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8/6/2019 America's Energy Choices
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hitePaPer
www.AmericanSecurityProject.org 1100 New York Avenue, NW Suite 710W Washington, DC
Americas Energy Choices
Andrew Holland
August 2, 2011
In Brief:
Americaneedsmoreenergyofallsorts,butespeciallyelectricity.
By2035,U.S.electricitydemandwillincreaseby30%.
By2050,allpresentU.S.electricity-generationpowerplantswillneedtobereplaced.
Wehavetomakechoicesonwhatenergymixweneedinthefuturethepresentsituationisgeopolitically,environmentally,andeconomicallyunsustainable.
Americasenergychoicesshouldbeconsideredinlightofthreeconcerns:
- Energy Security
- Economic Stability
- Environmental Sustainability
erearethreebroadcategoriesofenergytochoosefrom:FossilFuels,NuclearEnergy,andRenewablepower.Withineachofthesecategoriesareabroadrangeofchoices,eachofwhichwillhavepositivesandnegativesineachofthethreeareas.
efollowingpaperlaysoutthefacts,matchingthe10mostimportantenergychoicestotheconcernstoallowpolicymakerstomakeinformeddecisions.
Andrew Holland is a Fellow at the American Security Project.
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Americas Energy Choices
Thirty-sevenyearsago,PresidentRichardNixonannouncedanationalgoalthatbytheyear1980,theUnitedStateswillnotbedependentonanyothercountryfortheenergyweneedtoprovideourjobs,toheatour
homes,andtokeepourtransportationmoving.1
Sincethis1974StateoftheUnionaddress,giveninthemidstofanembargoofoilexportstotheUnitedStatesanditallies,somesortofenergyindependencehasbeenastatedpolicyofeveryPresidentialadministration.Regardlessofthisrhetoric,however,theUnitedStateshasnotcomeanywherenearenergyindependence.
Today,energypolicyisbackatthecenterofnationalaairs.Partlythisisbecauseonceagain,forthesecondtimeinthreeyears,theglobalpriceofoilhasjumpedtonear-recordterritory.
eurgencyoftheenergydebatetoday,however,isaboutmorethansimplygasolineprices.EnvironmentalconcernsarebringingtheverybasisofAmericasenergysystemintoquestion:theevidencethathumanfossilfuelusecontributestoclimatechangebecomesmoreunequivocaleveryday.
Americasforeignpolicyisconstrainedbyquestionsofenergysecurity,assupportfordemocraticrevolutionsacrosstheArabworldhastobebalancedbyapreferenceforstabilityinthemajoroilproducingnationsaroundthePersianGulf
EnergyinfrastructureacrosstheUnitedStatesisshowingitsageasthepowergridstrugglestomeetdemandandpoweplantsnearretirement.Meanwhile,advancesinnewtechnologiesholdthepromiseofplentifulenergyrequiringlittleornofuel;butsignicantresearchfundingisrequired.
Policymakerswillhavetoaddressthesechallengeswhilealsoprovidingfora20%increaseintotalenergydemandacrosstheUnitedStates,includinga30%increaseinelectricitydemandby2035.Allofthiswillhappeninaworld
wheretotalenergydemandsareexpectedtoincreaseby50%,drivenbyunprecedentedeconomicgrowthin
developingcountriessuchasBrazil,China,andIndia.
esechallengesaresignicantbutnoneofthemareaquestionofyesorno,either/or,doordonot.Instead,howtheUnitedStatesmeetsthosechallenges
willrequirechoicesstrategicdecisionsaboutinfrastructureinvestment,governmentpolicy,researchfunding,andevenforeignpolicy.
esechallengescannotbemetbyslogansorpoliticalsound-bites.eseareimportantdecisionsrequiringaninformedandwide-rangingdebatenottrench
warfareoversmallissues.etimeforrhetoricandposturingonenergyissuesisswiftlyapproachingitsend.etimeforaction,ortheconsequencesofinaction,isapproaching.
Source: EIA Annual Energy Outlook 2011, http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/MT_intl.cfm
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Assessing Americas 21stCentury Energy Choices
Today,theUnitedStatesfacesaseriesofchoicesthatwilldeterminehowitseconomyispoweredtomeettheneedsofthe21stcentury.HowAmericachoosestoreplaceandexpanditsenergysupplywillaectthehealthoftheworldsenvironment,Americasnationalsecurity,andthewell-beingoftheU.S.economy.However,thepoliticaldebatedoesnothaveaneectivevocabularytodiscussthecostsandbenetsofdierentchoices.
Policymakerstoooftenmakeargumentsaboutenergybasedonwhichwillsellthebestinordertotadecisionalreadymade.Instead,policymakersshouldlookattheoptionsandweighthetradeosforeach.Becausetherearetradeosdecisionmakersshouldnotpretendtherearesilverbulletsthatwillautomaticallybringcheap,clean,domesticenergytoall.
ispaperwillattempttooutlineamatrixofpolicychoicesforthegovernment,utilities,andtheprivatesectortoconsider.
ItwilllookattendierentoptionsforhowtofuelAmericaseconomy,eachofwhichwillbeconsideredinlightofthreeconcerns:
(1) Energy Security;
(2) Economic Stability; and
(3) Environmental Sustainability.
Sometimesthesetermsaresimplybuzzwords,soitisimportanttospecicallydeneeach.
Energy Security
Analytically,energysecurityisdiculttoquantify.PresidentJimmyCarterdenedenergysecurityina1977speech
asindependenceofeconomicandpoliticalactionininternationalaairs.2
eUnitedStatesshouldbeabletodeneitsinterestsoverseasindependentlyfromhowitusesenergydomestically.
Importantly,energysecuritydoesnotmeanenergyindependenceinthesensethatalloftheenergyusedintheUnitedStatescomesfromwithinitsborderswithoutinternationaltrade.isisneitherobtainablenordesirableinaglobalizedworld.Inaddition,energysecuritydoesnotdependonthepercentageofsupplythatisimported.Inaworldofgloballytradedcommodities,itisnolongerpossibletobetrulyenergyindependent:evendomesticallyproducedenergysourcesaresubjecttouctuationsinglobalcommoditymarkets.
Sincetheoilpricecrisesofthe1970s,theriskofabsolutesupplyshortageshasbeenreducedsignicantly.ecreationoftheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)anditsrequirementthatallmembercountriesholdoilstockscapableofreplacing90daysworthofimportsactsasabueragainstdisruptionsinoilsupplies.eU.S.Strategic
PetroleumReservecansubstitutefor,onaverage,75daysworthofoilimportsasofJune2011,andprivatelyheldreservesaccountfortheadditionaldaysofimports.3
Althoughspeculatorsaresometimesblamedforinatingprices,thedeepeningofinternationalfuturestradingmarketsallowspricesignalstogivewarningsofimpendingsupplyanddemandimbalances.Today,then,fortheUnitedStates,energysecurityconcernsarenolongeraboutphysicaldisruptionsinsupply.eseconcernsstemfrom
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thepossibilitythatactionsinforeignpolicywillleadtopriceincreasescausingundueharmtoeconomicgrowth.
Keepingthisismind,thispaperdenesenergysecurityastheabilityforacountrytoactinitsforeignpolicyindependentlyofhowitusesenergydomestically.
Obtainingenergysecurityactuallydoesnotcomefromincreaseddomesticproductionalone:itcomesfromexibility,
competition,andredundancy.Ifasourceofenergysupplyiseasilyreplacedbyeitheradierentfueltypeoradierensource,thenacountryisinsulatedfromsupplyshocks.U.S.foreignpolicyshouldbedeterminedbyitsinterests,notbyhowitgeneratesitsenergy.
Economic StabilityItseemsclearthatalldecisionsaboutenergypolicymustconsiderprice.eUnitedStates,though,isoneofthemostenergyintensivedevelopedeconomies,whichmakesitseconomyvulnerabletopriceuctuations.
Lowpricesattheexpenseoflittlebueragainstuctuationsinpricebothupanddowncanbemoreharmfulthanahigherpricethatisstableoverthelong-term.Upwardpriceshocksharmconsumersbyactingasatax,butdownwardpriceshockscanharmproducersaswellbyundermininglong-terminvestments.
Whenpricesarelow,consumersareencouragedintodependency,onlyincreasingtheeconomicdamageifpricesspikeupwards.ebestexampleofthisisthattoday,Americandriversarefeelingthepainofgasoline-dependencythatyearoflowpricescreated.
Whendecisionmakersaredeliberatingaboutenergychoices,therelativepriceofeachdecisionisacriticalcomponentHowever,short-termfuelpricescannotbethereasonthatlong-termdecisionsaremade.Whendeliberatingonanenergychoice,itseconomicstabilitydenedashowenergyaectsthehealthofthecountryseconomyoverthelongtermshouldbeanimportantconcern.Producersandconsumersshouldbeabletomakerationaleconomicdecisionsindependentlyofpriceuctuationsornegativeexternalitiesfromenergy.
erefore,itismoreimportantforanenergychoicetobemadethatwillprovidelong-termeconomicstabilityratherthanprovidingonlyforlowpricesatanyexpense,particularlyifthosepricestendtobevolatile.
Economicstabilityshouldbeprioritizedabovelowpricesbecausethepursuitoflowpricescangivelicensetoproducerstoignoreothercosts.Byignoringtheseexternalities,particularlypollution,thepursuitoflowpricescancausenon-economiccoststoariseelsewhere,forexampleinreducedhealthfrompollutedairandwater.
Environmental Sustainability
Whilethereremainsadeeppoliticaldivideinthiscountry(andfewothers)aboutwhetherman-madeemissionsarecausingtheclimatetochange,thedebateinthescienticcommunityisnolongeraboutwhetherhumansarecausingclimatechange,buthowmuchthoseemissionsarehurting.
emostcontroversialdebatesamongscientistsareaboutthesensitivityoftheclimatetoincreasedconcentrationsofgreenhousegases.However,evenifpolicymakersareskepticalofthescienticbasisforthetheoryofclimatechange,aprudent,precautionarycourseinthefaceofuncertaintywoulddemandthatsomeactionbetaken.
Afterthe2008election,inwhichbothBarackObamaandJohnMcCainsupportedgovernmentpoliciestocapand
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ultimatelyreducegreenhousegasemissions,environmentalistshadhopedthattheU.S.Congresswouldaddresstheproblemofclimatechange.However,theproblemsofamajorrecession,shiftingstancesonthetruthbehindclimatechange,andcompetinglegislativeprioritiesmeantthattheWaxman-MarkeybilltocapgreenhousegasemissionspassedbytheHouseofRepresentativesinJune2009wasnevertakenupbytheSenate.
Eventhoughthereisnodomesticlawlimitingcarbonemissions,theU.S.Government,underbothPresidentsBush
andObama,hascommittedtoanumberofinternationalagreementstocapandreduceemissions,expressedthroughstatementsattheG-7,theG-20,andtheUNsCopenhagenAccord.
Climatechangehasdeepimplicationsforenergypolicy.efossilfuelstheUnitedStatesusestoproduce83%ofitsenergyarethemaindriverofclimatechange.4erefore,anyplanthatlookstoreduceemissionswillrequireeitherreducingthetotalamountofenergyproduced(eitherthroughgainsineciency,orabsolutedeclinesinenergyused)orreplacingalargeportionofenergyproductionwithemissions-freepower.
Astheworldssecondlargestemitterabout5,360tonsofcarbonemittedfromenergygenerationin2009(19%ofglobalemissions)5theU.S.willplayanimportantroleindeterminingwhethertheworldcansuccessfullypreventdangerousclimatechange.
Environmentalsustainabilityisaboutmorethanclimatechange,however.
LocalenvironmentaleectsofenergyproductionareasimportantormorethanclimatechangetohowtheUnitedStatesmakesitsdecisionsaboutenergyproduction.Decisionsonhowstrictlytolegislateandenforcepollutionlimitshavesignicantimpactsondecisionsabouthowtoproduceenergy.Environmentalsustainabilityinenergygenerationandextractionarecriticaltothefeasibilityofanyenergysystem.
eextraction,throughminingordrilling,offuelsandmineralsnecessaryforenergyproductioncanhavenegativeeectsonthelocalenvironment.eseexternalitiesincludespills,watercontamination,andairpollutionallof
whichcanbeharmfultothehealthofpeoplelivingandworkingaroundextractionsites.Howenergyproductionaectslocalwatersuppliesandlocalairqualitywilldeterminehowthepublicacceptsnewenergydevelopments.
Anenergysourceshouldbedenedasenvironmentallysustainableiftheproductionanduseofitdoesnotcauseundueharm.Whetherthatharmistolocalecosystems,theglobalatmosphere,watersystems,neighboringbusinesses,orhumanhealth,anenergysourcewithsubstantialexternalitiesisnotsustainableoverthelongterm.
Environmentalsustainabilityandeconomicstabilityarecloselylinkedoverthelong-term,becauseanenergychoicethatharmstheenvironmentwilleventuallycostmore.Itmaybetruethatpollutingcanreducecosts,justasthrowinggarbageoutanapartmentwindowischeaperthanpayingforgarbagecollection,butoverthelong-termbothwillproveunsustainable.isisbecausepolitical,regulatory,andlegalpressurewillbebroughtagainstpollutionsourcestobothreduceeuenceandcleanupanycontamination.
WhenmakingachoiceofhowtopowertheAmericaneconomyforthefuture,decisionmakersshouldclearlyarticulatehoweachpotentialsourceofenergyaectsnationalenergysecurity,economicstability,andenvironmentalsustainability.
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Options for Americas Energy Use
AccordingtotheIEA,theUnitedStatesistheworldslargestuserofenergy,consuming18.6%oftheglobalannualenergysupplyin2008.6
AdescriptionofAmericasfutureenergychoicesmustbeginwithhowtheUnitedStatesusesandproducesenergynow.LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratorysowchart(Figure1)showshowtheU.S.energyusein2009.ischartshowstherelativesizeandimportanceofeachsourceofenergy,aswellashoweachenergytypeisused.Analyzingthechartleadstosomeimportantconclusions,suchastheseparationofenergybetweenthatusedforelectricitygenerationandthatusedfortransportationandthestaggeringlyhighamountofrejected(wasted)energy.emajordrawbackofthechartisthatitisastaticsnapshotofenergyuseitdoesnotshowgrowthordeclineovertime.Nevertheless,itprovidesanimportantbaselinefor
thediscussionofthedierentfueltypesthatfollows.
Source: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, https://fowcharts.llnl.gov/
Source: EIA International Energy Statistics, http://www.eia.gov/capps/ipdproject/IEDIndex3cm?tid=44&pid=44&aid=2
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I. Fossil Fuels
FossilfuelsmakeupthelargestportionofenergyproductionintheUnitedStates.Petroleumproducts,coal,andnaturalgasaccountedfor83%oftotalenergyproductionin2009.EachhasdierentphysicalpropertiesthathavegiventhemverydierentrolesinAmericascurrentenergymix.
Itisnotamistakethatfossilfuelsarethedominantsourcesoffuelintheindustrializedworld.ecombinationoflowpricesandhighenergydensityhavemaderstcoal,thenoilandnaturalgas,thepreferredchoicesforenergyproductionforover200years.islong-termusagegivesthosefuelstwocenturiesofbuilt-inadvantageintheformofinfrastructurebuilttouseandtransportthesefuels.Itisnotenoughtosaythatbecausefossilfuelsarecheap,theyalwayswillremainthebestchoice.
Risingglobaldemandforallsourcesoffossilfuelsisdrivenbypopulationgrowthandtherequirementsofaburgeoningmiddleclassindevelopingcountries.Meanwhile,althoughgeologists,economists,andanalystscontinuetoargueabouthowmuchcoal,oil,orgasremainsbeneaththeground,bydenition,suppliesoffossilfuelsarenite.
Together,increasesindemandcoupledwithconstrainedsupplywillinevitablyleadtopriceincreases.Itisonlyaquestionofwhenfossilfuelsarenolongertheeconomical.
esethreemajorfossilfuelsallpresentsignicant,thoughdierent,challengestoAmericanenergysecurity,economicstability,andenvironmentalsustainability.
Sincetheverybeginningoftheindustrialrevolution,whenthecitiesofEnglandwereturnedblackbycoalsoot,ithasbeenclearthatburningfossilfuelshaveacosttothelocalenvironment.ispollutionisnotonlydangeroustoecosystemsandwildlife;ithasalsoprovedtobedetrimentaltohumanhealth.IntheUnitedStates,industrialpollutionfromfossilfuelswasoneofthemainreasonsforthecreationoftheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.7
Overthelastthirtyyears,advancesintechnology,suchasthecatalyticconvertoronautomobilesandadvancedscrubbersinpowerplants,havereducedtheamountoftoxinsreleasedintolocalairandwatersupplies.However,it
isonlywithinthelastthirtyyearsthatscientistshavebeguntoprovethattheemissionsfromfossilfuels,especiallycarbondioxide,arealsocausingtheclimateoftheentireEarthtochange.Sofar,thereisnotechnicalxtothis:theonlywaytopreventfossilfuelsfromemittinggreenhousegasesintotheatmosphereistonotburnthematall.
eresultoftwocenturiesofincreasingfossilfueluseisthattheconcentrationofcarbondioxideintheearthsatmospherehasrisenby4%fromabout275partspermillion(ppm)toarecord391ppmin2011andthattheEarthsaveragetemperaturehasrisenbyaboutonedegreeCelsius. 8
eUnitedStateshasaresponsibilityasthesecondlargestemitterofgreenhousegasesintheworldtoreduceitsemissions.Innovationandnewtechnologiesareincreasingtheeciencyoftheenginesandpowerplantsthatburnfossilfuelsmeaningthatlessfuelandfeweremissionswillproducethesameamountofenergy.
However,anyeortstoreduceemissionsmustrealizethatyoucanonlygosofarwithfossilfuels.If83%ofAmericasenergycontinuestocomefromfossilfuels,thentheearthwouldlikelybestuckonatrajectoryofwarming3or4degreesabovepre-modernlevelsfarbeyondwhatclimatescientistshavedeemedasasafelevel.9
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1. Oil
Oilaccountsfor35%oftotalenergyuse.Whileverylittleofthatisusedtoproduceelectricity,itisthedominantfuelfortransportation:94%oftheenergythatpowersAmericancars,trucks,trains,andplanescomesfromburningfuelsrenedfromcrudeoilinaninternalcombustionengine.
edominanceofoilfortransportationcomesfromitsuniquephysicalpropertiesthatmakeitwell-adaptedtotransportation:ithasahigheramountofenergyperkilogramthancoal,butbecauseitisinaliquidform,itiseasilytransportable,unlikenaturalgaswhichrequiresspecializedcontainment.
Oilalsoenjoysaneectivemonopolyontransportationbecauseitscentury-longdominanceoftransportationhasresultedinalargeandecientinfrastructurededicatedtoextracting,rening,anddistributingcrudeoilandthefuels
thatarerenedfromit.
Energy Security
FortheUnitedStates,dependenceonoilforitstransportationisadirectthreattoenergysecurity;concernsaboutthe
impactonthepriceofoilareanimportantfactorinforeignpolicydecisions.
eUnitedStatesproducesmorethanhalfoftheoilitconsumes(netimportsare47%onconsumption)with20%ofimportscomingfromitsNAFTAneighborsofCanadaandMexico,butthepriceconsumerspayforoildependsonglobalmarkets.10
EveniftheUnitedStatescouldproduce100%oftheoilitused,Americanconsumerswouldstillbevulnerabletoglobalpriceuctuationsbasedonsupplydisruptionsinunstableregions.Forexample,theriseinoilpricesduetotheSpring2011revolutionandcivilwarinLibyahaveimpacted
Americanconsumers,eventhoughLibyanoilexportsto
theU.S.composelessthan1%ofallimportsin2010.11
Integratedglobaloilmarketsmeanthatproducingmoreoil
withintheUnitedStateswillnoterasesecuritythreats.
Solongas30%ofglobalproductioncomesfromtheMiddleEast(12%fromSaudiArabiaalone,or10millionbarrelsperday)andsolongasithasover50%oftheworldstotalprovenreserves,AmericanforeignpolicyintheregionwillcontinuetofollowtheCarterDoctrine.12Firstpromulgatedin1979,itstatesthatbecauseofitsoilreserves,anattemptbyanyoutsideforcetogaincontrolofthePersianGulfregionwillberegardedasanassaultonthevitalinterestsof
theUnitedStates.13
Source: EIA, Petroleum and Other Liquids,
http://www.eia.gov/petroleum/data.cm
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Economic Stability
U.S.dependenceonoilfortransportationharmsitseconomicstabilityasmuchasitharmsitsenergysecurity.Inadditiontothelong-termproblemsofsupplyanddemand,oilsuersfromtheshort-termproblemofpricevolatility.Overthelastfouryearsalone,theglobalpriceofoilhasuctuatedfromanaveragepriceperbarrelof$69in2007toapeakof$147inJuly2008,backdownbelow$35inJanuary2009,thenbackupabove$120perbarrel
inApril2011.14isconstantuctuationharmsconsumersandbusinessesbecauseitimpairstheirabilitytoplanforthelong-term.
AsecondproblemofeconomicstabilityinAmericasrelianceonoilisthedependenceonimports.
eUnitedStatessendshundredsofbillionsofdollarsoverseastopayforoil.eUnitedStatesconsumedover$1.45trillionworthofoilin2010,ofwhich$680billionwasspentonimports.15Withouttheseimports,theU.S.tradedecit,whichwas$497billionin2010,wouldnothaveexisted.16atcapitalcouldbeusedforinvestmentathome.eexportofthiscapitalhastheeectofdrivingdownthevalueofthedollar.Coupledtogether,volatilityandimportdependencemeanthatrapidpriceincreasesactasataxincreaseonconsumersbutinsteadofthistaxincreasebeingusedtopaydownthebudgetdecitorinvestdomestically,50%ofitissentoverseas.
Environmental Sustainability
GreenhousegasemissionsfromoilandpetroleumproductsaresinglelargestsourceofcarbonemissionsintheU.S.17
Oilproduces164,000poundsofcarbondioxideemissionsperbillionBritishthermalunit(Btu)ofenergy--40%morethannaturalgas,but21%lessthancoal.18
eU.S.governmenthasinstitutedpolicies,suchastheincreaseinCorporateAverageFuelEciency(CAFE)standards,whichwillreducetheamountofgreenhousegasemissionspermiletraveled.ispolicywillproducetechnologicaloptionsforreducinggreenhousegasemissionsbyimprovingautomobileeciencyandbyincentivizingautomakerstolookforcleanerormoreecientfuelssuchasethanolorbiodiesel.
Althoughproducingoildomesticallyisgoodforeconomicstability,thereisatradeo.Drillingforoilcanproduceoilspills,liketheexplosionoftheDeepwaterHorizonplatformin2010whichkilled11workers,shutdownshingacrosstheGulfofMexico,andcouldultimatelycost$20billiontocleanup.19
Asexplorationforoilexpandsintomoredicult-to-accessareas,suchasdeepunderwater,intheArctic,orintheoilsandsofAlberta,Canada,itisclearthattherewillbeagreaterriskofenvironmentallydamagingspillsduetothetechnicalcomplexityofoperatingintheseareas.
eAmericanpublicwillhavetomakeachoiceofwhetheritacceptstherisksofenvironmentaldamagefromincreaseddrilling.Politiciansandthepublicshouldnotbesurprisedwhenfutureaccidentshappeninsteadproperriskmanagementproceduresshouldbefollowedtominimizeboththeriskofanaccidentandthecostwhenonedoes
happen.
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2.Coal
Coalprovides21%oftotalenergyuseintheUnitedStatesandisthesinglelargestsourceofelectricpower,providing48%ofelectricitygeneration.Onlyabout7%ofcoalisburnedforanythingotherthantheproductionofelectricity-mostlyforindustrialusessuchassteelproduction.
IntheUnitedStates,thelargeststatesforcoalminingareWyomingandWestVirginia,whichannuallyproducemorethanhalfofalldomesticcoal.20About$1.5billionworthofcoalisimportedeveryyear,althoughtheU.S.runsatradesurplusincoal,withaboutthreetimesthatamountexported.21
Energy Security
Coal,unlikeoil,isalmostentirelyproducedfromdomesticmines,anddoesnotpresentthesamesecuritythreatsasoil.Moreover,unlikeoil,coalisnotbeenaneasilytradablecommodity,duetoitssizeandweight.
evalueofcoaltoAmericanenergysecurityisevidentfromthehighprioritythatpresidentsfrombothpartiesgaveitduringthe1970senergycrises:PresidentsNixon,Ford,andCarterallinitiatedpoliciesthatfavoreddomesticcoalproductionforelectricitygeneration.
eUnitedStatesisestimatedtohave249yearsofrecoverablecoalreservesatpresentratesofconsumption.Coalwouldbeanearlyoptimalchoice,forpurelyenergysecurityreasons,wereitnotforthefatalawsofitsenvironmentalandsafetyrecord,whichwillbeexpandedonfurtherinsectionsbelow.22
Economic Stability
edominanceofcoalinutility-scaleelectricitygenerationisbecauseminingandtransportingithashistoricallybeencheap.
Sincethe1970s,technologicaladvancementsallowedfortheconstructionoflarge,high-volume,coalpowerplantswithhigherthermodynamiceciencythanolderplants,sothatmoreenergytobeconvertedtoelectricityandlesswastedasheat.
Forexample,thelargestcoalpowerplantinthecountry-theRockportplantinSpencer,Indiana-iscapableof
Source: U.S. Coal Overview 1949-2009, EIA, http://www.eia.gov/coal
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producing2600MWofelectricity,twicethecapacityofanaverageAmericannuclearpowerplant.23Itusesover9milliontonsofcoalperyear.
However,thelong-termcheapnessofcoalasasourceofelectricpowermaybebeginningtocometoanend.Railroadstransportmostcoalproduction,andincreasingdemandsontrackalongwithindustryconsolidationmeanthattheycanincreasedeliverypricesofcoal;forsomecoaldeliveries,transportationcostsaccountfor50%ofthepriceof
deliveredcoal.24
Environmental Sustainability
epriceofcheapcoalisapparentinvisitstominingcountry,wheremountaintopshavebeenremovedandpeoplearelesshealthy.Coalminingremainsthe7thmostdangerousjobinthecountry.25
Burningcoalistheworstoptionforgreenhousegasemissions,producing208,000poundsofcarbondioxideemissionsperbillionbtuofoutput.26Coalalsocontainspollutants,includingmercury,lead,andsulfur.Manyofthesepollutantscanberemovedinthesmokestackbymodernscrubbertechnologies.However,thereisnotyetatechnologicalxforreducinggreenhousegasemissions.
erearepilotprojectsinNorwayandGermanythataretestingcarboncaptureandsequestration(CCS)technologyasawaytoremovegreenhousegasemissionsandsequesterthemunderground.eyhavenotyetdemonstratedthatthisisasafe,long-termoption.Italsoispossiblethattheenergylostbycapturingandsequesteringthecarbondioxide
willmakecoalpowerplantswithCCStechnologymorecostlyandinecientthancompetingpowerplants.
Coalmayalsobetheworstoptionfortheenvironmentalandhumandamageitcauseswhenitismined.Coalminingreleasestoxicsulfuricacidintolocalgroundwatersupplies,destroyslocalecosystems,andharmshumanhealth.GreaterenvironmentalregulationsandtheincreasinguseofcoalfromWyomingsPowderRiverBasin,whichhaslessaveragesulfurcontentthanEasterncoal,meanthatthesenewcoalpowerplantsdonotemitasmanyacid-raincausingpollutants.
3. Natural Gas
Naturalgasprovides25%oftotalenergyuseintheUnitedStates,and18%ofelectricityproduction.Itisusedforelectricityproductionaswellasdirectlyinhouseholdsandbusinesses.Itisalsoaveryimportantsourceoffeedstockforfertilizer.
Inthelastdecade,newtechnology,particularlythecommercializationofhydraulicfracturing(fracking),hasrevolutionizednaturalgasproductionintheU.S.Frackingallowsnaturalgastrappedinshalerockformationstobereleasedandcaptured.ishasledtonaturalgasproductioninareasofthecountry,suchasPennsylvaniaandColorado,whereithadpreviouslynotbeeneconomicallyfeasible.Becauseofthenewshalegastechnology
production,totalnaturalgasextractionhasincreasedby15%fromtheendof2005through2010.
Energy Security
ecommercializationofshalegastechnologyhasrevolutionizednaturalgasproductionintheUnitedStates,easingconcernsaboutenergysecurity.Estimatesoftechnicallyandeconomicallyrecoverablegasresourceshaveskyrocketed
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becauseofthefrackingtechnology.
eU.S.EnergyInformationAgency(EIA)estimatedin2010thattheUnitedStatespossessesatotalnaturalgasresourcebaseof2,552trillioncubicfeet(Tcf)ofpotential
naturalgasresources.AtcurrentratesofusetheUnitedStateshasreservesfor110yearsofnaturalgas.
Beforetheboomwasapparentasrecentlyas2006therewaspressurefromnaturalgasuserstobuildmoreliqueednaturalgas(LNG)terminalsinordertoimportgas.27Now,however,thoseterminalsareincreasinglybeingusedtoexportgas.Injusttenyears,from2000to2010,U.S.exportsofnaturalgashaveincreasedbyover350%.28e
naturalgasboomintheUnitedStatesisnotonlygoodforAmericanenergysecurity,butithasalsohelpedAmericastradingpartnersandalliesespeciallythoseinEuropethatrelyonRussiangasimportstodiversifytheirfuelsources.
Economic Stability
Naturalgasisnotaseasilytransportableascoaloroil.Becauseitisagas,itrequiressignicantinfrastructureinvestmentsinpipelines,liqueednaturalgasfacilities,orfueltankstotransportit.ismeansthattherearenotuniedmarketsforgaspricesofgasdeliveredtoafacilityvarysignicantlyaroundtheworld,andindeedindierentareasofthecountry.
ispriceuncertaintyhasgivenutilitiessomeconcernaboutmakinglong-termcommitmentstousingnaturalgasasabaseloadpowersource.Instead,gaspowerplantshavebeenusedasback-upgenerationfortimesofpeakload.
efallingaspricesintheU.S.thathasaccompaniedtheshalegasboomhasbeguntostimulateinvestmentinnewgaspowerplants.However,electricutilitiesareverysensitiveaboutmakinglong-terminvestmentsthatrelyonnaturalgasafuelwithahistoryofsurprisepricechangesbecausetheyareoftenpreventedbystatelawsandutilitycommissionsfromincreasingconsumerrateswhenfuelpricesincrease.
eeconomicstabilityofnaturalgasasanenergysourceisstillanopenquestion,butifpricesremainhistoricallylow,investorsshouldbeexpectedtotestitslong-termviability.
Environmental Sustainability
Burningnaturalgasismoreenvironmentallyfriendlythananyotherfossilfuelbecauseitburnscleanerwithlesspollutantsandnomercury.Itsgreenhousegasemissionsare117,000poundsofcarbondioxideperbillionbtu;44%lowerthancoaland30%lowerthanoil.29ismeansthatifallelectricityproductioncurrentlyusingcoalnowwereswitchedtogas,totalU.S.greenhousegasemissionswouldbeabout10%less.
Source: EIA, http://www.eia.ogv/naturalgas
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Inaddition,naturalgaspowerplantsareexcellentpartnerstorenewablepower.Becauserenewablegenerationisbyitsnaturevariable,itisimportanttohaveareadyreserveofreliablepowerfortimeswhendemandexceedssupply.Modernnaturalgaspowerplantsareabletoeconomicallyturnonando,unlikecoalornuclearplantsthatrequirelongleadtimestoheatupandcoolo.Forthesereasons,naturalgashasbeencalledabridgefueltoenablegreateruseofrenewablepowerinthegrid.
Althoughburningnaturalgasisrelativelyclean,thereisanongoingdebateabouthowdangeroustheminingofgasisforlocalairandwatersupplies.Hydraulicfracturingrequiresthatlargeamountsofwaterandchemicalsbeinjecteddeepintotheearthathighpressures.ereisajustiablefear,andsomeevidence,thatthechemicalsinthefracturingwillleachintowatersupplies.30Properlydone,thechemicalsshouldnotgointothewatersupplybecausethefracturingtakesplacefarbelowthewatertable.
Withmorethan460,000wellsoperatingintheUnitedStates,however,itisimportantthathighstandardsaremaintainedacrossthecountry.Furtherstudy,increasedtransparency,andtightoversightatallstagesofthedrillingprocessshouldbeembracedbybothregulatorsandindustry.
Frackinghasotherenvironmentalconcernsbeyondthepossiblepollutionofwatersources.Peoplelivinginareaswithnewdrillingreporthigherincidentsofasthma.Inaddition,newdrillingrequireslargeamountsofwater,increasing
waterscarcityinareasalreadyunderwaterstress.Finally,newfrackingprojectsintheUnitedKingdomhavebeensuspendedbecauseofconcernsaboutearthquakes.31
II. Nuclear Power
NuclearpoweristheexpressionofEinsteinsfamousequation:E=MC 2,orEnergy=MassxSpeedofLight,squared.ismeansthereisatremendousamountofenergylockedinthenucleusofeveryatom.isenergycanbereleasedinoneoftwoways:bysplittingtheatom(ssion)orbyfusingtwoatomstogether(fusion).
Humanityrstunleashedthefullpoweroftheatomwithresearchthatledtothebuildingoftherstatomicbombsin1945.Shortlythereafter,in1952,athermonuclearhydrogenbombwastestedbytheUnitedStatesresultingintherstman-made(thoughuncontrolled)fusionreaction.
Aftertheworldsawthedevastationthattheatomicbombcouldbring,someforesawthatthesamepowerunleashedbynuclearweaponrycouldbeharnessedforpeacefulpurposes.Inthishope,PresidentEisenhowerbegantheAtomsforPeaceprogram,witha1953speechtotheUnitedNationssaying,themiraculousinventivenessofmanshallnotbededicatedtohisdeath,butconsecratedtohislife.32
4. Nuclear Fission
Americanciviliannuclearpowerbeganin1955,whentheAtomicEnergyCommissionaskedforproposalsfromtobuildnuclearreactorstoproduceelectricpowerfromnuclearssion.By1960,3civilianpowerreactorswereinoperation.Twentyyearslater,by1980,87reactorswereinoperationaroundthecountry.However,the1979accidentatreeMileIsland,inwhichanuclearreactorscoremelteddown,andquestionsaboutthecostandeciencyofnuclearpower,slowednewconstruction.After1980,over100reactororderswerecanceledandfourteenalreadyoperationalreactorswerepermanentlyshutdown.
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Today,atotalof104reactorsareoperationalaroundthecountry,withacapacityof101.0gigawatts.In2009,nuclearenergyprovidedabout20%ofthecountrystotalelectricity
generationand9%oftotalenergy. 33
ereisonlyonenuclearreactorcurrentlyunderconstructionintheU.S.Othersareawaitingpermittingandnancing,butforecastsofanuclearrenaissancehavenotyetcomeabout.Oneareathatcouldseegrowthinnuclearreactorconstructionissmall,modularreactors;theTennesseeValleyAuthorityrecentlysignedaletterofintenttobuilduptosixsmallreactors.enumberofthesetypesofnuclearpowerplantscouldincreasesincenancingwillbe
easiertocomebyandconstructionwillnottakeaslong.
Energy Security
Fromatraditionalenergysecuritypointofview,increasinguseofnuclearssionreactorsforelectricitywouldgiveastrongboosttonationalenergysecurity:itsfuel(uranium)iseitheravailablefromdomesticmines,orfromdecommissionednuclearweapons.
However,nuclearpowerdoespresentmoretraditionalthreatstosecurity.Nuclearpowerplantsclosetopopulationcenters,suchasNewYorks
IndianPointreactor,arepotentialterroristtargets.
Economic Stability
Originally,nuclearpowerwasenvisionedasacheapsourceofplentifulelectricitymostmemorably,itwasdescribedin1954bytheheadoftheAtomicEnergyCommission,LewisStrauss,astoocheaptometer. 34Unfortunately,thathasnotprovedtobethe
case.
Unlikefossilfuel-poweredelectricitygeneration,mostofthecostfornuclearpowerisxed,inup-frontinfrastructure
Source: EIA, Nuclear and Uranium, http://www.eia.gov/nuclear/data.m
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costs.Onceaplantiscompleteandrunning,thevariablecostoffuelonlyaddsasmallamounttothepriceofelectricitygenerated.
Historyhasshownthatthebudgetfornewnuclearreactors,alreadyhigh,isveryoftenexceeded.Anassessmentof75ofAmericasexistingreactorsshowedpredictedcoststohavebeen$45billion,buttheactualcostswere$145billion.35ecountrywiththemostrecentnuclearpowerconstructionexperience,India,showsthatcostsofitslast10reactorshaveaveraged300%overbudget.Oncebuilt,however,anotedbenetofnuclearpoweristhatthepriceofelectricityisstableandpredictable.
Spentfuelisalsoadrainongovernmentresources.Underthe1982NuclearWastePolicyAct,theU.S.governmentwastocreateapermanentstoragesiteforradioactivespentnuclearfuelbyFebruary1998.irteenyearslater,thefederalgovernmentisnoclosertomeetingthisrequirement;asaresult,utilitieshaveleddozensoflawsuitsforover$6billioninclaims.Ofthis,thegovernmenthasalreadypaid$956million,andithasspentnearly$170millionsimplydefendingitself.DepartmentofEnergystatisticsshowthatnewlawsuitsandothercostscouldeventuallypushthegovernmentslegalliabilitytoover$16billion.36
Environmental Sustainability
Nuclearpower,bothfromssionandfusion,doesnotproducegreenhousegases.Forthisreason,someenvironmentalistsmostworriedaboutclimatechangehaveshiftedfromtheirtraditionaloppositiontonuclearpower.IftheUnitedStatesproducedthesamepercentageofitselectricityfromnuclearpowerasFrancedoes(77%),itwouldproduce19%fewergreenhousegases.
Althoughtherearenopollutingemissionsfromexisting(ssion)nuclearpower,thatdoesnotmakeitcompletelyclean.Spentnuclearfuel,whichcanconsistofradioactiveuranium,plutonium,orthorium,presentslong-termthreatsfromradiationcontamination.Afterspentnuclearfuelisremovedfromthereactor,itisplacedintemporarywatercoolingpoolswithinthereactorfacility.iswasnotintendedtobe
permanent,butthegovernmentsfailuretondalong-termstrategyforstoringspentnuclearfuelmeansthatmostofAmericasradioactivespentfuel63,000tonsofnuclearwasteisstoredon-site.37
5. Fusion
Fusionhasnotseenthesamesuccessasasourceofenergy.ebasicfuelforfusionishydrogen,andenergyisproducedbyforcingtogethertheatomicnucleiofdeuteriumandtritium(twoformsofhydrogen)toformhelium.Agreatdealofenergyisreleasedbythisreaction:onepoundoffusionfueliscapableofyieldingasmuchenergyasiscontainedin10millionpoundsofcoal.
erstpatentrelatedtofusionenergywasissuedintheUnitedKingdomin1946.Sincethen,therehavebeenanumberofsignicantbreakthroughs,includingcontrolledfusionreactions.Uptonow,theproblemsofhowtocontaintheintenseheat
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andpressureneedforasustainedfusionreactionhavepreventedfusionreactionsfromachievingthepointwheremoreenergywillbereleasedfromthereactionthanisbeingusedtoinitiateandcontrolit.
Recentadvancesinlaserandmagnetictechnology,however,haveraisedhopesthatfusioncouldbecomeanewsourceofelectricityoverthemedium-term.ScientistsfromtheLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratoryinCalifornia,
workingundertheauspicesoftheNationalNuclearSecurityAdministrationattheNationalIgnitionFacility(NIF),
havepredictedthattheywillbeabletoachieveafusionreactionthatgetsnetenergygainasignicantmilestoneusingadvancedlasersforcompressionandcontainmentbytheendof2012.38
Energy Security
Fusionpowerhasthepotentialtoalleviateconcernsaboutenergysecurity.Fueltopowerfusionpowerisavailableinseawater.
edownsideriskonenergysecuritycomesfromnotinvestinginresearchanddevelopment.Ifothernationaleortsinothercountries,particularlycompetitorcountrieslikeChina,aresuccessfulincommercializingfusionreactions,thentheywillsellthetechnologyabroad,attheexpenseoftheU.S.
Importantly,dependenceontechnologyandinfrastructuredonotraisethesameenergysecurityconcernsasdependenceuponimportedfueldoes,buttheywillcertainlyexertacost.
Economic Stability
Bringingfusionpowertoalevelthatitiscommerciallyviablewillrequiresignicantresearchanddevelopmentspending,estimatedatabout$35billionovera15-yearperiod(or$2.33billionperyear).39isisasignicantoutlay,butforcomparison,thecostoftheManhattanprojectwasapproximately$22billionincurrentdollarsover5years,andtheApolloprogramwas$98billionover14years.40
Oncecommercialized,powerplantsarelikelytorequireahighinitialconstructioncostandlowoperatingcosts.
Fusionhasthepotentialtobealong-termsourceofenergy,butitwillrequiresignicantandsustainedinvestmentinordertomeettheengineeringandscienticneedsrequired.
Environmental Sustainability
Fusionpowerdoesnotproduceradioactivewasteatnearlythesamelevelasssion.Infact,developingfusionmayactuallyhelptosolvetheproblemofspentnuclearfuel.PhysicistsattheUniversityofTexasatAustinhavedesignedanewsystemthat,whenfullydeveloped,wouldusefusiontoeliminatemostofthewasteproducedbyssionnuclearpowerplants.
Pairingssionandfusionreactionswouldalsoallowthedangerousradiationtobeabsorbedbyfusionreactions,
therebyusingtheharmfulradiationfromssionreactionstopowerfusionreactions.Inthisway,fusioncouldhelpthelong-termenvironmentalsustainabilityofexistingU.S.nuclearpowerplants.
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III. Renewable Power
Beforethewidespreadadoptionoffossilfuelstwohundredyearsago,renewablesourcesofpowerwerethe
onlyenergysourcesavailable.Manytownswerebuiltonornearriversinordertotakeadvantageofthepowerofrunningwater.
Windwastheprimemodeofpowerforwatertransportation.Biomassisjustamoretechnicalnameforburningwoodforheatorlight.Inthe21stcentury,inaneorttoreturntoanenergysystemthatismoresustainable,limitless,andislesslikelytoprovokeconict,humanityisreturningtoitsoriginalsourcesofenergy.istime,though,scientistsareusingthecombinedtechnologyandinnovationofthe21st
centuryinordertobetterharnessthesesources.Renewablepowerincludespowergeneratedbywater,
wind,thesun,plants,orthenaturalheatoftheearth.Together,thesevepowersourceshydro,wind,solar,biomass,andgeothermalaccountfor8.2%oftotalenergygenerationintheUnitedStates,and10.8%ofelectricitygeneration.
edierentfossilfuelornuclearsourcesofenergyeachpresentseparatechallengesorconcernsaboutenergysecurity,economicstability,andenvironmentalsustainability.However,thepositivesandnegativeforthesethreecriteriaarelargelysharedacrosseachofthevetypesofrenewableenergysource.Forthatreason,thischapterwill
brieygiveashortoverviewofeachtypeofrenewablepower,followedbyadiscussionofthesharedconcernsaboutrenewablepowerforenergysecurity,economicstability,andenvironmental sustainability.
6. Hydropower
HydropoweristhelargestrenewablesourceofenergyintheUnitedStates.Itproduces7%ofthecountryselectricitypowerin1950,itproduced30%ofthecountryspower.eGrandCouleeDamontheColombiaRiverinWashingtonisthelargestelectricitypowerplantinthecountry,
capableofgenerating6.9gigawattsofelectricity.41
However,thereislittleroomforgrowth.Hydroelectricplantscanonlyoperatewhereriversprovidesuitableamountsofpotentialenergy,andmostofthebestsiteshavealreadybeendeveloped.
Source: EIA, Renewable Energy Consumption and Electricity PreliminaryStatistics 2010, http://www.eia.gov/renewable/annual/preliminary
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Consequently,conventionalhydroelectricgenerationgrewsteadilythroughthe1970s,peakedin1997,andhasbeendecliningforthelastdecade.
oughthereareotherformsofhydrogeneration,likeunderwaterrunoftheriverturbines,theirmaturitydoesnot
approachtheleveloftraditionalhydropower,andtheirdevelopmentisspeculative.
7. Wind
WindpoweroverthepastdecadehasbeenthefastestgrowingsourceofAmericanenergy.Forthetenyearsto2009,windhadanaverageannualgrowthrateof32%.Today,itaccountsfor2%ofelectricitygeneration.42
Largescalewindfarmsarebeinginstalledacrossthecounty.Oshorewindfarmsare
beinginstalledrapidlyinsomeEuropeancountries,butintheUnitedStates,onlytwoareintheplanningprocessandnonehavebegunconstruction.Windfarmsplacedfarenoughoshorecanovercometheoftencitiedoppositiontowindthatcomesfromconcernsaboutobstructedviewsinonshorefarms.
8. Solar
SolarpowerislessutilizedthanwindintheUnitedStates.In2009,itaccountedforonly.03%oftotalenergyproduction,withmostofthatgoingtohouseholduses,suchassolarheating.43Utility-scaleelectricitygenerationintheUnitedStatesfromsolarcellsisstillafar-odream.Europeangovernmentshavebeeninvestingmoreheavilyintogovernmentpoliciestopromotelarge-scalesolarpower.
erearetwomainwaystoproduceelectricityfromthesun.erstisthroughphotovoltaiccellsthatcapturesunlightonsiliconandtransformitintoelectricity.
esecondiscalledconcentratedsolarthermal.Inthismethod,specializedmirrorsareusedtofocustheheatandlighofthesunonacentralcorethatisheated.eheatfromthiscoreisthenusedtogeneratesteam,turningaturbineandcreatingelectricity.ebenetofthisformofsolarthermalpoweristhattheheatofthecentralcorecanbemaintainedsothatpowercanbegeneratedevenwhenthesungoesdown.
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9. Biomass
Generatingenergyfrombiomassistheabilitytouseplantsforfuel.iscanbeassimpleasusingwaste-woodfromsawmillsorpaperfactoriesinresidentialheatingsystemsoritcanrefertotheprocessofreningcornintoethanolthatisthenblendedintogasoline.
EthanolisthemostimportantofthesefuelsintheUnitedStates,butothercountrieshavemadebiodieselmadefromoilseedsandpalmoilsignicantpartsoftheirtransportationfuels.Givengeneroussubsidies,corn-basedethanol,blendedintogasoline,providesabout3.4%oftheenergyusedintransportation.
Advancedformsofbiodieselincludeproposalstorenefuelfromalgae.
10. Geothermal
GeothermalpowercomesfromtheEarthsnaturalheat.Residentialgeothermalsystemsincludesimpleheatpumpsthatusethesoilsconstanttemperaturetohelpkeephouseswarminthewinterandcoolinthesummer.
Geothermalonautility-scaleisastable,long-termsourceofenergy,butonlyincertainareaswherethecrustoftheearthisthinandvolcanicorseismicactivityishigh.eUnitedStatescurrentlyhasthemostinstalledgeothermalelectricitygenerationcapacityinternationally,withapproximately3.1gigawattsofonlinecapacity.
AsofApril2011,geothermalelectricpowergenerationisoccurringinnineU.S.states:Alaska,California,Hawaii,Idaho,Nevada,NewMexico,Oregon,Utah,andWyoming.elargestproducerofgeothermalenergyisCalifornia,
with83%ofnationalgeneratingcapacity.44
Energy Security
Anyformofrenewablepowerpresentsfewconcernsaboutenergysecuritybecausetheydonotuseafuelthathastobeimported.
Somecomplainaboutdependenceonimportedsolarpanelsorotherenergy-producinggoodsfromChina,butthisisnotthesameasenergysecurity.Unlikedependenceonacommoditylikeoil,importingsolarpanelsforexampleconstituteaone-time-onlyxedcost.Oncethecostisborne,thereisverylittlevariablecostforgeneratingrenewableenergy.esameistruewhenconcernsareraisedthatimportinglithiumforadvancedbatterieswillonlyreplaceimportsfromunstableVenezuelaorIraqwithimportsfromunstableBolivia.isislikewiseafalseargument,becausebatteriesshouldbetermedasaxedinvestmentcost,notavariablecost,likefuel.Whiletherearegoodeconomicargumentsfornotbeingreliantonimportsofmineralsorrenewableenergymaterials,therearefewvalidsecurityarguments.
Aneconomythatreliesonrenewablepowerforitsenergyneedswillbeabletomanageitsforeignpolicy
independentlyofhowitutilizesenergy.
However,giventheseparationinfuelsbetweenelectricitygenerationandtransportation,policymakersshouldnotbedeludedintothinkingthatincreasingrenewableelectricitygenerationwillautomaticallyincreaseenergysecurity.erealsoneedstobeacoherentstrategytousemorerenewablepowerintransportation.Onlybygivingconsumersachoiceabouthowtofueltheircarswillpolicymakersbeabletobreakthegripthatoilhasontransportation.
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IntheUnitedStates,transportationisprimarilybyautomobiles,soanyproposaltousemorerenewableenergyintransportationmustbeginbyeitherelectrifyingtheautoeetorsignicantlyincreasingtheavailabilityanduseofethanolandbiodiesel.
Economic Stability
Renewablepowerreceivessubsidies,andinsomecases,verygenerousones.Ofthevetypesofrenewablepower,onlyconventionalhydroelectricisconsistentlycompetitiveoncostofgenerationwithfossilfuels.However,thedemonstratedbenetsofgeneratingelectricitywithoutusingapollutingfuelareabenetthatthegovernmenthasaninterestinpromoting.
eproblemwiththerenewableproductiontaxcreditandanyothersubsidiesisnotthatthegovernmentispickingwinnersandlosers,butthatitschoicesareinconsistent.Forbusinessesandutilitiestomakemulti-yearinvestmentsinlarge-scalerenewableenergy,theyneedmorecertaintythantheconsistentbipartisanbrinksmanshipoverwhethertoextendthesesubsidiesforonemoreyear.
Inareasofthecountrywithconsistentandstrongwinds,installingnewwindturbinesisalreadypricecompetitivewithnewfossil-fuelgeneration,withoutsubsidies.However,windpowerpresentstwoproblemsofeconomicstability:
intermittencyandgridstability.Toovercometheseproblemswillrequiretheelectricitygridtomodernizefromits19 th
centuryrootsintoamodernsmartgrid.
Withasmartgrid,installedenergystoragefacilities,suchasbatteriesorywheels,willstoreelectricityfortimeswhenitismostneededandcomputerscandirectelectricityalonglong-distancehigh-voltagelinesfromareaswherethewindisblowingtoareasthatneedelectricity.
AsmentionedintheFossilFuelschapter,thissmartgridshouldbepairedwithnaturalgasturbinepowerplantsthatcaneasilyincreasepowertomatchuctuatingloadlevels.Hydroelectricpowercanalsobeeasilystoredfortimesofpeakload.
Solarpowerseconomicbenetisitscompactnessandversatility.Itdoesnotrequirelarge,expensivesolararraystogeneratepower.Instead,smallunitscanbeinstalledtoosetthecostsofelectricity.Withproperlegalregulations(notimplementedinallstates),consumerscaninstallsolarpowerontheirpropertylikelyontheirroofanddefraythemonthlycostofelectricity.Attimesoflowhouseholdusage,theycanevenselltheelectricitybacktothegrid.
Environmental Sustainability
Ingeneral,renewablepowerproducesnogreenhousegasemissions.However,thatdoesnotmeanthattheyarewithoutenvironmentalcontroversy.
Americasethanolprogram,forexample,iscomingunderintenseandjustiedscrutiny.erearesignicant
questionsaboutthelifecycleemissionsofethanol.Eventhoughitcomesfromplants,heavyinputsoffertilizeranduseoffossilfuelstoproduceandtransportitmeanthattheminimalbenetinreducedgreenhousegasemissionsmaynotbeworththesubsidiesethanolproductionreceives.Cellulosicethanol,whichisderivedfromgrassesorothersortsofherbaceousplants,isnotyetinwidespreaduse.Onceitcommerciallyviable,thistechnologyshouldaddresstheenvironmentalsustainabilityandtheeconomicconcernaboutusingfoodforfuel.
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emainenvironmentalproblemswithrenewablepowercomefromthesizeofitsfootprintanditsimpactsonlocalwildlifeandecosystems.eGrandCouleeDam,forexample,oodeda125squaremilearea,displacingthousandsandpermanentlyendingtheannualsalmonrunuptheColombiaRiver.
LargesolarpowerplantsplannedfortheCaliforniadesertsarecurrentlycomingupagainstoppositionfromenvironmentalistswhowanttoprotectendangeredwildlifefromhumanencroachment.
eenvironmentaloppositiontothesitesofsomerenewablepowerplantscomesdowntoprioritization.Isthehealthoflocalecosystemsmoreimportantthanpromotingnewtechnologiesthatcouldpreventthemanydangersassociated
withclimatechange?
Conclusions
echallengesfacingAmericaonhowtoproduceandusetheenergyitneedsforeveryaspectofmodernlifearenotnew.elasttimetheUnitedStatesfacedaseriesofchoicesaboutitsenergypolicywasintheenergycrisesofthe1970s,whichweretraumatictotheUnitedStates,withoilpricespikes,shortagesofgasoline,ination,andnuclearscares.Decisionsaboutenergyproductionandusemadeinresponsetothesecriseshadfar-reachingconsequencesfor
Americasenergyinfrastructure,itseconomy,anditsforeignpolicy.
Today,Americaisfacingsomeofthesamechallengesasconcernsaboutenergysecurityareonceagainatthetopoftheagenda.However,thenewcomplicationdealingwithachangingclimatemeansthatgreenhousegasemissionsareanaddedconcern.
Noneofthechallengesareinsurmountable,buttheydorequirethatpeopleingovernmentandintheprivatesectormakechoicesandpriorities.Simplyretainingthestatusquoprovidesintolerablyhighlevelsofrisktoenergysecurity,economicstability,andenvironmentalsustainability.
eUnitedStatescannotaordaforeignpolicythatcontinuestobeworriedaboutdistantoilmarkets.Itcannotallowthedollartocontinuetobedebasedbysending$680billionperyeartoforeigncountriessimplytobeallowedtodrive.Itisdangeroustoallowgreenhousegasemissionstogrowunchecked.
Tomeetthesechallengeswillrequirepolicymakerstomakesomedecisionsandsetsomeprioritiesthatwillnotalwaysbepopular.But,inthelong-term,theyareinthebestinterestsofthecountry.
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(Endnotes)
1 ToreadallofPresidentNixons1974StateoftheUnionAddress,see:http://stateoftheunionaddress.org/1974-richard-nixon(accessedJune22,2011).
2 ToreadallofPresidentCarters1977AddressonEnergyPolicy,seehttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/fea-tures/primary-resources/carter-energy/(accessedJune22,2011).
3 UnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy,StrategicPetroleumReserveProjectManagementOce.Dataavailableathttp://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/reserves/spr/index.html(accessedJune22,2011).
4 Forafulldiscussiononthemaindriversofclimatechange,seeIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)FourthAssessmentReport,WorkingGroup1,ePhysicalScienceBasis(2007).
5 USEnergyInformationAgency(EIA),EmissionsofGreenhouseGasesintheUnitedStates2009.Reportavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdf.
6 InternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)KeyWorldEnergyStatistics,2008Reportavailableathttp://www.iea.org/textbasenppdf/free/2008/key_stats_2008.pdf.
7 EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)OriginsoftheEPAhttp://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/history/origins.html(ac-cessedJune22,2011).
8 NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA),OceofGlobalClimateChange,KeyIndicators.Dataavail-ableathttp://climate.nasa.gov/keyIndicators/index.cfm#co2.
9 Wynn,Gerald,4degreeswarminglikelywithoutCO2cuts-studyReuters,September28,2009,http://www.reuterscom/article/2009/09/28/idUSLP228193(accessedJune22,2011).
10 EIA,PetroleumandOtherLiquids,U.S.ImportsbyCountryofOrigin.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htm.
11 ibid.
12 EIA,WorldOilProduction,SaudiArabia.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=production.
13 Yergin,Daniel, ePrize:eEpicQuestforOil,Money,andPower,NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1991.
14 EIA,PetroleumandOtherLiquids,WorldCrudeOilPrices.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_
wco_k_w.htm.
15 ibid.
16 U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,InternationalTradeAdministration,TradeStatsExpress.Dataavailableathttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspx
17 EIA,EmissionsofGreenhouseGasesintheUnitedStates2009.Reportavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdf.
18 EIA,VoluntaryReportingofGreenhouseGasesProgram.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coecients.html.
19 DeepWater;eGulfOilDisasterandtheFutureofOshoreDrillingFinalReportoftheNationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOshoreDrilling,2011.Reportavailableathttp://www.oilspillcommission.gov/nal-report.
20 EIA,Coal,CoalProductionandNumberofMinesbyStateandCoalRank.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/table6.html.
21 U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,InternationalTradeAdministration,TradeStatsExpress.Dataavailableathttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspx.
http://stateoftheunionaddress.org/1974-richard-nixonhttp://stateoftheunionaddress.org/1974-richard-nixonhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/carter-energy/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/carter-energy/http://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/reserves/spr/index.htmlhttp://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/reserves/spr/index.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2008/key_stats_2008.pdfhttp://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2008/key_stats_2008.pdfhttp://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/history/origins.htmlhttp://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/28/idUSLP228193http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/28/idUSLP228193http://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=productionhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htmhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.oilspillcommission.gov/final-reporthttp://www.oilspillcommission.gov/final-reporthttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/table6.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/table6.htmlhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/table6.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/table6.htmlhttp://www.oilspillcommission.gov/final-reporthttp://www.oilspillcommission.gov/final-reporthttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=productionhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htmhttp://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/28/idUSLP228193http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/28/idUSLP228193http://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/history/origins.htmlhttp://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2008/key_stats_2008.pdfhttp://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2008/key_stats_2008.pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/reserves/spr/index.htmlhttp://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/reserves/spr/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/carter-energy/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/carter-energy/http://stateoftheunionaddress.org/1974-richard-nixonhttp://stateoftheunionaddress.org/1974-richard-nixon8/6/2019 America's Energy Choices
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23
22 EIA,ANNUALENERGYOUTLOOK2011.Reportavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdf.
23 EIA,ElectricPowerAnnual.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlle1_2.xls.
24 EIA,eCoalTransportationRateDatabase,Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/ctrdb/database.html.
25 MostDangerousJobsinAmericaCNN/Money,http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dan-
gerous_jobs/index.html(accessedJune22,2011)
26 EIA,VoluntaryReportingofGreenhouseGasesProgram.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coecients.html.
27 Mufson,Steven,AsNaturalGasGlutLooms,ProducersEyetheWeathereWashingtonPost,June16,2006,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/15/AR2006061502062.html(accessedJune22,2011).
28 EIA,NaturalGas,ImportsbyCountry.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_move_impc_s1_m.htm.
29 EIA,VoluntaryReportingofGreenhouseGasesProgram.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coecients.html.
30 Urbina,IanRegulationLaxasGasWellsTaintedWatershitRiversNewYorkTimes,February26,2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hp(accessedJune27,2011).
31 Shalegasfracking:MPscallforsafetyinquiryaftertremorsBBC,June8,2011,http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-eng-land-lancashire-13700575(accessedJune27,2011).
32 EisenhowerPresidentialArchivesDraftofthePresidentialSpeechBeforetheGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsNovember28,1953.Availableathttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdf(accessedJune22,2011).
33 EIA,NuclearandUranium,U.S.NuclearStatistics.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.html.
34 AbundantPowerfromAtomSeen;Itwillbetoocheapforourchildrentometer,Strausstellssciencewriters,NewYorkTimes,Sept.17,1954.
35 GreenpeaceInternational,eEconomicsofNuclearPowerSummer2007.Reportavailableathttp://www.green-peace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdf.
36 Sapien,Joaquin.WhileNuclearWastePilesUpinU.S.,BillionsinFundtoHandleItSitUnusedProPublica,March30,2011,http://www.propublica.org/article/while-nuclear-waste-piles-up-in-u.s.-billions-in-fund-to-handle-it-sits-unu/single(ac-cessedJune22,2011).
37 BlueRibbonCommissiononAmericasNuclearFutureDraftRecommendationsMay19,2011,http://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13(accessedJune22,2011).
38 eNationalIgnitionFacilityeBostonGlobe,October8,2010,http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.html(accessedJune22,2011).
39 AmericanSecurityProjectFUSIONENERGY:AnOpportunityforAmericanLeadershipandSecurityJanuary24,2011.Reportavailableathttp://americansecurityproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/White-Paper-on-Fusion-Final-21.pdf.
40 Stine,DeborahD.eManhattanProject,theApolloProgram,andFederalEnergyTechnologyR&DPrograms:AComparativeAnalysisCongressionalResearchService,June30,2009.Reportavailableathttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/
RL34645.pdf.
41 EIA,ElectricPowerAnnual.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlle1_2.xls.
42 ibid.
43 ibid.
44 ibid.
http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlfile1_2.xlshttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/ctrdb/database.htmlhttp://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dangerous_jobs/index.htmlhttp://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dangerous_jobs/index.htmlhttp://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dangerous_jobs/index.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/15/AR2006061502062.htmlhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/15/AR2006061502062.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_move_impc_s1_m.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hphttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hphttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hphttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-13700575http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-13700575http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-13700575http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.htmlhttp://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdfhttp://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdfhttp://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdfhttp://www.propublica.org/article/while-nuclear-waste-piles-up-in-u.s.-billions-in-fund-to-handle-it-sits-unu/singlehttp://www.propublica.org/article/while-nuclear-waste-piles-up-in-u.s.-billions-in-fund-to-handle-it-sits-unu/singlehttp://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13http://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13http://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.htmlhttp://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.htmlhttp://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.htmlhttp://americansecurityproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/White-Paper-on-Fusion-Final-21.pdfhttp://americansecurityproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/White-Paper-on-Fusion-Final-21.pdfhttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlfile1_2.xlshttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlfile1_2.xlshttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://americansecurityproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/White-Paper-on-Fusion-Final-21.pdfhttp://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.htmlhttp://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.htmlhttp://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13http://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13http://www.propublica.org/article/while-nuclear-waste-piles-up-in-u.s.-billions-in-fund-to-handle-it-sits-unu/singlehttp://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdfhttp://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.htmlhttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-13700575http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-13700575http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hphttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hphttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_move_impc_s1_m.htmhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/15/AR2006061502062.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dangerous_jobs/index.htmlhttp://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dangerous_jobs/index.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/ctrdb/database.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlfile1_2.xlshttp://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdf8/6/2019 America's Energy Choices
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Building a New American Arsenal
Te American Security Project (ASP) is a bipartisan initiative to educate the
American public about the changing nature o national security in the 21stcentury.
Gone are the days when a nations strength could be measured by bombers
and battleships. Security in this new era requires a New American Arsenal
harnessing all o Americas strengths: the orce o our diplomacy; the might o
our military; the vigor o our economy; and the power o our ideals.
We believe that America must lead other nations in the pursuit o our
common goals and shared security. We must conront international
challenges with all the tools at our disposal. We must address emerging
problems beore they become security crises. And to do this, we must orge a
new bipartisan consensus at home.
ASP brings together prominent American leaders, current and ormer
members o Congress, retired military ocers, and ormer government
ocials. Sta direct research on a broad range o issues and engages and
empowers the American public by taking its fndings directly to them.
We live in a time when the threats to our security are as complex and diverse
as terrorism, the spread o weapons o mass destruction, climate change,
ailed and ailing states, disease, and pandemics. Te same-old solutions
and partisan bickering wont do. America needs an honest dialogue about
security that is as robust as it is realistic.
ASP exists to promote that dialogue, to orge consensus, and to spur
constructive action so that America meets the challenges to its security while
seizing the opportunities the new century oers.
www.americansecurityproject.org