Americas Second Crusade William Henry Chamberlain 1950 379pgs POL USA

7/27/2019 Americas Second Crusade William Henry Chamberlain 1950 379pgs POL USA

1/378

AMERICA'S SECOND CRUSADE


2/378

OTHER BOOKSBY WILLIAM HENRY CHAMBERLIN

RUSSIA'S IRON AGE ( 1 934)

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, 19 17-1921 ( 1 935)

COLLECTIVISM: A FALSE UTOPIA (1936)

JAPAN OVER ASIA (1937 ; r e v . e d . 1 939)

THE CONFESSIONS OF AN INDIVIDUALIST (1940)

THE WORLD'S IRON AGE (1941)

CANADA TODAY AND TOMORROW (1 94 2 )

TH E RUSSIAN ENIGMA : AN INTERPRETATION( 1 943)

TH E UKRAINE : A SUBMERGED NATION ( 1 944)

AMERICA : PARTNER IN WORLD RULE ( 1 945)

THE EUROPEAN COCKPIT (1947)


3/378

W i l l i a m H e n r y C h a m b e r l i n

AMERICA'S

SECOND

CRUSADE

HENRY REGNERY COMPANY

CHICAGO, 1950


4/378

C o p y r i g h t 1 9 5 0

HENRY REGNERY COMPANY

C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s

M a n u f a c t u r ed i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m er ic a b y

A m e ri c a n B o o k - K n i c k er bo c k e r P r es s , I n c . , N e w Y o r k , N . Y .


5/378

C o n t e n t s

I

INTRODUCTION

THE FIRST CRUSADE

PAGE

v u

3

I I COMMUNISM AND FASCISM : OFFSPRING OF THE WAR 2 5

I I I THE COLLAPSE OF VERSAILLES 4 0

IV DEBACLE IN THE WEST7 1V "AGAIN AND AGAIN AND AGAIN" 95

VI ROAD TO WAR : THE ATLANTIC 1 2 4

VII ROAD To WAR: THE PACIFIC 1 4 8VIII THE COALITION OF THE BIG THREE 1 7 8

IX THE MUNICH CALLED YALTA : WAR's END 2o6

X WARTIME ILLUSIONS AND DELUSIONS 2 3 2XI POLAND : THE GREAT BETRAYAL 2 5 8

XII GERMANY MUST BE DESTROYED 2 8 5

XIII No WAR, BUT No PEACE 3 1 1XIV CRUSADE IN RETROSPECT

3 3 7

BIBLIOGRAPHY3 5 6

INDEX 3 6 1


6/378


7/378

L a m /a4 1 s 1 9~4~, //Introduction

THERE i s a n o b v i o u s a n d p a i n f u l g a p b e t w e e n t h e w o r l d o f 1 9 5 0 a n d

t h e p o s t w a r c o n d i t i o n s e n v i s a g e d b y A m e r i c a n a n d B r i t i s h w a r t i m e

l e a d e r s . T h e n e g a t i v e o b j e c t i v e o f t h e w a r , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e

A x i s p o w e r s , w a s a c h i e v e d . B u t n o t o n e o f t h e p o s i t i v e g o a l s s e t f o r t h

i n t h e A t l a n t i c C h a r t e r a n d t h e F o u r F r e e d o m s h a s b e e n r e a l i z e d .

T h e r e i s n o p e a c e t o d a y , e i t h e r f o r m a l o r r e a l . O v e r a g r e a t p a r t

o f t h e w o r l d t h e r e i s n e i t h e r f r e e d o m o f r e l i g i o n n o r f r e e d o m o f

s p e e c h a n d e x p r e s s i o n . Freedom from fear and want is not an out-

s t a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e p r e s e n t a g e . T he ri g h t o f n a t i o n a l s e l f -

d e t e r m i n a t i o n , s o v i g o r o u s l y a f f i r m e d i n t h e A t l a n t i c C h a r t e r , h a s

b e e n v i o l a t e d o n a s c a l e a n d w i t h a b r u t a l i t y s e l d o m e q u a l l e d i n

Europ ean history .

T h e f u l l i r o n y o f t h e w a r ' s a f t e r m a t h f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e g r o w -

i n g d e p e n d e n c e o f A m e r i c a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y o n t h e c o - o p e r a t i o n o f

former enemies, Germa ny and Japa n . T h r e e c o u n t r i e s o n w h o s e b e -

h a l f A m e r i c a n s w e r e t o l d t h e w a r w a s b e i n g w a g e d , P o l a n d , C z e c h o -

s l o v a k i a , a n d C h i n a , a r e n o w i n t h e c a m p o f t h i s c o u n t r y ' s e n e m i e s ,

s o f a r a s t h e i r p r e s e n t g o v e r n m e n t s c a n a c h i e v e t h i s p u r p o s e .

Much light ha s bee n thrown on World War II by the me mo irs

a n d p a p e r s o f s u c h d i s t i n g u i s h e d l e a d e r s a n d s t a t e s m e n a s W i n s t o n

Churchill, Cordell Hull, Harry Ho pk ins, Henry L . Stimson, and

Jame s F . B y r n e s . A n o t e o f s e l f - j u s t i f i c a t i o n , h o w e v er , a l m o s t i n ev i -

t a b l y i n t r u d e s i n t h e r e c o l l e c t i o n s o f a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n s u c h a

mome ntous historic era . I t r e q u i r e s a m i n d o f r a r e i n s i g h t a n d d e -

t a c h m e n t t o r e c o g n i z e i n r e t r o s p e c t t h a t p r e m i s e s w h i c h w e r e h e l d

a s a r t i c l e s o f f a i t h d u r i n g t h e w a r m a y h a v e b e e n p a r t l y o r e n t i r e l y

wrong .

V31

V

VV


8/378

INTRODUCTION

M y b o o k i s a n a t t e m p t t o e x a m i n e w i t h o u t p r e j u d i c e o r f a v o r t h e

question wh y the p eace was lost while the war was being won . I t

puts the challenging questions which are often left unanswered,

p e r h a p s e v e n u n t h o u g h t o f , b y i n d i v i d u a l s w h o a r e d e e p l y i d e n t i f i e d

e m o t i o n a l l y w i t h a c r u s a d i n g w a r .

I s h o u l d l i k e t o e x p r e s s g r a t i t u d e t o t h e f o l l o w i n g i n d i v i d u a l s f o r

t h e i r k i n d n e s s i n d i s c u s s i n g e v e n t s a n d i s s u e s o f t h e w a r w i t h m e :

Mr. C h a r l e s E . Boh len and Mr . G e o r g e F . K e n n a n , o f t h e S t a t e D e -pa rtment, Mr . A . A . B e r l e , f o r m e r A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , G e n -

era l William Donov an, fo rme r hea d of the OSS, Mr . Allen W .

Dulles, OSS rep resentative in Switzerland, former Ambassadors

Josep h C. Grew, William C . B u l l i t t , a n d A r t h u r B l i s s L a n e . I h a s t en

t o a d d t h a t n o o n e o f t h e s e g e n t l e m e n i s i n t h e s l i g h t e s t d e g r e e r e -

s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e v i e w s e x p r e s s e d i n t h i s b o o k . I n f a c t , I k n o w s o m e

of them would disagree sharply with some of the conclusions ex-

p r e s s e d h e r e . H o w e v e r , t h e y h a v e a l l c o n t r i b u t e d t o c l a r i f y i n g i n m y

own mind the picture of America's Second Crusade which is here-

w i t h p r e s e n t e d .

WILLIAM HENRY CHAMBERLIN

Cambridge, Massachusetts

May 3, 1950

V i i i


9/378

AMERICA'S SECOND CRUSADE


10/378

1 .T h e F i r s t C r u s a d e

A MERICANS, more than any other peop le,h a v e b e e n i n c l i n e d t o i n t e r p r e t t h e i r i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e t w o g r e a t

w a r s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i n t e r m s o f c r u s a d e s f o r r i g h t e o u s n e s s .

G e n e r a l E i s e n h o w e r c a l l s h i s m e m o i r s Crusade in Europ e . And the

mural paintings in the Widener Mem orial Library at Harvard Uni-

versity show the American soldiers of World War I as chivalrous

k n i g h t s , f i g h t i n g f o r t h e f r e e d o m o f w r o n g e d p e o p l e s . T h e y b e a r t h e

i n s c r i p t i o n :

H a p p y t h o s e w h o w i t h a g l o w i n g f a i t h

I n o n e em b r a c e c l a s p e d d ea t h a n d v i c t o r y .

T h ey c r o s s e d t h e s e a c r u s a d e r s k e e n t o h e l p

T he n a t i o n s b a t t l i n g i n a ri g h t e o u s c a u s e .

T h i s w a s h o w t h e w a r a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g t o a m i n o r i t y

o f A m e r i c a n s w h o f e l t c l o s e e m o t i o n a l t i e s w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d

France . T h e r e w e r e p o l i t i c a l l y a n d s o c i a l l y l e s s i n f l u e n t i a l G e r m a n -

A m e r i c a n a n d I r i s h - A m e r i c a n m i n o r i t i e s w i t h o p p o s e d s y m p a t h i e s .

The ma jority of the American peop le w ere inclined to f ollow

P r e s i d e n t W i l s o n ' s a p p e a l t o " b e n e u t r a l i n f a c t a s w e l l a s i n n a m e " ,

" t o b e i m p a r t i a l i n t h o u g h t a s w e l l a s i n a c t i o n . " T h e t r a d i t i o n o f

d i s s o c i a t i o n f r o m E u r o p e ' s w a r s w a s s t r o n g . I t w a s o n l y g r a d u a l l y

t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s s u c k e d i n t o t h e v o r t e x .

D e s p i t e t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l s y m p a t h y w i t h t h e B r i t i s h a n d

F r e n c h p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s , a s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e G e r m a n , t h e r e i s e v i -

dence that Woodrow Wilson, until he fe lt his hand forced on the

u n r e s t r i c t e d s u b m a r i n e w a r f a r e i s s u e , s i n c e r e l y d e s i r e d t o k e e p A m e r -

i c a o u t o f t h e w o r l d c o n f l i c t . H i s i m a g i n a t i o n w a s f i r e d b y t h e h o p e

o f p l a y i n g a l e a d i n g d i s i n t e r e s t e d r o l e a t t h e p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e . He

3


11/378

AMERICAS SECOND CRUSADE

saw the advantage of kee ping one grea t pow er outside the ranks of

t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s , c a p a b l e o f p l a y i n g t h e p a r t o f m e d i a t o r .

T h e P r e s i d e n t w a s n o t a n a b s o l u t e p a c i f i s t , b u t h i s s c h o l a r l y t r a i n -

i n g h a d g i v e n h i m a s t r o n g s e n s e o f t h e i n e v i t a b l e b r u t a l i t y a n d f r e -

q u e n t f u t i l i t y o f r e s o r t i n g t o f o r c e i n d i s p u t e s b e t w e e n n a t i o n s . He

b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y a t t r a c t e d b y t h e v i s i o n o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n -

i z a t i o n c a p a b l e o f m a i n t a i n i n g p e a c e .

S h o r t l y a f t e r t h e s i n k i n g o f t h e L u s i t a n i a W i l s o n r i s k e d c r i t i c i s m

at hom e a nd abroad by saying :

T h e r e i s s u c h a t h i n g a s a m a n b e i n g t o o p r o u d t o f i g h t . T h e r e i s s u c h a

t h i n g a s a n a t i o n b e i n g s o r i g h t t h a t i t d o e s n o t n e e d t o c o n v i n c e o t h e r s

b y f o r c e t h a t i t i s r ig h t .

On two subseq uent occasions he voiced sentiments that were truly

p r o p h e t i c , i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e c r u s a d e ' s d i s i l l u s i o n i n g a f t e r m a t h . A d -

dressing the Senate on January zz, 1917, he ple aded fo r a "pe ace

w i t h o u t v i c t o r y " :

V i c t o r y w o u l d m e a n p e a c e f o r c e d u p o n t h e l o s e r , a v i c t o r ' s t e r m s i m p o s e d

u p o n t h e v a n q u i s h e d . I t w o u l d b e a c c e p t e d i n h u m i l i a t i o n , u n d e r d u r e s s ,

a t a n i n t o l e r a b l e s a c r i f i c e , a n d w o u l d l e a v e a s t i n g , a r e s e n t m e n t , a b i t t e r

m e m o r y u p o n w h i c h t e r m s o f p e a c e w o u l d r e s t , n o t p e r m a n e n t l y , b u t o n l y

as upon quicksand . O n l y a p e a c e b e t w e e n e q u a l s c a n l a s t , o n l y a p e a c e

t h e v e r y p r i n c i p l e o f w h i c h i s e q u a l i t y a n d a c o m m o n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a

common benefit .

A n d o n t h e v e r y e v e o f h i s a p p e a l t o C o n g r e s s f o r a d e c l a r a t i o n o f

wa r Wilson privately po ured out his doubts and fears to Frank Cobb,

editor of the Ne w York Wo rld . Looking pale and hagga rd, the

P r e s i d e n t t o l d t h e e d i t o r h e h a d b e e n l y i n g a w a k e f o r n i g h t s , t h i n k -

i n g o v e r t h e w h o l e s i t u a t i o n , t r y i n g i n v a i n t o f i n d a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o

war . Whe n Cobb o bserved tha t Germa ny ha d forced his ha nd, Wil-

s o n r e f u s e d t o b e c o n s o l e d . H e s a i d :

A m e r i c a ' s e n t r a n c e w o u l d m e a n t h a t w e w o u l d l o s e o u r h e a d s a l o n g w i t h

t h e r e s t a n d s t o p w e i g h i n g r i g h t o r w r o n g . I t w o u l d m e a n t h a t t h e m a -

j o r i t y o f t h e p e o p l e i n t h i s h e m i s p h e re w o u l d g o w a r - m a d , q u i t t h i n k i n g

a n d d e v o t e t h e i r en e rg i e s t o d e s t r u c t i o n . . . . I t m e a n s a n a t t e m p t t o

r e c o n s t r u c t a p e a c e t i m e c i v i l i z a t i o n w i t h w a r s t a n d a r d s , a n d a t t h e e n d

o f t h e w a r t h e r e w i l l b e n o b y s t a n d e r s w i t h s u f f i c i e n t p o w e r t o i n f l u e n c e

4


12/378

THE FIRST CRUSADE

t h e t e r m s . . . . O n c e l e a d t h i s p e o p l e i n t o w a r a n d t h e y ' l l f o r g e t t h e r e

e ve r w a s s u c h a t h i n g a s t o l e ra n c e .

F o r a m a n t o b e l e d b y w h a t h e c o n s i d e r s i r r e s i s t i b l e n e c e s s i t y t o

f o l l o w a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n f r o m w h i c h h e a n t i c i p a t e s n o c o n s t r u c t i v e

r e s u l t s i s o n e o f t h e h i g h e s t f o r m s o f t r a g e d y . I t w a s s u c h a t r a g -

e d y t h a t b r o u g h t W i l s o n s l e e p l e s s n i g h t s b e f o r e h i s c a l l t o a r m s o n

A p r i l 2 , 1917 .

A m e r i c a i n 1 9 1 4 h a d n o p o l i t i c a l c o m m i t m e n t s t o e i t h e r g r o u p o f

b e l l i g e r en t s . B u t i t s f o r e i g n - t r a d e i n t e re s t s w e r e i m m e d i a t e l y a n d

s h a r p l y a f f e c t e d . E a c h s i d e w e n t f a r b e y o n d p r e v i o u s p r e c e d e n t s i n

t r y i n g t o c u t o f f e n e m y s u p p l i e s w i t h s l i g h t r e g a r d f o r n e u t r a l r i g h t s .

T h e A l l i e s d o m i n a t e d t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s e a s . T h e y c o u l d n o t e s t a b -

lish a close blockade o f Ge rman ports, the only kind which was

l e g i t i m a t e u n d e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w . But the y could and did swee p

Germa n shipp ing from the sea s . A n d t h e y s t r e t c h e d t h e r i g h t s o f

s e a r c h a n d s e i z u r e a n d t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f c o n t r a b a n d f a r b e y o n d p r e -

v i o u s r u l e s a n d s t a n d a r d s .

The Ame rican State Depa rtme nt filed sha rp p rotests against

s e i z u r e s o f A m e r i c a n c a r g o e s , b u t r e c e i v e d l i t t l e s a t i s f a c t i o n . One

r e a s o n w h y t h e r e m o n s t r a n c e s r e c e i v e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n w a s t h e e x -

trem e Anglophile attitude of the American Ambassador in London,

Walter Hines Pag e . S i r E d w a r d G r e y , B r i t i s h F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , r e -

p o r t s t h a t P a g e , a f t e r r e a d i n g a d i s p a t c h c o n t e s t i n g t h e B r i t i s h r i g h t

t o s t o p c o n t r a b a n d g o i n g t o n e u t r a l p o r t s , o f f e r e d t h e f o l l o w i n g p o s t -

s c r i p t :

" I h a v e n o w r e a d t h e d i s p a t c h , b u t d o n o t a g r e e w i t h i t . L e t u s

c o n s i d e r h o w i t s h o u l d b e a n s w e r e d ! "

S i r E d w a r d ' s r e a c t i o n i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e :

"The comf ort, suppo rt and encourage me nt that Page 's presence

w a s t o t h e S e c r e t a r y f o r F o r e i g n A f f a i r s m a y b e i m a g i n e d . "

The purpose of the blockade, according to Winston Churchill,

wh o unconsciously anticipated a slogan of World War II, wa s to

e n f o r c e u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u r r e n d e r :

" G e r m a n y i s l i k e a m a n t h r o t t l e d b y a h e a v y g a g . You know the

e f f e c t o f s u c h a gag . . . . T h e e f f o r t w e a r s o u t t h e h e a r t a n d G e r m a n y

k n o w s i t . T h i s p r e s s u r e s h a l l n o t b e r e l a x e d u n t i l s h e g i v e s i n u n -

c o n d i t i o n a l l y . "

5


13/378

AMERICA ' S SECOND CRUSADET h e G e r m a n r e p l y t o t h e A l l i e d b l o c k a d e w a s a n e w n a v a l w e a p o n ,

the subma rine . The se undersea craft soon develop ed unforeseen

p o w e r a s d e s t r o y e r s o f m e r c h a n t s h i p p i n g . As a wag remarked : B r i -

t a n n i a r u l e s t h e w a v e s , b u t G e r m a n y w a i v e s t h e r u l e s .

The German Gove rnme nt on February 4, 1915, after vainly pro-

t e s t i n g a g a i n s t t h e r i g o r s o f t h e b l o c k a d e , d e c l a r e d t h e w a t e r s s u r -

r o u n d i n g t h e B r i t i s h I s l e s a w a r z o n e , i n w h i c h e v e r y e n e m y m e r -

c h a n t s h i p w a s l i a b l e t o d e s t r u c t i o n . N e u t r a l s h i p s w e r e a l s o w a r n e d

o f d a n g e r i n e n t e ri n g t h i s z o n e .

The subma rine wa s a mo re visible and provocative w ea pon than

t h e b l o c k a d e , a l t h o u g h S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e B r y a n , a s t a u n c h p a c i f i s t ,

p r o f e s s e d t o s e e l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p r i z e c o u r t a n d t h e

t o r p e d o . S u b m a r i n e a t t a c k s c o s t l i v e s a n d c r e a t e d h e a d l i n e s . C a r g o e s

s e i z e d b y B r i t i s h w a r s h i p s m e r e l y b e c a m e t h e s u b j e c t o f l a w s u i t s .

A c r i s i s i n A m e r i c a n - G e r m a n r e l a t i o n s f o l l o w e d t h e s i n k i n g o f t h e

B r i t i s h l i n er L u s i t a n i a o f f t h e c o a s t o f I r e l a n d o n M a y 7 , 1 9 1 5 . T h e

ship wa s carrying munitions and was not convoye d . Over eleven

h u n d r e d p a s s e n g e r s , i n c l u d i n g 1 z 8 A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s , l o s t t h e i r l i ve s .

T h e r e w a s a n a l m o s t u n a n i m o u s c r y o f h o r r o r a n d i n d i g n a t i o n i n t h e

American press . B u t t h e r e w e r e f e w v o i c e s i n f a v o r o f g o i n g t o w a r .

T h e r e w a s a s t r o n g l y p h r a s e d n o t e o f p r o t e s t . B u t t e n s i o n g r a d u a l l y

e a s e d o f f a s t h e r e w a s n o r e p e t i t i o n o f t r a g e d y o n t h e s c a l e o f t h e

L u s i t a n i a s i n k i n g .

T h e s u b m a r i n e i s s u e c a m e s h a r p l y t o a h e a d a f t e r t h e B r i t i s h c r o s s -

C h a n n e l s t e a m e r S u s s e x w a s t o r p e d o e d , w i t h t h e l o s s o f s o m e A m e r i -

c a n l i v e s , i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1 9 1 6 . Wilson info rmed the Germa n Gov-

ernment tha t, unless it abandoned present methods of submarine

w a r f a r e a g a i n s t p a s s e n g e r - a n d f r e i g h t - c a r r y i n g s h i p s , " t h e G o v e r n -

m e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c a n h a v e n o c h o i c e b u t t o s e v e r d i p l o -

matic relations with the German Empire a ltogether . "

Faced with this clea r-cut alternative, the Ge rman Government

y i e l d e d . It consented not to sink merchant ships without warning

a n d w i t h o u t t a k i n g p r e c a u t i o n s t o s a v e l i v e s . I t t r i e d t o l i n k t h i s

concession with a suggestion that the United States should hold

G r e a t B r i t a i n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r o b s e r v i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w i n t h e m a t -

t e r o f t h e b l o c k a d e .

The Ame rican Gove rnme nt refused to admit any connection be-

t w e e n t h e s e t w o i s s u e s . A s G e r m a n y o f f e r e d n o f u r t h e r c o m m e n t , t h e

6


14/378

THE FIRST CRUSADE

d i s p u t e w a s s e t t l e d , f o r t h e m o m e n t , w i t h a d i p l o m a t i c v i c t o r y f o r

Wilson . But the danger rem ained that submarine warfare would be

resumed wh enever the German Government might fe el that its ad-

v a n t a g e s w o u l d o u t w e i g h t h e b e n e f i t s o f A m e r i c a n n e u t r a l i t y . And

the President had now comm itted the United States to a brea ch of

relations in the event of a renewal of submarine attacks a g a i n s t

n o n m i l i t a r y s h i p p i n g .

T h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n l e n t a n e l e m e n t o f u r g e n c y t o W i l s o n ' s e f f o r t s

t o f i n d a b a s i s f o r m e d i a t i o n . I n t h e l i g h t o f l a t e r ev e n t s t h e r e c a n

b e l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t a n e g o t i a t e d p e a c e o n r e a s o n a b l e t e r m s i n 1 9 1 5

o r 1 9 1 6 w o u l d h a v e b e e n i n c o m p a r a b l y t h e h a p p i e s t p o s s i b l e e n d i n g

of the war . Such a peace would probably have saved the fabric of

Europ ea n civilization from the fe arful shocks of comm unism and

naz ism .

B u t f o r e s i g h t d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e b e e n t h e g i f t o f a n y o f t h e

me n who occupied the sea ts of po we r in the wa rring c o u n t r i e s .

Winston Churchill, writing in a sober mood betwe en the two great

wars, in both of which he pla yed a leading part, summed up the

m o o d o f t h e b e l l i g e r e n t l e a d e r s , w h i c h h e f u l l y s h a r e d , i n t h e f o l -

lowing eloquent and somber passage :

G o v e r n m e n t s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s c o n f o r m e d t o t h i s r h y t h m o f t h e t r a g e d y

a n d s w a y e d a n d s t a g g e re d f o r w a r d i n h e l p l e s s v i o l e n c e , s l a u g h t e ri n g a n d

s q u a n d e r i n g o n e v e r i n c r e a s i n g s c a l e s , t i l l i n j u r i e s w e r e w r o u g h t t o t h e

s t r u c t u r e o f h u m a n s o c i e t y w h i c h a c e n t u r y w i l l n o t e f f a c e , a n d w h i c h

m a y c o n c e i v a b l y p r o v e f a t a l t o t h e p r es e n t c i v i l i z a t i o n . . . . V i c t o r y w a s

t o b e b o u g h t s o d e a r a s t o b e a l m o s t i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m d e f e a t . I t

w a s n o t t o g i v e ev en s e c u r i t y t o t h e vi c t o r s . . . . T h e m o s t c o m p l e t e v i c -

t o r y ev e r g a i n e d i n a r m s h a s f a i l e d t o s o l v e t h e E u r o p e a n p r o b l e m o r t o

r e m o v e t h e d a n g e r s w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e w a r . '

D u r i n g t h e y e a r s w h e n A m e r i c a n m e d i a t i o n w a s p o s s i b l e , t h e G e r -

m a n s w e r e c l e a r l y a h e a d o n t h e w a r m a p . They had overrun Belgium

a n d n o r t h e a s t e r n F r a n c e b e f o r e t h e w e s t e r n f r o n t s a g g e d down in

b l o o d y s t a l e m a t e . T h e y h a d c r u s h e d S e r b i a a n d p u s h e d t h e R u s s i a n s

f a r b a c k f r o m t h e p r e w a r f r o n t i e r . R u m a n i a ' s e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e w a r

i n 1 9 1 6 w a s f o l l o w e d b y s w i f t d e f e a t .

' W i n s t o n C h u r c h i l l , T h e W o r l d C r i s i s ( N e w Y o r k , S c r i bn e r, 1 9 2 9 ) , I I , 1 - 2 .

T h i s p a s s a g e c o u l d s e r ve e ve n b et t e r as a n e p i t a p h f o r t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W ar t h a n

f o r t h e F i r s t .

7


15/378


O n t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e b l o c k a d e w a s c o n t r a c t i n g t h e i r s u p p l i e s o f

f o o d a n d r a w m a t e r i a l s . A n d G e r m a n y a n d i t s a l l i e s f a c e d a c o a l i t i o n

o f p o w e r s w i t h a l a r g e r a g g r e g a t e p o p u l a t i o n a n d m u c h m o r e e x t e n -

s i v e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . I t w o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , h a v e b e e n a d v a n t a g e o u s

f o r G e r m a n y t o c o n c l u d e p e a c e o n t e r m s t h a t g a v e s o m e r e c o g n i t i o n

t o i t s m i li t a ry s u c c e s s e s .

T h e A l l i e s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , b a s e d t h e i r h o p e s o n w e a r i n g G e r -

m any and Austria do wn . P e a c e t a l k s w o u l d h a v e b ee n e m b a r r a s s i n g

t o t h e m f o r t w o r e a s o n s . M o r a l e w o u l d h a v e b e e n a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d .

And annexationist ambitions which w ould have scarcely stood t h e

t e s t o f i m p a r t i a l n e u t r a l m o r a l j u d g m e n t , s u c h a s t h e S y k e s - P i c o t

A g r e e m e n t o f M a y 1 6 , 1 9 1 6 , f o r t h e p a r t i t i o n o f A s i a M i n o r b e t w e e n

R u s s i a , F r a n c e , a n d B r i t a i n , w o u l d h a v e c o m e t o l i g h t .

S o a l l t h e m e d i a t i o n f e e l e r s o f W i l s o n a n d h i s c o n f i d e n t i a l a d -

v i s e r , C o l . E . M . H o u s e , c a m e t o n o t h i n g . W i l s o n a n d H o u s e f a v o r e d

the w estern pow ers against Germany, although they were not such

e x t r a v a g a n t B r i t i s h p a r t i s a n s a s P a g e . T h e y d i s t r u s t e d m i l i t a r i s t i n -

fluences in Germany ; t h e y f e l t a s e n s e o f a f f i n i t y b e t w e en B r i t i s h a n d

A m e r i c a n c o n c e p t i o n s o f l a w , g o v e r n m e n t , a n d m o r a l i t y . T h e i r m e -

d i a t i o n w o u l d h a v e b e e n d i s t i n c t l y f r i e n d l y t o t h e A l l i e s . T h i s i s e v i-

dent from the so-called House-Grey memorandum of February 1916,

t h e m o s t c o n c r e t e r e s u l t o f H o u s e ' s j o u r n e y s a b r o a d a n d c o r r e s p o n d -

e n c e w i t h S i r E d w a r d G r e y a n d o t h e r B r i t i s h l e a d e r s . T h i s d o c u m e n t ,

d r a w n u p b y G r e y a n d c o n f i r m e d b y H o u s e , w i t h W i l s o n ' s a p p r o v a l ,

r e a d s a s f o l l o w s :

C o l o n e l H o u s e t o l d m e t h a t P r e s i d e n t W i l s o n w a s r e a d y , o n h e a r i n g

f r o m F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d t h a t t h e m o m e n t w a s o p p o r t u n e , t o p r o p o s e

t h a t a C o n f e r e n c e s h o u l d b e s u m m o n e d t o p u t a n e n d t o t h e w a r . S h o u l d

t h e A l l i e s a c c e p t t h i s p r o p o s a l , a n d s h o u l d G e rm a n y r e f u s e i t , t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s w o u l d p r o b a b l y e n t e r t h e w a r a g a i n s t G e r m a n y .

C o l o n e l H o u s e e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t , i f s u c h a C o n f e r e n c e m e t ,

i t w o u l d s e c u r e p e a c e o n t e r m s n o t u n f a v o r a b l e t o t h e A l l i e s ; a n d , i f i t

f a i l e d t o s e c u r e p e a c e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d [ p r o b a b l y ] le a ve t h e C o n -

f e r en c e a s a b e l l i g e r en t o n t h e s i d e o f t h e A l l i e s , i f G e rm a n y w a s u n r e a -

s o n a b l e . H o u s e e x p r es s e d a n o p i n i o n d e c i d e d l y f a v o r a b l e t o t h e r e s t o r a -

t i o n o f B e l g i u m , t h e t r a n s f e r o f A l s a c e a n d L o r ra i n e t o F r a n c e , a n d t h e

a c q u i s i t i o n b y Ru s s i a o f a n o u t l e t t o t h e s e a , t h o u g h h e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e

l o s s o f t e r r i t o r y i n c u r r e d b y G e r m a n y i n o n e p l a c e w o u l d h a v e t o b e

c o m p e n s a t e d b y c o n c e s s i o n s t o h e r i n o t h e r p l a c e s o u t s i d e E u r o p e . I f t h e

8


16/378

THE FIRST CRUSADE

A l l i e s d e l a y ed a c c e p t i n g t h e o f f e r o f P r e s i d e n t W i l s o n , a n d i f , l a t e r o n ,

t h e c o u r s e o f t h e w a r w a s s o u n f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e m t h a t t h e i n t e r v en t i o n

o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d n o t b e e f f e c t i v e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d

p r o b a b l y d i s i n t e r e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n E u r o p e a n d l o o k t o t h e i r o w n p r o t e c -

t i o n i n t h e i r o w n w a y .

H e r e w a s i n d e e d a v e n t u r e i n h i g h p o l i t i c s . W i l s o n w a s w i l l i n g t o

c o m m i t A m e r i c a t o p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a E u r o p e a n w a r u n l e s s G e r m a n y

c o n s e n t e d n o t o n l y t o g i v e u p i t s c o n q u e s t s b u t t o s u r r e n d e r A l s a c e -

L o r r a i n e , w h i c h h a d b e e n a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e G e r m a n E m p i r e f o r

m o r e t h a n f o r t y y e a r s .

T h e A m e r i c a n o f f e r , a l t h o u g h p o l i t e l y r e g i s t e r e d , w a s n e v e r a c -

c e p t e d . T h e A l l i e s w a n t e d a k n o c k o u t v i c t o r y a n d d i d n o t w i s h t o t i e

t h e i r h a n d s b y a c c e p t i n g o u t s i d e m e d i a t i o n , h o w e v e r f r i e n d l y . They

p r o b a b l y r e c k o n e d t h a t A m e r i c a w o u l d b e f o r c e d i n t o t h e w a r u l t i -

m a t e l y b e c a u s e o f t h e s u b m a r i n e i s s u e . A n d , l i k e t h e G e r m a n s , t h e y

w e r e i n c l i n e d t o u n d e r e s t i m a t e A m e r i c a ' s m i l i t a r y p o t e n t i a l .

L o n g b e f o r e A m e r i c a e n t e r e d t h e w a r i t s e c o n o m y w a s b e i n g b o l -

s t e r e d a n d s u s t a i n e d b y h u g e A l l i e d w a r o r d e r s . A s t h e B r i t i s h a n d

F r e n c h r a n s h o r t o f m e a n s o f p a y m e n t , t h e y f l o a t e d l o a n s o f m o r e

t h a n a b i l l i o n a n d a h a l f d o l l a r s o n t h e A m e r i c a n m a r k e t , l a r g e l y

through the age ncy o f the House o f Morgan . L e n d - l e a s e w a s n o t

t h o u g h t o f , b u t t h e e c o n o m i c a s p e c t s o f t h e p e r i o d s w h i c h p r e c e d e d

A m e r i c a n i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e t w o g r e a t w a r s w e r e r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r .

Dep ression gave wa y to boo m . The re was unlimited dema nd for

t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e s t e e l a n d o t h e r h e a v y i n d u s t r i e s . P r i c e s o f f a r m

p r o d u c t s w e r e k e p t a t h i g h l e v e l s . T h i s s w o l l e n a n d o n e - s i d e d w a r

t r a d e b u i l t u p a t r e m e n d o u s e c o n o m i c s t a k e i n A l l i e d v i c t o r y .

A n e m o t i o n a l s t a k e w a s a l s o b e i n g b u i l t u p , p a r t l y b y d e l i b e r a t e

p r o p a g a n d a , p a r t l y b y t h e i n s t i n c t i v e s y m p a t h y o f i n f l u e n t i a l g r o u p s

i n A m e r i c a w i t h B r i t a i n a n d F r a n c e . T h e t a s k o f B r i t i s h p r o p a g a n d a

w a s g r e a t l y e a s e d b y t h e g e n er a l d i s p o s i t i o n t o a c c e p t i t a t f a c e va l u e ,

w i t h l i t t l e c r i t i c a l e xa m i n a t i o n .

T h e b e s t A l l i e d p r o p a g a n d i s t s w e r e p e r h a p s n o t t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s ,

b u t t h e a m a t e u r s , m e n l i k e A m b a s s a d o r P a g e , w h o u n c o n s c i o u s l y a n d

c o m p l e t e l y a b s o r b e d a n d m i r r o r e d t h e B r i t i s h v i e w p o i n t . T h e r e w e r e

t h o u s a n d s o f A m e r i c a n s o f t h i s t y p e i n l e s s d i s t i n g u i s h e d p o s i t i o n s -

p r o f e s s o r s , w r i t e r s , p u b l i c i s t s , c l e r g y m e n - w h o a c t e d i n a l l g o o d f a i t h

9

IV


17/378


a n d w e r e a l l t h e m o r e e f f e c t i v e i n i n f l u e n c i n g p u b l i c o p i n i o n f o r t h i s

r e a s o n .

M o r e o v e r , B r i t o n s , i n t h i s w a r a s o n o t h e r o c c a s i o n s , w e r e t h e m o s t

e f f e c t i v e s p o k e s m e n f o r t h e i r c o u n t r y ' s c a u s e b e c a u s e o f t h e i r n a t i o n a l

g i f t o f r e s t r a i n t a n d u n d e r s t a t e m e n t . T h i s m a d e i t e a s y f o r t h e m t o

i d e n t i f y m o r e o r l e s s c o n v i n c i n g l y B r i t i s h i n t e r es t s w i t h t h e r e q u i r e -

m e n t s o f r e a s o n , l o g i c , a n d m o r a l i t y .

B y c o n t r a s t G e r m a n p u b l i c i t y e f f o r t s , h e a v i l y h a n d i c a p p e d b y t h e

severance of direct cable communication between Germany and the

o u t s i d e w o r l d , s e e m e d c l u m s y , b u m b l i n g , a n d h e a v y - f o o t e d , a n d g e n -

e ra l l y f e l l o n s k e p t i c a l e a rs .

L a t e r , d u r i n g t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l h a n g o v e r t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e w a r t i m e

em otional debauch, there w as perha ps too much e mp hasis on paid

p r o p a g a n d i s t s a n d o n d e l i b er a t e f a l s i f i c a t i o n s . T o b e s u r e , s o m e G e r -

m a n " a t r o c i t i e s " t h a t n e v e r o c c u r r e d o b t a i n e d w i d e p o p u l a r c i r c u l a -

t i o n . And some ruthless me asures which every army o f occupation

w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e e m p l o y e d t o s u p p r e s s i r r e g u l a r s n i p i n g w e r e r e p -

r e s e n t e d a s p e c u l i a r l y b e s t i a l a c t s w h i c h o n l y " H u n s " c o u l d c o m m i t .

T h e s u p e r h e a t e d t e m p e r o f a p a r t o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n c o u l d b e g a u g e d

f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m m e n t o f H e n r y W a t t e r s o n , v e t e r a n e d i t o r o f

t h e L o u i s v i l l e C o u r i e r - J o u r n a l , o n t h e l e t t e r o f a c o r r e s p o n d e n t w h o

p o i n t e d o u t , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e c a s e o f E d i t h C a v e l l , t h a t t h e

United States had once hanged a wom an (Mrs . S u r a t t ) o n s t i l l m o r e

dubious evidence :

" T h i s i n s e n s a t e b r u t e i s e q u a l l y d i s l o y a l t o h i s c o u n t r y a n d h i s k i n d

-assuming him to be a ma n and not an anima l-and at the sam e

t i m e h e i s a s i g n o r a n t a s h e i s t r e a s o n a b l e . "

T h e r e w a s a g o o d d e a l o f s c a r e p r o p a g a n d a i n t h e m a g a z i n e s a n d

i n t h e m o v i e s . P o p u l a r m a g a z i n e s p u b l i s h e d s e r i a l s t o r i e s d e s c r i b i n g

German hordes trampling over American soil .

T h e r e w e r e s o m e a t t e m p t s b y G e r m a n a n d A u s t r i a n a g e n t s t o s t i r

u p a n d e x p l o i t l a b o r d i s c o n t e n t i n f a c t o r i e s a n d t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h m u -

n i t i o n s p r o d u c t i o n f o r t h e A l l i es . S u p p l i e d w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e

a l e r t B r i t i s h I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e , t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t r e q u e s t e d t h e

r e c a l l o f t h e A u s t r i a n A m b a s s a d o r , D r . Constantin Dumba , and of

the Germa n military and naval attache s, Cap tains von Pap en and

Boy -Ed .

T h e e x t e n t o f G e r m a n s u b v e r s i v e a c t i v i t y w a s c o n s i d e r a b l y m a g n i -

1 0


18/378

THE FIRST CRUSADE

f l e d i n t h e p u b l i c i m a g i n a t i o n . T h e r e w e r e r e p e a t e d f e a r f u l p r e d i c - Vt i o n s o f a h i d d e n a r m y o f G e r m a n r e s e r v i s t s w h o w o u l d r i s e a n d f i g h t

f o r t h e F a t h e r l a n d . N o s u c h " a r m y " e v e r m a t e r i a l i z e d , e v e n a f t e r

America entered the war .

D e s p i t e t h e s t r o n g e c o n o m i c a n d p r o p a g a n d a p u l l s t o w a r d a p r o -

A l l y o r i e n t a t i o n , t h e r e w a s l i t t l e p o p u l a r d e m a n d f o r A m e r i c a n e n -

t r a n c e i n t o t h e w a r . At the very time wh en House was working out

h i s m e d i a t i o n f o r m u l a , w i t h i t s s t r o n g s u g g e s t i o n o f A m e r i c a n i n t e r -

v e n t i o n , t h e re w a s c o n s i d e r a b l e s u p p o r t i n C o n g r e s s f o r t h e G o r e -

M c L e m o r e re s o l u t i o n , w a r n i n g A m e r i c a n s n o t t o t r a v e l o n s h i p s b e -

l o n g i n g t o b e l l i g e r e n t n a t i o n s . T h i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h e s p i r i t o f t h e

n e u t r a l i t y l e g i s l a t i o n o f t h e t h i r t i e s . Strong White House p ressure v'w a s e m p l o y e d t o g e t t h i s r e s o l u t i o n t a b l e d .

F o r e i g n p o l i c y w a s n o t a c l e a r - c u t i s s u e i n t h e e l e c t i o n o f 1 9 1 6 .

T h e G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n s w e r e i n c l i n e d t o r e g a r d W i l s o n a s p r o - B r i t -

i s h . I t w a s t h e d i f f i c u l t t a s k o f t h e Re p u b l i c a n c a n d i d a t e , C h a r l e s E .

H u g h e s , t o c a p i t a l i z e t h i s d i s c o n t e n t a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o k e e p

t h e s u p p o r t o f a b e l l i c o s e w i n g o f t h e R e p u b l i c a n s , o f w h o m T h e o -

d o r e R o o s e v e l t w a s t h e p r i n c i p a l s p o k e s m a n .

U n d o u b t e d l y t h e s l o g a n , " H e k e p t u s o u t o f w a r " , h e l p e d W i l s o n

w i n o n e o f t h e m o s t c l o s e l y c o n t e s t e d e l e c t i o n s i n A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y .

B u t t h e P r e s i d e n t , i n c o n t r a s t t o h i s s u c c e s s o r i n 1 9 4 0 , g a v e n o s w e e p -

i n g " a g a i n a n d a g a i n a n d a g a i n " p l e d g e t o t h e v o t e r s . He stood on

the warning which he had given to the German Government on sub-

m a r i n e w a r f a r e .

T h e s a n d s o f t i m e f o r e f f e c t i v e A m e r i c a n m e d i a t i o n w e r e r u n n i n g

o u t a s t h e p r e s s u r e o f t h e G e r m a n m i l i t a r y a n d n a v a l l e a d e r s f o r r e -

sumption of undersea wa r became mo re intense . Wilson was con-

sidering a pe ace a pp ea l wh en the Germa n Cha ncello r Bethm ann-

H o l l w e g a n t i c i p a t e d h i m w i t h a n o t e e x p r e s s i n g w i l l i n g n e s s t o e n t e r

a p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e . This note, dispa tche d on Decem ber 1 2 , 1 9 1 6 ,

was noncom mittal as to terms . A w e e k l a t e r W i l s o n m a d e h i s l a s t

e f f o r t f o r t h e " p e a c e w i t h o u t v i c t o r y " w h i c h h e l a t e r d e s c r i b e d t o t h e

S e n a t e a s t h e o n l y p e a c e t h a t c o u l d b e e n d u r i n g . H e a d d r e s s e d a n o t e

t o a l l t h e b el l i g e r e n t p o w e r s , a s k i n g t h e m t o s t a t e t h e i r p e a c e t e r m s .

The Germa ns maintained their reserve. T h e A l l i e s , i n d i g n a n t a t ~/b e i n g c a l l e d o n t o l a y t h e i r c a r d s o n t h e t a b l e , s e n t a j o i n t r e p l y

w h i c h s l a m m e d , b o l t e d , a n d b a r r e d t h e d o o r t o a n y p r o s p e c t o f n e g o -

1 1


19/378

AMERICAS SECOND CRUSADEt i a t e d p e a c e . B e s i d e s t h e e v a c u a t i o n o f a l l i n v a d e d t e r ri t o r y , w i t h i n -

d e m n i t i e s , t h e y c a l l ed f o r " t h e r e s t i t u t i o n o f p r o v i n c e s o r t e rr i t o r i e s

w r e s t e d i n t h e p a s t f r o m t h e A l l i e s b y f o r c e o r a g a i n s t t h e w i l l o f

t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f S l a v s , R u m a n i a n s , a n d C z e c h s

f r o m f o r e i g n d o m i n a t i o n , t h e e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t o f p o p u l a t i o n s s u b -

j e c t t o t h e b l o o d y t y r a n n y o f t h e T u r k s , t h e e x p u l s i o n f r o m E u r o p e

of the Ottoma n Emp ire . "

Such terms could only be impo sed on defe ated enemies . T h e r e

w a s a l s o a s t r o n g a n n e x a t i o n i s t f l a v o r i n t h e G e r m a n c o n d i t i o n s , w h i c h

w e r e p u b l i s h e d l a t e i n J a n u a r y . T h e s e i n c l u d e d " a f r o n t i e r w h i c h

would protect Germany and Poland strategically against Russia" ;

r e s t i t u t i o n o f F r a n c e " u n d e r r e s e r v a t i o n o f s t r a t e g i c a n d e c o n o m i c

c h a n g e s o f t h e f r o n t i e r a n d f i n a n c i a l c o m p e n s a t i o n " , r e s t i t u t i o n o f

B e l g i u m " u n d e r s p e c i a l g u a r a n t y f o r t h e s a f e t y o f G e r m a n y , " r e s t i t u -

t i o n o f c o l o n i e s , " i n t h e f o r m o f a n a g r e e m e n t w h i c h w o u l d g i v e G e r -

many colonies adequate to her population and economic interest" .

All prospect of a pe ace in which the United States might have

p l a y e d a m e d i a t i n g r o l e d i s a p p e a r e d o n J a n u a r y 3 1 , 1917, when Ger-

ma ny announced the resumption of unlimited subma rine wa rfa re .

T h e n a v a l a n d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h a d c o n v i n c e d t h e K a i s e r t h a t t h e y

p o s s e s s e d s u f f i c i e n t s u b m a r i n e s t r e n g t h t o c u t t h e l i f e l i n e o f B r i t i s h

com munications .

T h i s G e r m a n d e c i s i o n w a s n o t i r r a t i o n a l . T h e f i g u r e s o f s i n k i n g s

s o o n r o s e t o f o r m i d a b l e h e i g h t s . B u t i n r e t r o s p e c t t h e c a l c u l a t e d

b r e a c h w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s a f a t a l b l u n d e r . I t i s v er y do u b t f u l

w h e t h e r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d h a v e e n t e r e d t h e w a r a c t i v e l y w i t h -

o u t t h e s u b m a r i n e p r o v o c a t i o n . W i l s o n s a i d t o H o u s e a s l a t e a s J a n -

u a r y 4 , 1 9 1 7 :

"There will be no war. This country does not intend to become

i n v o l v e d i n t h i s w a r . W e a r e t h e o n l y o n e o f t h e g r e a t w h i t e n a t i o n s

t h a t i s f r e e f r o m w a r t o d a y , a n d i t w o u l d b e a c r i m e a g a i n s t c i v i l i z a -

t i o n f o r u s t o g o i n . "

The Russian Revolution occurred on March 1 2 , a f e w w e e k s a f t e r

t h e f a t e f u l G e r m a n d e c i s i o n . O n e o f i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s w a s t o e l i m -

i n a t e R u s s i a f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e w a r . T h e R u s s i a n f r o n t c r u m -

b l e d d u r i n g 1 9 1 7 a n d e a r l y i n 1 9 1 8 G e r m a n y w a s a b l e t o i m p o s e t h e

Peace of Brest-Litovsk on the Soviet Government, which had come

into pow er on Nove mbe r 7, 1 9 1 7 -

1 2


20/378

THE FIRST CRUSADEN o w i t i s h i g h l y d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r B r i t a i n , F r a n c e , I t a l y , a n d t h e

s m a l l e r A l l i e s , d e p r i v e d o f R u s s i a ' s v a s t m a n p o w e r a n d r e c e i v i n g

only e conomic aid from the United States, could have won a de-

c i s i v e m i l i t a r y v i c t o r y . The w ar would probably in this case h ave

e n d e d e i t h e r i n a G e r m a n v i c t o r y o r i n a s t a l e m a t e , w i t h G e r m a n y

pe rhaps ma king som e concessions in the West, but exp anding on a

l a r g e s c a l e i n t h e E a s t .

T h e G e r m a n l e a d e r s , h o w e v e r , d i d n o t a n t i c i p a t e t h e g o o d f o r t u n e

that was aw aiting the m in the East . T h e y d e c i d e d t o s t a k e e v e r y -

t h i n g o n t h e s u b m a r i n e c a r d . W i l s o n p r o m p t l y b r o k e o f f d i p l o m a t i c

r el a t i o n s . T h e n t h e r e w a s a p a u s e , a p e r i o d o f w a i t i n g f o r s o m e " o v e r t

a c t " . S i r C e c i l S p r i n g R i c e , t h e B r i t i s h A m b a s s a d o r i n W a s h i n g t o n ,

w a s p r a y i n g f o r " t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f a n A m e r i c a n s h i p w i t h A m e r i c a n

p a s s e n g e r s . " 2

L l o y d G e o r g e , t h e n e w B r i t i s h P r i m e M i n i s t e r , w a s t r y i n g t o i n s u r e

A m e r i c a ' s e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e c o n f l i c t b y s u b t l e r m e t h o d s . N o o n e , a s

h e t o l d P a g e , c o u l d h a v e s o c o m m a n d i n g a v o i c e a t t h e p e a c e c o n f e r -

e n c e a s t h e P r e s i d e n t . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s p r e s e n c e a t t h i s c o n f e r e n c e ,

L l o y d G e o r g e s u g g e s t e d , w a s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e p r o p e r o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

t h e p e a c e . T h e s e w e r e j u s t t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t w e r e m o s t l i k e l y

t o a p p e a l t o W i l s o n ' s s e l f - e s t e e m a n d t o h i s s i n c e r e b e l i e f t h a t h e

m i g h t d e s e r v e w e l l o f h i s c o u n t r y a n d o f t h e w o r l d b y l a y i n g t h e

f o u n d a t i o n s o f a n e w i n t e rn a t i o n a l o r d e r , w i t h s a f e g u a r d s a g a i n s t w a r .

T h e P r e s i d e n t , h o w e v e r , s h o w e d n o d i s p o s i t i o n t o r u s h t h e c o u n t r y

i n t o w a r . H e w a s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e d o u b t s w h i c h h e h a d c o n f e s s e d t o

Cob b . T h e p a c e o f e v e n t s w a s h a s t e n e d b y t h e r e v e l a t i o n o n F e b r u -

a r y 24 that German Foreign Secretary Zimm ermann had proposed, in

t h e e v e n t o f w a r w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a t r e a t y o f a l l i a n c e w i t h

M e x i c o , o n t h e f o l l o w i n g b a s i s :

" M a k e w a r t o g e t h e r , m a k e p e a c e t o g e t h e r , g e n e r o u s f i n a n c i a l s u p -

p o r t a n d a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o n o u r p a r t t h a t M e x i c o i s t o r e c o n q u e r

t h e l o s t t e r r i t o r y i n T e x a s , N e w M e x i c o , a n d A r i z o n a . "

J a p a n w a s a l s o t o b e i n v i t e d t o a d h e r e t o t h i s p a c t . From a moral

s t a n d p o i n t Z i m m e r m a n ' s p r o p o s a l i s i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h e t e r -

r i t o r i a l b r i b e s w i t h w h i c h t h e A l l i e s i n d u c e d I t a l y a n d R u m a n i a t o

e n t e r t h e w a r . B u t i n v i e w o f M e x i c o ' s m i l i t a r y w e a k n e s s t h e p r o -

' W a l t e r M i l l i s , T h e Road to W a r ( B o s t o n , H o u g h t o n , 19 3 5 ) , P . 4 0 1 -

1 3

V


21/378


p o s a l w a s e x t r e m e l y s t u p i d a n d h e l p e d t o s p e e d u p t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

of American war psychology .

D e s p i t e t h e s t u b b o r n f i l i b u s t e r o f a m i n o r i t y o f a n t i w a r s e n a t o r s

( a l i t t l e g r o u p o f w i l l f u l m e n , a s W i l s o n c a l l e d t h e m ) , t h e g o v e r n -

me nt ha stened to a rm Ame rican mercha nt ships . B y A p r i l 2 t h e r e

h a d b e e n e n o u g h " o v e r t a c t s " t o i n d u c e W i l s o n t o a s k C o n g r e s s f o r

a d e c l a r a t i o n o f w a r . A m e r i c a ' s w a r a i m s w e r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l -

l o w i n g g l o w i n g a n d a b s t r a c t t e r m s i n t h e p e r o r a t i o n :

W e s h a l l f i g h t f o r t h e t h i n g s w h i c h w e h a v e a l w a y s c a r ri e d n e ar e s t t o o u r

h e a r t s - f o r d em o c r a c y , f o r t h e r i g h t o f t h o s e w h o s u b m i t t o a u t h o r i t y t o

h a v e a v o i c e i n t h e i r o w n g o v e r n m e n t s , f o r t h e r i g h t s a n d l i b e r t i e s o f

s m a l l n a t i o n s , f o r a u n i v er s a l d o m i ni o n o f r ig h t b y s u c h a c o n c e r t o f f r e e

p e o p l e s a s s h a l l b ri n g p e a c e a n d s a f e t y t o a l l n a t i o n s a n d m a k e t h e w o r l d

i t s e l f a t l a s t f r e e .

T h e c r u s a d i n g n o t e w a s f u r t h e r e m p h a s i z e d b y s u c h p h r a s e s a s :

We h ave no quarrel with the German people . W e h a v e n o f e e l i n g t o -

w a r d s t h e m b u t o n e o f s y m p a t h y a n d f r i e n d s h i p . . . . The world must

b e m a d e s a f e f o r d e m o c r a c y .

O p p o s i t i o n v o i c e s w e r e h e a r d i n t h e d e b a t e o n t h e w a r r e s o l u t i o n .

Senator Robert M . L a F o l l e t t e d e l i v er ed a f o u r - h o u r s p e e c h a t t a c k i n g

t h e i d e a t h a t t h i s w a s o r c o u l d b e a w a r f o r d e m o c r a c y , s u g g e s t i n g

t h a t t r u e n e u t r a l i t y w o u l d h a v e k e p t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o u t o f t h e

w ar . S e n a t o r G e o r g e N o r r i s s p o k e o f " t h e e n o r m o u s p r o f i t s o f m u n i -

t i o n s m a n u f a c t u r e r s , s t e e l b r o k e r s a n d b o n d d e a l e r s " a n d c r i e d o u t :

" W e a r e a b o u t t o p u t t h e d o l l a r s i g n u p o n t h e A m e r i c a n f l a g . "

S i x s e n a t o r s a n d f i f t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s v o t e d a g a i n s t t h e d e c l a r a t i o n

o f w a r . Most of the m w ere f rom the Middle West, wh ere pro-Ally

f e e l i n g w a s l e s s p r o n o u n c e d t h a n i t w a s i n t h e E a s t a n d t h e S o u t h .

By becoming involved in a European war, a fateful departure was

ma de in American policy . G i v i n g u p o u r h i s t o r i c l i m i t e d g o a l o f p r o -

t e c t i n g t h i s h e m i s p h e r e a g a i n s t f o r e i g n a g g r e s s i o n , w e w e r e c o m m i t -

t i n g o u r s e l v e s t o a n a m b i t i o u s c r u s a d e w i t h s u c h a l l u r i n g b u t v a g u e

objectives as "making the world saf e for democracy" and "making

t h e w o r l d i t s e l f a t l a s t f r e e . "

O n e r e a s o n f o r g r o w i n g s k e p t i c i s m a b o u t t h e s u c c e s s o f t h i s c r u -

s a d e w a s W i l s o n ' s i n a b i l i t y t o i n s p i r e t h e m a j o r i t y o f h i s c o u n t r y m e n

1 4


22/378

THE FIRST CRUSADEwith e nthusiasm fo r, or even understanding of , his grea t design for

future wo rld pe ace . One w o nd ers h o w m an y Am eric ans c ar e f u l l y

studied the Fourtee n Points, la id dow n by the President as Ame rica's

pe ace aims, or the supp lem entary statements of principle which a m-

p l i f i e d t h e s e p o i n t s . 3

The m ain principles of Wilsonism w ere go vernme nt by consent of v"t h e g o v e r n e d , n a t i o n a l s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , a n e n d o f s e c r e t t r e a t i e s , a

nonvindictive p ea ce, and an a ssociation of nations strong eno ugh to

check aggression and keep the p ea ce in the future . T h e m o o d t h at

develo pe d in wartime America did not ma ke fo r intelligent pop ular

supp ort of Wilson's aims . Th e nation ha d not bee n involved in a

maj or foreign wa r within the me mory o f a living man . It went on a

prodigious em otional deba uch .

Ame rican soil ha d not been invaded and the imme diate cause o f

the conflict, the right to carry on one-sided trade w ith one set of

b e l l i g e r e n t s , w a s n o t a n i d e a l t r u m p e t c a l l f o r m a r t i a l a c t i o n . As Wil-

son's ideals, to the a verage ma n, were too abstract and raref ied to

serve as fighting slogans, the builders of national mo rale concen-

trated o n building up be lief in the suprem e w icke dness of the "Hun",

fo r whom "unspe ak able " wa s one of the m ildest adjectives in general

use .

"Four-minute m en" rushe d about the land, selling wa r bonds and

ha te with eq ual vigor . The ir fa vorite pe roration was : "I'd com pa re

those Huns with snake s, only th at wo uld be insulting the snake s . "

Som e pa stors found relief from previously repressed lives by shouting

dram atically : "I say Go d d a m n the Kaiser-a nd I'm not swe aring,

e i t h e r . "

Pittsburgh "ba nned" Beetho ven, to the grea ter glory of demo cracy .

Sauerkraut became "liberty cabbage" . Producers of f ilms and stories

with stock Teutonic villains reape d a rich h arvest . Som e prof essors

we nt just as wa r ma d and said just as fo olish things as the e xtreme

Germ an nationalists who se chauvinistic boa stings we re h eld up to

deserved ridicule .

All this did not create a ho pe ful ba ckground for a just and reason-

able pe ace . It was significant that whe n the President, toward the

end of the war, made one of his more serious and statesma nlike ad-

3 T h e Fo u r t e en P o i n t s a n d o t h e r e s s e n t i a l i t e m s i n W i l s o n ' s p e a c e p r o g r a m a r e

p r i n t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h i s c h a p t e r .

1 5


23/378


d r e s s e s , t h e a u d i e n c e p e r ve r s e l y a p p l a u d e d a l l t h e m o r e t r i vi a l c l i c h e s

a n d r em a i n e d i n d i f f e r e n t t o h i s m o r e o r i g i n a l a n d f r u i t f u l i d e a s .

B y t h e a u t u m n o f 1 9 1 8 t h e b r e a k i n g p o i n t i n t h e w o r l d s t r u g g l e

ha d come . America h ad proved more than an adequate substitute

f o r R u s s i a . Th e number of American troops on the w estern front

increased from three hundred thousand in March 1918 to two mil-

lion in Nove mb er . H a l f s t a r v e d a n d e x h a u s t e d b y t h e b l o c k a d e , r e -

p u l s e d i n t h e l a s t d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t s t o b r e a k t h r o u g h o n t h e w e s t e r n

f r o n t i n F r a n c e , G e r m a n y f a c e d t h e p r o s p e c t o f e v e r i n c r e a s i n g A m e r -

i c a n r e i n f o r c e m e n t s a n d o f c o n t i n u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g A m e r i c a n s u p p l i e s .

Ludendorff, w ho shared with Hindenburg the comm and of the

G e r m a n a r m i e s , u r g e d t h e c i v i l i a n g o v e r n m e n t t o a p p e a l f o r a n a r m i s -

t i c e o n O c t o b e r i . T h e G e r m a n C h a n c e l l o r , P r i n c e M a x o f B a d e n , i n

agree me nt with the Austrian Governme nt, ap pe ale d to Wilson on

O c t o b e r 5 f o r a n a r m i s t i c e o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e F o u r t e e n P o i n t s .

T h er e w a s a w i d e s p r e a d c l a m o r i n A m e r i c a f o r u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u r -

r e n d e r . B u t W i l s o n k e p t t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s i n p r o g r es s . W h e n t h e a r m i s -

t i c e w a s f i n a l l y s i g n e d , i t w a s o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e Fo u r t e e n P o i n t s a n d

s u b s e q u e n t p u b l i c d e c l a r a t i o n s o f W i l s o n , w i t h o n e r e s e r v a t i o n a n d

o n e e l u c i d a t i o n . L l o y d G e o r g e r e s e r ve d f o r f u t u r e d i s c u s s i o n P o i n t 2 ,

p r o v i d i n g f o r f r e ed o m o f t h e s e a s . A n d i t w a s a g r e e d b e t w e e n C o l o n e l

H o u s e , W i l s o n ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n P a r i s , a n d t h e A l l i e d l e a d e r s t h a t

" r e s t o r a t i o n " o f i n v a d e d t e r r i t o r y s h o u l d m e a n t h a t " c o m p e n s a t i o n

w i l l b e m a d e b y G e r m a n y f o r a l l d a m a g e d o n e t o t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u -

l a t i o n o f t h e A l l i e s a n d t h e i r p r o p e r t y b y t h e f o r c e s o f G e r m a n y b y

l a n d , b y s e a a n d f r o m t h e a i r . "

T h a t t h e r e w a s a r e c o g n i z e d o b l i g a t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e A l l i e s t o

m a k e t h e p e a c e t r e a t y c o n f o r m t o t h e F o u r t e e n P o i n t s a n d t o W i l -

s o n ' s o t h e r s t a t e m e n t s i s e v i d e n t f r o m t h e w o r d i n g o f a r e p l y t o a

G e r m a n p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e p e a c e t e r m s i n M a y 1 9 1 9 :

"The Allied and Associated Powe rs are in complete accord with

t h e G e r m a n d e l e g a t i o n i n t h e i r i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e b a s i s f o r t h e n e -

g o t i a t i o n o f t h e t r ea t y o f p e a c e i s t o b e f o u n d i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e

w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e d t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e a r m i s t i c e o n N o v e m -

b e r 1 1 , 1918 . "

W i l s o n d i d n o t o b t a i n A l l i e d e n d o r s e m e n t o f h i s p e a c e c o n d i t i o n s

without a severe diplo ma tic struggle behind the scenes . C o l o n e l

H o u s e w e n t s o f a r a s t o i n t i m a t e t h a t i f t h e F o u r t e e n P o i n t s w e r e

I6


24/378

THE FIRST CRUSADEn o t a c c e p t e d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h G e r m a n y w o u l d b e w i p e d o f f t h e

s l a t e a n d A m e r i c a m i g h t t h e n c o n c l u d e a s e p a r a t e p e a c e w i t h G e r -

many a nd Austria . 4 T h i s f i r m t o n e l e d t o s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s i n t h i s

i n s t a n c e , b u t i t w a s s e l d o m e m p l o y e d w h e n t h e p r a c t i c a l d e t a i l s o f

t h e s e t t l e m e n t w e r e b e i n g w o r k e d o u t .

T h e h o p e o f f a r - s i g h t e d l i b e r a l s i n A m e r i c a a n d i n E u r o p e t h a t

W i l s o n ' s p r i n c i p l e s w o u l d b e t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a j u s t a n d l a s t i n g

p e a c e c o u l d n e v e r h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s .

W i l s o n ' s p r e s t i g e w a s w e a k e n e d f i r s t o f a l l w h e n h e i s s u e d a n i l l -

a d v i s e d a p p e a l f o r t h e r e t u r n o f a D e m o c r a t i c C o n g r e s s i n 1 9 1 8 . T h e

R e p u b l i c a n s w e r e s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e e l e c t i o n a n d W i l s o n ' s i n f l u e n c e

w a s l e s s e n e d i n t h e e y e s o f E u r o p e a n s t a t e s m e n a c c u s t o m e d t o t h e

s y s t e m o f g o v e r n m e n t b y a c a b i n e t r e s p o n s i b l e t o p a r l i a m e n t . A n -

o t h e r t a c t i c a l e r r o r w a s W i l s o n ' s f a i l u r e t o a p p o i n t a s i n g l e a c t i v e

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e R e p u b l i c a n a s a m e m b e r o f t h e c o m m i s s i o n t o n e g o -

t i a t e t h e p e a c e . (The five m embers were Wilson, House, Secretary

o f S t a t e R o b e r t L a n s i n g , G e n e r a l T a s k e r B l i s s , a n d H e n r y W h i t e , a

Republican who had lived much of his life abroa d and carried no

s p e c i a l w e i g h t i n t h e c o u n c i l s o f h i s p a r t y . )

I t w a s p r o b a b l y a m i s t a k e o n W i l s o n ' s p a r t t o h a v e a t t e n d e d t h e

c o n f e r e n c e p e r s o n a l l y . H e w o u l d h a v e w i e l d e d g r e a t e r p o w e r a n d i n -

fluence from Washington . A n d P a r i s w a s a n u n f o r t u n a t e c h o i c e f o r

t h e s e a t o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e i f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n v e n g e a n c e w a s

t o b e t h e k e y n o t e o f t h e p e a c e . F r a n c e h a d s u f f e r e d m u c h i n t h e w a r

a n d i n t h e P a r i s a t m o s p h e r e e v e r y o n e w a s a f r a i d o f b e i n g r e p r o a c h e d

with pro-Ge rmanism . A s H a r o l d N i c o l s o n , a y o u n g B r i t i s h d i p l o m a t

w h o v i e w e d t h e p r o c e e d i n g s w i t h a k e e n a n d c r i t i c a l e y e , r e m a r k e d :

" G i v e n t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e t i m e , g i v e n t h e p a s s i o n s a r o u s e d i n

a l l d e m o c r a c i e s b y t h e f o u r y e a r s o f w a r , i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m p o s -

s i b l e e v e n f o r s u p e r m e n t o d e v i s e a p e a c e o f m o d e r a t i o n a n d r i g h t -

e o u s n e s s . "5

O l d - f a s h i o n e d s e c r e t d i p l o m a c y i s o p e n t o c r i t i c i s m . B u t o n e r e a -

s o n w h y t h e C o n g r e s s o f V i e n n a , m e e t i n g a f t e r t h e c o n v u l s i o n s o f

t h e N a p o l e o n i c W a r s , s u c c e e d e d f a r b e t t e r t h a n t h e c o n f e r e n c e o f

V e r s a i l l e s w a s t h e f r e e d o m o f t h e s t a t e s m e n t h e r e f r o m t h e i n f l u e n c e

4 S e e The I n t i m a t e P a p e r s o f C o l . E . M . H o u s e ( B o s t o n , H o u g h t o n , 1 9 2 6 ) , I V ,

1 65 -

5 P e a c e m a k i n g , 1 9 1 9 ( B o s t o n , H o u g h t o n , 19 3 3 ) , P 7 2 .

1 7

V/


25/378

AMERICAS SECOND CRUSADEo f p o p u l a r p a s s i o n . T h e c h i e f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e E u r o p e a n A l l i e s ,

L l o y d G e o r g e , C l e m e n c e a u , O r l a n d o , k n e w t h e y f a c e d t h e d a n g e r o f

b e i n g s w e p t a w a y b y a s t o r m o f p o p u l a r r e p r o a c h i f t h e y d i d n o t h o l d

o u t f o r t h e m a x i m u m i n t e r r i t o r y a n d i n d e m n i t i e s .

S o t h e c a r d s w e r e h e a v i l y s t a c k e d a g a i n s t a p e a c e t r e a t y t h a t w o u l d

r e f l e c t t h e F o u r t e e n P o i n t s a n d W i l s o n ' s o t h e r p r i n c i p l e s . I f t h e

P r e s i d e n t , a m i d t h e t e r r i f i c s t r a i n o f P a r i s , h a d t i m e t o t a k e a c o o l

h i s t o r i c a l v i e w o f w h a t w a s g o i n g o n , h e m u s t h a v e f e l t t h e r i g h t n e s s

o f h i s e a r l i e r p r e f e re n c e f o r a p e a c e w i t h o u t v i c t o r y . I t i s t o hi s mo r a l

c r e d i t t h a t h e s o m e t i m e s f o u g h t h a r d f o r h i s p r i n c i p l e s .

B u t W i l s o n ' s s u p p o r t o f h i s i d e a l s w a s e r r a t i c , i n c o n s i s t e n t a n d ,

o n b a l a n c e , i n e f f e c t i v e . T h e P r e s i d e n t w a s u n c o m p r o m i s i n g i n r e j e c t -

i n g I t a l i a n c l a i m s f o r F l u m e a n d D a l m a t i a . B u t h e a c q u i e s c e d w i t h -

o u t a s t r u g g l e i n a s t i l l m o r e f l a g r a n t v i o l a t i o n o f t h e r i g h t o f s e l f -

d e t e r m i n a t i o n : t h e a s s i g n m e n t t o I t a l y o f t h e s o l i d l y G e r m a n - A u s -

t r i a n S o u t h T y r o l .

I n g e n e r a l , t h i s p r i n c i p l e w a s s t r e t c h e d t o t h e l i m i t w h e n e v e r i t

w o u l d w o r k t o t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e o f t h e d e f e a t e d p o w e r s a n d d i s r e -

g a r d e d w h e n i t w o u l d o p e r a t e i n t h e i r f a v o r . S o t h e r e w a s n o s e l f -

d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r s i x a n d a h a l f m i l l i o n A u s t r i a n s , t h e m a j o r i t y o f

wh om wished to join Germany, or for three million Sudeten Ger-

m a n s w h o d i d n o t w i s h t o b e c o m e c i t i z e n s o f a C z e c h o - S l o v a k s t a t e ,

o r f o r o t h e r e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e d e f e a t e d p o w e r s .

T h e T r e a t y o f V e r s a i l l e s w a s e s p e c i a l l y d i s a s t r o u s o n t h e e c o n o m i c

s i d e . I t e m b o d i e d t w o i n c o n s i s t e n t p r i n c i p l e s , r e v e n g e a n d r a p a c i t y ;

the desire to make Germany helpless and the desire to make Ger-

m a n y p a y . T h e c o m p l e t e l y u n r e a l i s t i c r e p a r a t i o n s s e t t l e m e n t w a s t o

contribute much to the depth and severity of the world economic

c r i s i s t e n y ea r s l a t e r . T h i s c r i s i s , i n t u r n , w a s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r

i n b r i n g i n g A d o l f H i t l e r i n t o p o w e r .

Many o f Germany's econom ic assets-he r colonies, her merchant

m a r i n e , h e r f o r e i g n h o l d i n g s , h e r g o l d r e s e r v e s - w e r e c o n f i s c a t e d .

U n d e r t h e t e r m s o f t h e t r e a t y G e r m a n y l o s t a b o u t i o p e r c e n t o f i t s

t e r r i t o r y a n d p o p u l a t i o n , o n e t h i r d o f i t s c o a l , a n d t h r e e q u a r t e r s o f

i t s i r o n o r e . A t t h e s a m e t i m e i t w a s s a d d l e d w i t h a n e n o r m o u s a n d

a t f i r s t u n d e f i n e d r e p a r a t i o n s b i l l , f a r i n e x c e s s o f a n y s u m e ve r c o l -

l e c t e d a f t e r a n y p r e v i o u s w a r .

T h i s b i l l w a s f i n a l l y f i x e d b y t h e R e p a r a t i o n s C o m m i s s i o n a t 3 2

1 8


26/378

THE FIRST CRUSADEb i l l i o n d o l l a r s . (French Finance Minister Klotz, wh o w as late r ap -

prop riately com mitted to a lunatic asylum, had at first prop osed a

figure of a oo billion dollars, two hundred times the indemnity ex -

acted from France af ter the Franco-Prussian War .) Germany could

only h op e to p ay this tribute, wh ich under the later Dawe s and Young

pla ns wa s set at annual pa ym ents of abo ut ha lf a billion dollars,

by deve loping a p erma nent large uncom pe nsated surplus of ex po rts

over impo rts .

The re we re two insoluble dilem ma s in this attem pted f inancial set-

tlement . First, a we ak Germa ny could not produce such a surplus,

wh ile a strong Germany wo uld be inclined to balk a t pay me nt . S e c -

o n d , t h e o n l y f e a s i b l e m e t h o d o f t r a n s f e r r i n g w e a l t h o n t h i s s c a l e , t h e

use o f Ge rma n labor and mate rial on reconstruction proj ects, wa s

ruled out . And, in time s of unemp loy me nt and fa iling dema nd, for-

eign countries were unable o r unwilling to purchase Ge rma n goods

on a scale tha t would mak e possible the desired surplus of ex ports

over impo rts . "

One of the ma ny drago ns' teeth sown by the Treaty of Versailles

was Article 231, wh ich read :

The Allied and Associated Gove rnme nts aff irm a nd Germany accepts the

respo nsibility of Germa ny a nd her Allies for causing all the loss and

dam ag e to w hich the Allied and Associate d Governme nts and their na-

tionals have bee n subjected as a consequence of the w ar impo sed upon

t h e m b y t h e a g g r e s s i o n o f G e r m a n y a n d h e r a l l i e s .

This linke d up Germa ny's obligation to pa y rep arations with a

blanket self-condem nation to w hich alm ost no Ge rman could have

ho nestly subscribed . In the o bje ctive retrospect of p ostwa r yea rs fe w

students of the subje ct in Allied and neutral countries uph eld the

prop osition that Germany w as sole ly responsible f or the outbrea k of

World War I . The re were diffe rences of op inion abo ut the degree o f

respo nsibility b orne by Ge rma ny, Austria, Russia, a nd other be llig-

erent pow ers . Fairly representative of the judgment of imp artial

scholarship is the opinion of Profe ssor Sidney B . Fay, o f Harvard

University, the conclusion of an e xh austive inquiry into the causes of

t h e c o n f l i c t :

6F o r t h i s s a m e ec o n o m i c r e a s o n , i n a b i l i t y o r u n w i l l i n g n e s s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

t o a c c e p t l a r g e qu a n t i t i e s o f E u r o p e a n e x p o r t s , t h e w a r d e b t s o f t h e E u r o p e a n

A l l i e s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w e r e u n p a y a b l e .

1 9


27/378

i '44 " w' Gear ~R d~ y n l t s s ~ . . c - w c t _4. At . rAMERICAS SECOND CRUSADE

G er m an y d i d no t plo t a Europ ea n war, did not wa nt one a nd ma de

genuine, tho ugh tooe....I t wa s unmarilyR u s s i a ' s g e n e r a rm o -bihzation, made wh en German was qtr in to bringAus ria o a se e me n , wh - p r e c i p i t a t e d t h e h na c a t a s t r o p h e , c a u s i n gG er m an y t o mobilize an e c a r e ware v e r 1c o t t o e r s a i l l e s'trea ty that Germa ny and her al lies were responsible fo r the wa r, invi e o e - . - . i a v a i a , i i s l ea y uns

J

II IBy the time the Tre aty o f V e r s a i l l e s w a s c a s t i n f i n a l f o r m a nd im -poseupontf e G erma ns, s c a r c e l y a t ra c e o f th e Wil so nia n s p i ri t re -mained . A bitter gibe be cam e current in Europe . It was said that

Wilson deserved the Nobel Prize not for pe ace, but for m athe ma tics,

since he had m ade f ourteen equal ze ro . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h e

judgme nt of a w ell-k nown British p articipa nt in the p ea ce dis-

cussions who symp athized with Wilson's idea ls . The economist Joh n

May nard Key nes, in his E c o n o m i c C o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e P e a c e (Lon-

don, Macm illan), w rote :

The Treaty includes no p rovisions fo r the e conomic reha bilitation of

Europ e-nothing to m ak e the defe ated Central Emp ires into goo d neigh -

bors, nothing to stabilize the new State o f Europ e, nothing to reclaim

R u s s i a ; n o r d o e s i t p r o m o t e i n a n y w a y a c o m p a c t o f e c o n o m i c s o l i d a r i t y

am ongst the Allies the mselves .

Wilson was pa rtly re conciled to the sacrifice of his ideal s of p o-

litical a nd economic justice by the ho pe that the new ly f orme d

League of Nations, with the United States as a m em ber, wo uld be a

fo rce f or refo rm and reconciliation . This hop e w as not fulfilled . The

President ex pe rienced his final trage dy w he n, after h is nervous and

ph ysical brea kdown, the Versailles Trea ty, in which the Lea gue Cov-

enant ha d been incorporated, faile d to win ratification in the Senate .

The re wa s an unbreak able deadlock betw ee n the President's insis-

tence that the Covenant be accepted with, at m ost, minor changes

and Senator Lodge 's insistence on strong reservations . A majority w as

not to be ha d for e ithe r prop osition a nd the United States rema ined

outside the Le ague of Nations . 8

O r i g i n s o f t h e W o r l d W a r ( N e w Y o r k , M a c m i l l a n , 1 9 3 0 ) , p p .5 5 2 , 5 5 4 - 5 5 .

8

A c e r t a i n s c h o o l o f t l h u g h t i s i n c l i n e d t o a t t r i b u t e m o s t o f t h e w o r l d ' si n t e r -

w a r t r o u b l e s t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t h e S o v i et U n i o n ( u n t i l 19 3 4 )

w e r e o u t s i d e t h e L e a g u e . B u t t h e s e t w o p o w e r s h a v e b ee n c h a r t e r me mbe rs oft h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , w i t h o u t p r o d u c i n g w o r l d h a r m o n y .

2 0


28/378

,Il~ ZALA. W KAA4. t 4 ,. -t4z"Aot

I THE FIRST CRUSADEThe submarine remained a permanent we ap on of w arfare a gainst

me rcha nt shipp ing . For e v e r y i n j u s t i c e t h e T r ea t y o f V e r s a i l l e s r e -

d r e s s e d , i t c r e a t ed a n o t h er , e q u a l l y f l a g ra n t a n d d i s t u r b i n t o f u t u r e

p e a i i a r g e s a e s i n e a s t e r n a n d

s o t h e a s t e r n E u r o p e t o b a n d t o g e t h e r i n c l o s e v o l u n t a r y f e d e r a t i o n

created an unhealthy fragme ntation of the Europe an economy and

m a d e i t e a s i e r f o r N a z i a n d C o m m u n i s t c a r e e r s o f c o n q u e s t t o g e t

under wa y .

T h e g r e a t e s t f a i l u r e o f a l l w a s i n " m a k i n g t h e w o r l d s a f e f o r d e -

mo cracy ." Comm unism a nd fa scism, not dem ocracy, we re the a u-

t h e n t i c p o l i t i c a p r a n g o o r l d a r .

'There remains the argument that America, by taking part in the

war, had frustrated a German design for world conquest . B u t t h i s

d e s i g n l o o k e d l e s s a n d l e s s c o n v i n c i n g a s h i g h - p o w e r e d w a r p r o p a -

g a n d a r e c e d e d i n t o t h e s h a d o w s . T h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e B r i t i s h a n d

F r e n c h f i g h t w a s " o u r f i g h t " d i d n o t c o n v i n c e W i l s o n ' s c o n f i d e n t i a l

a d v i s e r , H o u s e , e v e n i n t h e f i r s t w e e k s a f t e r t h e e n d o f h o s t i l i t i e s .

D i s c u s s i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n i n ' h i s d i a r y o n J a n u a r y 4 , 1 9 1 9 , H o u s e o b -

s e r v e s :

I f o r o n e h a v e n ev e r a d m i t t e d t h i s . I h a v e a l w a y s f e l t t h a t t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s w a s a m p l y a b l e t o t a k e c a r e o f h e rs e l f , t h a t w e w e r e n ev er a f r a i d

o f t h e G e r m a n s a n d w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n a f r a i d o f t h e m e v e n i f F r a n c e

a n an n g g o n e u n d e r . 9

The ghostl tramp of imagined Germa n legions, marchin through

t h e s t r ee t s o me ncan c i t i e s , m a y a v e i g t e n e a e w nervous

Ame ricans in 1915 a nd 1916 . But by 1933 m ost Ame ricans wo uld

p r o b a b l y h a v e a g r e e d w i t h t h e s e n t i m e n t s e x p r e s s e d b y W i l l i a m A l l e n

- pt e i n a t aug u r m i sF i f t e e n y e a r s a g o c a m e t h e A r m i s t i c e a n d w e a l l t h o u g h t i t w a s t o b e a

new wo r t a s . u t a o f w o r s e t a n i t w a s

Ten mi l l i o n m e n w e r e k i l l e d a n m an y m o r e m a i m e d , f i f t y b i l l i o nd o l l a rs w o r t h o f p r o p e r t y d e s t r o y e d , t h e w o r l d s a d d l e d w i t h d e b t s .A w a . Would a a v e b e e n a n y w o r s e i f G e r m a n won?Ask y o u r s e o n e s t y . o o n e n e ws .

I s t h i s o l d w o r l d a s s a f e f o r d e m o c r a c y a s i t w a s b e f o r e a l l t h o s e l i v e s

w e r e l o s t ?

s T h e I n t i m a t e P a p e r s , e t c . , I V , 2 6 8

1 0 T he A u t o b i o g r a p h y o f W i l l i a m A l l e n W h i t e ( N e w Y o r k , M a c m i l l a n , 1 9 4 6 ) ,

p . 6 4 0 -

2 1


29/378

AMERICAS SECOND CRUSADEBy no standard of judgme nt could Ame rica's First Crusade be con-

s i d e r e d a s u c c e s s . It was not even an ef fe ctive warning . For a l l the

i l l u s i o n s , m i s ' u d m e n t s , a n d e r r o r s o f t h e F i r s t C r u s a d e w e r e to be

r e e a t e , i n e x a g g e r a t e d f o r m , i n a econ Crusade t h a t was t o b e a

stns more resounding and unmistakable p o l i t i c a l a nd moral f a i l u r e ,

d e s p i t e t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f m i l i t a r y s u c c e s s .

WILSON'S BLUEPRINT FOR PEACE

T h e F o u r t e e n P o i n t s , s e t f o r t h i n a n

address to Congress January 8, 1918 :

i . O p e n c o v e n a n t s o f p e a c e , o p e n l y a r r i ve d a t , a f t e r w h i c h t h e re s h a l l

b e n o p r i v a t e i n t e r n a t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f a n y k i n d b u t diplo ma cy

s h a l l p r o c e e d a l w a y s f r a n k l y a n d i n t h e p u b l i c v i e w .

2 . A b s o l u t e f r e ed o m o f n a v i g a t i o n u p o n t h e s e a s , o u t s i d e t e rr i t o r i a l

w a t e r s , a l i k e i n p e a c e a n d i n w a r , e x c e p t a s t h e s e a s m a y b e c l o s e d i n

w h o l e o r i n p a r t b y i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n f o r t h e e n f o r c e m e n t o f i n t e r -

n a t i o n a l c o v e n a n t s .

3 . T h e r e m o v a l , s o f a r a s p o s s i b l e , o f a l l e c o n o m i c b a r r i e r s and the

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n e q u a l i t y o f t r a d e c o n d i t i o n s a m o n g a l l t h e n a t i o n s

c o n s e n t i n g t o t h e p e a c e a n d a s s o c i a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s f o r i t s m a i n t e n a n c e .

4 . A d e q u a t e g u a r a n t e e s g i v e n a n d t a k e n t h a t n a t i o n a l a r m a m e n t s w i l l

b e r e d u c e d t o t h e l o w e s t p o i n t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h d o m e s t i c s a f e t y .

5 . A f r e e , o p e n - m i n d e d a n d a b s o l u t e l y i m p a r t i a l a d j u s t m e n t o f a l l

c o l o n i a l c l a i m s , b a s e d u p o n a s t r i c t o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t i n

d e t e r m i n i n g a l l s u c h q u e s t i o n s o f s o v e r e i g n t y t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e p o p u l a -

t i o n s c o n c e r n ed m u s t h a v e e qu a l w e i g h t w i t h t h e e q u i t a b l e c l a i m s o f t h e

g o v e r n m e n t w h o s e t i t l e i s t o b e d e t e r m i n e d .

6 . T h e ev a c u a t i o n o f a l l R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r y a n d s u c h a s e t t l e m en t o f a l l

q u e s t i o n s a f f e c t i n g R u s s i a a s w i l l s e c u r e t h e b e s t a n d f r e e s t c o o p e r a t i o n

o f t h e o t h e r n a t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d i n o b t a i n i n g f o r h e r a n u n h a m p e r e d

a n d u n e m b a rr a s s e d o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e i n d e p e n d e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f h e r

o w n p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d n a t i o n a l p o l i c y a n d a s s u r e h e r o f a s i n c e r e

w e l c o m e i n t o t h e s o c i e t y o f f r e e n a t i o n s u n d e r i n s t i t u t i o n s of her own

c h o o s i n g ; a n d , m o r e t h a n a w e l c o m e , a s s i s t a n c e a l s o o f e v e r y k i n d t h a t

s h e m a y n e e d a n d m a y h e r s e l f d e s i r e . T h e t r e a t m e n t a c c o r d e d R u s s i a b y

h e r s i s t e r n a t i o n s i n t h e m o n t h s t o c o m e w i l l b e t h e a c i d t e s t o f t h e i r

g o o d w i l l , o f t h e i r c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f h e r n e e d s a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e i r

o w n i n t e r e s t s , a n d o f t h e i r i n t e l l i g e n t a n d u n s e l f i s h s y m p a t h y .

7. B e l g i u m , t h e w h o l e w o r l d w i l l a g r e e , m u s t b e e v a c u a t e d a n d r e -

2 2


30/378

THE FIRST CRUSADEs t o r e d , w i t h o u t a n y a t t e m p t t o l i m i t t h e s o v e r e i g n t y w h i c h s h e e n j o y s i n

c o m m o n w i t h a l l o t h e r f r e e n a t i o n s . N o o t h e r s i n g l e a c t w i l l s e r ve a s t h i s

w i l l s e r v e t o r e s t o r e c o n f i d e n c e a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s i n t h e l a w s w h i c h t h e y

h a v e t h e m s e l v e s s e t a n d d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s

w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . W i t h o u t t h i s h e a l i n g a c t t h e w h o l e s t r u c t u r e a n d v a l i d -

i t y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w i s f o r e v er i m p a i r ed .

8 . A l l F r e n c h t e r r i t o r y s h o u l d b e f r e e d a n d t h e i n v a d e d p o r t i o n s r e -

s t o r e d , a n d t h e w r o n g d o n e t o F r a n c e b y P r u s s i a i n 1 8 7 1 i n t h e m a t t e r

o f A l s a c e - L o r r a i n e , w h i c h h a s u n s e t t l e d t h e p e a c e o f t h e w o r l d f o r n e a r l y

f i f t y y e a r s , s h o u

Date post:	14-Apr-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	opentosuggestions
View:	230 times
Download:	0 times

Americas Second Crusade William Henry Chamberlain 1950 379pgs POL USA

Documents