America and the Fall of the Roman Empire

7/29/2019 America and the Fall of the Roman Empire

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AMERICA AND THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Roger W. Gardner

Part I. The Weak Horse and the Strong Horse

"When people see a strong horse and a weak horse, by nature they will like the strong

horse."

Osama bin Laden

"Yes, there have been appeasers in the past, and the president is exactly right, and one

of them is Neville Chamberlain. I believe that its not an accident that our hostages came

home from Iran when President Reagan was president of the United States. He didnt sit

down in a negotiation with the religious extremists in Iran, he made it very clear that

those hostages were coming

home."

John McCain

It has become fashionable to draw parallels between the supposed misadventures

of our New American Imperialism and the Fall of the Roman Empire -- a comparison

that conveniently overlooks the fact that it took over a thousand years for the Roman

Empire to fall. One of the most glaring inconsistencies of this comparison is that the

Roman Empire was an unapologetically ruthless military power, which experienced no

liberal pangs of guilt about its hard-won conquests. Indeed, to the typical Roman, who

enthusiastically relished the daily bloody spectacles of the arena, the whole concept of

having moral qualms about the manner in which they had acquired their vast Empire

would be incomprehensible.

The Roman formula for conquering new provinces was fairly straight-forward. The Roman

legions would simply annihilate any opposing force (no matter how long it took, or what

it cost them in lives and treasure), systematically root out all remaining insurgents, and

impose a locally administered Roman-style government, which would eventually buildRoman-style buildings in which to conduct Roman-style business.

Once their territories were conquered, however, the Romans would govern them with a

relatively light touch (despite a spate of anti-Roman, pro-Christian biblical movies

produced in the 1950s -- usually starring the late Charlton Heston -- that invariably

portrayed the Roman soldiers as sadistic brutes). So long as the local citizenry behaved

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according to the proscribed boundaries of the Roman model of civilization, adhered to

the basic tenets of Roman jurisprudence, paid their taxes (which, for the most part, were

considerably less than they had been paying under their previous rulers), and offered

ceremonial homage to the Emperor once a year, the Roman attitude towards the loca

customs and religious practices was

generally fair and unobtrusive.

However, Roman authorities would

react swiftly and mercilessly to any

perceived threat of dissent. In 146

B.C., in the city of Corinth, in the

Roman protectorate of Greece, two

Roman envoys were set upon by an

unruly crowd of malcontents and

were beaten up. The Roman response

was quick and unequivocal.

The Senate dispatched the brutal

Roman General Mummius who, with

his four Legions, attacked the city of

Corinth. He killed all of the men of military age, enslaved all of the remaining populace

burned the city to the ground and then, ceremoniously

sowed salt on the earth so that nothing would ever

grow there again.

An over-reaction? Perhaps. However, needless to say,

after Corinth, anyone considering attacking a Roman

citizen would, most likely, have serious second

thoughts.

Indeed, if we are looking for parallels between our present-day American society and the

Roman Empire, we need look no further than this episode of the two Roman

ambassadors in Corinth, and compare the Roman reaction then to our governments

ignoble non-response to the plight of our helpless 70 American citizens who were held

hostage for 444 days in the infamous 1979 Tehran Embassy takeover.

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What then, if anything, can we learn from the history of the Romans?

First, when discussing the moral lessons symbolized by the 'Fall of the Roman Empire

we should perhaps consider how long it actually took to 'fall'. If one accepts the

traditional date for the founding of Rome of 753 B. C., and the traditional date of the 'fall'

of 476 A.D., then that means that the Roman civilization lasted for something like 1,200

years, while the actual process of the 'fall' arguably took about 300 years.

Transposing these figures onto America's timetable, this would mean that we might start

losing ground around the year 2705, and could be in serious trouble by the year 3005. It

seems to me that it would be a little difficult to realistically describe this 1200 year

process as a 'fall'. I think it could better be described as a pretty big success story.

Additionally, this particular episode at Corinth occurred approximately 200 years before

the Empire really reached it's peak, and, far from hindering the development of the

Roman world, this incident, and many others like it, only served to strengthen its

reputation and intimidate its potential rivals.

For 444 days, while our hapless President Jimmy Carter dithered and dallied with endless

and empty diplomatic negotiations, our helpless 70 American citizens suffered the

painful privations and unknown perils of their captivity. Only when a new president was

sworn into office, an altogether different kind of man, whom they suspected might

actually resort to force, were the hostages released.

These, then, are the lessons from Corinth in 146 B.C., and from Tehran in 1979 A. D

Somewhere between these two extreme reactions there is an eternal truth.

There are times when force is the only answer.

This now is our new enemy

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These are his warriors

This is his ambition

And this is the threat

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Will we be the Strong horse?

Or the Weak Horse?

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AMERICA AND THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE: PARTTWO

Part II. The Global Village

A note from Radarsite: This is the second article in a three part Radarsite seriesAmerica

and the "Fall of the Roman Empire. In the first installment The Strong Horse and the

Weak Horse we saw how Rome used its military might to establish itself as a power to be

reckoned with. In these following two installments we will eavesdrop on the lively

conversation of a group of rather typical upper class Romans at a congenial dinner party.

In these interesting and sometimes heated conversations, we find them discussing some

of the most pressing issues of the day: globalization, immigration and, finally, the

Jewish question. rg

Globalization

Although, as we have seen, the attempt to equate present-day American foreign

policy with that of the Roman Empire does not hold up upon close scrutiny, there are a

few interesting parallels between the two. The Romans, like us, loved good food and

good conversation, and they loved nothing better than the combination of the two. For

the typical upper-class Roman family, in the second half of the First Century A.D., a

sumptuous late afternoon dinner in their gaily-frescoed triclinium, with a carefully-

chosen group of friends, relatives and clients would be the highlight of the day.

After dinner, and the usual small-talk about who was sleeping with whom, the

conversation would most likely turn to the most pressing issues of the day. During this

period, three of the hottest topics of conversation would be globalization

immigration and the Jewish question.

As early as the Fourth Century B.C., the Romans began construction of their famous

network of ingeniously designed roads (the Via Appia, the most famous of all Roman

roads was begun in 312 B.C.). By the time of our congenial dinner party, Roman roads

traversed the Empire from the furthermost outpost in Britain to the easternmost

Provinces of Pontus and Bithynia.

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Not only did they build them, but they used them -- at first for strictly military purposes,

but later on, for private and commercial transportation. Where it proved necessary, they

protected them.*

Then, in 67 B.C., acting on orders from the Roman Senate, the famous Roman general

Pompey the Great successfully swept the ubiquitous pirates from the waters of the

eastern Mediterranean, where they had always preyed upon the major trade routes. Not

only did he destroy their ships at sea, but, acting under a special warrant from the

Senate, his legions pursued the pirates inland to their home bases and destroyed these

also.

Thanks to Pompeys effective campaign, for the first time in recorded history, the

shipping lanes of the eastern Mediterranean became relatively safe.

During most of the First Century B.C., the Roman Empire had been wracked byviolent civil wars. However, after Augustus victory over the forces of Antony and

Cleopatra at the battle of Actium in 31 B.C., a welcome period of peace settled in, which

the Romans called the Pax Romana. The benefits of these positive developments were

felt almost immediately throughout the Empire. Journeys that had previously taken

weeks, or even months and were often difficult and dangerous, were now, thanks to the

network of well-maintained and well-protected roads and shipping lanes, accomplished

with relative safety and ease in a matter of days. Business and commerce prospered

International (or, in this case, interprovincial) trade flourished. Intricate new systems ofcredit were invented, and a whole new class of middlemen sprang up. Importing and

exporting became promising new avenues to wealth and status for adventurous

entrepreneurs, regardless of their previous rank in society.

A small potter in Ostia who previously could only hope to sell his wares within the

narrow radius of an arduous one-or two-day journey by mule now had potentia

customers in Britain and Spain. Indeed, shards of First Century Italian-made pottery have

been found all over Britain and Northern France. Remnants of Gaulish-manufactured

goods are still being unearthed in North Africa. Although it is doubtful that they ever

actually used the word globalization (or its Latin equivalent), that is exactly what they

accomplished. Our Ostian potter was now so successful that he had to expand his

pottery business and employ a dozen new workers to keep up with the demand. He

purchased a new house in the city, built a small villa at the seaside, and bought three

new slaves. Our enterprising Ostian businessman worked hard and was proud of his

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accomplishments; and he was proud of his Roman

citizenship, which entailed so many advantages and

protections. Many of these newly-absorbed members

of the Roman Empire shared the views of our

industrious potter, and looked forward to the day

when they, too, could earn Roman citizenship and

perhaps even visit Rome, itself.

However, there were some who were not happy

with these changes. Certain disgruntled provincials

with a religious bent felt that their traditional culture

was being subsumed into the hedonistic and

materialistic world of Rome. Not only were their

historic traditions and local religious customs being

neglected, but their ancient native languages were

falling into disuse. Nowadays, they complained,

almost everyone spoke Latin or Greek and

considered themselves, first and foremost, Roman citizens. Everyone dressed like

Romans and behaved like Romans

Their ancient cities, which had once been so culturally unique, were now all beginning to

look alike -- like mini-Romes.* As we shall see, some of these unhappy subjects would

soon rebel, causing Rome endless problems into the future.

Meanwhile, in Italy itself, not everyone there was pleased with the unexpected

repercussions of this new phenomenon of globalization. Wealthy Italian wineries, which

for generations had been producing and exporting their universally popular, but

relatively expensive* Falernian wine, suddenly found themselves competing with the

cheap but excellent wines of Southern Gaul

The proud, traditionally Italian-born imperial bodyguards, the Praetorian Guard

saw themselves gradually being replaced by larger*, more militarily proficient Germans

who worked for less pay. And glorious Rome, itself, was being inundated daily with

streams of unkempt, unruly foreigners -- some of whom didnt even attempt to

assimilate, but moved into their own separate enclaves. Some of these new immigrants

never even bothered to learn Latin, or Greek, preferring, instead, to communicate with

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one another in their native languages. Alas, to the typical Roman it sometimes seemed

that the very essence of Roman civilization itself was under siege. Which brings us to the

second topic of conversation that evening:

Immigration

Since the first conquests of the early Republic, Rome had experienced a steady

influx of foreigners and slaves. After Pompeys successful Mediterranean venture, tons of

booty and thousands of slaves were shipped back to Rome. Following his conquests in

Britain and Gaul, Julius Caesar brought back thousands of barbarian slaves and camp

followers -- blue-haired, heavily-tattooed Brits; huge, frightening, shaggy-haired Gauls

wrapped in their malodorous animal skins and heavy furs.

By the time of Augustus Pax Romana, the slave population of Rome had reached anastonishing 250,000 out of an estimated one million inhabitants. The number o

unemployed, or sporadically-employed Romans is unknown, although it was undoubtedly

great. Over the years, the number of foreigners flocking to Rome grew exponentially --

Egyptians, Ethiopians, Asiatics, Sardians, Lydians, Frisians, Batavians -- each tending to

settle into their own particular neighborhoods, but all together adding to the weight of

that great, barely-controllable beast, the Roman mob.

Successions of Roman Emperors had dealt with this mob. At various times they cajoledit, courted it, appeased, placated and bribed it, and when all else failed, tried to

intimidate it. But they could never ignore it. Restless, dangerous, easily roused, the

Roman mob was an integral and disruptive fact of life throughout the course of the

empire. Ruled by violent street gangs and crime lords, there were whole sections of

inner city Rome where an unarmed Roman citizen dared not enter.

Starting in the First Century B.C., both to placate and distract this unruly populace,

Roman authorities instituted the now-famous policy of bread and circuses. What had

begun as intermittent gifts of surplus grain by the government, soon became formalized

into the so-called corn dole, later, actually distributing daily loaves of bread. The

circuses referred to the immensely popular and deadly combats of the arena, to which

the populace had easy access.

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In the end, of course, this enormous urban welfare program was self-defeating

drawing in countless numbers of poor and unemployable people from across the Empire

and creating a permanent and discontented underclass, which could explode into violent

riots at the slightest provocation.* Soon, the dole was perceived by the people as their

traditional inalienable right, and no Emperor, not even Augustus, had the courage to

curtail it. Although, with the introduction, towards the end of his reign (27 B.C.-14 A.D.),

of an urban police force Urban Cohorts and a rudimentary fire department Vigiles

Augustus managed to assume reasonable control over the city, the problems of the dole

and unregulated immigration proved intractable.

For that increasingly rare breed, the upper-class pure-bred Roman, these changes

were hard to swallow.

Rome was looking more and more un-Roman, and our native Romans previously

unchallenged supremacy in society was now being brought into question. Uncouthforeign-born, recently-freed slaves (freedmen) were now becoming businessmen and

entrepreneurs, some even managing to become wealthy -- ostentatiously, of course,

accumulating huge retinues of household slaves and hangers-on.*

If these disgruntled genuine Romans sensed that their traditional privileged role

in society was decreasing, it was more than a paranoid delusion. The birth-rate of native

born Romans was, as Augustus noted apprehensively, in rapid decline. Despite the

questionable and violent manner in which he had assumed the throne, Augustus was atheart a staunch conservative, who advocated a return to the (supposedly) morally

grounded traditions of Rebublican Rome. Much to the consternation of his more liberal-

minded subjects, Augustus introduced numerous laws aimed at promoting family

values, (even though his own progeny were hardly shining examples of traditiona

Roman virtue)*. By strengthening the honorable institution of marriage and making the

whole process of divorce more difficult, by rewarding parents of large families, and

penalizing bachelors, Augustus hoped to both improve the morals of his Roman subjects

and reverse the alarming decline in the birthrate.

Unfortunately, his well-intentioned laws accomplished little, as they were generally

ignored by an upwardly-mobile generation of energetic young Romans who wanted to

enjoy their new found wealth, unencumbered by the worries and cares of family life.

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These two major problems of the dole and unchecked immigration would remain

largely unresolved throughout the course of the Roman Empire. The population of Rome

had more or less reached its peak during Augustus reign, and thereafter would sink into

a slow, irreversible decline. In the following centuries, the Empire would succumb to yet

another series of disruptive civil wars and, as Rome became more and more unstable

the migrations would begin to turn in the other direction. Our rare pure-bred native

Roman would become rarer still, until eventually he could only be found in a few

isolated, well-fortified estates spread throughout what remained of the Roman Empire.*

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AMERICA AND THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE: PARTTHREE

Part III. The Jewish Question

As we have seen in the first two chapters, the ancient Roman Empire, though so

different from us on so many levels, did face many of the same challenges we in the

West face in our present era, and the arguments they generated appear surprisingly

familiar to us today. As the centuries unfolded and the great Empire devolved, these

thorny issues would become ever more pressing, while the answers would become ever

more illusive.

However, all that lay far in the future. For now, lets return to our congenial Roman

dinner party, where the conversation has moved on from what has become a rather

lively debate over the pros and cons of globalization, and immigration, to one of the

most pressing issues of the day, the Jewish question.

For these typical upper-class Roman citizens, solving the issue of the Jewish question

meant much more than mere philosophy. It had become a matter of life and death -- and

money. A lot of Roman lives and a great deal of money had been expended on this

bloody and seemingly endless war in Judaea (roughly modern day Israel) in an effort to

quell the most recent rebellion of these tempestuous and recalcitrant Jews.* In the very

first days of the uprising (which was evidently sparked by the alleged desecration of one

of their local synagogues by a group of Romanized Jews), the Jews had slaughtered a

whole garrison of Roman soldiers, and soundly defeated the Roman Legion (Legio XI

Fulminata) sent by Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, to restore order. Since the days

when they had called in the great General Pompey to settle the violent ongoing dispute

for the Hasmonaean* crown between two bitter rival siblings -- which ended up

embroiling Pompey in the midst of a bloody civil war -- these Jews had proven to be

nothing but trouble.

Although Pompey eventually resolved the dispute (ironically, by choosing neither

brother, but, instead, installing his own non-Jewish client Prince -- the antecedent of the

famous Herod the Great), the troubles only continued. Only during the successful and

prosperous reign of Herod (73-4 B.C.) did this volatile Jewish kingdom experience a

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period of relative stability. Even then, there were numerous uprisings and disturbances

which Herod had to put down -- some within his own family. After Herods death, the

kingdom was divided between his three sons.* Archelaus, the least competent of the

three inherited Judaea and -- through no fault of Romes -- quickly proved to be inept. So

inept, that in A.D. 6, a delegation of Jews came to Rome to beg Augustus to depose him

because of the brutality of his regime and allow them a measure of self-governance.

However, given their past record of instability, Augustus wisely declined their appeal for

self-rule and instead chose to rule this inflammatory province directly through his own

personally-chosen legates.

Thus began the long series of endlessly contentious reigns of Roman prefects

and procurators (amongst whom would be the controversial Pontius Pilate).Over the

years, the character, and morals of these individual Roman prefects would vary

considerably -- some would leave an embarrassing legacy of bribery and corruption, of

which their Jewish subjects had good reason to complain. However, for the most part

they figuratively bent over backwards to avoid offending the religious sensibilities of

the Jews, if, for no other reason, than for their own peace of mind and safety. Even so,

the slightest Roman infraction of some arcane Jewish religious law could still set the

crowded streets of Jerusalem ablaze.

The unfortunate Pontius Pilate(the fifth in the line of Roman Prefects) seems to have

earned more than his share of violent disturbances. While in some respects, Pilate must

have been relatively efficient -- the Emperor Tiberius, who was known to suffer no fools

kept him in office for an unprecedented ten years (26-36 A.D.) -- he had shown a

tendency to be unnecessarily severe and heavy-handed. At the beginning of his reign, he

caused a huge Jewish backlash by introducing the Legionary standards bearing Caesars

image into Jerusalem by night and setting them up outside the Antonia Fortress* -- even

though he had been warned that doing so would likely violate a Jewish law against the

use of graven images. The subsequent outcry led to a five day and night Jewish sit-in

demonstration, which eventually resulted in a Jewish victory.

Pilate then appropriated money from a Temple fund dedicated to sacrifices to build an

aqueduct. Even though the new water supply would have benefited the Temple area,

itself, this act caused a huge uproar, which resulted in a violent and bloody riot that he

put down with deadly force. Then, of course, there was the unpleasant business of the

trial and subsequent execution of that newest messiah, the troublesome, and probably

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seditious, preacher, whom they called Jesus of Nazareth -- an unfortunate affair that

would cause numerous Roman authorities untold problems well into the future. This was

followed, in the procuratorship of Cuspius Fadus (44-46 A.D.), with the appearance of yet

another messiah, named Theudas, who led a huge crowd of followers to the Jordan.

Finally, in order to protect the Province, Fadus had to stamp out this dangerous

movement and decapitate Theudas.* Then, during the administration of the Procurator

Cumanus (48-52 A.D.), there was the incredible incident of the Roman soldiers fart --

surely, the deadliest fart in history! During the holy Feast of Unleavened Bread

(Passover), in the Temple in Jerusalem, a soldier stationed on the roof of the portico,

bent over, lifted his tunic and made a lewd gesture (in plain language, he farted).

The outraged crowd of worshippers below immediately erupted into a bloody riot and

turned their wrath on the nearest Roman guards. Reinforcements had to be called in,

and in the violent melee that ensued, an estimated 20-30,000 people were either killedby the soldiers or perished attempting to escape.*

To our urbane dinner guests, this evening, this level of religious fervor was

incomprehensible. Through their eyes, in all of their dealings with this contentious

people -- who represented a mere ten percent of the Empire; yet, seemed to cause

ninety percent of the problems -- they had shown a remarkable level of forbearance

Beginning with an announcement in 44-43 B.C. issued to all the Roman officials in Asia

[Minor], enjoining the Greek cities to guarantee their Jews exemption from militaryservice, protection of Sabbath observance (when Jews were not expected to attend the

law-courts), freedom to hold religious meetings, freedom to send their money

contributions to the Jerusalem Temple without molestation, the right to settle thei

internal legal controversies by their own jurisdiction, and instructions that their funds

and sacred books should not be stolen from their synagogues,* the Roman authorities

had, it seemed, been extraordinarily fair and accommodating. Indeed, for a directly-

governed province of the Roman Empire, the Province of Judaea enjoyed an

unprecedented level of self-rule. In Jerusalem, itself, the Jews were governed, in almostall of their daily matters, by their own chosen Council of Elders, the Sanhedrin, under the

guidance of their own High Priest,* who acted as an ambassador to the local governor --

who would intercede only in matters of the utmost importance.* And yet, in spite of all

this preferential treatment -- they rebelled! Three times since the days of Pompey! And

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this latest rebellion was the bloodiest of them all. On this one subject, our diners al

agreed --these Jews were impossible.

And now, as though Rome needed any more fanatical, rebellious Jewish zealots

there was this latest Jewish cult, these loud and obnoxious followers of that previously-

mentioned, crucified Jewish preacher, Jesus the Nazarene (whom, they claim, had risen

from the dead to lead them into eternity!) These latest trouble-makers, who cal

themselves Christians, had evidently already caused some serious problems

throughout the Eastern Provinces of the Empire. Just recently, two of their most

prominent leaders, two grey-bearded old Jews named Peter and Paul, had been executed

in Rome for their alleged seditious misconduct in Jerusalem.* On this last point, our

frustrated dinner guests merely shook their heads in uncomprehending disapproval.

Although our bemused Roman diners were most likely unaware of it, these two grey-

bearded old Jews had already sown the seeds of a new monotheistic supersessionistreligion, called Christianity, whose radical followers would soon prove to be even more

troublesome than those impossible Jews.Incredibly, although our dinner guests would

not live to see it, this insignificant new sect, just one among so many exotic foreign cults

to have found their way to Rome,* would over the next two hundred and fifty years, grow

and expand to such an extent that, by the beginning of the Fourth Century, that wise

and pragmatic Emperor Constantine the Great (acknowledging a virtual fait accompli)

would officially proclaim Christianity the new state religion. Over the next few centuries,

these emergent Christians would further define themselves and their doctrines and

would finally cut themselves off completely from their Jewish origins, becoming in the

process more and more intolerant of these original Jews who stubbornly refused to

acknowledge their omnificent Messiah.

In the beginning of the Seventh Century, a new Prophet would emerge from the

desert, and yet another monotheistic supersessionist religion would be born. Within a

half-century, with all the fanatical zealotry of new converts, the followers of this latest

Messiah, called Mohammad, would rise up and conquer all of the former North Africanprovinces of the Roman Empire, and spread a new religion, which they called Islam,

across these newly-conquered territories by a brutal combination of coercion and the

sword. *

It is worth remembering that -- despite the occasional (politically correct) olive

branches of ecumenical tolerance, it is the unambiguous mandate of all monotheistic

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religions to be the one and only purveyor of that elusive commodity of Truth. And

according to this logic, it necessarily follows -- despite all the niceties of politica

correctness -- that all other religions are simply wrong, and therefore automatically

become Enemies of the Faith. Although all monotheistic religions share these basic

fundamentals, there are important differences between them, differences that drastically

affect our world. Whereas the two oldest of these desert religions, Judaism and

Christianity, have had two millennia to settle their innumerable internecine squabbles

over doctrine, work their way through the horrors of their Inquisitions, their disruptive

Reformations, and their often bloody confrontations with a long list of various emperors

and kings over those thorny issues of supremacy, they have eventually found a place in

that uneasy dichotomy of Church and State. However, the newest monotheism, Islam,

being some 600 years, or more, behind the other two, has yet to experience any of these

self-defining crises* and, as a result, has not yet found its proper place in civilization. We

are presently witnessing first-hand the violent consequences of this relative theologica

immaturity. Whether we like it or not, we are now, as our Roman ancestors were then, in

an epic clash of civilizations.*

There is one final point to be made on the comparisons between ourselves and

ancient Rome. The Roman Empire, despite all of the lofty moral lessons drawn over the

years from that overworked phrase, never actually fell; it simply slipped away, day by

day, year by year, almost unnoticed. As Roman citizens prospered and became

successful they became more and more reluctant to become personally involved in the

defense of their vast and continually threatened Empire, increasingly relying on legions

of mercenaries drawn from the lowest ranks of society, desperate men who had little o

nothing invested in the society that they were supposed to be defending; or, worse still,

recruited from the very barbarian societies that they were supposed to be fighting. In the

end, the barbarian Chieftain who had become de facto Commander-in-Chief of the

Roman Legions merely brushed aside the last nominal Roman Emperor without even

raising his sword.*

If there is any moral lesson to be drawn from the legend of the Fall of the Roman

Empire it is this. So long as the ordinary Roman citizen was willing to set aside the

demands of his profitable business and leave the comforts of hearth and home to take

up arms against the enemy, or to send his son in his place, Rome was invincible.

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America and the Fall of the Roman Empire

Notes

their previous rulers: the taxation imposed was not on the whole excessive -- inMacedon it was but one-half of what had previously been levied by the native kings --

History of the Roman Republic Cyril E. Robinson (Thomas Y. Crowell Company) p.189

eminently fair and unobtrusive: the general principle of [Roman] government was

wise, simple, and beneficent. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Edward Gibbon

- the Low abridgement (Bonanza Books 1985), p.11

nothing would ever grow there again: The History of Rome Michael Grant (Charles

Scribners Sons 1978), p.143

they protected them: Augustus Caesar E. S. Shuckburgh (Barnes & Noble 1995)

p.214-15

battle of Actium in 31 B.C.: Augustus emergence as the sole victor of the battle of

Actium in 31 B.C. traditionally marks the beginning of the Roman Empire and the death

of the Republic.

like mini-Romes: Herods extravagantly built capitol city of Caesarea Maritima, in

upper Judaea, founded in the first century B.C., his most ambitious construction project

among many others, with its luxurious Roman-style palace and various elaborately

constructed Roman-style baths, theaters and temples, came in for especially harsh

criticism by the conservative Jews amongst the local population for these reasons. See:

King Herods Dream: Caesarea on the Sea (W. W. Norton & Co. 1988)

relatively expensive: During the reign of Hadrian (117-138 A.D.), liter of Falerian

wine cost 30 denarii, well beyond the means of an average Legionary, who earned

approximately 112.5 denarii per year. http://scarrow.forumco.com/

replaced by larger: The average height of a Roman Legionary during this period was

55; whereas the average height of a German barbarian was around 58

http://bjsm.bmjjournals.com/

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at the slightest provocation: Although throughout the course of the empire, there

were many urban riots and disturbances, one of the deadliest occurred later in history, in

Byzantium, in the city of Nika, on January 11, 532, during the reign of Justinian, in which

an estimated 30,000 people were killed. Cruelty and Civilization Roland Auguet (George

Allen & Unwin Ltd 1972), p.140

household slaves and hangers-on: For the classic satirical treatment of the

uncouthfreedman there is of course no better source than Petronius famous

Satyricon. For more on the subject of Roman freedmen, see Appendix I.

examples of traditional Roman virtue: Augustus had both his daughter and

granddaughter (both named Julia), as well as one of his grandsons exiled for immora

behavior, and for being members of a circle of suspected subversives. The History of

Rome Michael Grant (Charles Scribners Sons 1978), p.260

what remained of the Roman Empire: For more on this fascinating subject see

Citizens of Long Ago Adeline Belle Hawes (Oxford University Press 1934), A Roman Poet

of the Fifth Century, p.162-83

tempestuous and recalcitrant Jews: the First Jewish War-(66-74 A.D.)

Hasmonaean: The priestly family of Jewish rulers and leaders in Judaea in the First

and Second Centuries B.C.

between his three sons: Antipas received the territories of Galilee and Peraea; Philip

received a large section of what is part of present-day Syria; and Archelaus received

Samaria, Judaea, and Idumaea.

the Antonia Fortress: The Fortress of Antonia was built by Herod in 35 B.C. to protect

Jerusalem. It was at some point taken over by the Romans who stationed a garrison

there.

decapitate Theudas: After Theudas, still more prophets emerged during this period

Under the procuratorship of Felix (52-60 A.D.), a number of prophets led their followers

into the desert. To prevent these movements from fomenting insurrection, Felix had

many executed. Later, an Egyptian prophet led thousands (Josephus: 30,000; Acts

4,000) in an attack on Jerusalem, which Felix suppressed with Roman soldiers

http://www.westmont.edu/-fisk/Articles/jewhistd.htm

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perished attempting to escape: Josephus (37-c.100A.D): The Jewish War (Penguin

Books Ltd. 1986), p.144. Also: Nero: The man behind the myth Richard Holland (Sutton

Publishing Ltd. 2000), p.262, note 8: The soldier allegedly fartedThe figure o

30,000 dead is plainly exaggerated. Josephus himself revises it down to 20,000 in his

later Jewish Antiquities, 20. 12

stolen from their synagogues: The Jews in the Roman World Michael Grant (Dorset

Press 1973), p.59

own high Priest: Before and during Pilates entire reign (and during the infamous tria

of Jesus) this post was held by Joseph Caiaphas. matters of the utmost importance

Such as capitol cases that carried the possibility of the death penalty (like the trial of

Jesus).

seditious misconduct in Jerusalem: The precise nature of Saint Pauls and SainPeters offences remains somewhat obscure, however, being Roman citizens they had

the right to take their cases to Rome and appeal to the Emperor. The exact method and

date of their deaths (64-68 A.D.) is more a matter of tradition than historical fact.

found their way to Rome: Nero fastened the guilt [for the great fire in Rome of 64

A.D.] and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations,

called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered

the extreme penality during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators

Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment

again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where

all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and

become popular. Tacitus (c.55-c.117 A.D.) The Annals, No. 44: The Annals of Imperia

Rome Tacitus (Barnes & Noble 1971), p.365

coercion and the sword: See: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Edward

Gibbon (Bonanza Books 1985), Chapter 50; see especially: pgs. 679, 691

self-defining crises It is arguable that the 18th century literalist movement of Abdu

Wahhab (Wahhabism) constituted an Islamic Reformation. However, unlike its Western

counterpart, Wahhabism generated no liberal Protestant counter-movements within

Islam, but instead, merely tightened the screws of fundamentalism, and provided the

theological justification for violent jihad.

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clash of civilizations: See: The Clash of Civilizations? The Debate (Foreign Affairs

1996)

without even raising his sword: The German general, Odoacer deposed the las

Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus in 476 A.D. (the traditional date of the Fall of the

Roman Empire).

Postscript:

Although this essay has focused primarily on the negative aspects of the three modern-

day, Western monotheistic religions, the author willingly acknowledges those positive

elements of Judaism and Christianity. From the innumerable and glorious works of art

created by artists who were undoubtedly sincerely inspired by their respective religions

to the multitude of good works performed over the years by the various religious

charities, to the courageous missions of our present-day religiously-based NGOsthroughout the Developing World; the author in no way wishes to attempt to diminish

the importance or the success of these noble enterprises. Moreover, for centuries, the

Church and Synagogue have assumed the very necessary role of moral guides -- fo

which, in our present-day society we find no adequate substitutes (with the possible

exception of those innumerable self-help gurus, and the various practitioners o

psychiatric therapy -- who for the most part choose to remain morally neuter in

questions of right and wrong. To dispense with the moral guidance provided by formal

religions without having first provided us with a viable alternative would be to throw thebaby out with the bath water.

Appendix I:

Manumission

Despite our native-born Romans obvious disdain, the whole concept of the

Freedman, being the end product of that enlightened and far-sighted Roman policy of

manumission, actually proved to be an eminently successful example of sociaengineering. Although, over the years, Rome had many problems with its enormous

slave population, the problems could have been worse, much worse, were it not for the

safety valve of manumission, which for the ambitious and talented slave provided a light

at the end of the tunnel -- the possibility that sometime in the future he might not only

win his freedom, but would have a chance of actually becoming financially successful.

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Rather than allowing themselves to be confined to a choice between two equally

unattractive, and potentially dangerous alternatives: either keeping their unhappy slaves

in perpetual subjugation, or merely emancipating them, which in reality meant turning

them loose untrained and unprepared into a strange and hostile society, the clever and

practical Romans created a third alternative, which they called manumission. When the

system worked properly, it was of benefit to both the Roman masters and their slaves.

If, after a certain period of time, a slave showed the necessary prerequisites of loyalty,

intelligence, ambition and talent, the master could decide to enter into the lega

agreement of manumission. To begin this process the slave was obliged to pay his

master a certain sum of money, the peculium, (a portion of the slaves personal savings

of monies earned through tips, special payments, or gifts) which would vary depending

on the circumstances between a small, mainly symbolic sum, to what might be a

considerable amount of money. After this important ceremony, the roles between the

two would then change from master and slave, to patron and client. The patron would

then become responsible for helping his client establish himself in a business appropriate

to his particular skills -- everything from carpentry, to accounting, to the importing and

exporting business. After having set up his protg in business, he would then enter into

a legal contract with his charge, wherein he would become, for all intents and purposes

his agent, entitled to a certain agreed upon percentage of his clients future earnings.

Thus, as we have seen, much to the consternation of certain native-born, upper-class

Romans, these newly created freedman could, and often did, rise through the ranks of

Roman society to become successful businessmen, entrepreneurs and governmen

officials -- in the time of the Emperor Claudius (41-54 A.D.), two of these talented

freedmen rose to become high officials in his government, similar perhaps in function to

our present-day Chiefs-of Staff. Often, these relationships between patron and client

would become more than mere business arrangements and the two would become

lifelong friends. So successful was this Roman experiment in social engineering that it

came to be regarded, by some historians, as a compulsory initiation into a higher

culture,* and presents us with a startling contrast between the practice of first-century

Roman manumission and our own comparatively thoughtless nineteenth-century

emancipation of our African slaves.

* into a higher culture: Slavery in the Roman Empire R. H. Barrow (Barnes & Noble

Books 1996), p.197

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