, it is
Using NSSO data, NCEUS has computed important for NSSO surveys to provide
the number and percentage of workers in adequate data on worker welfare. While
Informal employment Formal employment
Informal sector/enterprise A B
Formal sector/enterprise C D
Tracking the Global Goals in India 95
current data allows us to know the number part time work for usually active workers
and proportion of workers in each of the 4 was captured and its prevalence was found
categories in the employment-enterprise to be significant for female workers. The
matrix, there is scope for including more report recommends that to ascertain the
probing questions on the conditions under causes of such precarious employment,
which workers work in each category. methodological studies should be
Suggestions for the same are outlined in the undertaken and specific indicators and data
subsequent sub-section. need to be identified.
Further, the informalisation of the formal To track the much-desired formalisation of
enterprise is in direct contrast to what is the informal enterprise, an “ease of doing
desired – the formalisation of informal business by MSMEs” index may be
enterprises. It is important for informal formulated by including a few probing
MSMEs to become formalised so that they questions in India’s existing enterprise
can access formal channels of credit and surveys. The World Bank publishes a global
other entitled benefits. A relevant indicator Ease of Doing Business Index and ranks a
to assess the extent to which MSMEs are number of countries in terms of parameters
able to access such benefits and become like the ease of dealing with construction
formalised is an “ease of doing business” permits, enforcing contracts, paying taxes,
index for MSMEs, which is described below. registering property, etc. While most of
these parameters are mostly relevant to Increasing the Effectiveness of NSSO
larger formal enterprises, India may Surveys
similarly define for itself what is meant by
“ease of doing business” in the context of “Decent jobs” is an important component of MSMEs, and include a few probing Targets 8.3 and 8.5. Worker welfare should questions on the same in its existing therefore be effectively captured in NSSO enterprise surveys. One such question, for surveys. Currently, NSSO surveys capture example, could be whether the enterprise whether a written job contract is available, has a bank account. This would help track whether the worker is eligible for paid leave, progress towards the formalisation of and whether the job provides social security informal enterprises.benefits. There is scope, however, for
including more probing questions on the There is a tendency to underestimate the
nature of working conditions, job security, value of economic activity of informal
number of hours of work per day, safety and enterprises. This is because many of these
durability of employment (National enterprises are based out of households,
Statistical Commission, 2012). In particular, where the fixed capital used in production
durability of employment is an extremely may also be used for various other
important qualitative characteristic of purposes. This makes it difficult to separate
employment in India. A report by the household and enterprise activities.
National Statistical Commission (National Further, many informal enterprises do not
Statistical Commission, 2012) notes that maintain accounts properly. One way of
the lack of durability in employment makes getting around this problem is to integrate
employment p recar ious , reduces household expenditure surveys with
productivity and leads to the prevalence of enterprise surveys – this may increase
under-employment. In the NSSO 61st reliability of household expenditures and
round survey, non-regularity of work and
Survey Conducting/ Reporting Agency
Frequency
Remarks on Field Data Collection
Wage Rates in Rural India
Labour Bureau, using NSSO Employment and Unemployment data
Quinquennial
Data collected from local government functionaries such as the panchayat secretary and other village/block level officials
Agricultural Wages in India
Directorate of Economics and Statistics (DES), Ministry of Agriculture
Annual
Data collected by the local officials, patwaris,mamlatdars and primary teachers and transmitted through district and state authorities to DES (Papola, 2014).
Occupational Wage Survey
Labour Bureau, Ministry of Labour and Employment
Not fixed Data is collected from a sample of workers defined as defined under the Factories Act, 1948
Annual Survey of Industries
Labour Bureau, Ministry of Labour and Employment
Annual Data is collected from a stratified sample of industrial units
income from entrepreneurial activities In dealing with the self-employed, there is
(NCEUS, 2008). This has been done in the an added complexity in quantifying
NSS 66th round and 68th rounds. earnings as the remuneration consists of
two parts: remuneration for labour and Wages profits of the enterprises. These two parts
Target 8.5 calls for full and productive are non-separable (NSSO, 2014). There is
employment for all. The IAEG-SDG therefore, no data currently available on the
framework has provided two indicators for earnings of the self-employed. This
this target. The second one has been dealt represents a serious gap in the data, as
with in the previous section. The first one according to NSSO’s own estimates,
reads “average hourly earnings of female around half of all workers are self-
and male employees by occupations”. employed. Further research on methods to
estimate earnings of the self-employed is Corresponding to this IAEG-SDG indicator,
recommended.several surveys are conducted in India on
the topic of wages. One of them is the NSSO data is the only set of data on wages
Employment and Unemployment Survey of which covers all categories of workers in the
NSSO, which has been dealt with in detail entire economy and is amenable to
above. NSSO collects data on the average disaggregation by rural, urban, gender,
daily wage earnings of casual labourers social group and states (Papola, 2014). The
and regular wage/salaried employees other surveys on wage rates in India are
during each of the seven days of the briefly described in the table below.
reference week.
Tracking the Global Goals in India96
Table 11: Surveys on Wages in India (Excluding NSSO Surveys)
Analysis of the Other Wage Surveys in Rural India survey were identified almost 40
India years ago and have not been revised to
reflect changes in rural occupations. An An International Labour Organization (ILO) urgent revision is therefore recommended.study (Papola, 2014) notes that the
occupations covered in the Wage Rates in
The annual publication, ‘Agricultural Wages (No. of youth – no. of youth in employment +
in India’, was found available on the DES no. of youth not in employment who are in
website for the crop years (July to June) education or training) / Total number of
2005-06 through 2011-12. There appears to youth
be a considerable delay between data The data required to calculate the NEET
collection and publishing of data in the rate can be easily derived from the NSSO
public domain, as the 2011-12 report was Employment Unemployment Surveys. It
only published in 2015. may also be derived from Labour Bureau
The Occupational Wage Survey is one of surveys and Census surveys. However, as
two surveys of the wage rate in the formal explained in (Elder, 2015), the level of detail
manufacturing (and later services, which needed to make the calculation –
has been included in the latest round) specifically, the education status of youth
sector. However, these surveys are quite (in school or out of school) cross-tabulated
irregular. The latest available set of data by labour force status (employed,
was collected in 2002 and is therefore of unemployed or inactive) – is rarely found
limited relevance now. There is a need to without direct access to the survey micro
determine the appropriate frequency of this datasets. These micro datasets are rarely
survey and administer the survey according available in the public domain in the case of
to this frequency, otherwise one loses the NSSO surveys. Nevertheless, India’s
ability to analyse trends over time. It is also NEET was calculated for the year 2004
recommended that the time taken to using NSSO data in (Elder, 2015). It was
compile and publish data be reduced. found to be 27.2% for youth aged 15-29.
Looking at sex-disaggregated NEET rates There appears to be an overlap in the
in the same year for the same age group ‘Wage Rates in Rural India’ and the
paints a picture of extreme gender disparity. ‘Agricultural Wages in India’ surveys of the
The NEET rate was 6.4% for males and Labour Bureau and the DES respectively.
49.0% for females. OECD estimates peg This leads to duplication of effort and cost.
India’s NEET rates for 15/16 – 24 year olds This issue needs to be examined and only
in 2012 at 28.9% (OECD, 2014).one agency, preferably the Labour Bureau,
which appears to have a better coverage Whi le India in i t ia tes the regular
and data collection set up, should be measurement of NEET rate, it should make
entrusted the task (Papola, 2014). sure that the calculation is done and
reported in a periodic fashion, i.e. after each Youth Not in Employment, Education NSSO Employment Unemployment or Training Survey.
Target 8.6 calls for reducing the proportion Child Labourof youth not in employment, education or
Target 8.8 calls for the eradication of child training (NEET). The IAEG-SDG indicator
labour. The corresponding IAEG-SDG for this target is “percentage of youth (15-
indicator is “percentage and number of 24) not in education, employment or
children aged 5-17 years engaged in child training”.
labour, per sex and age group NEET rate is calculated according to the (disaggregated by the worst forms of child formula specified below and expressed as a labour)”.percentage (Elder, 2015).
Tracking the Global Goals in India 97
In India, child labour data is collected in the Even if all income-generating activities
Census and NSSO Employment and were included in definitions of child labour,
Unemployment surveys. The Census such a definition would still not capture the
decennially provides data on “percentage full complexity of activities that intuitively
and number of children aged 5-14 engaged encompass child labour. A large number of
in work by sex, disaggregated by children in India attend school and work
occupational categories”, while NSSO after school hours or during holidays. They
qu inquennia l ly prov ides data on may or may not directly earn remuneration.
“percentage of children aged 5-9 and 10-14 Activities such as household chores, animal
by sex, disaggregated by sector”. husbandry, working on the family farm etc.
need not directly generate an income for the According to the Census 2001 figures there
child; rather they generate income or value were 1.26 crore working children in the age
for the household as a whole. To respond to group of 5-14 as compared to the total child
this challenge and clarify whether such population of 25.2 crores. There were
activities constitute child labour, the approximately 12 lakh children working in
government has recently set in motion an hazardous occupations/processes as
official amendment to the CLPRA, to ban defined under the Child Labour (Prohibition
employment of all children below 14 in all & Regulation) Act. NSSO data from 2004-
occupations and processes. This would 05 put the number of working children at
solve the problem to an extent by bringing 90.75 lakh. As per Census 2011, the
chi ldren employed in agricul ture, number of working children in the age group
household chores etc. under the regulatory of 5-14 years has further reduced to 43.53
net by defining them as child labourers. lakh (Ministry of Labour and Employment).
However, there is another category of
children who are neither at work nor at There appears to be a reasonable school. Should such children be classified alignment between Indian indicators and as child labourers, as they are not receiving global requirement. However, there are free and compulsory education as some areas of concern in the way child mandated by the Right to Education Act? Or labour is defined and estimated in India. should they not count as child labourers These issues are explored below.because they are not working, in a technical
Areas of Concern in Child Labour sense? The government needs to take a Statistics well-informed stand on the same (Giri &
Singh, 2016).The Child Labour (Prohibition and
Regulation) Act (CLPRA), 1986 is the main Further, the Census and NSSO surveys act that governs child labour issues in India. that enumerate child labour in India simply The act defines child labourers as children derive the number of child workers from below 14 engaged in certain specified age-wise distribution of workers. Workers occupations and processes. As of now, are defined as those who contribute to the there are only 18 occupations and 65 national product as per economic processes in this list. However, children accounting principles. This, by definition, working inside their household or in family excludes ‘own account’ and ‘own farms, even if the work is hazardous, are not consumption’ processing of primary considered child labourers. products outside the agriculture sector. By
Tracking the Global Goals in India98
this definition, mining and quarrying powerful insights on how many children are
activities, prostitution, begging etc. are actually working. Armed with information on
excluded, even though they fetch earnings how children spend their time, even if they
(NCPCR). Thus, a number of working are enrolled in school, policymakers can
children are possibly being excluded from tailor policies to the ground-level situation.
these surveys.However, the pilot indicated that the time
A new definition of child labour that looks at use survey is highly resource intensive. It
the issue from a social and human rights requires a large number of skilled
angle in addition to an economic angle is investigators, and much time and financial
recommended. Further, regardless of resources to execute. Given this
definition, it would be useful to understand constraints, it may not be feasible to
exactly how children are spending their conduct such a survey annually or
time. A time use profile that describes time quinquennially. It is recommended that at
spent in school and after-school study, least a decennial survey may be attempted,
household chores, family enterprise work or learning from the pilot experience.
family farm work, direct income-generating Furthermore, by the government’s own
activities etc. would be useful to understand admission, disaggregated data on
the nature of ‘work’ they engage in and how chi ldren’s involvement in var ious
much time they devote to such activities.hazardous occupations and processes (as
A time use survey can serve this end. defined by the Child Labour (Protection and
The Department of Statistics, Government Regulation) Act) is not available (NSSO,
of India, organised a pilot time use survey 2014), although gathering such data was
between July, 1998, and June, 1999 in six attempted in the NSSO survey of 1993-94.
states - Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, In 1993-94, to elicit information on children
Gujarat, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and working in specific hazardous activities in
Meghalaya. The survey col lected manufacturing and building construction
comprehensive information on how people, industry, the processes in which the
including children above six years, spend children worked was collected. These
their time on different activities using a one- i n c l u d e d b i d i m a k i n g , c e m e n t
day recall method. The results show that manufacturing, manufacture of matches,
children spend 21.46 hours a week on explosives and splitting, etc. (Papola,
economic activities covered under national 2014). It is not clear, however, whether the
income accounts. This is about 47 per cent lessons from this experience have been
of the time spent by an adult on similar documented and used to in form
activities (NCPCR). More significantly, the subsequent surveys. It is, in any case,
results indicate that more than 32% of recommended that the government
children previously classified as neither in undertake sound research to incorporate
school nor working were actually working information on children’s involvement in
(NCPCR). hazardous activities in existing employment
surveys.Such time use surveys, when coupled with
existing enumeration surveys, can provide
Tracking the Global Goals in India 99
Box 5: Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 8 in India
Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 8 in India
• Reflection is recommended on whether it is necessary to conduct both NSSO and
Labour Bureau surveys for the same indicators on employment and unemployment,
especially in the same year as happened in 2011-12.
• Labour market data, particularly employment and unemployment data, should be
tracked at least quarterly. The frequency of data collection should match the
frequency with which important policy decisions relevant to the sector are made.
• More probing questions on the nature of working conditions, job security, safety and
durability of employment (for example, non-regularity of work and part time work for
usually active workers, number of hours of work per day etc.) may be included in the
Employment and Unemployment Surveys of NSSO and Labour Bureau.
Methodological studies should be undertaken to identify specific indicators and data.
• To track the much-desired formalisation of the informal enterprise, an “ease of doing
business by MSMEs” index may be formulated by including a few probing questions
in India’s existing enterprise surveys. These questions should provide insights on the
degree of formalisation in MSMEs’ regular activities. One such question, for example,
could be whether the enterprise has a bank account.
• Further research on methods to estimate earnings of the self-employed is
recommended.
• An International Labour Organization (ILO) study notes that the occupations covered
in the Occupation Wage Survey were identified almost 40 years ago and have not
been revised to reflect changes in rural occupations. A revision is therefore required at
the earliest.
• The Occupational Wage Survey is the only source of occupation-wise wage data.
However, it seems to be quite irregular and there appears to be a large delay between
the administration of survey and publishing of the findings, often rendering the
findings irrelevant. There is a need to determine the appropriate frequency of this
survey and administer the survey according to this frequency. It is also recommended
that the time taken to compile and publish data be reduced.
• A new definition of child labour that looks at the issue from a social and human rights
angle in addition to an economic angle is recommended.
• It is recommended that at least a decennial survey of time use, particularly of children,
be attempted, learning from the pilot experience of the Time Use Survey.
• Disaggregated data on children’s involvement in various hazardous occupations and
processes (as defined by the Child Labour (Protection and Regulation) Act) is not
available but is important. It is recommended that collection of this data be integrated
into existing NSSO surveys.
Tracking the Global Goals in India100
17.4% of
Indian urban
household live
in slums
India's urban
population
projected to soar to
590 million
by 2030
50% of
all road
accident victims
are pedestrians
Inclusive and Safe Cities
Resilient Cities
Sustainable Cities
Tracking the Global Goals in India102
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 11(Sustainable Cities and Communities)
“Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable”
attention to the needs of those in Structure of this Sectionvulnerable situations, women, children,
This section is organised as follows: persons with disabilities and older
personsIntroduction
• Target 11.3: By 2030, enhance • Overview of SDG 11: A brief overview inclusive and sustainable urbanisation of the targets under SDG 11 is provided.and capacity for part ic ipatory,
• India and SDG 11: India’s current integrated and sustainable human scenario with respect to some of the settlement planning and management SDG 11 targets is described. in all countries
• Comparing the IAEG-SDG Indicators • Target 11.6: By 2030, reduce the with Indian Indicators: A tabular adverse per capita environmental comparison of IAEG-SDG indicators impact of cities, including by paying with corresponding indicators currently special attention to air quality and measured in India for SDG 11 is given. m u n i c i p a l a n d o t h e r w a s t e
management• State of Cities: The classification and
state of Indian cities are discussed. • Target 11.7: By 2030, provide universal
access to safe, inclusive and • Challenges in Achieving SDG 11:
accessible, green and public spaces, in Overall challenges relating to the
particular for women and children, older achievement of SDG 11, and the
persons and persons with disabilitiesimpl icat ions for indicators are
discussed. • Target 11.b: By 2020, substantially
increase the number of cities and Analysis of SDG 11 Indicators
human settlements adopting and
implementing integrated policies and The indicators pertaining to the following
plans towards inclusion, resource targets are analysed.
efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to • Target 11.1: By 2030, ensure access climate change, resilience to disasters,
for all to adequate, safe and affordable and develop and implement, in line with housing and basic services and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk upgrade slums Reduction 2015-2030, holistic disaster
risk management at all levels• Target 11.2: By 2030, provide access to
safe, affordable, accessible and Summary of Recommendations: Based sustainable transport systems for all, on the ana lys is , a summary o f improving road safety, notably by recommendations is provided.expanding public transport, with special
Tracking the Global Goals in India 103
male population can be observed during the Overview of SDG 11recent decades from 18.3% in 1961 to
Cities lie at the core of ideas, commerce, 13.8% in 1991. Critically, the decline is culture, science, productivity, social noted significantly for urban areas - going development and much more. Cities have down from 37.5% to 26%(Kundu, 2006). been the bedrock of human civilisation and Urban inequality is rampant; land markets enabled people to progress socially and are polarised in cities like Mumbai and the economically. SDG 11 highlights the aspect urban poor in many cities end up paying of significance of urban transformation and more than their more affluent counterparts as such the targets outlined in the goal for basic services (Shiraz, 2015).address diverse issues from providing
The Government of India introduced the affordable housing, to universal access to
concept of ‘smart cities’ in 2014 with an public transport, to reducing the per capita
objective to promote cities that provide core environmental impact of cities. They also
infrastructure, good quality of life to citizens, address the institutional set-up to plan and
a clean and sustainable environment and manage cities, recognising that inclusive
application of ‘smart’ solutions. A 'smart city' institutions form the backbone of
is an urban region that is highly advanced in sustainable human settlements.
terms of overall infrastructure, sustainable India and SDG 11 real estate, communications and market
viability (The Hindu, 2016).The mission According to a report by McKinsey, India's
encourages states to plan for sustainable, urban population grew from the 290 million
inclusive and smart urbanisation, with reported in the 2001 census to an estimated
states that abide by central guidelines 340 million in 2008, and could soar further
eligible to receive substantial funding to to 590 million by 2030. The urban
implement their ‘smart city’ plans. The list of expansionwill continue to profligate as India
the first 20 ‘smart cities’ was recently could take only half that time to add the next
released in January 2016. These ‘smart 250 million to its urban population. This will
cities’, if planned and implemented pose an unprecedented policy and
intelligently and inclusively, could provide a managerial challenge(Economic Times,
roadmap for the achievement of SDG 11 in 2011).
India.
Roughly 1.37 crore households, or 17.4% Comparing the IAEG-SDG Indicators of urban Indian households lived in slums in with Indian Indicators2011, according to Census data. The
population census data on internal The following table compares IAEG-SDG
migration (excluding the international indicators with corresponding indicators
migrants) reveals that mobility has currently measured in India for SDG 11.The
generally declined over the decades, both table only includes indicators that have
in rural as well as the urban areas. In case of been finalised by the IAEG-SDG as of
migration for men, wherein economic December 2015. Indicators still in the “grey”
factors are likely to be relatively more category, i.e. indicators that require in-
important than that for women, the decline depth review by IAEG-SDG, have been
in the percentage of migrants can be noted omitted. In the case of SDG 11, the omitted
as significant. The decline in the targets and indicators are as follows:
percentage of lifetime male migrants to total
Tracking the Global Goals in India104
• Target 11.4 Strengthen efforts to protect • Target 11.a Support positive economic,
and safeguard the world's cultural and social and environmental links between
natural heritage. The indicator under urban, peri-urban and rural areas by
discussion is “share of national (or strengthening national and regional
municipal) budget which is dedicated to development planning. The indicator
p r e s e r v a t i o n , p r o t e c t i o n a n d under discussion is “cities with more
conservation of national cultural natural than 100,000 inhabi tants that
heritage including World Heritage implement urban and regional
sites”. development p lans integrat ing
population projections and resource • Target 11.5 By 2030, significantly
needs”. reduce the number of deaths and the
number of people affected and • Target 11.c Support least developed
substantially decrease the direct countries, including through financial
economic losses relative to global gross and technical assistance, in building
domestic product caused by disasters, sustainable and resilient buildings
including water-related disasters, with a utilizing local materials. The indicator
focus on protecting the poor and people under discussion is “percentage of
in vulnerable situations. The indicator financial support that is allocated to the
under discussion is “number of deaths, construction and retrofitt ing of
missing people, injured, relocated or sustainable, resilient and resource-
evacuated due to disasters per 100,000 efficient buildings”.
people”.
Tracking the Global Goals in India 105
Table 12: IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 11
Tracking the Global Goals in India 106
IAEG-SDG Indicator Corresponding Indicator in India with Available Data
Frequency of Data Collection in India
Data Collecting Agency in India
Annual mean levels of fine particulate matter (i.e. PM2.5 and PM10) in cities (population weighted)
PM2.5 and PM10 Levels
Real-Time State Pollution Control Boards / Central Pollution Control Board
Target 11.7 By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities
The average share of the built-up area of cities that is open space in public use for all
Floor Space Index Not fixed State Governments
Target 11.b By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and d evelop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, holistic disaster risk management at all levels
Percent of cities that are implementing risk reduction and resilience strategies aligned with accepted international frameworks (such as the successor to the Hyogo Framework for Action on Disaster Risk Reduction) that include vulnerable and marginalized groups in their design, implementation and monitoring.
Percentage of Land Vulnerable to Natural Disasters
Vulnerability Atlas of India (1997)
Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation
as new or expanded transportation, energy State of Citiesand water systems. Is it estimated that India
Indian cities of Mumbai and Delhi are in line needs to invest USD 1.2 trillion in its cities in to gain a place among the top twenty urban the coming 20 years – equivalent to USD economies of the world by 2025. By 2006, 134 per capita per year, compared to the 27.5% of the country’s population lived in USD 17 spent today(The Economist, 2011). Tier I cities (with a population of over four The urban population in India grew 32 per million); 14.2 million lived in Tier II cities cent in the past decade according to 2011 (with a population of 1-4 million) and 58.3% census data; but the government expects in Tier III and IV cities (with population of another 42% growth in population over the less than one million). This landscape is next 15 years(The Economist, 2011). Such expected to change significantly, with many rapid expansion raises the prospect of city Tier II cities even doubling their population administrators reacting with short-term, in the next 20 years, and the Tier III and IV tactical measures, rather than responding bunch also experiencing a similar with long-term strategic direction. A further expansion (NASSCOM, 2014).However, a long-term challenge is adopting a truly proportion of the urban population lives in ho l is t ic approach to susta inab le informal settlements often referred to as urbanisation, which charts the path for a ‘slums’ or ‘shanty towns’, with no access to growth in the city population without a basic social and physical infrastructure like commensurate increase in resource health, education, water, sanitation and consumption. In actual terms, a holistic transportation. approach begins with the city plan - which in
turn gives rise to frameworks for the built Being at the epicentre of rapid urbanisation environment, for transportation networks, is both a bane and boon for India. Cities and for energy consumption. But have been contributing nearly 60% the sustainable urban growth must also include nation’s GDP and almost 85% of the tax measures to tackle urban poverty and revenues(Gopal, 2012). Indian cities are social exclusion and to deal with growing now acknowledged as the engines of diversity. Currently, around three-quarters economic growth. But rapid urbanisation is of India’s urban citizens earn an average of something that India was not prepared to USD 1.80 a day(The Economist, 2011). deal with. Urbanisation happened at a time Social inclusion measures could include when the nation was still heavily focused on providing access to low-cost housing to rural development. The rural bias is curtail the spread of slums – which currently reflected in national policies and house between 20-40% of India’s urban investments even in the 21st century. In per population (The Economist, 2011).capita terms, India’s annual capital
spending of $17 on urban infrastructure is a The role of c i t ies in addressing mere 14 per cent of China’s $116 and 4% of sustainability challenges worldwide has the United Kingdom’s $391(Gopal, 2012). been recognised as relevant. Many of the
SDG goals and targets will succeed or fail in Challenges in Achieving SDG 11
global cities since over 54 per cent of the
world population now resides in these sub-One widespread challenge in fast-growing
nat ional uni ts(Simon, 2015). The Indian cities is the archaic urban
availability of national data at a level of governance structure. A further obstacle for
disaggregation that would enable local many cities is financing infrastructure such
Tracking the Global Goals in India 107
governments to implement policies or 2011 Census covers all 4,041 statutory
monitor outcomes is very limited. towns in India, as compared to 2001 when
Household surveys, for example, tend to only statutory towns with population over
produce single figures on issues such as 20,000 were covered. The 2001 data had
water or sanitation but fall short of set India's slum population at 15% of the
establishing the argument on how these total population (Shrinivasan, 2013). 60%,
numbers vary across districts. Government or eight million, people in Mumbai live in
data on housing, for example, is often slums characterised by degraded housing,
unable to keep up with the movement of poor hygiene, congestion, inadequate civic
population, with information on informal services, and deplorable quality of life.
urban settlements seldom reflecting reality Mumbai is not alone; most of the metros in
(D'Almeida, 2015). India have anywhere between 30 to 50% of
people living in squatter settlements. In Affordable Housing, Slums, and India, increasing prosperity in the cities Access to Basic Services paradoxically increased the number of poor
people too. The unskilled migrants from the This target concerns housing, informal
rural counterparts have access to neither settlements and “slums”. This is very hard
land nor jobs. It is estimated that India has a to measure in a comparable way, and it will
deficit of 50 to 70 million houses (Gopal, be a challenge for Indian cities to provide
2012); the need for other social robust and reliable data. “Inadequate
infrastructure too is not far behind. housing” was considered a better term than
“slum”, as it includes access to basic Housing Conditionservices, tenure security and quality of
According to the Task Force on Affordable housing across the participating cities.This Housing set up by the MoHUPA in 2008, has locked ci t ies in a perennial affordable housing for various segments is dichotomous state of contrasting realities, defined by the size of the dwelling and characterised by rapid economic growth on housing affordability derived by the the one hand and multiple deprivations on household income of the population (Jones the other. Nearly one in every six urban Lang LaSalle, 2012). Generally, in all State Indian residents lives in a slum. The new or Central government-subsidised numbers are, however, significantly lower schemes and projects, an ‘affordable’ than the 27.5% slum growth that had been dwelling with a carpet area of 60 square projected for India (Shrinivasan, 2013). The metres or less costs a maximum of five census defines a slum as "residential areas times a household’s annual income where dwellings are unfit for human (MoSPI, 2013).habitation" because they are dilapidated,
cramped, poorly ventilated, unclean, or Provision of adequate housing and
"any combination of these factors which are amenities are major challenges for human
detrimental to the safety and health.” development, particularly among low-
Roughly 1.37 crore households, or 17.4% income urban households in developing
of urban Indian households lived in a slum countries. In India, currently, there is a
in 2011, data released by the Registrar shortfall of 23 million houses, out of which
General and Census Commissioner's office nearly 96% belongs to the Economically
showed. The new data is difficult to Weaker Sections (EWS) and Lower Income
compare with previous years, because the
Tracking the Global Goals in India108
Group (LIG) Households. The gap between one was to look at smaller or affordable
the supply and demand of housing has units.
been widening thus, pushing up the market For instance, of the 700,000 houses sold
rates(MoHUPA, 2014).These challenges last year, 300,000 were in the 500 to 700
are further exacerbated when social sqft category. Since the shortfall of 23
exclusion makes access to adequate million is mostly in the affordable and mid-
housing and amenities difficult among segment, the increase in supply has to be
certain communities. In fact, it also that much more. At present, 70% of the
contributes to the creation of a housing sub-demand or shortfall of the 23 million
market, which imbalances supply and shortage is in the 700 to 1,000 sqft bracket
demand and ultimately leads to difficulty in (Business Standard, 2015). A country’s
access to affordable housing. Though housing situation is the by-product of
various levels of government have made household socio-economic conditions
modest attempts to provide housing and (including household income, property and
services through housing policies and assets) and government habitat policies
programmes, the results have so far not and programmes. Success in improving
been encouraging. The need, according to housing conditions can be limited because
the Housing for All Scheme of the policymakers often limit their efforts to
Government of India, is for more than three housing policies and programmes and do
million residential units a year, against not look at the whole picture, particularly
700,000 houses sold in 2014. The supply key drivers like socio-economic conditions.
has to grow by more than three times to fill
the gap. The numbers are distorted further if
Tracking the Global Goals in India 109
Box 6: A glance at housing in urban India, 2011
A glance at housing in urban India, 2011
Total population: 377.11 million
Total households: 78.87 million
Condition of census house: good (68.4%), liveable (28.7%), dilapidated (2.9%)
Estimated housing shortage: 24.71 million
Estimated slum population: 93.06 million
Estimated number of slums: 49,000
Estimated poverty headcount: 25.7 million
Tap water as main source of drinking water: 70.6%
Latrine facilities within the premises: 81.4%
Source: (Ahmad, 2012)
The Census of India carries out decennial condition of nearly 94 million of Census
surveys on information on housing stock houses has been reported as ‘Good’, 83
and its condition. The surveys ascertain the million as ‘Liveable’, and 10 million as
safety and ‘liveability’ of each Census ‘Dilapidated’(Census of India, 2011).
house by determining the predominant Houses have been classi f ied as
material of the floor, walls, and roof which is Pe rmanen t , Semi -pe rmanen t , o r
derived from a list of materials under each Temporary based on the type of material
category. According to Census 2011, with used in the construction of the walls and
information on the state of housing, the roof. Nearly 99 million of the 187 million
houses fall under the Permanent category; round (January - June 1993) of operation,
58 million under Semi-permanent; and 35 the NSSO took up 'housing condition' again
million under Temporary. Nearly 22 million as a subject of enquiry. It is pertinent to note
of the temporary houses have been the issue of gaps within the NSSO surveys.
reported as ‘Serviceable’ while 13 million The fourth survey in the series was
are ‘Non-serviceable’ depending on conducted in the 58th round (July -
whether the walls of house were made of December 2002) after a gap of ten years. In
mud, un-burnt bricks, wood, grass thatch, this round also, information was collected
bamboo, plastic, or polythene(Census of on the structural aspects of the dwelling
India, 2011). The disaggregation of the units and enquiries had been made whether
IAEG-SDG target of achieving ‘safe’ the basic housing amenities such as
housing is through vague descriptions of drinking water, bathroom, sewerage,
‘good’, ‘liveable’, or ‘dilapidated’ based latrine, lighting, etc. were available to
primarily on the material of construction, but households or not. Information on
not the current condition. For instance, a construction activities carried out by the
‘temporary’ dwelling may be ‘good’ or households during the last five years was
‘serviceable’ without actually determining also collected. The latest available data on
the ‘liveability’ of the structure. housing condition is the data corresponding
to NSS 69th round (July 2012-December The National Sample Survey Office
2012) in which a nation-wide survey was (NSSO) conducted a nation-wide survey on
carried out to provide estimates on various ‘Drinking water, Sanitation, Hygiene and
characteristics of housing amenities, Housing Condition’ in its 69th round (July
housing condition, and cost of construction 2012-December 2012) of operations. The
(NSSO, 2012). Housing has emerged as objective of the survey was to examine and
one of the crucial areas of government study different aspects of living conditions
interventions with the nationwide policies necessary for decent and healthy living of
and programmes such as The Housing for the household members by developing
All (Pradhan Mantri AawasYojna) launched suitable indicators based upon collected
in June 25, 2015. The improvisation in the information. The last survey on these
periodicity of the data will be of crucial subjects was undertaken in the 65th round
importance as the government has set the of NSS (July 2008- June 2009). The survey
target to provide houses to two crore households, in rural and urban areas, are
families belonging to the economically aggregated based on the structure of the
weaker section (EWS) in urban areas by dwelling (pucca, semi-pucca, katcha),
2022. With the 6 states Chhattisgarh, plinth level, utilisation of space, floor area,
Gujarat, J&K, Jharkhand, Kerala, Madhya and micro-environment indicators that
Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan and determine safety and quality of life including
Telangana.good ventilation, access to any kind of
drainage, garbage disposal facilities, The Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty
access to roads and carriageways, and Alleviation (MHUPA) implemented the sub-
insect infestation. missions Basic Services to Urban Poor and
Integrated Housing & Slum Development However, the NSSO’s assessment of
Programme. Rajiv AwaasYojana was housing is carried out through surveys that
launched in June 2011 with the objective of have been more or less randomised since
‘Slum Free India’ with inclusive and the organisation’s inception. In its 49th
Tracking the Global Goals in India110
Tracking the Global Goals in India 111
equitable cities in which every citizen has current housing and building construction
access to basic civic infrastructure, social activity. The sample survey by National
amenities, and decent shelter. Sample Survey Office covers various
aspects of housing condi t ion of The National Urban Livelihoods Mission
h o u s e h o l d s . N a t i o n a l B u i l d i n g s (NULM), which replaced the erstwhile
Organisation (NBO) - an attached office Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana in
under the Ministry of Housing and Urban 2013, focuses on organising urban poor in
Poverty Alleviation initiated efforts for self-help groups, creating opportunities for
collection of relevant statistics related to skill development leading to market-based
housing in urban areas from respective employment and helping them to set up
State Government/UT Administration self-employment ventures by ensuring
through its Directorate of Economics and easy access to credit. Additionally, the
Statistics and from Urban Local Bodies. Mission aims at providing shelter equipped
Irregular and/or lack of flow of information with essential services to the urban
f r o m S t a t e G o v e r n m e n t s / U T homeless in a phased manner. The
Administration, however, is a major National Policy on Urban Street Vendors
constraint. ‘Housing’, per-se, is not a sector (NPUSV), 2009 aims at fostering a
in National Accounts Statistics and its congenial environment for the urban street
contribution to GDP is subsumed under vendors to carry out their activities without
‘Construction’. harassment from any quarter. The Street
Vendors (Protection of Livelihood & Finally, housing statistics do not form part of
Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014 has administrative statistics. The availability of
been enacted to protect the rights of urban relevant statistics on various parameters
street vendors and to regulate street r ega rd ing hous ing and bu i l d i ng
vending activities. The Real Estate construction required by MHUPA is
(Regulation & Development) Bill, 2013 has c o n s t r a i n e d a n d d a t a g a p s
been formulated in consultation with all persist(MoHUPA, 2015).
stakeholders to establish a uniform Slums
regulatory environment to enforce
disclosure, fair practice, and accountability The Census of India (1991) followed the norms in real estate transactions (buying or slum definition given by the Government of selling), and to provide an adjudication India (1956). Until then, only notified slums machinery for speedy dispute redressal. were included in the slum census. It should The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Housing be also noted that in the 1991 census, only for All (Urban) Mission has been launched those slums with a population of 50,000 or in June 2015 to address the housing more were covered for slum demography. shortage in urban areas. The Mission will be This led to an underestimate of the total implemented during 2015-2022 and will slum population, since smaller slums were provide central assistance to Urban Local not counted. The Census of India in 2001 Bodies (ULBs) and other implementing used a new definition for slums, whereby, in agencies through States/UTs. However, the addition to the notified slums, all areas decennial population census enumerates recognized as a “slum” by the state or local the stock of houses, buildings and related government and the Union Territories (UT) parameters. The Census of India, however, administration that have not been formally does not provide information regarding notified as slums under any act the purpose
Tracking the Global Goals in India112
of differentiation in the NSSO surveys, basic services and living conditions. In
‘slums’ in India are divided into ‘notified’ and 2014, the government of India set up a
‘non-notified slums’. It is important to note committee to develop a slum index at the
here that ‘squatter settlements’ fall outside city, state, and national levels to sharpen its
the definition of ‘slums’ and are categorised policy focus on the urban poor. The
separately. ‘Notified slums’ are areas committee suggested a method for
notified as slums by the concerned state developing the slum index by studying
governments, municipalities, corporations, various aspects and data. It also tried to
local bodies, or development authorities. determine how the slum situation in the
‘Non-notified slums’ are any compact country is changing by looking at the
settlement with a collection of poorly built ‘quality’ and ‘quantity’ of slums. Additionally,
tenements, mostly of temporary nature, the committee also looked at qualitative
crowded together, usually with inadequate improvements in slum populations through
sanitary and drinking water facilities in a slum upgradation index. According to the
unhygienic conditions, provided at least 20 Census, roughly two-thirds of households
households live there. If such a settlement are within Indian slums. The type of housing
was not notified as a slum, it was structure is often used as an indicator of
considered as a non-notified slum. While housing quality. In India, pucca refers to
these characterist ics help in the permanent materials, such as brick, stone,
differentiation of the two settlements, there and cement. Katcha refers to temporary
is little clarity on what constitutes ‘poorly materials, such as mud, bamboo, and
built tenements’ or ‘unhygienic conditions’. wood. Pucca housing includes both a roof
and walls built with pucca materials; semi-A ‘squatter settlement’ is defined as slum
pucca, with either a roof or walls built with like settlements with less than 20
pucca materials; and katcha, with both roof households. The point to be noted here is
and walls built with katcha materials. that the definition of slums is not limited to or
Whereas more than 80% of houses in unilateral with respect to merely housing,
notified slums are pucca housing, the but broader with the inclusion of access to
Table 13: Comparison of Slum Definitions
Definitions provided by: Lack of
sanitation
Access to safe
drinking water
Structural
quality
Over-crowding
Living area
Security of tenure
Slum Area Act 1956 ? ? ? ? x x
UN-Habitat ? ? ? ? ? ?
UN Development Program
? ? x x ? ?
Cities Alliance x x x ? ? ?
Census of India 2001 ? ? ? ? x x
NSSO ? ? ? ? x x
Central Statistical Organisation
? ? ? x x x
Slum Census 2011 ? ? ? ? ? x
Source:(Wilson Centre, 2011)
Tracking the Global Goals in India 113
proportion remains at 65% in non-notified recognized, it may or may not be notified as
slums. Households in non-notified slums a slum under a ‘Slum Act’.
are usually not eligible for such public Public policy interventions begin to kick in
programs. Government agencies have when a slum is notified. Those interventions
notified slums in which a majority of houses are less when the slum is recognised, lower
were already pucca housing.still when it is identified, and non-existent for
There has been a ‘ remarkab le ’ households that are below the cluster
improvement in the quality of living of the threshold(Debroy, 2013). Formalising a
slum population with improved access to slum settlement is often followed by the
drinking water, sanitation and electricity, installation of infrastructure and services by
according to Census 2011 (Mint, 2014). government agencies, which would
otherwise be reluctant to do so to illegal Slums are present in 66% of all statutory
squatters. In India, for instance, households towns in India,108,000 slums are home to
in not i f ied slums are ent i t led to 13.7 million households, and 17.4% of
infrastructure and services provided by urban households live in slums (Debroy,
local municipalities. Assurance of security 2013). However, urban slum population
and the expectation of the provision of isn’t spread uniformly throughout the
services in the future may motivate nation. Living in a slum often means
construction activities by slum households inadequate access to drinking water,
that wish to rent out the newly built spaces sanitation, sewage treatment, and even
and thus gain a new source of steady health and education. Given the pressures
income. One of the challenges in combining of urbanization and nature of migration to
the various data sets for comparison metro cities, the slum issue will increase in
pertains to the varying definitions of slums importance in the future. For instance, there
use (Planning Commission, 2011). As UN-are estimates that 9% of India’s population
Habitat suggests, there are multiple (104 million people) will live in slums by
reasons for the nonexistence of a 2017 (Debroy, 2013). According to the NSS,
universally accepted and quantifiable the proportion of households that engaged
definition of a slum: in construction work (i.e., any types of
remodelling, renovation, and repair work) to • Slums are too complex to define
improve their houses during the last five according to one single parameter.
years is higher in non-notified slums (9.7%) • Slums are a relative concept, and what
than in notified slums (8.8%), and the is considered a slum in one city will be
average amount of money they spent for regarded as adequate housing in
the investment is larger in notified slums another city—even in the same country.
(INR 32,737) than in non-notified slums
(INR 21,252) (Debroy, 2013). The average • Slums change too fast to render any duration of residence in the slums is criterion valid for a reasonably long approximately fourteen years both in non- period of timenotified and notified slums(Debroy, 2013).
Key issues pertaining to the data of the Once a slum has been identified, it may or slums involve firstly, discrepancy in values may not be recognised as a slum by the for the same year in different data sets State or local government, or by Housing largely due to the inadequate official slum and Slum Boards. Once a slum has been
Tracking the Global Goals in India114
boundaries which makes it cumbersome to within the society and economy. The role of
confirm the number of households in a municipalities and state governments will
particular area makes it difficult. Eventually, be immense as the nature of data collation
involving diverse parameters utilised by will be critical from the bottom units and will
varied agencies to collect and measure the be devised for effective and coordinated
data. Secondly, the lack of common codes policies. Slums pose a large array of
for slum verification as each slum in a problems of an urban cape there for
survey set have their own survey codes, detailed database, information will be
this would involve intensive work to search essential to provide us with a defined
individually for a single slum from a data set compressive outlook on the size,
to compare with another set with all the characteristics, diverse population growth
limiting factors constraining the parameters trends, existence on varied basic
for identification. It is essential that the city services,structure, and the challenges that
government create a central database for are city specific. Thus many literature and
slums with a unique code for each slum, discussions have also invoked a call for a
which can then be used for future slum central database related to slums which will
surveys. That way, all the data sets could be also entail the methodologies and research
linked with each other to study trends. conducted by diverse agencies. These
Thirdly, there is a dichotomous procedure should also be aligned with the Open Data
for rating infrastructure services, while Movement that is being initiated by the
some survey sets measure the percentage Ministry of Statistics and Programme
of households that have access to Implementat ion (MOSPI) . In fact
infrastructure services in a particular slum; acommittee set up under the chairmanship
some survey sets only indicate the of the secretary of MOSPI in 2009 talked
presence or absence of infrastructure about evolving a sustainable and viable
services. This kind of data is unable to methodology for conducting slum and other
provide the micro level details on whether surveys between successive census
a l l househo lds a re dep r i ved o f surveys and at the same time suggested
infrastructure services. We have a measures to build an Urban Information
misleading data inference, for instance, a Management System on Slums and Urban
slum having only 10% of households Poverty, Housing, and Construction, duly
covered by infrastructure services is taking into account the data collected by
considered as having infrastructure, and so agencies such as the National Sample
is a slum having 90% of households Survey Office (NSSO), various NGOs, and
covered by infrastructure services (Debroy, so on (Government of India, 2008). An
2013).Lastly, in the absence of clear objective and roust data and information will
demarcations of changes in slum ward be necessary for building a foundation
boundaries, it becomes a challenge to structure for policy makers, researchers,
combine multiple data sets for ward-level practitionersinterested in the dynamics of a
analysis. India needs to essentially gear up city’s slum development.
its efforts in revamping the existing
procedures, and mechanisms towards
slum in order to achieve the set target for The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban the SDG11. The task is immense as the Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was launched attempt is to address the informal structures in 2005 for a period of seven years to
implement reform-driven, planned children. Providing safe spaces for
development of cities with a focus on the pedestrians will thus significantly reduce
improvement of urban infrastructure, this number (Shorta & Pinet-Peraltaa, No
creation of housing stock, and provision of Accident: Traffic and Pedestrians in the basic services to the urban poor, Modern City, 2010). Public transportation is community participation, and accountability defined as a shared passenger transport of urban local bodies. The Report of the service that is available to the general Committee on Slum Statistics by the public. It includes buses, trolleys, trams, Government of India (2008),stated that the trains, subways, and ferries. It excludes advent of Mission (JNNURM), has led to a taxis, car pools, hired buses not shared by real izat ion that the database for strangers without prior arrangement. undertaking such a huge program is grossly Effective and low-cost transportation for inadequate. Due to non-availability of mobility is critical for urban poverty authentic statistics on states’ slum reduction and economic development populations, there has been faulty planning because it provides access to jobs, health and the financial requirements for JNNURM care, education services, and more. The have been underestimated in the absence Partnership on Sustainable Low-Carbon of an accurate understanding of the extent Transport (SLoCaT) and others proposed of the problem due to lack of data on slums. indicators for urban access to sustainable In the absence of such adequate and transport that include: mean daily travel re l iab le data, the p lans for the time, percentage of income spent by urban developmentof cities and towns have not families on transport, and percentage of adequately addressed the concerns of the households within 500 meters of good urban poor, especially slum dwellers. quality, affordable public transportation(UN Preparation of municipal-level action plans Habitat, 2006).will require a considerable amount of data
The Government of India very recently on the actual number of existing released the significant issue of Road households, availability of infrastructure Transport Year Book: 2010-2011 provides a services (or lack thereof), and many other wide range of information, data and such parameters.analysis pertaining to motor vehicles, motor
Sustainable Public Transport and vehicle taxation regimes, motor vehicle
production and sales, permits and licenses, Road Safetyrevenue realized from motor vehicle taxes
Affordable and Sustainable Public across States/Union Territories and million-Transport plus cities. The Transport Research Wing
(TRW) of the Ministry of Road Transport & Transportation is a key development issue Highways collects, compiles, analyses, and target 11.2 is important to achieve safe, publishes, and disseminates information on resilient and, sustainable cities. Active the road transport sector in India (Ministry of transport, like bicycling or walking, can Road Transport and Highways, 2011).contribute to achieving the target of halving
the number of global deaths and injuries Delhi, the National Capital Region, loses from road traffic collisions. 65% of the 1.2 nearly 420 million person-hours every million deaths that occur each year month to commuting between home and worldwide due to road accidents involve work(Gopal, 2012). Several million vehicles pedestrians; 35% of those deaths are
Tracking the Global Goals in India 115
Tracking the Global Goals in India116
ply on the streets where vehicle-to-road public transport is more than 40% in cities
length ratio is poor. Respirable Particulate with more than 5 million populations (mostly
Matter (RPM) is always several notches organized bus systems)(Tiwari, 2011). The
above the acceptable level; 50% of the road average trip length in medium and small
accident victims are pedestrians; and size cities is less than 5 km, it will be
billions of working hours are lost with people pertinent to measure relate the data
stuck in traffic. The footpath-to-road ratio is collected with the target 11.2 Percentage of
poor in most cities. The ‘Walkability Index’ is people within 0.5 km of public transit
less than 0.6 on average(Walkability Index, running at least every 20 minutes(Tiwari,
2015) and captive walkers often don’t walk 2011).
by choice - they have little access to public Transit-Oriented-Development (TOD) is
transport. The share of motorised vehicles viewed as the next big solution that will
increased from 65% to 90% while the share connect susta inable t ransport to
of non-motorised vehicles decreased from sustainable urban development in India.
35% to 10%. Even as the public Given that the spatial expansion of Indian
transportation share decreased, urban cities is inevitable, mainstreaming concepts
sprawl increased - trip lengths, fuel like TOD will be vital for ensuring this growth
consumption, and emissions went up happens in a compact and sustainable
exponentially. For growing cities like those manner, minimizing negative externalities
in India, the share of public transport should like sprawl, air pollution, and increased
ideally be around 80 per cent but most have infrastructure cost.
it in the range of 40 per cent(Gopal, 2012). It
is also a fact that many cities in India do not In Indian cities, TOD has been largely used have any kind public transport at all. to mean transit-adjacent development, with Transport choices are often not made in a the discussion revolving largely around city-centric fashion based on the increasing the intensity of real estate transportation needs, available budgets, development near transit stations. Indian and the readiness of people to accept that cities ought to focus more on ‘multi-modal mode of transportation. Indian cities have transport integration, urban design, and mix land use structure with substantial enhanced priority for pedestrians and informal settlements (15-60 per cent cyclists. This would ensure the creation of population living in slums). This has walkable neighbourhoods. Ultimately, resulted in short trip lengths irrespective of central and state governments will need to city size. Even in big cities like Mumbai and rethink their priorities while designing Hyderabad 80 per cent of the trips are less roads, placing pedestrians’ and cyclists’ than 10 km in length and 70 per cent of the safety and comfort at the core of their road trips are less than 5 km(Gopal, 2012). In development process (Dalkmann & cities like Pune, 97 per cent of the trips are Prabhu, 2013).less than 10 km and 80 per cent of the trips
While the benefits to health are obvious, are shorter than 5 km (Gopal, 2012).The sustainable means of transportation will longer trips are dependent on bus system also determine how easy it is to access and in cities where formal organised bus other key services in the city, such as service is not available, motorised two education and employment, and is wheelers (MTW), intermediate public therefore connected indirectly to SDG 1 transport (IPT) and cycle rickshaws (Eradicate poverty) and SDG 4 (Ensure dominate the modal share. The share of
inclusive and equitable quality education). land or invest enough in appropriate
Finally, efficient transportation systems can transport infrastructure, to keep transport
support SDG 5 (Gender equality) by problems manageable. This harms the poor ensuring that they meet the unique needs of in three ways:women. Transportation systems in Indian
• Growth of measured GDP is reduced by cities are often built to address the needs of freight congestion, delays and men with little consideration of the needs of unpred ic tab i l i ty, d i f f i cu l t ies o f women. When compared to men, women conducting business, and increasing move about cities at different times, for
signs of disarticulation of the labour different reasons, in different ways, and
market in some large cities.may have fewer financial resources; they
are less able to afford many of the • Also efficiency - reducing but not transportation options available to them
directly reflected in GDP statistics are (Asian Development Bank, 2013). A well-most transport-originated air pollution, designed transportation system that ‘non-business’, and time lost to supports walking, cycling and public transit congestion and traffic accidents.use will enable all people to fully participate
in community life and creates cleaner, safer, • In the acute battles for space the poor
healthier, and more social places. suffer particularly, either from dwelling
on pavements to be close to work or The ‘High Powered Expert Committee’
from only slightly less health-destroying commissioned by the Ministry of Urban
accommodation in central slums, or Development Government of India
from multi-hour journeys to work.estimates a total expenditure of INR39 lakh
crores on urban infrastructure and services Although some data exists for public
by 2031 (Ministry of Urban Development, transport companies and individual cities,
2012). As per this report, major expenditure harmonized and comparable data on the
is on urban roads; INR 17 lakh crores. world level does not yet exist. To obtain this
Urban transport is estimated to require a would require engagement with the
fraction of this, about 4 lakh crores (Ministry municipal/city level, as urban transport is
of Urban Development, 2012). The level of not in the purview of the Central
investment required in urban transport and government in India. In general, there is
roads, which is the main infrastructure for currently a lack of data on the number of
urban transport, as a percentage of total people with access to mass transit and on
investment for upgrading all urban services transport infrastructure (You, 2015).Urban
suggests the importance of urban transport transport policy can thus contribute to
in raising the economic potential of cities. poverty reduction both through its impact on
The biggest challenge of economic growth the city economy and hence on economy
and development, however, is that of equity. growth and through its direct impact on the
The relationship between transport, urban daily needs of the very poor.
economic growth, and poverty is states that
urban transport is the life blood of cities, and Safe, Secure, and Accessibleemerges as a subject of concern of all
The need to improve safety in cities in India studies of the poor urban areas. The central requires little justification. Fatalities in India problem for the big cities in the developing per million of population have increased world is that with low incomes but very rapid from 79 in 2001 to 101 in 2007(Ministry of growth, they are unable to devote enough
Tracking the Global Goals in India 117
Urban Development, 2012). The actual systemic level implies that components of
situation may be much worse as a number public transit systems like trains and buses,
of accidents are not even reported. A recent their stations and stops, the ticketing and
report estimated a 50% increase in road any other user interfaces should be within
accidents over a 10 year period (2005-15). reach of people with different types of
Traffic fatality rates have been increasing in impairments. At the infrastructure level,
most cities; pedestrians, bicyclists and two pedestrian paths and crossings, parking
wheeler riders comprise of 60-90% of the facilities and access to public land uses
total fatalities; motorcyclists represent a should be inclusive in their design for
large portion of urban fatalities (about 25%); differently-abled persons.
the involvement of trucks in fatal crashes is I n c l u s i v e a n d S u s t a i n a b l e high; and night-time driving in India is Urbanisationsubstantially riskier than daytime driving
(Ministry of Urban Development, 2012). Land Use Statistics in India
Several factors contribute to the declining
safety levels including the quality of road This indicator marks a measure of land-use
infrastructure; poor driver training, testing, efficiency, benchmarks and monitors the
and licensing; registration, testing, and relationship between land consumption and
certification of Vehicles Road Accidents population growth, it informs and enables
Data Collection and Analysis; and decision-makers to track and manage
enforcement of traffic rules and regulations. urban growth at multiple scales and
Road Safety Audit (RSA) is an examination enhances their ability to promote land use
of an existing or planned road network by an efficiency. In sum, it ensures that the SDGs
independent and well qualified auditor who address the wider dimensions of space and
reports on any deficiencies in safety land adequately and provides the frame for
aspects and prepares recommendations on the implementation of several other goals,
improvements that may be necessary. notably health, food security, energy and
Cities could undertake safety audit for climate change. This land use efficiency
hazardous locations to reduce accidents, indicator not only uniquely highlights the
fatalities, and injuries. The initiative needs form of urban development but also
to be taken by urban civic bodies since illuminates human settlement patterns. It
there is no single agency or department that can be employed to capture the three
is responsible for improving safety in a dimensions of land use efficiency:
comprehensive, scientific, and a systematic economic (e.g., proximity of factors of
manner in a city. production) environmental (e.g., lower per
capita rates of resource use and GHG The organisational framework to deal with
emissions,) and social (e.g., avoidance of all road safety related issues should be
settlement of on vulnerable land, promotion provided by creating a Safety Board at
of reduced travel times/distances). Finally, State level with safety cells in cities with
urban configuration largely predetermines dedicated personnel and budget.
the technologies and behavioural patterns
within a city. Once built, cities are expensive Universal accessibility needs to be and difficult to reconfigure. Fast-growing provided, by the urban transport systems, cities in the developing world must ‘get it both at the systemic level and the r ight ’ before they are beset by Infrastructure level. Accessibility at the
Tracking the Global Goals in India118
Tracking the Global Goals in India 119
infrastructural lock-in. Though density is a g g l o m e r a t i o n s a r e u n d e r f a s t
typically measured in units of inhabitants transformation resulting into haphazard
per hectare, and its inverse, land growth of slums, unauthorised colonies,
consumption, in hectares per inhabitant, piecemeal commercial development,
this indicator is ultimately measuring a intermixes of conforming and non-
unitless ratio (i.e., rate to rate). India conforming uses of land coupled with
occupies 2.4% of the total land area of the inadequate infrastructures, services, and
world, but supports 16.7% of the world facilities.
population (Kumar, 2011). Notwithstanding The growth of cities, at all points, has often
the facts, developing countries, in general, meant the erasure of rural spaces and the
including India lack a scientific land associated impacts - social, cultural, and
accounting system in order to place a economic - on the village communities.
monitoring and regulatory system for the More often than not, the result has been
use of land (Kumar, 2011). negative on communities especially the
Urbanisation and Land Use in India landless labourers, small entrepreneurs,
and local artisans. It may be true that the The level of urbanisation in India increased
physical expansion of the city, caused by from 17% in 1951 to 31% in 2011(Kothari,
the State or private developers, is detached 2006). According to the world population
from any concern for the needs and rights of prospects by the United Nations, 55%
the affected rural communities. There is population of India will be urban by the year
rarely any participatory process initiated in 2050. With this pattern of urbanisation, the
either land use planning or implementation. urban population of 377 million as in 2011
The 73rd and 74th Constitutional will be 915 million by the year 2050. During
Amendments Acts were introduced in the the decade 2001-2011, the number of
early 1990 in a bid to achieve democratic towns in the country increased from 5,161
decentralization and provide constitutional to 7,935 (Ministry of Rural Development,
endorsement of local self-governance 2 0 1 3 ) . T h e n u m b e r o f u r b a n
authorities. These amendments confer agglomerations, having a population of
authority on legislatures of States to endow more than one million increased from 5 in
respectively Panchayats and Municipalities 1951 to 53 in 2011 (Ministry of Rural
with such powers and functions as may be Development, 2013). Most of the cities are
necessary to enable them to act as traditionally located along the major rivers,
institutions of self – government. For the around lakes and along the coastline, the
p u r p o s e , t h e P a n c h a y a t s a n d agriculturally productive belt, and
Municipalities have been charged with the environmentally sensitive areas. Urban
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f p r e p a r i n g a n d land is about 7.74 million hectares, which is
implementing plans for economic only 2.35% of the country’s total land area
development and social justice. The central (Ministry of Rural Development, 2013). The
objective of these amendments is the mega cities are mostly spilling over to rural-
decentralization of planning and decision agricultural belt (peri-urban areas) due to
making procedures. It also has the implicit high land prices as compared to household
intention of removing centralized notions of income of the average citizens. The peri-
control and monopoly over development of urban areas or f r inges o f such
resources.
There is a need to support initiatives, such Systems (GIS) and remote sensing,
as those of urban progress, industrial however, are handy for developing a spatial
growth, mining, and infrastructure database.
enhancement through properly guided The Government of India is already working
development in a sustainable and on setting up the National Spatial Data
harmonized manner to minimize land use Infrastructure. Systematically, such spatial
conflicts. More than two-thirds of India’s databases would be built-up over a period
rural population is directly dependent on of time. The existing database on land use
various combinations of private and in the country is inadequate. There is no
common pool lands and waters for a very mechanism to monitor land use changes
wide diversity of agricultural, agro-pastoral, taking place and their impacts. An
and fisheries-related livelihood systems introduction of systematic and integrated
(Kothari, 2006). These include ecosystem-land use planning at the national, state, and
based variations of settled agriculture, regional levels might prove to be a major
shifting cultivation, nomadic and non-challenge (Ministry of Rural Development,
nomadic pastoralism, and various 2013). There have to be supportive
combinat ions of agr icu l ture, and instruments (mapping, spatial information,
pastoralism. planning processes, tools, methods,
This percentage has remained almost procedures, standards etc.) for land use
unchanged in the last 80 years, as planning and management which also take
employment generation in the secondary into account inclusiveness, poverty,
and tertiary sectors of the economy is gender, and climate change aspects.
unable to absorb even the additional urban Another aspect is the availability of
labour force (Kothari, 2006). Despite this guidelines for uniform land use planning.
scenario, tenurial security over land for Except for the urban sector, where the
small and marginal farmers, particularly for Urban Development Plan Formulation and
farmers in so-called ‘marginal’ lands (like Implementation (UDPFI) guidelines exist,
mountains, marshlands, coasts, arid and o ther sec tors such as indus t ry,
semiarid areas), and access to common environment, transport, mining, agriculture
lands for gathering, pasture, shifting lack similar directives. For ensuring proper
cultivation and pastoralism is declining land use planning, there is a need for the
rapidly with changing land policies in the development of detailed guidelines to follow
context of nationalisation, privatisation, and integrated approaches catering to all the
globalization. sectors. There is also lack of adequate
institutional structures at the national, state, Inadequate Land Use Planning
regional/district, and local levels for Capacities
planning and management of land
resources (Ministry of Rural Development, There is a lack of systematic, orderly, and 2013).up-to-date spatial database that is readily
available for land use planning purposes Environmental Impact of Cities
(Kumar, 2011). Due to the lack of a
systematic database, there are also Reporting on Municipal Solid Waste difficulties initially in making projections of
One of the major problems being faced by prospective needs for land use by various cities and towns in India relates to sectors. The use of Geographic Information management of municipal solid waste
Tracking the Global Goals in India120
(MSW). The quantity of waste has Control Board and consolidated as the
increased consistently and municipal Annual Report. Local bodies are required to
authorities have largely not upgraded or forward their respective annual report for
scaled up facilities required for proper each year to the SPCB before the 30th of
management and disposal. In many cities June every year and SPCBs in turn, send
and towns, garbage continues to be their consolidated report for the year before
dumped in open areas. At large, a lack of an the 15th of September to CPCB. The
organised system of house-to-house Hazardous Waste Contaminated Dump
collection of waste has also contributed to Sites data is collected annually as per state
underdeveloped waste management and wise distribution of contaminated dump
proper disposal methods. The Municipal sites in the country, identified by the
Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Supreme Court Monitoring Committee
Rules, 2000 is the law that governs (SCMC).
municipal solid waste collection and Issues with MSW in India
treatment. The assessment of the status of
solid waste management is based on Key issues with MSW in India are:annual reports furnished by local bodies to
• No comprehensive short- and long-the State Pollution Control Boards that are term plan of the municipal authorities to then forwarded to the Central Pollution
Table 14: Responsibility of official agencies for solid waste management
Tracking the Global Goals in India 121
Agency Responsibility
Municipal Authorities
· Ensuring that municipal solid waste is handled as per rules.
· Seeking authorization from State Pollution Control Board
(SPCB) for setting up waste processing and disposal facility
including landfills.
· Furnishing annual report.
· Complying with Schedule I, II, III and IV of the rules
Department of Urban
Development or
District Magistrate
· Overall responsibility for the enforcement of the provisions of
the rules in the metropolitan cities.
· Overall responsibility for the enforcement of the provisions of
the rules within the territorial limits of their jurisdiction.
CPCB
· Co-ordinate with State Boards and Committees with reference
to implementation and review of standards and guidelines and
compilation of monitoring data.
· Prepare consolidated annual review report on management of
municipal solid wastes for forwarding it to Central Government
along with its recommendations before the 15th of December
every year.
· Laying down standards on waste processing/disposal
technologies including approval of technology.
SPCBs
· Monitor the compliance of the standards regarding ground
water, ambient air quality and the compost quality including
incineration standards as specified under Schedule II, III & IV.
· Issuance of authorization to the municipal authority or an
operator of a facility stipulating compliance criteria and
standards.
· Prepare and submit to the CPCB an annual report with regard
to the implementation of the rules.
handle MSW in accordance with the entire management of MSW.
MSW Rules, 2000Segregation
• A majority of the municipal authorities Segregation of waste from the source is
lack the preparedness to set up waste possible where there is a house-to-house
processing and disposal facilitiescollection system. Also, it may be achieved
• Waste management is only looked at by placing separate bins for each category
from the perspective of revenue of waste. However, the objective of
generation segregation could be achieved when
facilities are provided for treatment/ • Cities and towns, in the future, will not
processing of the segregated wastes. In be permitted landfill zones (CPCB,
many cases, the segregated wastes are 2013).
mixed up again at the time of transportation
and disposal.The total quantity of waste generated in the
country is not reported regularly by Transportation
municipal bodies, SPCBs, or the CPCB.
However, the Min is t ry o f Urban Most municipalities are well equipped with
Development in its manual on solid waste waste transporting vehicles, but many of
management (2000) had estimated waste them do not follow the waste transportation
generation at 100,000 million tonnes norms like transporting waste under
(CPCB, 2013). The CPCB, with the covered conditions so that littering does not
assistance of NEERI, had conducted occur on the way (CPCB, 2013)
survey of solid waste management in 59 Waste Processing
cities (35 metro cities and 24 state capitals
in 2004-05) (CPCB, 2013). According to the CPCB, mechanical
composting and vermin-composting are the Disposal
most popular in the country. As per the
Efforts are being made by many local C P C B A n n u a l R e p o r t 2 0 1 0 - 11 ,
bodies for creating mass awareness among implementation of waste disposal facilities
the c i t izens for ensur ing proper in the country is found to be far from
management of MSW including collection, satisfactory. Most cities/towns face issues
segregation, storage, and transportation. with identifying sites for landfill. This is
However, such efforts are confined to a few primarily due to public resistance, rapid
wards/localities within the city or town. growth of urban areas, escalating land
Some good initiatives were reported in prices, and the lack of a Master Plan.
West Bengal (17 ULBs), Punjab (8 ULBs) However, some states including Gujarat,
and Tripura (5 ULBs). Also, improvement in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra
waste collection, segregation, storage, and Pradesh have taken initiatives to identify
transportation were reported in the state of regional or common landfills for disposal of
Andhra Pradesh, Chandigarh, Delhi, Goa, municipal solid waste. According to the
Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, CPCB Annual Report 2010-11 there are 59
M e g h a l a y a , M a d h y a P r a d e s h , landfills in the country, 376 landfills have
Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal. It been planned, and 1305 landfill sites have
was observed that house-to-house been identified for future use (CPCB, 2013).
collection is the most critical issue in the
Tracking the Global Goals in India122
Table 15: Quantity of waste generated, collected and treated by state
Tracking the Global Goals in India 123
Recommendations agreements for the private sector
participation in solid waste management At the Central level, an authority may be
may be widely circulated to the local bodies. designated to provide assistance to the
Central ministries such as the Ministry of state governments and UT administrations
Urban Development (MoUD), Ministry of enabling them to take decisions on
Agriculture, and Ministry of New and implementation of MSW Rules particularly
Renewable Energy (MNRE) may provide relating to setting up of waste processing
assistance to the states in terms of and disposal facilities. Indicative guidelines
technical assistance and in selection of on selection of waste processing and
appropriate technologies relating to waste disposal technological options, model
processing and disposal. The use of
Source: (CPCB, 2013)
Tracking the Global Goals in India124
technology like the Brihanmumbai human habitat areas, areas close to newly
Municipal Corporation promoted Global planned development/economic centres
Positioning System (GPS) based vehicle and areas close to road networks. The
tracking and monitoring system for Solid “Guided Development Areas” include rest
Waste Management (SWM). of the lands that are not covered under
above three types. All these have been This was done in order to track the SWM
proposed by the Department of Land vehicles on a real time basis. A pilot project
Resources, Government of India, under the was started from G-south ward in the city.
National Land Utilisation Policy, 2013. While the SWM vehicles possess GPS
tracker, there would be Radio Frequency The city planning authorities in India have
Identification (RFID) on the dustbins within been proposing the increasing open space
the ward to ensure that waste is collected area in their successive plans. The issue of
regularly. required open green space per capita in
urban systems has been around for a long Access to Urban Public Spaces time. However, in India there is no indicator
to calculate the percentage of public space The “Land-use Management Areas” in cities. FSI or FAR is the ratio of the total (LMAs) are to be identified within the built-up area to the plot area. For example, identified Land Utilisation Zones, during the on a plot of 10,000 sq m, a FSI of 1.33 for planning process, so as to ensure proper South Mumbai would allow for construction management of various land uses. These of 13,000 sq m while that of 1 would allow are categorised into: a) Protected Areas; b) for built-up area of 10,000 for the project. Regulatory Areas; c) Reserved Areas; and
d) Guided Development Areas. The According to Open Mumbai, a civilian “Protected Areas” include land uses with a group, Mumbai has just 1.1 square metres clearly defined geographical space that is of open space - gardens, parks, recreation recogn ised . Such a reas inc lude grounds, (RG) and playgrounds (PG) - per environmentally sensitive and fragile person (Times of India, 2012). The city has ecosystem areas, viz. national parks, 2.5 sq km of gardens and parks, 4 sq km of forests, biosphere reserves etc. that are PG and 7.7 sq km of RG. This adds up to protected under the environmental laws; just over 14 sq km of open spaces for 12.4 socially important areas, viz. protected million people; or 1.1 sq m per person. This tribal settlements etc.; culturally important corresponds to the oft-repeated statistic areas, viz. historic areas, monuments etc. that Mumbai has a poor 0.03 acre of open The “Regulated Areas” are the areas that space per 1,000 people (Times of India, are not legally restricted but have important 2012). Compare this to London's 31.68 sq functions associated. These may include m per person, New York's 26.4 sq m per agricultural areas such as prime agricultural person or Chicago's 17.6 sq m per person. lands, human habitat areas such as rural Mumbai's per capita open space ratio ranks settlements, landscape conservation & among the lowest of all the world's major tourism areas, cultural and heritage areas, metropolitan areas, and especially more so and hazard-prone areas. All such areas if the national park and mangrove creeks should be clearly demarcated in the land are not included as open spaces.use plans of the Land Utilisation Zone. The
It estimates that 0.5% of the city has been “Reserved Areas” include areas near the
Tracking the Global Goals in India 125
reserved for parks and gardens. Another development ministry for architects and
0.8% has been reserved for playgrounds, those who own or manage such public
and 1.6% has been reserved for spaces to make them accessible for the
recreational grounds. This means 2.9% (or elderly and differently-abled people. The
around 14 sq km) of Mumbai's 482.7 sq km ministry has come out with the final draft of
has been reserved for open spaces, like the harmonized guidelines and space
gardens, parks, recreation grounds, and standards for barrier-free environment for
playgrounds. differently-abled people in urban areas
considering that cities provide abundant If 14 sq km is divided by 12.4 million
opportunities and experiences but, the built (Greater Mumbai's population), then one
environment imposes obstacles for the discovers that Mumbai has an average of
same demographic. around 1.1 sq m of open space per person.
London has 31.7 sq m per person and New The designs and specifications, which form
York 26.4 sq m. Another 1.1% of Mumbai part of the guidelines, aim at ensuring all
comprises encroached open spaces public spaces including hospitals, offices,
(including gardens, parks, RGs, and PGs). bus and railways stations, hotels,
restaurants, sports facilities, libraries and If these are cleared, 4% of Mumbai would
shopping complexes cater to the needs of comprise open spaces. Then the ratio
this category of users. One of the focus would improve to 1.5 sq m of open space
areas is to ensure that there is adequate per person (Times of India, 2012). Urban
provision for toilets in each and every floor open space is defined as public and private
of such complexes for their convenience. space, primarily covered by vegetation,
which is directly available for recreation or The final draft guidelines also specify norms
indirectly having positive influence on the for placement of fire alarm boxes,
environment. Urban open space is critical emergency call buttons and lighted panels,
for keeping our cities habitable and makes installation of audible alarms with 'voice
them healthy and energy efficient. instructions' that can help guide people to
However, for urban open space to the nearest emergency exit. As an
contribute to their fullest to the quality of our alternative to pre-recorded messages,
cities, they have to be thoughtfully planned, these alarms may be connected to the
efficiently created, and managed. With land central control room for broadcasts. The
prices skyrocketing, open spaces are Persons with Disability Act mandates that
considered worthless unless they can be people with disabilities be provided with
put to commercial use. equal opportunities and protects their rights
to full participation and the Model Building Public Space for the Differently-abled
Bye Laws also mandate that a barrier-free
environment is maintained to ensure New hotels and motels should have at least inclusive cities and universal designs two rooms ‘preferably on the ground floor’ (Times of India, 2015).for wheel-chair users and every theatre,
movie or assembly hall should have Urban Poor, Street Vendors, and Public
provision for a minimum of six seating Spaces
spaces for such persons (Times of India,
2012).These are some of the guidelines Despite the presence of a full-fledged Act
that have been prescribed by the urban which seeks to protect the rights of street
vendors across the country (the Street Adaptation to Climate Change and
Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Resilience to Disasters
Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014), What is a resilient city? Broadly, it is a
objections regarding the quality of what proactive city with high levels of emergency
they sell or that they cause traffic preparedness, planned with environmental
disturbances often come second to this sustainability embedded through robust
primary concern that street vendors are processes of integrated planning,
often seen as dirtying the streets with their connected with access to urban services
public displays.network, and importantly, well governed
While there is a law that attempts to protect with strong institutional coordination and
street vendors from harassment, the idea command systems. Any comprehensive
that specific groups of people are not attempt to build climate resilience through
worthy of appearing or being visible in a one or more of these four concepts would
public space is not a new one. In the current aim to address most probable scenarios,
and popular mind set it is, therefore, simpler and should leave sufficient room for
to evict street vendors for being combating low probability-high risk events.
impoverished and trying to earn a This will need strategies on all fronts: policy,
livelihood, than to adhere to policies which plans, projects, and regulation.
really protect and them. This is evidenced For example, representatives from an all-
by how local government authorities and stakeholder institution in the city of
bodies choose not to form Town Vending Semarang, Indonesia, formed a team to
Committees under the Act, which will create a ‘Climate Resilient Strategy (CRS)’
conduct surveys and allocate vending prior to revision of their mid-term
zones as well as licenses to street vendors. development and spatial plan. The timing of
However, at the same time, these bodies preparation of the CRS prior to the mid-term
are extremely proactive in implementing deve lopment p lan was c ruc ia l l y
only those provisions which prohibit street synchronised, which resulted in the
vending in particular areas. These actions integration of climate change resilient
infringe upon the street vendors’ right to measures in the development and spatial
livelihood and to work, protected by plan.
constitutional law.
In India, cities like Indore and Surat have In a country where an overwhelming
developed their own CRS. How these are n u m b e r o f p e o p l e l i v e i n d i r e
integrated within their respective land-use impoverishment, caused by circumstance
planning is to be seen. That India can do a coupled with governmental inefficiencies,
good job in successfully pulling off a large-there is a specific need to focus on the
scale strategy on the ground has been attitude that social issues are approached
proved at the time of cyclone Phailin in with. The passing of a law to protect street
Orissa. Similar demonstrations of strong vendors does not translate to automatic
will and collective effort are a must for immunity from harassment unless it is
building resilience through spatial planning accompanied by a concrete understanding
as well. A possible method is to begin with of the fact that street vendors are not
cl imate change-sensit ive land-use irritants by virtue of existing on a street and
planning. To exemplify, this could mean are equally entitled to it (Mathew, 2015).
planning recreational open spaces with
Tracking the Global Goals in India126
water features for low lying areas to allow climate-resilient, need more than high
for natural flow of water and extra water levels of wealth and assets in the form of
retention in the event of sudden heavy infrastructure, and cities with diversified
rainfall, rather than completely covering economic opportunities may be better
such areas with buildings. These areas equipped to adapt to risks posed by climate
again have to be adequately distributed to change. Cities that heavily rely on a single
serve certain catchment zones from where resource or exported commodity have low
water will flow. Equally important would be potential to adapt to climate change.
location specific planning for naturally Economic diversification fosters innovation
vulnerable or disaster-prone areas rather and facilitates knowledge transfers. This
than generic planning guidelines, raises cautions against urban planning and
optimising daily travel requirement within infrastructure creation that are devoid of
the c i ty by c rea t ing mixed use ecological considerations. In many cities,
n e i g h b o u r h o o d s a n d j u d i c i o u s for instance, due to encroachment of
development control regulations. The plan drains, streams and lakebeds, heavy
must also look at the provision of futuristic rainfall events - projected to happen more
infrastructure including identification and often due to climate change – often lead to
availability of spaces for community traffic disruptions, loss of work hours, water
gathering at the time of an emergency, logging of homes and increased risk of
mitigation of localised adverse climatic water-borne diseases.The disastrous
impact (such as extreme heat pockets) by results of improper urban planning were
suitable urban design and the like. This most recently highlighted in the 2015
would be essentially followed by efficient Chennai floods. Chennai has grown by
city forms and built structures guided by filling up its water bodies by draining out the
green design standards. The need for other water, which disrupts natural water flow.
strong measures such as pricing and This highlights the importance of planning
regulatory instruments are also extremely according to the local topography. Diverse
important for realising the benefits of in-built factors, natural and human induced,
resiliency (Bhattacharya, 2014). adverse geo-c l imat ic cond i t ions ,
topographic features, environmental The idea of sustainability and resilience
deg rada t i on , popu la t i on g row th , advocated by the global community through
urbanisation, industrialization, and SDG 11 needs to be reflected in the urban
unscientific development practices play a policy discourse in Indian cities today.
huge role in accelerating the intensity and
frequency of disasters resulting in huge The BRT (bus rapid transit) system economic losses and human casualties. implemented in the city of Ahmedabad is an These coupled with the impact of climate example of achieving sustainability through change and climate variability, are integration of land use and transport accentuating disaster impacts and systems for reduced travel durations and underscore the criticality of promoting emissions. However, it is not always new disaster-resilience and risk reduction i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l practices. Out of 35 states and union advancement but economic diversity that territories in the country, 27 are prone to could help cities adapt to the impacts of different disasters. With increased socio-issues like global warming. Cities, to be
Tracking the Global Goals in India 127
Tracking the Global Goals in India128
Figure 4: Natural Disaster Occurrence Reported during 1980-2010 in India
economic development, threat to Chemical, air programmes. A major reason is that the
Biological, Radiological and Nuclear 573 air quality monitoring stations in India
disasters demand greater preparedness are manually operated, collecting
levels at national, state and district levels information every two days, and data is
(NDMA, 2011). available only after at least one week of
collection (The Wire, 2015). Only a handful There are few details at this stage of what
of cities operate continuous monitoring kind of projects the government will invest in
stations, currently 40 in India, and there are as part of the smart cities programme, and it
not enough in any city to be able to present is unclear whether it has factored in future
a representative index. For example, the natural disasters and extreme events that
Delhi Pollution Control Committee operates are projected to increase due to global
six continuous monitoring stations warming. Another aspect that planners of
compared to 35 by authorities in Beijing. At smart cities seem to have ignored is
least 30 monitoring stations will be required pollution. Technical solutions alone, such
in 50 smart cities in India - each with at least as introducing compressed natural gas,
10 lakh people - costing approximately Rs.1 changing standards for vehicles and
crore (plus 10% annual maintenance industries or relocating industries, will not
costs)(The Wire, 2015). The entire cost be sufficient to control air pollution in Indian
works out to Rs.7,500 crore for 10 years. cities.
According to the Petroleum Planning and
Analysis Cell (Ministry of Petroleum and Institutional changes that will allow Natural Gas, Government of India), in ministries and departments to work January 2015 alone, the total consumption together and coordinate, including proper of petroleum products in India was 13.9 dissemination of information to the public million metric tonnes. An additional cess of are required. The current monitoring and 50 paise per kg of petroleum products sold information dissemination system in India is will translate to Rs.695 crore a month - or weak and needs a complete overhaul in approximately Rs.8,340 crores per year - order to reach the level of transparency and enough to cover the estimated costs to accuracy required for implementing clean
Tracking the Global Goals in India 129
operate a reliable and transparent air Conclusionquality information management system in
Considering the MDG experience, a lot 50 cities for ten years (The Wire, 2015).depends on the way SDGs are
The measuring indicator for India to monitor implemented. A ray of hope can be found in
public spaces needs effective examining the recommendations of the South Asian
and will require a combination of geospatial consultation on the post 2015 development
data and user-perception surveys, agenda held in Nepal in 2014 that
especial ly when the indicator in advocates an implementation strategy
consideration is a quantitative one that focused on a rights-based approach,
would specify the area of public space in ingrained in equity and monitored by robust
proportion to a city’s total space. data. Together with the emphasis on urban
inclusion, there is the potential that the Surat is undertaking multi-disciplinary
urban SDG could help Indian cities to break research on reducing vulnerability and
free from the strict dichotomy of economic increasing the resilience of urban systems
growth and inequality. The urban SDG towards anticipated risks of climate change.
p rov ides e lements tha t p romote Moreover, most Indian countries have
mainstreaming equity in existing priorities. made an effort to decentralise as a part of
The SDG also creates conditions where cross-cutting governance reforms to further
existing and future multilateral support to the agenda of sustainability and resilience
power economic growth in Indian cities along with establishing democratic
would have to be more sensitive towards institutions for participation. Despite these
the goal of achieving equity, inclusiveness, efforts, the status quo has remained in
resilience, and sustainability. Developing terms of urban inequality and poverty. Land
country-specific standards for each of the markets are still polarised in cities like
individual targets not only by the Mumbai and the urban poor in many cities
international community, but also national end up paying more than their more affluent
civil society organisations, and citizens counterparts for basic services (Shiraz,
would go a long way in converting the vision 2015).
of equitable cities into a reality. Participatory
governance plat forms and social Each of these concepts is again accountability tools like citizen report cards interconnected through upstream or have already been utilised in India to collect d o w n s t r e a m r e l a t i o n s . B u i l d i n g data on aspects like inclusiveness in supply proactiveness is much easier in a planned of basic urban services. These tools need to City, where the networks and connections be further strengthened to provide are known. The generic scope of a Master complementary env i ronments fo r Plan encompasses guidance of the urban implementation of the urban SDG. An urban form and morphology. The aspects of SDG, therefore, holds great promise for integrated infrastructure planning and Indian cities in terms of shifting the focus of services, environmental sustainability and urban policy discourse which has been on urban governance are ideally to be promoting competitiveness and economic embedded adequately in the master growth to one on inclusiveness. It has the planning process itself.potential to meddle with the existing power
Tracking the Global Goals in India130
dynamics that are at play and may offer cities where people are involved in
r es i s t ance t o a comprehens i ve influencing how they live and interact with
implementation of such an agenda. their community. Civil society can play an
Politically nuanced approaches that take important role in bringing together local
cognisance of such power dynamics and people and Governments. SDG 11 can go a
restructure the same to suit the long way towards contributing to the SDGs.
implementation of urban SDG are of prime Like many other goals, the identified
importance.targets need to be tangible, concrete, and
There are, of course, many challenges in measurable. There needs to be clarity on
achieving SDG 11. Cities will require solid what is meant by “access to green space”
implementation plans and support in order and determine how “access for all” to safe,
to achieve the targets. Innovative solutions affordable, accessible, and sustainable
are needed to help create people-centred transportation systems is to be measured.
Box 7: Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 11 in India
Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 11 in India
?A “bottom-up” approach, where local data can be fed upstream, through a sometimes
complex system of statistics as well as policies and strategies, is required. This would
contribute to further strengthening the cities as stakeholders and significant actors for
sustainability work. Importantly, this also can be seen as an important step forward in
terms of the inclusion of local and regional policymakers, as well as citizens all over the
world, in this work.
?Many indices on mapping and tracking urban development has been developed by
diverse stakeholders. Siemens with cities Index, in our own interviews with Centre for
Sustainable Development and urban index is in the process, academic institutions such
as ISB have also released their smart cities index and green city index, CSO and
national level data collectors need to also observe the methodologies, key findings from
these respective sources. Especially in the context when the government has released
the list of first 20 smart cities, the responsibility to measure the urban development has
increased for CSO. What metrics they will follow needs to be closely observed.
?A direct engagement with the issue of land value and land-value “capture” as a means of
financing and maintaining inclusive and accessible public spaces to achieve Target
11.7.
?The measuring indicator for India to monitor public spaces needs effective examining
and will require a combination of geospatial data and user-perception surveys,
especially when the indicator in consideration is a quantitative one that would specify the
area of public space in proportion to a city's total space.
Food worth
US$ 8.3 billionis wasted
annually
Per capita
ecological footprint
of richest 1% is
17 timesthat of poorest
40%
73% of India's
N100 companies
have some CR
disclosure
Sustainable Consumption Patterns
Sustainable Production Patterns
Tracking the Global Goals in India132
Analysis of Indicators for SDG 12(Responsible Consumption and Production)
“Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns”
contaminants, especial ly chemical Structure of this Sectionsubstances as specified under target 12.4.
This section is organised as follows: The goal engages all stakeholders to
contribute to sustainable development, Introductionincluding the private sector, as seen in
• Overview of SDG 12: A brief overview of target 12.6. Target 12.7 identifies the role of the targets under SDG 12 is provided. the public sector through sustainable public
procurement, while target 12.3 recognises • India and SDG 12: India’s current
the shift towards SCP required in the food scenario with respect to some of the
system. The need for policies for SCP is SDG 12 targets is described.
underlined in the 10-year framework of
programmes on sustainable consumption • Comparing the IAEG-SDG Indicators
and production patterns mentioned in target with Indian Indicators: A tabular
12.1; while the issue of fossil fuel subsidies comparison of IAEG-SDG indicators
is covered under target 12.c.with corresponding indicators currently
measured in India for SDG 12 is given.India and SDG 12
Analysis of SDG 12 IndicatorsOn a per capita basis, India has a low level
Summary of Recommendations: Based of carbon emissions. However, at an
on the ana lys is , a summary o f aggregate level, India is the third largest
recommendations for policymakers is emitter of greenhouse gases, behind only
provided. China and USA! It is threatened by the
impact of global warming and climate Overview of SDG 12 change. India has several policies to
address the need of sustainable Everything the global community produces consumption and production. For example, and consumes has either a positive or the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) negative impact on the economy, the per iod ica l ly mandates regu la tory environment, and social development. standards, and also formulates promotional Achieving sustainable consumption and schemes, which encourage the use of production (SCP) patterns secures efficient lighting, heating, ventilation, air-efficiency and productivity gains, ensuring conditioning (HVAC), and electric motor that human activities remain within the based appliances in the residential and carrying capacity of the planet, while commercial establishments across the respecting the rights of future generations. country. The Energy Conservation Building SDG 12 covers both, the environmental Code specifies the energy performance impacts such as waste management as requirement of commercial buildings specified under target 12.5, and release of
Tracking the Global Goals in India 133
(Planning Commission, GoI, 2014). use of natural resources. The indicator
under discussion is “material footprint India’s industry sector presents an
(MF) and MF/capita”.opportunity for considerable energy
savings, in the iron and steel, and cement • Target 12.8 By 2030, ensure that
sectors, which are the most energy people everywhere have the relevant
intensive manufacturing sectors in the information and awareness for
country. The main policy driver, the National sustainable development and lifestyles
Manufacturing Policy coupled with National in harmony with nature. The indicator
Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency under discussion is “percentage of
(NMEEE), has introduced the Perform, educational institutions with formal and
Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme to save informal education curricula”.
energy. Similar opportunities are available • Target 12.a Support developing
in the transport and power sectors in India countries to strengthen their scientific
(Planning Commission, GoI, 2014).and technological capacity to move
To achieve the SDG agenda, India would towards more sustainable patterns of
have to meet explicit targets in low-carbon consumption and production. The
growth, and also implement the right mix of indicator under discussion is “number of
policies like energy pricing, carbon tax, cap- qualified green patent applications over
and-trade, subsidies and regulation. total”.
• Target 12.b Develop and implement Comparing the IAEG-SDG Indicators t o o l s t o m o n i t o r s u s t a i n a b l e with Indian Indicatorsdevelopment impacts for sustainable
The following table compares IAEG-SDG tourism that creates jobs and promotes indicators with corresponding indicators local culture and products. The indicator currently measured in India for SDG 12.The under discussion is “residual flows table only includes indicators that have generated as a result of tourism direct been finalised by the IAEG-SDG as of GDP (derived from an extended version December 2015. Indicators still in the “grey” of the System of Environmental-category, i.e. indicators that require in- Economic Accounting (SEEA) for depth review by IAEG-SDG, have been tourism)”.omitted. In the case of SDG 12, the omitted
targets and indicators are as follows:
• Target 12.2 By 2030, achieve the
sustainable management and efficient
Tracking the Global Goals in India 134
Table 16: IAEG-SDG and Indian Indicators for SDG 12
Tracking the Global Goals in India 135
SEBI
Ministry of Corporate Affairs
SEBI
Corporate Sustainability Reports
CSR Reports (Section 135, Indian Companies Act, 2014)
Business Report
Tracking the Global Goals in India136
per unit of production/consumption.National Policies for Sustainable
Consumption and Production• Impacts decoupling: This includes
policies that aim to reduce degrading For target 12.1, “Implement the 10-year environmental impacts as the outcome framework of programmes on sustainable of production and consumption consumption and production, all countries processes.taking action, with developed countries
taking the lead, taking into account the • Social benefits: This includespolicies
development and capabilities of developing on revenue and/or social benefits
countries”, the IAEG-SDG indicator is (health, education, and well-being) for
“number of countries with SCP National poor and vulnerable people and groups
Actions Plans or SCP mainstreamed as a from the shift to SCP.
priority or target into national policies,
poverty reduct ion st rategies and 10YFP is currently developing a global
sustainable development strategies”. survey on national SCP policies and
initiatives. The survey aims to develop The IAEG-SDG indicator for the current
baselines on SCP at the national level on t a rge t t r acks t he coun t r y l eve l
the availability and implementation of SCP plans/laws/acts that ensure effective
policies and initiatives in countries(UNEP, implementation of the 10 Year framework of
2015). The methodology used to identify programmes (10YFP) on Sustainable
national policies and initiatives, and classify Consumption and Production (SCP). The
them as SCP policies or initiatives, is not yet themes under 10YFP include consumer
in the public domain. However, it is information, sustainable lifestyles and
expected that the required information will education, sustainable public procurement,
be sourced from national development sustainable buildings and construction,
plans, ministerial proceedings, policy sustainable tourism and sustainable food
declarations, parliamentary rulings, systems.
planning documents, etc.
A United Nations Environment Program A study on policy instruments for eco-
(UNEP) report on indicators for SDG 12 innovation (Jang, Park, Roh, & Han, 2015)
(UNEP, 2015) provides a framework for maps policies of Asian countries that
assessing target 12.1 using the above contribute to SCP. Eco-innovation can be
indicator. There are four properties and defined as introduction, development, and
objectives that determine the features of application of new ideas, behaviours,
SCP in the national policies and actions of products and processes to contribute to
any country. These are:reducing environmental burdens or
ecologically specified sustainability targets. • Reaching critical thresholds: This Eco-innovation is a broad concept, includes policies associated with comprising innovation in pollution control increasing carrying capacity of the earth (new, better, or cheaper abatement systems and the perturbations of critical technology), green products, cleaner earth systemthat may contribute to process technologies, green energy crossing critical thresholds.technology and transport technologies, and
• Resource decoupling: This includes waste reduction and handling techniques policies for reduction in resource use
Tracking the Global Goals in India 137
(Jang, Park, Roh, & Han, 2015). This study Six sectors are used in the study to interpret
has classified policies into four categories: regulatory, economicand planning
instruments: environmental protection and • Regulatory instruments: This
management, waste, renewable energy, comprises all regulatory political
purchase or procurement , c lean interventions that formally influence
technology, and climate change.social and economic action through
binding “regulations”. Using the three types of instruments and
the six sectors identified in (Jang, Park, • Economic/f iscal instruments:
Roh, & Han, 2015), as well as the UNEP Economic instruments are fiscal and
report (UNEP, 2015), the current study other economic incentives and
proposes a matrix to map national SCP d i s i n c e n t i v e s t o i n c o r p o r a t e
policies, as shown in the table below. The environmental costs and benefits into
matrix maps policies that a) fall under each the budgets of households and
sector identified above b) fall under the enterprises, with the objective to
category of regulatory, economic or encourage environmentally sound and
planning instruments c) fulfil the properties efficient production and consumption.
of SCP policies defined in the UNEP report.Economic instruments include effluent
taxes or charges on pollutants and
waste, deposit-refund systems, and This table can be utilised by the Ministry of
tradable pollution permits. Subsidies for Statistics, Planning and Implementation
e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e s e a r c h a n d (MoSPI) for mapping the policies in the
development can also be viewed as an sector that regulate, incentivise and plan for
economic instrument as they rely on the SCP patterns. The choice of the policies to
use of economic incentives.be reported as the ones mainstreaming
• Planning instruments: Planning SCP has to be governed by the four
instruments are political mechanisms properties of such policies (critical
that aim to solve problems in planning thresholds, resource decoupling, impacts
through innovative designs. A plan is a decoupling, social benefits) as detailed by
sort of consciously intended course of UNEP (UNEP, 2015). For India to achieve
action. The national plans present Target 12.1, it will need to ensure adequate
policy goals and strategies, steer policies in the sectors specified in the table,
certain policies, and initiate a policy in accordance to the properties established
dialogue. by the UNEP framework.
Tracking the Global Goals in India138
Table 17: Regulatory, economic and planning instruments of public policy in India for SCP
Source: adapted from (Jang, Park, Roh, & Han, 2015) and (UNEP, 2015)
of natural resources”. The IAEG-SDG Material Footprintindicator for this target is “material footprint
Target 12.2 reads “by 2030 achieve (MF) and MF/capita”.sustainable management and efficient use
Sector
Public Policies
Regulatory Instruments
Economic Instruments
Planning Instruments
Environment management
· National Green Tribunal Act (NGT) (2010)
· EIA Notification for Environmental Clearance (2006)
· National Conservation Strategy on Environment and Development, 1992
· Environment Protection Act, 1986
· National Environment Policy, 2006
Waste
· Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981)
· Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules (1999)
· Municipal Solid Wastes Rules, 2000
· Plastic waste management Rules, 2011
· Hazardous Waste 2008 (amended 2011)
Renewable energy
· Energy Conservation Act (2001, revised 2010)
· Feed-in-Tariff scheme for renewable energy (2010)
· Strategic Plan for New and Renewable Energy Sector (2011–2017)
· National Biofuel Policy (2015)
· National Offshore Wind Energy Policy
Purchase/ procurement
· Indian Contract Act, 1872
· Sale of Goods Act, 1930
· General Financial Rules (GFR), 2005
· Public Procurement
Bill, 2012
Clean technology
· Motor Vehicles Act (1988)
· Air (Prevention and Controlof Pollution) Act (1981)
· Science, Technology
and Innovation Policy (2013)
Climate change
· National Action Plan
for Climate Change
Tracking the Global Goals in India 139
Target 12.2 aims to achieve the sustainable physical quantity of traded goods. In
management and use of all natural 2008, the total amount of raw materials
resources. The material footprint/capita extracted globally was 70 billion metric
measures the progress in sustainable tons - 10 billion tons of which were
management of natural resources. This physically traded. However, the results
indicator is in the grey list of IAEG-SDG show that three times as many
indicator list. However, this section resources (41% or 29 billion tons) were
discusses the current sources of data and used just to enable the processing and
methodology of calculation of this indicator. export of these materials. The
researchers say that because these Material footprint is the global allocation of
resources never leave their country of used raw material extraction to the final
origin, they are not adequately captured demand of an economy. In contrast to
by current reporting methods. (Science material consumption indicator – earlier
Daily, 2013)used for measuring natural resource use of
a country, the MF does not record the actual 2. A paper in the journal “Proceedings of
physical movement of materials within and the National Academy of Sciences” by
among countries but, instead, enumerates (Wiedmannar, et al., 2015) titled “The
the link between the beginning of a material footprints of the nations”
production chain (where raw materials are presents a time series analysis of the
extracted from the natural environment) MF of 186 countries and identify
and its end (where a product or service is material flows associated with global
consumed) (Wiedmannar, et al., 2015). production and consumption networks.
The material categories studied were – There are two studies available that have
crops, fodder, ores, construction calculated that material footprint of all the
material and fossil fuels. The study nations:
points out that material footprint does
not provide information on actual 1. The University of New South Wales, environmental impacts of resource use Sydney has conducted a study, “The (RU) but only on the potential for true raw material footprint of nations”. impacts on the basis of consumption of This study maps the flow of raw resources. A true decoupling of materials across the world economy to environmental damage from economic determine the true “material footprint” of growth, however, can only be achieved 186 countries over a two decade period if not just the total mass of materials (1990-2008). The detailed methodology consumed but the associated and complete study is not in the public environmental impact is reduced. domain to assess the methodology and
source of data sets covered. The study Both the studies mentioned above are not
looks at the following resources - metal available in the public domain for their
ores, biomass, fossil fuels and detailed approach and calculations.
construction materials. One important However from the insights of these studies,
conclusion of the study is that there are certain recommendations at the
developed countries are relying on country level:
international trade to acquire their
natural resources now more than ever. • The material footprint calculates
This dependence far exceeds the actual material resources which are crops,
Tracking the Global Goals in India140
fodder, ores, construction material and and validation by the FAO. It is expected to
fossil fuels. It is not inclusive of water be made available in 2016. GFLI is
and land as resources. As natural expected to estimate the quantity of food
r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t m u s t loss using observed variables that
encompass use of these two resources conceivably influence food loss, like road
also, it is important that India tracks density, weather, pests etc. Data on these
water use efficiency, land use efficiency variables is expected to be sourced from
in relevant sectors of agriculture, country administrative records and
sanitation, energy, urban development statistics (Rome-based Agencies, 2014).
etc. The water use efficiency is covered For the current target, there is currently no
in SDG 6 on water and sanitation for all, periodically measured indicator in India on
but the indicator is yet to be finalised. food loss or food waste. The only available
The results confirm that pressures on raw data is a 2010 study by the Central Institute
materials do not necessarily decline as for Post-Harvest Engineering and
affluence grows but only gets exported to Technology (CIPHET) commissioned by
other developing/under-developed the Ministry of Food Processing Industries
countries.This demonstrates the need for (Press Information Bureau, 2014). The
policy-makers to consider new accounting study estimates post-harvest losses of
methods that more accurately track major agricultural commodities. A repeat
resource consumption. study was commissioned by the Ministry in
2012, but the report is not yet published in Reducing Food Loss and Waste the public domain.
Target 12.3 calls for reducing food loss at A related source of information is the food various levels – production and supply loss encountered by the Food Corporation chains, as well as retail and consumer of India (FCI) as part of Public Distribution levels. Specifically, it calls for halving food System (PDS) operations. FCI has records waste at the retail and consumer levels, and of region-wise and commodity-wise stock reducing an unspecified amount of food that is ‘non-issuable’ (damaged) each year; loss along production and supply chains, however this information has in the past including post-harvest losses. only been obtained using Right to
Information queries and is not available in In this report, food waste is understood as the public domain. It is recommended that food that is fit for human consumption but is FCI publish data on food loss in its stock not consumed, for example because it is left annually.to spoil or discarded by retailers or
consumers. Food loss on the other hand is India’s data on food loss and food waste is food that gets spoiled or spilt before it inadequate. In order to identify the data becomes a final product. These definitions gaps, it is useful to first contemplate the are consistent with those of the Food and various stages in which food loss/waste Agriculture Organization (FAO), as found may occur: food production, processing, on (FAO, 2016). distribution and consumption. The existing
information from CIPHET and FCI do not The IAEG-SDG indicator for the current capture losses in all stages of the supply target is the Global Food Loss Index (GFLI). chain.The GFLI is in the process of development
Tracking the Global Goals in India 141
The four stages identified above are briefly food. Food wastage in this stage refers to
described below, along with challenges and the wastage of final food products in the
opportunities in capturing data at each market system (for example, food which
stage. reaches expiry date before sale). Where
large players – wholesalers, distributers, Production – This stage refers to the actual
retailers etc. – are concerned, data on food production of food (cultivation of crops,
loss is likely to be documented and harvesting of fish etc.). Food loss in this
accessible. However, Indian food markets stage may occur due to poor technique or
include a large number of informal retailers, other limitations in production. Physical
including farmers who produce for self-measurement of food that is discarded at
consumption. It is obviously a challenge to the cropping and harvesting stages is not
collate information at the national level on feasible; there is currently no robust
the same.methodology to capture food that is
discarded by a large number of dispersed Consumption – This stage refers to the
producers, who themselves may not phase wherein the food is purchased by the
precisely have records of their losses. consumer. Food wastage here refers to
However, food loss at this stage may be wastage at the consumer’s end (for
estimated to an extent by observing factors example, food on the plate that is thrown
that contribute to food loss at this stage, away without consumption, food that is
such as suff ic iency of i r r igat ion spoilt because of improper storage or
infrastructure and untimely rainfall. cooking technique etc.). Data on food that is
wasted in this stage is perhaps the hardest Processing – This stage includes post-
to capture.harvest storage, transportation, value
addition, packaging and marketing Below is a description of possible ways
systems. Post-harvest handling of food forward to measure food loss (losses at the
conceivably entails some food loss. The production and processing stages) and
extent of loss is often known to the parties food waste (wastage in the distribution and
handling the food during this stage. For consumption stages) in India.
example, a middleman knows the Food Loss
difference between the quantity of food
received by him and the quantity of food he To some extent, the GFLI circumvents the is able to transfer to the next link in the tremendous challenge of physically supply chain. However, collating this measuring food loss and instead estimates information at the national level from a large food loss by observing factors that number of such parties, all dispersed and conceivably contribute to food loss, such as widespread, and most of them operating infrastructure, weather, pests etc. However, informally, is difficult. Therefore, for this this methodology may not be able to stage too, instead of physical measurement provide disaggregated data on food loss – of loss, it is more feasible to estimate the for example, food loss by commodity and loss by observing factors that contribute to food loss by supply chain stage cannot be loss, such as cold storage infrastructure, estimated using this method. In the Indian transport infrastructure, road density, etc. context, given that policies addressing food
loss at the production, processing and Distribution – This stage includes the
distribution stages are distinct and are wholesale and retail end distribution of
Tracking the Global Goals in India142
handled by different Ministries, it would be Food Waste
useful to have food loss data disaggregated While GFLI deals with food loss, it is unlikely
by the stage at which the loss happens. to supply information on food waste. Food
For such disaggregated data, a physical waste occurring at the consumer’s end is
measurement of food loss at each stage of extremely difficult to capture. At the
the supply chain would be required. This is consumer level, a possible way forward is to
likely to be an extremely time-consuming, combine data on the purchasing habits and
resource intensive exercise that could take consumption habits of consumers. The
the form of an extensive survey, of the kind difference between what is purchased and
done by CIPHET to estimate post-harvest what is consumed may be regarded as a
losses. Methodological studies on how proxy for food wastage. Questions on food
such an exercise may be attempted, as well consumption are already part of NSSO
as studies regarding the feasibility and surveys, and may be supplemented by
ut i l i ty o f such an exerc ise, are questions on food purchase.
recommended as disaggregated food loss At the wholesale and retail levels,
data is extremely pertinent in the Indian inventories maintained by registered units
context, even though it is not a global may be collated using technological
reporting requirement for the SDGs.platforms. However, inventories of
There are two possible tracks for estimating unregistered units would be difficult to
food loss as described above – one is the collate, and can perhaps only be captured
physical measurement of food loss at each through a survey.
stage of the supply chain, and the other is Extensive research is recommended on the
the GFLI method which estimates overall suggestions outlined here to determine the
food loss by observing physical factors that methodology and process of data collection
contribute to food loss. In the Indian of food waste.
context, it is important for both tracks to be
used to estimate food loss for at least one
year, to see the extent to which the two
Target 12.5 calls for reducing waste tracks converge or diverge in their
generation through prevention, reduction, estimates for that year and thereby
recycling and reuse. The IAEG-SDG establish the reliability of GFLI in capturing
indicators for this target are “national the actual physical losses of food.
recycling rate” and “tonnes of material To report on the current SDG target, India recycled”.needs to have robust administrative
Data on recycling in India is scarce. There is records to supply information that is
no established practice of periodic required to calculate the GFLI. Whether
measurement of waste generated and India has the required data for this can only
recycled. The information currently be analysed after the development,
available is from various intermittent and validation and publication of GFLI, as
infrequent surveys and studies conducted currently it is not known exactly what data
by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) would be required from individual countries
and a few other agencies. However, none of to calculate GFLI.
these studies provide any information on
Recycling
the proportion or tonnes of waste recycled repeated to identify trends. Further, data
as required for the IAEG-SDG indicator. collated does not appear to be in the public
The available studies are summarised domain. The data presented above was
below: gleaned from CPCB summary reports and
media reports; however the complete study • Ministry of Urban Development in 2000
with methodology, limitations etc. could not estimated the total quantum of waste
be found for most of them. It is generated daily in India at 100,000 MT.
recommended that CPCB initiate a system
for periodic studies of MSW management in • CPCB commissioned a study to a sample of cities, with earmarked funds for National Environmental Engineering the purpose. All studies should be made Research Institute (NEERI) in 2004-05 available in the public domain.to study the status of Municipal Solid
Waste Management in 59 cities. The Urban local bodies are required to annually
total waste and waste per capita furnish information on solid waste
generated in these cities were management, in particular the quantum of
estimated. Further, the composition of waste collected and their adherence to the
waste in each of these cities was mandated MSW Rules, to their State
studied; the proportion of compostables Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs), which
and recyclables, calorie content and then send consolidated reports to CPCB for
moisture content were reported. This the purpose of the publication of an annual
information could be used for the report on solid waste management in India.
selection of appropriate waste However, no such annual report could be
management technologies. CPCB found on the CPCB website. Further, other
commissioned a repeat study to NEERI publications of CPCB mention that data
in 2012; however the completed study from SPCBs is not received within set
could not be found published in the deadlines, creating data gaps and delays in
public domain.publishing the information (CPCB).
• CPCB with Central Institute of Plastics A similar issue is faced with Plastic Waste
Engineering and Technology (CIPET) in Management (PWM). Most municipal
2010-12 quantified and characterised authorities have not developed systematic
plastic waste generated in 60 major mechanisms for the collection, segregation,
cities in India.transportation and disposal or recycling of
plastic wastes; therefore it is but obvious Other related CPCB studies include one on that data on recycling rates is not tracked methane emission from Municipal Solid periodically (CPCB, 2015).Waste (MSW) disposal sites, one on
characterisation of compost quality and its India also has a large informal waste
application in agriculture, and one on the management industry. “Waste-pickers” are
health status of conservancy staff and often found looking for recyclable waste in
community landfill workers.landfill sites. Welfare of these workers, as
also the welfare of workers employed by Waste management in general and municipal authorities to handle waste, are recycling in particular are major data gaps important concerns. Data on safety, in India. The surveys conducted so far have hygiene and worker welfare should also be been one-time surveys that have not been
Tracking the Global Goals in India 143
tracked within existing sector-specific sustainable public procurement policies
surveys and also general employment and action plans”.
surveys described in the SDG 8 section.Def in i t ion of ‘susta inable ’ publ ic
India has a long way to go in ensuring the procurement policies is not provided by UN-
adequacy of facilities to collect, transport, IAEG system. According to UNEP (UNEP,
process and recycle waste; ensure 2015), which is taking the lead in the Goal
adequate and efficient institutional 12 of the SDGs, the sustainable public
frameworks for the process; ensure procurement policies and action plans
availability of sufficient finance; and should be based on the four properties of
develop facilities to manage special wastes reaching critical thresholds, resource
such as e-waste. These requirements are decoupling, impacts decoupling and social
far from fulfilled in most cities and benefits.
settlements in India. These basic India as a country will not be counted as a
requirements need to be developed before country implementing sustainable public
any data can become available on India’s procurement policies and action plans.
waste management capacity and recycling There is no law exclusively governing public
rate.procurement of goods.
Moving ahead, India may adopt a useful However, Article 299 of the Constitution is
data collection tool created by the World the legal framework governing the public
Bank for urban solid waste management. procurement in India. It stipulates that
The tool was developed on the Microsoft contracts legal ly b inding on the
Excel platform as a framework to assist Government have to be executed in writing
cities, consultants, and donors with by officers specifically authorized to do so.
collecting and storing important solid waste Further, the Indian Contract Act, 1872 and
data in a consistent manner to support the Sale of Goods Act, 1930 are major
interventions. Intended to be used at the legislations governing contracts of sale/
city level, the tool covers varied activities purchase of goods in general(Ministry of
including waste collection, recycling, Finance, 2006). A comprehensive rules and
transfer station, landfill/dump (open or directives in this regard are also available in
c l o s e d ) , c o m p o s t i n g , a n d the General Financial Rules (GFR), 2005,
waste- to- energy initiatives. Urban local Delegation of Financial Powers Rules
bodies may use this tool to systematically (DFPR); Government orders regarding
record information on the status of their price or purchase preference or other
solid waste management, and send the facilities to sellers in the Handloom Sector,
information further to SPCBs and CPCB Cottage and Small Scale Industries and to
which can then collate harmonised central public sector undertakings etc. and
information from across the country.the guidelines issued by the Central
Vigilance Commission to increase Public Procurementtransparency and objectivity in public
Target 12.7 reads “promote public procurement. These provide the regulatory procurement practices that are sustainable, framework for the public procurement in accordance with national policies and system (Ministry of Finance, 2006).priorities”. The IAEG-SDG indicator for this
The Public Procurement Bill, 2012 is under target is “number of countries implementing
Tracking the Global Goals in India144
Tracking the Global Goals in India 145
discussion in the parliament, which seeks to companies. It aims to invigorate the entire
regulate and ensure transparency in framework of corporate and public
procurement by the central government governance, as the UN member states are
and its entities.India will have a public required to develop national level policies
procurement policy if this bill gets passed directing companies to make sustainability
and becomes a law. However, the focus of reporting an intrinsic part of their publishing
the bill is to bring transparency in the cycle. These will explicitly showcase
procurement procedures. Comparing it with commitments and actions placed by
the expectations laid by the UNEP analysis b u s i n e s s e s o n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ,
o f i nd ica to rs , the re a re ce r ta in accountabi l i ty, t ransparency, and
considerations for the government of India: participation on accelerating the SDG
agenda within their respective purview. • The public procurement policy should
a i m t o p r o m o t e r e s p o n s i b l e “The global economy is on the wrong track,
consumption. It should incentivise and business is not playing its part in forging
sustainably produced goods and hence a sustainable future”, is a strong view that
contribute in influencing manufacturing emerged from more than 1,000 CEOs
patterns in business. This element is across the world (Accenture; UNGC, 2013).
however missing in the current public It has also been observed that many
procurement bill. companies were unable to conjoin
sustainability with their core business • The public procurement policy should
strategy, which hampered their overall not only aim for reducing adverse
effects on scaling-up sustainability environmental impacts but also
operations and outreach, especially in enhanc ing soc ia l bene f i t s . A
terms of addressing the global challenges mechanism that leads to such choices
(Ralhan, 2015). Therefore, the UN-IAEG in the rules of procurement is not clearly
Group, while framing the 12.6 target, defined in the bill.
acknowledged the wider impact that will be
brought forth by corporate sustainability The aim of Public Procurement Bill 2012 reporting and largely placed the thrust on that aims to bring transparency in the publicly listed and large companies. procedures of public procurement surely is Simultaneously, the principle of financing first steps towards developing a policy and for SDGs and invoking private stakeholder reviewing the process in the public domain. participation towards the implementation of However, additional amendments or SDGs is reflected within this specific SDG policies may be required to promote desired target. Any reporting process on the lines of environmental and social benefits. sustainability will require businesses to
Sustainability in Businesses develop diverse models for best practices
aligned with existing frameworks and Role of Corporate Governance in
integration of metrics that define the Leveraging the SDGs
parameters which represent a company’s
holistic sustainability process and The SDG target 12.6 holds deep operations. connotations and needs to be perceived
beyond the quantifying aspect of Private Finance for SDGs – Encourage
emphasis ing on the ‘number ’ o f Company Disclosures
sustainability reports being generated by
The UN Global Compact-Accenture CEO universal reporting mechanisms are set in
S t u d y o n S u s t a i n a b i l i t y f u r t h e r place. Secondly, for achieving the objective
encapsulated strategic issues through of encouraging private finance into the
primary research, including interviews of SDGs, it is pertinent to measure the impact
leading CEOs across the world. It was one of the business operations, responsibility
of the leading reports which, for the first initiatives, through the utilisation of diverse
time, summarised vital issues explicitly metrics and indicators so as to assess their
expressed by corporate leaders across the progress in imbibing the principles of triple-
world. It stated that 67% of them do not bottom-line approach within and by their
believe that business is doing enough to businesses.
address global sustainability challenges Bridging the Gap between Business and
(Accenture; UNGC, 2013). Some 63% of Stakeholders – Why and What to
CEOs expect sustainability to transform Report?
their industry within five years and 76%
believe that embedding sustainability into There has been a shift in the corporate core business will drive revenue growth and reporting trends. Earlier in 1990s the term new opportunities (Accenture; UNGC, susta inabi l i ty repor t was large ly 2013). The discourse on integrating synonymous with environment reporting. sustainability principles across the entire The paradigm shift happened with the value chain will be possible only when establishment of World Business Council companies are required to do mandatory for Sustainable Development (WBSCD) in disclosures of their practices, procedures, 1999 where the then UN Secretary General compliance mechanisms, that will enable Kofi Annan in his speech invoked that them to identify the gaps, issues, and areas businesses were required to integrate of interventions wherein they can revitalise people placed at the bottom of the pyramid or introduce sustainability principles in their within their operations. This also marked core business strategy and operations the advent of corporate social responsibility (Accenture; UNGC, 2013). Global which was defined by the WBSCD as commitments are being garnered by “…continuing commitment by business to businesses on platforms such as the behave ethically and contribute to Business Call to Action Consortium which economic development while improving the has extended its commitments towards the quality of life of the workforce and their creation of over 2.2 million new jobs, access families as well as of the local community to financial services for more than 58 million and society at large”. These developments people, essential healthcare services for 60 extended a huge impact on the reporting million people, prevention 7.2million tons of frameworks, as it became apposite for carbon emissions from entering the company to transcend from merely atmosphere and allowing 89 million low- disclosing on their compliance to income households to access sustainable environment norms but also towards issues energy (The Guardian). In order for such such as human rights, sustainable supply commitments to be translated into concrete chain, interaction with civil society, and actions, it is vital for companies to collate sustainable product diversifications. the diverse practices, initiatives and
As a result of the speech delivered by Kofi programmatic interventions so as to align Annan at the World Economic Forum in the future commitments with the already 1999, in the year 2000, when the world existing ones; these can only be possible if
Tracking the Global Goals in India146
Tracking the Global Goals in India 147
adopted the Millennium Development organisation and its reporting process.
Goals (MDGs) the United Nations Global They apply to all organisations,
Compact (UNGC) emerged as a call to regardless of their mater ia l i ty
business across the world to meet their assessment. There are seven types of
sustainability commitments by providing a General Standard Disclosures, ranging
principle-based framework, guidance and from the organisation’s strategic
best practices, action platforms fostering p e r s p e c t i v e o n a d d r e s s i n g
collaboration among participants. Global sustainability issues, and how it
Compact was set up in 2000 and includes involves stakeholders in this process, to
more than 8,000 business participants from how it approaches key issues such as
all parts of the world, working to advance governance and ethics and integrity.
corporate sustainability and environmental, 2. Specific Standard Disclosures that are
social and governance (ESG) issues. For divided into two areas: Management
the first time it brought a new reporting Approach (MA), The Disclosures on
feature where companies as signatories to Management Approach (DMA) provide
the UNGC were required to submit the the organisation with an opportunity to
Communication of Progress (CoP). The explain how it is managing its material
CoPs are published on the main website of economic, environmental or social
the UNGC and showcases business impacts (Aspects), thus providing an
commitments to the ten universally-o v e r v i e w o f i t s a p p r o a c h t o
accepted principles in the areas of human sustainability issues. The DMA focus on
rights, labor, environment and anti-three things: describing why an Aspect 23corruption . is material, how its impacts are being
managed, and how the approach to The World Summit on Sustainable
managing this Aspect is being Development in 2000 paved the way for the
evaluated. G4 contains Indicators Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) which
(largely quantitative) for a wide range of issued its first exposure draft guidelines for
sustainability issues largely quantitative sustainability reporting in 1999. The GRI’s
for e.g. water usage, health and safety, mission is to make sustainability reporting
human rights or an organisation’s standard practice by providing guidance
impact on local communities (Global and support to organisations. The GRI
Reporting Initiative). The indicators guidelines have developed into the de facto
allow companies to provide comparable global standard for non-financial reporting.
information on their economic, By 2015, 7,500 organisations were using
environmental and social impacts and the GRI guidelines to create their
performance. Organisations are only sustainability report. GRI has developed
required to provide Indicators on the latest fourth generation G4 guidelines
A s p e c t s t h a t t h e y a n d t h e i r launched in May 2013. There are two kinds
stakeholders have identified as material of disclosures:
to the business. These reflect the entire 1. General Standard Disclosures that set sustainable value chain as the
the overall context for the report, indicators address environment aspect providing a description of the (Materials Energy, Water Biodiversity
23 In the year 2013 UNGC also emerged with Communication of Engagement, where reporting for civil society stakeholders was introduced. For more details, see https://www.unglobalcompact.org/participation/report/coe
Tracking the Global Goals in India148
Emissions Effluents and Waste integrate environmental information and
Products and Services Supplier natural capital into mainstream corporate
E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s s e s s m e n t , reports. The SDG Live Tracker is useful as it
E n v i r o n m e n t a l G r i e v a n c e illustrates the country-wise level of
Mechanisms), economic aspects sustainability reporting and their support to
(Economic Market Presence Indirect the new SDG Target 12.6. In the Indian
Economic Procurement Practices) and context, it also showcases that the number
has an extensive list of social aspect of report generated in the period of 1999-
indicators with sub categories such as 2015 was 448, with 77 sustainability reports
(Labour Practices and Decent Work - published in 2015, from companies already 24occupational health and safety, implementing their sustainability policies .
diversity and equal opportunity, equal Also, the top reporting sectors across the
remuneration for women and men Indian industr ies are automotive,
supplier assessment, Human Rights – conglomerates, metals products, financial
freedom of association and collective services, and mining. These are also
bargaining, child labour, forced or sectors that face huge compliance based
compulsory labour, security practices, issues with respect to environment, supply
indigenous rights, assessment, supplier chain, labour, and occupation health and
human rights assessment etc. and hazards. Therefore, the reporting becomes
Product Responsibility - customer crucial for such business sectors as it will
health and safety, product and service, enable them to analyse the risk and
labelling, marketing, communications, challenges that they pose to the
customer privacy and Society - Local environment and community and large and
Communities, Anti-corruption Public to emerge with strategic and adopt those
Policy, Anti-competitive Behaviour, relevant sustainable practices that will
Compliance, Supplier Assessment for eventually lead towards mitigation of the
Impacts on Society and Grievance risks placed by the respective industry
Mechanisms for Impacts on Society sector.
(Global Reporting Initiative). Given the With concepts of Principles of Responsible extensive reporting format, GRI through Investment (PRI), reporting frameworks on their country wide focal points, also investments and payments also exist in the enhances the capacity building of form of Extractive Industries Transparency professionals by conducting worldwide Initiative (EITI) that emerged from the and coun t ry spec i f i c t ra in ing notion ‘Publish What You Pay’ campaign in p r o g r a m m e s t o s p e c i a l i s e 1999 and encouraged companies to report professionals to report on the universal on their payments to governments in framework. developing countries. Set up as a tool to
In one of its recent efforts to encourage counter the ‘resource curse’ where
global reporting in alignment with the target revenues from oil, gas, and mining do not
12.6, GRI in partnership with an Indian deliver development but contribute to
technology company, Tata Consultancy poverty, corruption, and conflict. EITI
Services, has released the SDG Live consists of 12 principles for increased
Tracker that enables companies to transparency on payments and revenues in
2 4 U N S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p m e n t G o a l Ta r g e t 1 2 . 6 - L i v e T r a c k e r a v a i l a b l e a t : http://database.globalreporting.org/SDG-12-6
the extract ive industr ies ( Impact UNGC has emerged with an Industry Matrix
Transforming Business). The Climate developed with KPMG which is presented
Disclosure Standard Board (CDSB) has in a series of publications. Each matrix will
emerged with the Climate Change highlight bold pursuits and decisions made
Reporting Framework launched on the 8th by diverse companies for each SDG. With
of June, 2012 which guides companies to the prevalence of diverse kinds of reporting
integrate environmental information and frameworks UNGC has developed the SDG
natural capital into mainstream corporate Compassin partnership with GRI and
reports. The CDSB Framework sets out WBSCD. It is a very significant platform with
address the absence of an accounting a comprehensive objective on how to
standard for reporting environmental implement the Global Goals through
information in mainstream reports, such as interesting GRI reporting and other
the annual report by taking the highest corporate reporting indicators with the SDG
common denominators of the most widely indicators.The platform also includes
used and tested corporate reporting resources, such an SDG Guide for
frameworks, standards and regulation that Business Action, an innovative tool to
are emerging around the world. The support advancement of the SDGs, which
Framework helps companies to provide contains business performance indicators,
clear, concise and comparable information organising no less than 834 sustainability
to investors that connect the organisation’s indicators from different sources to match
environmental performance with its overall the 169 SDG targets (Cohen, 2015). The
strategy, and prospects, adding value to SDG Compass has a range of indicators
organisation’s existing mainstream report developed in the business context. It also
in a way that minimises the reporting highlights the particular indicator source for
burden and simplifies the reporting process the relevant SDG target and describes the
(CDSB, 2012). indicator, as illustrated below.
Tracking the Global Goals in India 149
Table 18: An Illustration of SDG Compass
Source: SDG Compass, derived from http://sdgcompass.org/business-indicators/
SDG Goal SDG Target Business Theme
Type of Indicator
Indicator Source
Indicator Description
SDG 7- Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency
Energy efficiency
Sector-specific
GRI G4 Electric Utilities Sector Disclosures
Average generation efficiency of thermal plants by energy source and by regulatory regime
SDG 4- Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all
4.1 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes
No indicators have been identified
No indicators have been identified
No indicators have been identified
No indicators have been identified
25 Measure What Matters available at: http://measurewhatmatters.info/the-project/
A similar argument on the excessive changes and improvement in performance
divergence of varied forms of reporting throughout an organisation. As set out in
frameworks, indicators was outlined by the the International Framework, an integrated 25 report is a concise communication about Measure What Matters (MWM) that
how an organ isa t ion 's s t ra tegy, attempts to bring alignment between
governance, performance and prospects, co rpora te , na t iona l , and g loba l
in the context of its external environment, sustainability data frameworks. MWM
lead to the creation of value in the short, focuses on aligning the SDGs and their
medium and long term. The Framework targets with other reporting frameworks,
enables a business to bring these principally national (alternative GDP
elements together through the concept of metrics) and corporate (sustainability)
'connectivity of information', to best tell an reporting frameworks. Most crucially, given
organisation’s value creation story.the existence of diverse reporting
frameworks, MWM has also placed a For the purpose of this report we have
perspective to business leaders and UN categor ica l ly s t ressed on those
statisticians for a broad harmonisation of contemporary and specific reporting
corporate reporting frameworks and the frameworks which are directed to align the
SDG targets. This principle has also been businesses with the SDGs and relevant
argued in their recent publication targets. There are diverse tools that too are
(Hoekstra, et al., 2014) which entails applied to companies’ initiatives with
thematic reports on water reporting, and specific SDGs. For example, these include
corroborates an excessive divergence the GHG Protocol Scope, Evaluator, the
among water reporting frameworks. MWM Social Hotspots Database, the Human
argues that while the requirements of Rights and Business Country Guide, the
different stakeholders necessarily differ, WBCSD Global Water Tool, and the
there needs to be a greater overlap Poverty Footprint Tool. These are
between different indicator sets and developed to enhance the scope of a
performance measures so that all company’s goal with respect to defined
stakeholders and governments can better SDG priority areas, select key performance
manage their shared assets, risks, indicators and will facilitate the company to
opportunities and responsibilities.set up a foundation base to measure,
monitor, and communicate on its progress Further, Integrated Reporting (IR) is an
made towards achieving an SDG target. evolution of corporate reporting, with a
focus on conciseness, strategic relevance Although the above frameworks are
and future orientation. As well as improving essential to mobilise the overall principle of
the quality of information contained in the corporate sustainability, there still lies a
final report, IR makes the reporting process challenge for companies to emerge with
itself more productive, resulting in tangible objective disclosures. Around 35% of the
benefits. IR requires and brings about G250 companies (88 companies) publish
integrated thinking, enabling a better an HSE report across the world (2012)
understanding of the factors that materially (Leirgulen, 2015). While 80% of all
affect an organisation’s ability to create countries are Global Compact business
value over time. It can lead to behavioural
Tracking the Global Goals in India150
Tracking the Global Goals in India 151
participants, only 25% of the Fortune Global company committing to sustainable
500 companies are signatories to the development. The ISO 26000 Guidance on
Global Compact (Leirgulen, 2015). Earlier, Social Responsibility, regional guidelines
the notion of non-disclosures used to such as the OECD Guidelines comprise of
largely arise from a fear of legal some other guidelines that are being
implications, or the information being used followed by many companies reaffirming
by a competitor and so on. their commitments to the SDGs. Many
Indian companies have adhered to the However, with the reporting trends and
above global reporting guidelines and existence of massive frameworks, some of
submit these reports as per the prescribed the prime reasons which now discourage a
mandates. In the Indian context, it is company to report are that many business
significant to note that one of the essential leaders and professionals are unable to
initiatives in form of the National Voluntary visualise the significance on reporting, the
Guidelines (MCA, 2011)was translated into value proposition it will generate for the
one of the corporate sustainability policy company’s profile or in terms of sale. Given
and was released by the Ministry of the extensive and lengthy processes many
Corporate Affairs (MCA), GOI based on companies, especially the small scale
interactions with various stakeholders. If we ones, lack enough bandwidth especially in
carefully examine the NVGs we observe terms of human resource that are equipped
that the structure of the 9 elements and 48 or sensitised with the overall human rights,
core targets were largely influenced by the environmental and social issues. As a
Ten UNGC principles, for instance human result, it becomes difficult to gather
rights and environment amongst others. consistent data from all operations select
One of the crucial features of the NVGs was precise indicators, and adhere to the
that it was applicable to all business entities universal guidelines to report. Therefore, it
and included a list of representative compels a company to largely outsource
indicators which were not that exhaustive, this service to consulting organisations and
as the objective was to largely enable make the entire process extremely
businesses to monitor their own expensive in terms of time and finance.
implementation process and enhance
applicability of these guidelines. One of the Aligning the Global and Indian most significant features of the guidelines Sustainability Reporting Framework was its applicability on the micro, small and
Overall, companies globally and even in medium enterprises (MSMEs) to adopt the India follow prevailing normative principles Guidel ines. However, despite the and guidelines for responsible and ethical conscious effort, it was vividly argued that business practices such as ILO Tripartite disclosures by MSMEs would affect their Declaration of Principles Concerning overall business prospects, compliance Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy, norms and other supply chain related UN Global Compact Principles, UN Guiding issues as they largely deal with the informal Principles on Business and Human Rights. sector too. The NVGs paved a new These are guiding in nature, which enable threshold in the parameters of sustainability companies to respect basic rights and reporting and disclosures by Indian uphold certain minimum standards defining companies on environmental, social, and minimum expectation drawn from any governance parameters. The Securities
Tracking the Global Goals in India152
and Exchanges Board of India (SEBI) in sustainability objectives with business
2012 largely adopted the NVG principles process and corporate policy. The landmark
and mandated a policy of reporting non- legislation too is beyond the mandatory
financial information via Business concept of expenditure but also extends to
Responsibility Reports for the top 100 listed ‘compliance’, ‘reporting’, ‘disclosure’ and
companies of the Bombay and National ‘accountability’, as it requires companies to
Stock Exchanges in 2012. With the “apply report on their CSR policy and programs
and explain” principle” these policy along with CSR budget spent. These have
guidelines emphasised the role of business to be then disclosed on the company’s
sector in helping India achieve the goal of website and be made accessible for public
sustainable development and economic dissemination (Ralhan, 2015). It also
growth. reinstates the fact that in case a company
has failed to spend the two per cent of the India is among the first in the world to have
average net profit of the last three financial formally mandated Corporate Social
years or any part thereof, the company shall Responsibility (CSR) through Section 135
provide the reasons for not spending the of The Companies Act of 2014. The
amount in its Board report which will be duly legislation advocates 2% of net profits as a
published and signed by the CEO or prescribed allocation for CSR expenditure.
Managing Director of the company and The schedule VII of the act has wide range
Chairman of the CSR Committee. However, of areas which needs to be aligned with the
despite these provisions if we carefully national programmes and SDGs. It is
examine the recent release of the Annual pertinent to mention the above measures
CSR format by the MCA, we observe that it have taken place in the Indian business
is making the accountability restricted to space as they were key attempts in the
project mode activities and does not pol icy spheres that out l ined the
captures holistic as to how the concepts of
Table 19: Annual CSR format of the Ministry of Corporate Affairs
CSR Project or activity defined
Sector in which the Project is covered
Projects or programs 1) Local area or 2) Specify the State and district where projects or programs were undertaken
Amount Outlay (budget) project programs Sub Heads (l)Direct expenditure on projects or programs (2) Overheads
Cumulative expenditure upto the reporting period
Amount spent: Direct or through implementing agency
Source: Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Gazette Notification 27th February, 2014.
The wider arguments on the format by the largely a not for profit section 25, trust or
MCA were to curb the extensive long registered society also accountable.
reports which companies used to publish However, if India has to actively engage the
and largely showcased their achievements India Inc. to accelerate the SDGs, the
and expenditure. The MCA aspires to now government has to fo rmu la te a
collate pertinent information as specific to comprehensive reporting strategy. This is
the projects, areas of the project and is also vital considering that the CSR law is
making the implementing agency which is applicable to only companies with a net
worth of Rupees five hundred crore or by revenue) has witnessed high rates
more, a turnover of rupees one thousand (73%) of CR disclosure with 45% of
crore, or a net profit of rupees five crore or N100 companies use standard
more during any financial year. This frameworks for CR disclosure
includes close to 16,000 companies with • Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is the
around 2.5 billion $ (INR 1500 crore) of CSR most widely used reporting framework
funds (Ramanathan, 2015). The format with 64% of N100 reporting companies
does not prescribe any universal set (using standard reporting frameworks)
indicators, parameters which a company referring to GRI.
can utilise to measure the progress and
outcome impact of its CSR project. From • 31% of N100 comprehensively report the company’s point of view, too many on CR through separate reports. There reporting standards and formats becomes a is higher rate (70%) of N100 companies cumbersome and complex exercise, as disclosing CR information in annual some of them are already following the reports but Integrated Reporting will universal reporting formats. Also, the take a few years to gain prominence. sustainability reporting needs to be
• IT companies have the best quality developed by the MCA to move beyond the reports in India with an average score of purview of the CSR Act, 2014 as it targets 64, while the Pharmaceutical sector has selective companies and leaves out SMEs the lowest average score of 20and MSMEs. At the same time, similar to
global universal indexes, there has been an • The quality of data reported sees an
emergence of diverse forms of indexes improvement with 71 per cent
such as the S&P BSE Greenex, Carbonex, restatements relating to improved
CII, ICA and BSE CSR Platform which estimations/calculations, enhanced
separately track companies with better CR scope of reporting and updates in
performance and disclosure frameworks. A definitions while 29% of restatements
universal framework of reporting needs to were made owing to an error or
be formulated by the MCA by taking into omission (KPMG, 2013).
considerations key characteristics of global
guidelines, and the prevalent domestic On the overall quality score for all CR report
indicators. is 42 out of a possible 100, indicating that
there is a need to significantly improve the Reporting Trends and Quality of
quality of CR reporting in India. Moreover, Reporting in India
Indian CR reports tend to have relatively
better disclosures on the stakeholder These domestic developments coupled engagement process and least disclosure with international developments on on supplier and value chain impacts. reporting guidelines are expected to Businesses in India have a tendency to s ign i f i can t l y a l te r the corpora te showcase their sustainability principles responsibility (CR) reporting scenario in through one time project which is usually a India. A recent study indicates the following CSR initiative. Although it has been reporting trends and quality of corporate observed that SDG embedded in business, responsibility (CR) in India influence buying behaviour, around 87% of
• India’s N100 (top 100 listed companies citizens in India stated that were likely to
Tracking the Global Goals in India 153
Tracking the Global Goals in India154
use the goods and services of companies Framework comprising of selective
that had signed up to the SDGs (PwC, indicators drawn from global and
2015). There is a need to arise with clarity domestic reporting practices.The
and awareness is required from business sustainability reporting should be
professionals to adopt SDGs. In doing so, directly mandated from the government
knowledge sharing, mapping case studies, and its applicability should be extended
best case practices, framing policies, to all business entities.
guidelines, and essential tools to monitor • MCA needs to relook into the prescribed
and measure are some of the key annual reporting format under Section
mechanisms need to be developed within 135 of the CSR Act, 2014. At present,
the reporting framework by the private the format has a restricted scope of
sector to assess the impacts leveraged by measuring project based modalities, it
the SDGs. should be extended towards the SDG
Recommendations principles and have certain indicators
which enable a company to align its • The MCA has to formulate a universal
CSR initiative with SDG Y and target Corporate Sustainability Reporting
Y.1.
Tracking the Global Goals in India 155
Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 12 in India
?The Ministry of Statistics, Planning and Implementation (MoSPI) may utilise the matrix
developed in this study for mapping the policies in the sector that regulate, incentivise and
plan for SCP patterns.
?As pressures on raw materials do not necessarily decline as affluence grows but only gets
exported to other developing/under-developed countries, it is recommended that
policymakers consider new accounting methods that more accurately track resource
consumption.
?There are two possible tracks for estimating food loss as described above – one is the
physical measurement of food loss at each stage of the supply chain, and the other is the
GFLI method which estimates overall food loss by observing physical factors that
contribute to food loss. In the Indian context, it is important for both tracks to be used to
estimate food loss for at least one year, to see the extent to which the two tracks converge or
diverge in their estimates for that year and thereby establish the reliability of GFLI in
capturing the actual physical losses of food.
?It is recommended that CPCB initiate a system for periodic studies of MSW management in
a sample of cities, with earmarked funds for the purpose. All studies should be made
available in the public domain.
?Data on safety, hygiene and worker welfare should also be tracked within existing sector-
specific surveys and also general employment surveys described in the SDG 8 section.
?India may adopt a useful data collection tool created by the World Bank for urban solid
waste management. Intended to be used at the city level, the tool covers varied activities
including waste collection, recycling, transfer station, landfill/dump (open or closed),
composting, and waste- to- energy initiatives.
?India's public procurement policy, currently under discussion in Parliament, should aim to
promote responsible consumption. It should incentivise sustainably produced goods and
hence contribute in influencing manufacturing patterns in business. This element is missing
in the current public procurement bill. Further, the public procurement policy should not only
aim for reducing adverse environmental impacts but also enhancing social benefits.
?While corporate sustainability reporting is widely practiced in the country, the Ministry of
Corporate Affairs should formulate a universal Corporate Sustainability Reporting
Framework comprising of selective indicators drawn from global and domestic reporting
practices. The sustainability reporting should be directly mandated from the government
and its applicability should be extended to all business entities. Further, a relook into the
prescribed annual reporting format under Section 135 of the CSR Act, 2014 is suggested.
Currently, the format has a restricted scope of measuring project based modalities. It
should be extended towards the SDG principles and include certain indicators which
enable a company to align its CSR initiative with the relevant SDG target, i.e. target 12.6.
Box 8: Summary of Recommendations for Tracking SDG 12 in India
Conclusion
The statistical capacity of a nation includes well as national priorities. Data should also
several components. There should be an be transparent, easy to understand and
institutional structure with a mandate to have an appropriate periodicity. Next, data
collect and disseminate data. Within the should be disseminated both domestically
structure, there should be processes for and externally in a timely fashion. Finally,
data collection in the form of surveys or data should be effectively used to make
other tracking processes. These processes evidence-backed decisions. This may be
should collect data that is methodologically visualised as follows.
robust and appropriate to local context as
Figure 5: Components of a Country’s Statistical Capacity
In the case of India, to what extent data is the Office of the Registrar General and
effectively used for decision-making, Census Commissioner, Labour Bureau etc.
especially policymaking, is beyond the Processes – India has processes in place
current scope; however where India stands to track development outcomes in the form
in its institutional structures, processes, of a large number of surveys and censuses,
data collection and data dissemination for developed and executed by various
the six SDGs considered in this study is government agencies at national, state and
summarised below.district levels. These processes also
Institutional Structure – India has a include web portals for data collection and
dedicated Ministry responsible for tracking dissemination, satellite-based monitoring
development goals. The Ministry of of indicators, Management Information
Statistics and Programme Implementation Systems etc.
(MoSPI), and its Central Statistical Office Data Collection – There is scope to
(CSO), coordinate statistical activities increase the effectiveness of data collection
throughout the country. The MoSPI has in India. As demonstrated in the case of 6
developed an indicator framework for SDGs, there are several obsolete
tracking progress towards national goals, definitions (such as that of safe drinking
and has assigned targets to corresponding water) and outdated schedules (such as in
Ministries, which are then responsible for the case of Occupational Wage Survey, in
collecting and reporting data on the targets which the occupation list has not been
assigned to them. Additionally, other revised in decades). There is divergence in
government agencies exist to measure data reported by different surveys. There
specific sets of indicators. These include are also several data gaps (such as the
the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO),
Tracking the Global Goals in India156
absence of data on quality and reliability of more timely dissemination, as often there is
electricity) because of which local context is a t ime l ag be tween the ac tua l
not comprehensively represented in administration of survey and final
available data. There is potential to make publishing of data.
the indicators easier to understand and also India seems to have the required
to increase periodicity for some crucial institutional structures and processes for
indicators (such as the quinquennial labour data collection. Therefore, in terms of
ma rke t su r veys ) . A l so , gende r -tracking SDGs, the reforms India needs are
disaggregated data and sub-state level not structural but methodological. While the
data have always been deficient in India. existing system is, broadly speaking,
The bulk of reforms in India’s statistical sufficient to define the overall direction
system are required in these areas.required in policymaking, there are a few
Data Dissemination – The Indian existing indicators that need to be
government has provided online portals for methodologically strengthened, and new
making available data open and accessible indicators introduced, within existing
to all – both for internal use by Ministries processes of data collection. With such
and for external use, including reporting to reforms, India’s statistical capacity will be
the international community. The Open strengthened enough to report to both the
Government Data (OGD) online portal is an domestic and international community on
example. However, there is potential for progress towards the SDGs.
Tracking the Global Goals in India 157
Tracking the Global Goals in India158
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