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An AddressON

SOME OF THE ADVANCES OFMODERN MEDICINE.

Delivered before the Leamington Medical Society onOct. 19th, 1907,

BY SIR RICHARD DOUGLAS POWELL, BART.,K.C.V.O., M.D. LOND.,

PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF LONDON;PHYSICIAN IN ORDINARY TO THE KING.

MR. PRESIDENT AND GENTLEMEN,-I trust I shall bepardoned if I deal with this somewhat large subject rather ina clinical than in a formal manner in the address which youhave honoured me by asking me to deliver. Since the lastRoyal Commission on Vivisection in 1876 almost the wholesystem of therapeutics has been overhauled, much of itsubmitted to the test of experiment, and many new andvaluable remedies revealed to us. Attention has beendrawn by Professor Cushny in his evidence before the

Royal Commission now sitting to the importance ofstandardisation of drugs, and no physician can fail to beaware of the great need there is of attaching some standardvalue of strength to medicines in current use.But perhaps the greatest advance in modern medicine which

will make the last third of the nineteenth century evermemorable has been the discovery of bacterial agencies asthe essential etiological factors in inflammation, suppura-tion, and in the causation and spread of all specific diseases.We cannot get away from the ubiquitous application of thisscientific truth, which plays a governing part, directly andindirectly, in all our medical and surgical doings. Thefermentation researches of the great Pasteur, upon whichthis discovery was based, found their first application incommerce ; many millions have been reaped, many nobleestates built up, and some noble families even founded uponthe researches of Pasteur on the conversion of sugar intoalcohol by bacterial agency. Untold thousands of lives havebeen saved, many millions of hours of suffering (human andanimal) have been spared, and a corresponding increment ofearnings from human effort has been gained by the anti-

septic and aseptic treatment of surgical wounds and injuriesestablished through the profound researches and strenuousadvocacy of Lord Lister. The world has indeed been thericher for the work of these philosophers, themselves enrichedby no patent stamps or pecuniary royalties to detract fromthe honours that are theirs.At the time of the last inquiry of a Royal Commission on

"Vivisection (1876) not one disease was known to havea bacterial origin. Now almost every acute specific diseasehas its recognised etiological factor in a bacterium or aprotozoon the natural history of which has been worked out.Enormous saving of human and animal life through pre-ventive medicine has thus ensued and biological sciencebecomes an essential adjunct to physiology. But if youcome nearer, into proximate therapeutics, and consider thetreatment, for instance, of gastro-intestinal affections, of oral,throat, bronchial, and ear diseases, of the catarrh of measles,or the ulceration of scarlet fever and diphtheria, you find theapplication of antiseptic and aseptic measures, which began insurgery, more and more in use in medicine. Perhaps scarcelyyet enough so. In many acute and chronic diseases, suchas pneumonia, ’typhoid fever, pulmonary tuberculosis, andgastric affections, the sanitation of the mouth is still ofteninsufficiently attended to.

Again, look to the modern treatment of consumption :what is it ? what are the principles that underlie it ? Con-

sumption is a disease which is in a sense rightly spoken ofas beginning with the reception of the tubercle bacillus ; buthow often it is that a filth catarrh precedes or is associatedwith the lodgment of the specific bacillus. How is it that aman may safely, in a sanatorium, minister to the needs ofmany consumptive invalids each one of whom, it is assumed,has acquired his disease by infection ? Is it not true, doesnot experience at least point to its being so, that tubercleis a distributed infection rendered increasingly virulent asit is mingled with the other attendants of dust and dirt anddiminishing to the vanishing point in clean and aseptic

surroundings The main destractive lesions of phthisis.are from bacterial admixtures other than tuberculous-

pneumococoal, streptococcal, and staphylococcal. Brouissais,according to his lights, rightly spoke of them as

inflammatory ; the principal objective of open-air treat-ment is to starve out these adventitious infections"deprived of which tubercle tends to heal. And up to.recent times, after the formidable germicidal treatment that.one witnessed in the early days of Koch’s discovery had sub.sided, the treatment in sanatoriums has consisted exclusivelyof fresh aseptic air, rest, and feeding. But are we to advanceno further Surely we want treatment as well as conditions,and I think that antiseptic remedies properly used are stillvaluable. Unquestionably of late more is being done, and>the researches of Sir A. E. Wright into the nature of themeans of combating bacterial poisons by the phagocyticagency of the blood have led to the discovery of opsonicqualities in the blood serum which have a bactericidal actionselectivelv asrainst tubercle and other bacteria, an actionthat has a standard of potency which is liable to de-

pression under conditions of ill-health and which can beraised by appropriate vaccines. This opsonic property ofthe blood serum reacts in a measurable manner to minute-doses of the poison against which it is specific and admits ofbeing gradually raised against tubercle by the influence oftuberculin inoculations, or against other bacteria by the injec-tion of minute doses of their sterilised cultures. Undercareful supervision, guarded by expert observations ofthe opsonic index at short intervals, I have seen tuberculinemployed with advantage in cases in which the adjuvantinfections have been cleared away, and in a few instances theemployment similarly of antistreptococcal vaccines has proveduseful. But so far as I have observed, it is useless andundesirable to employ tuberculin treatment in the stormyperiods of active tissue destruction and severe hectic oftuberculosis, since these phenomena are mainly due to-

secondary or associated infections and must first be com.bated by rest and antiseptic measures. A similar line ofpreventive and curative treatment has been employed inother diseases, notably in plague and enteric fever. Antitoxinremedies in diphtheria, tetanus, and snake poisoning arealso modern developments based on bacterial research, whichhave already effected much.

Beside the science of bacteriology, which deals moreespecially with the organisms of plant life, an allied scienceof Protozoology (of which Professor Minchin is the first pro-fessor in the University of London) has arisen within the lastquarter of a century and has already elucidated the etiologyof malaria, Texas fever in cattle, tsetse fly disease, sleepingsickness, kala-azar ; and through the labours of Laveran,Manson, Bruce, Smith and Kilborne, Leonard Rogers, andothers, the biology of the parasitic protozoa has been foundfully as interesting and important as that of their bacterialanalogues. Hamlet observes: "A man may fish with a,

worm that have eat of a king and eat of the fish that hathfed of tbat worm " to show " how a king may go a progress-through the guts of a beggar," but what squalid prose is this.beside the romantic story of the vicissitudes of the malarialparasite !

I would glance at the effects of establishing collateral cir-culation and of relieving vascular tension in modernmedicine. The’ same principle underlay the old derivative-therapeutical methods of blisters, cupping, purging, butits application is more direct, and it goes further, not onlyrelieving the tension of a confined circulation but pro--ducing an afflux as well as an efflux of blood of collateralsource, and it has become possible only with the adventof ansesthetic and antiseptic surgical methods. Perhaps Imay be allowed to illustrate my remarks by the relation of acase not wanting in other points of interest. An Americangentleman, 37 years of age, came to consult me in April,1905, with the following interesting and peculiar history.At the age of 16 years he and several other members of hisfamily took what must have been fairly heavy doses of can--tharides which were administered to them by an eroticservant girl. His brother died within a short time from haemat-uria and acute Bright’s disease. His mother had also acutesymptoms and died 15 years later from Bright’s disease. Hehimself was very ill with cramps, convulsions, and baemat-uria ; and chronic Bright’s disease developed from that datewith frequent severe headaches, culminating perhaps three-or four times a year in urasmic convulsions. I cannot give-exact details about these attacks but his illness began withthem and he had six or seven severe ursemic seizures in the

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A months preceding October, 1903. The seizures would

begin with severe head pains followed by loss of conscious-ness and convulsions and he would have a series of these,attacks recurring every fifth day. Chloroform gave reliefand nth of a grain of morphine subcutaneously givenat times of headache would sometimes ward them- oS. In October, 1903, failing to get relief in his own

country, he came over to Europe and consulted ProfessorJames Israel of Berlin. This gentleman in two operationsOctober and November, 1903, respectively) cub down uponthe kidneys and stripped them of their capsules. On the right:side the kidney was found contracted to about three.quarters.of the normal volume by interstitial inflammation. The left

kidney was the seat of pyonephritis with very little paren-chyma and was reduced to one-third of its normal size. No trace.of tuberculosis was found either at the surgical operation orfrom the examination of the urine. The patient subsequentlysuffered occasional retention of urine in the left kidney,- causing a diminution in total urine excreted. Then severeheadache occurred accompanied by convulsive twitchings in4he right arm. The headache and scanty urine could bothbe overcome by i b th of a grain of morphine hypodermically,

;if administered directly the headache appeared. The patientwas put upon chiefly a vegetable and starchy diet with only.3 little white meat and fish and no alcohol. Warm saltbaths were ordered. When the patient came under my care,(April 1905) his statement was that the operation had.greatly mitigated the severity and frequency of the minorattacks and had checked altogether the major convulsive.seizures. There was some slight hardening of the pulsetut no degree of arterial tension or enlargement of theheart characteristic of Bright’s disease. The breath wasslightly ammoniacal. He had recently had influenza at

Algiers in December and his temperature had been dailyffaised and some cough remained with a somewhat waterystained expectoration. There was impaired resonance at thelight apex, with weak respiration of harsh quality, the

physical signs being so slight as to give hesitation in

diagnosis. The sputum, however, gave an abundance oftubercle bacilli; indeed, I never saw films yielding so near anapproach to a pure culture. The urine, of specific gravity1014, yielded 0’ 15 per cent. of albumin ; it was cloudy andcontained a large number of pus cells but no definite

deposit, no casts and no tubercle bacilli were found.I may briefly say that this patient held his own for a timeand died abroad in the spring of this year (three and a halfyears after Israel’s operation) from his lung complaint, thekidney disease not having materially interfered with his- comfort nor produced any increase of cardio-vascular

- changes. - - - - - - - - - - -

I mention this case, which in itself is an interesting andunusual one, for two reasons : first, it is an example of amodern method of treating the uroemic stage of chronic

.granular kidneys which is very rational but which at thetime it was instituted by Elebohls 1 in 1898 was a very bold ;innovation of surgery, designed to establish new vascular’connexions and to influence the nutrition of the organ for the;relief of what had previously been regarded as a parelymedical disease ; and secondly, in my student days"We were impressed with the danger of touching withthe knife a patient afflicted with albaminuria, butsince the introduction of Listerian methods our views on"these matters have entirely changed. I have met withother instructive cases in this connexion. One was that of a

patient whom I had sent out to South Africa for tuberculousdisease of the lungs. He did well there for a year or twoand then contracted kidney disease with hasmaturia and- some symptoms pointing to the probability of calculus. Idid not think he had calculus as the urinary examinationpointed to a more general nephritis. However, he washimself a medical man and was led to undergo surgical.-exploration which resulted in the exposure of a beautifulspecimen of granular kidney. The capsule on that side wasstripped and he suffared no harm from the operation..-Another case was that of an officer in whom calculous dis-organisation of the left kidney was diagnosed and the ques-tion of its removal was considered by Mr. P. J. Freyer andmyself. The patient was afliicted with persistent head--ache and there were such manifest signs of hyper-trophied heart and arterial sclerosis with high tension

1 The Surgical Treatment of Bright’s Disease, by George M.

Edebohls,A.M., Professor of Diseases of Women in New York Post-GraduateMedical School, 1904. Professor Edebohls gained his first experienceof the benefit of the operation in Bright’s disease in the course ofoperating for fixation of moveable kidney associated with nephritis in1892.

and the presence of renal casts in the urine that wehesitated to operate, and under complete rest and dietinghe improved. He was an active sportsman, however, anddirectly he teturned home to an active life, he had a renewalof his symptoms of fever and suppurative kidney trouble, sothat finally he agreed with us to take the risks, and a dis-organised left kidney was removed. Since that time, after alittle treatment, his tension headaches have subsided and hehas returned to much better health. In this connexion it is

interesting to note a fact brought out by Edebohls, but whichis certainly not generally known, that in a considerable pro-portion of cases of chronic Bright’s disease (nearly half of aseries of 18 of his cases operated upon) the disease is unilateralor mainly so. A somewhat similar operation of "omentopexy’-stitching a portion of omentum to the abdominal wall andthe establishment of collateral circulation between theportal and systemic vessels-has given successful results ina good number of cases of cirrhosis of the liver and ascites.This is in accordance with the clinical experience that re-peated tappings and the occurrence of perihepatitis resultingin adhesions are sometimes followed by disappearance of theascites. I give the above cases as examples of the wideningof our range of vision in regard to the symptomatology andtreatment of internal diseases.Medicine has of late becolJl&bgr; very s1{,rgical.-We are

gradually learning how much of us we can do without-inother words, the wondrous capacity for adaptation and com-pensation that exists in our complex organism, how muchthere yet remains of the original protoplasm in our being, inspite of the differentiation through the ages of its parts intoorgans. We can do without a lung, a kidney, a proste, auterus, or ovaries. The spleen is not exactly a packing

material, but it has many limitations to its usefulness. Theduodenum and colon may be put out of action and con-verted into mere conduit tubes. The appendix we seemto be better without ; it is a troublesome and dangeroussurvival. There is a story current that a well-knownsurgeon once trephined an officer after a huntingaccident and deprived him of so much brain tissue thathe felt the greatest uneasiness as to the consequences tohis patient. He, however, met the gallant gentleman someyears later on foreign service, never better in his life and incommand of the intelligence department ! We can sufferdeprivation but we cannot endure disease. The DivineMaster’s exhortation, " If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out,"has come to apply to many diseased organs. With deeperknowledge we recognise that no disease is local; thatthe so-called constitutional reactions or

" sympatheticirritations" " are the dissemination of real particulateor humoral poisons in the form of bacteria, cocci, or

their toxins, and that besides the manifest functionof which it may be deprived each organ has its long-since forgotten participation in the general body politic-itis a part of the original bioplasm—60 which it contributessome internal secretion that, with its degeneracy, becomesmorbid. Need I illustrate this remark by alluding to

enlarged prostate, hypertrophied tonsils, unsound appendix,hmmorrhoidal disease, calculous and scrofulous kidneys, andthe chain of phenomena beyond the local suffering induced,that attend each of them and are relieved by their removal ? 7Pursuant upon the great advances that have been made in

the surgical treatment of diseases of internal organs, andespecially of those of the abdomen, there come some recentobservations of Lennander as to the sensibility of thoseorgans which may prove to be of great value-first, inregard to the use of ansesthetios; and secondly, inregard to the symptomatology and diagnosis of diseasedconditions. Lennander in his very interesting and in-structive pamphlet remarks (p. 3) th 1.t "surgical pro-cedure and antiseptics have at the present time attained tosuch a stage of safety that in many cases the narcosis

may be regarded as relatively the most dangerous factor inan operation." Great efforts have therefore been made toreplace general anassthesia, wholly or in part, by localanaesthesia, and an important element in effecting this is aknowledge of the relative sensitiveness of external andinternal parts under the surgeon’s manipulations. There aresome conditions of patients as regards heart or lungs orgeneral collapse which render general anmsthesia verydangerous, and local anæsthesia may be the only resourceleft. By a method known as Schleich’s infiltration

2 On the Sensibility of the Abdomen, by K. G. Lennander, F.R.C.SEng., professor of surgery in Upsala, Sweden. Translated by ArthurE. Barker, F.R.C.S. Eng., professor of surgery at University College,London. 1902.

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method the external tissues can be locally anaesthetisedover the area required by a solution of cocaine andmorphine in normal saline solution, and the incisionshaving been completed through the parietal peritoneumLennander has found the bowel, gall-bladder, andother organs both on their internal and external surfacesalmost insensible under such painful impressions as

incision, pinching, pulling, and applications of heat andcold, provided in the manipulations the parietal peritoneumbe not dragged upon, compressed, nor distended. Thepneumogastric and sympathetic nerves and the organsthey supply do not seem sensitive to painful impressions,and Lennander quotes instances even of inflamed visceralperitoneum being insensitive under manipulation. Theseobservations no doubt require some confirmation in details,but as to the general fact of the insensitiveness of theinternal viscera under manipulation-provided there be nodragging upon the parietes-Lennander’s observations leaveno room for doubt. So that by means of local anaesthesiafor the primary incisions, a small injection of morphine, andgeneral anaesthesia for short periods when from draggingpain is anticipated, operations can be done, if need be,without general anæsthesia, or at least with a comparativelysmall amount of it.

I am less concerned, however, in dwelling upon theimportance of these observations in surgery. They arealso illuminating in their application to diagnosis andthey have to be borne in mind in investigating some

cases of grave internal lesion, in which pain even on

firm palpation may not be a prominent feature. Let meillustrate the diagnostic bearing of Lennander’s observationsby the relation of a case that occurred within my experiencea short time ago. An elderly gentleman who had long hadfeeble health and for 30 years or more had had occasionalattacks of hepatic colic became gravely ill with febrile

symptoms, hepatic pain, some hepatic enlargement, andsome tenderness over the site of the gall-bladder, for whichan exploration was proposed. Whilst the question wasbeing discussed he was seized with an attack of agonisingpain, followed by symptoms of entire collapse, and hewas thought to be beyond the reach of human aid. He

unexpectedly rallied, however, and after a few weeks thequestion of surgical interference again arose. He was nowsallow, not quite jaundiced, had lost much flesh, the liver wasenlarged, there was fulness but no defined tumour, rather asense of matting of organs over the region of the left lobeof the liver and the sulcus ; there was laterally some exten-sion upwards from the liver dulness. The kidneys werenot quite sound. It was concluded on carefully reviewingthe whole case that there was probably an abscessbehind the liver from rupture of the gall-bladder. But so

remarkably slight was the pain, even on firm palpation overthe liver, that it was difficult to persuade the familyattendant to accept the diagnosis. And indeed one couldbut admit that there was much uncertainty in the case.But an exploration was decided upon and a large abscesswas found, for the draining of which a tube was necessaryextending from the front opening to a second posterioropening. The abscess contained over a hundred gall-stonesof various sizes. The patient made a good recovery. Theabsence of tenderness on pressure here was a grave draw-back in diagnosis, which if yielded to would have resultedin the death of the patient. An experience of many casesof appendix disease will serve to illustrate the slightsensitiveness of the deep abdominal parts under conditionsof grave and dangerous lesions.

I should like, lastly, to allude to some comparativelyrecent anatomical researches upon the heart which have avery important bearing upon the physiology of its functions,and which must greatly influence our views of certaincardiac diseases and arrhythmias. The heart muscle hasan intrinsic power of rhythmic contraction, a survivalof its original plasmic and later of its simple tubular

construction; and here again is an instance, I take it,of what it is a part of my thesis to insist upon ; the import-ance in medicine of the recognition of that protoplasmic basisof our organism which, thrust aside by developmentalreplacements, is yet never entirely exhausted. Do we notfrom conception to birth pass, with the rapidity compar-able to a midnight dream, through the plasmic transforma-tion of countless years which sum up our organicdevelopment. And the man at maturity may well forgetthe far off facts of his ancestry which were so brieflyand darkly epitomised in his intra-uterine life. The

rhythmic contraction of the heart proceeds along thecirculatory tube from the auricle to the ventricle. Gaskellin 1883 first showed that the contraction wave travelled fromthe auricle to the ventricle through muscular continuity.Stanley. Kent in 1893 demonstrated in the septum a definitecommunication between auricles and ventricles, but Hisactually discovered the auriculo-ventricular bundle of fibresthat goes by his name. Purkinj6 had in 1845 demonstrateda network of peculiar grey, flat, gelatinous-looking fibresunder the endocardium of the sheep and found that theyconsisted of large nucleated cells in bundles separated hereand there by striated muscular fibres. These go by the nameof Purkinjé’s fibres, and Kölliker in 1852 showed that theywere superficially striated and were of modified muscularnature. Tawara, a Japanese physician, has, amongst others,recently collated these observations and has shown that thefilaments of Purkinjé are the terminal ramifications ofthe auriculo-ventricular bundle of His and serve as a

specialised musculature, connecting up the auricles andventricles and responsible for the due convsyance of the con-tractile wave from the one to the other. Indeed, there seemsreason to think that this bundle is responsible for initiatingthe impulses to contraction. This auriculo-ventricular con-necting system is best seen in the sheep and calf but can bedemonstrated in the human heart and in that of all mammals.It commences as a plexus (Knoten) of fibres immediatelybelow the coronary sinus as seen in these diagrams 3 andhere merges above in the auricular musculature. Extendingdownward as a well-defined bundle it divides above the ventri.cular septum into two branches, one of which passes down andis distributed to the right ventricle and papillary musclesand the other passes through an almost cartilaginous orificeto the left side of the septum to be similarly distributed tothe left ventricle. The distribution is subendocardial andthere is this important peculiarity, according to ProfessorTawara and accepted by Professor Aschoff in a valuablepreface to his work-viz., that the bundle remains isolatedand does not branch until it reaches near the tip of theventricle where it distributes branches to the papillarymuscles and spreads over the whole ventricle from apex tobase. The inference is that rhythmic impulses starting atthe" Knoten" spread through the auricle, then pass downthe longer paths to the apex of the ventricle, thence aredistributed, first to the mitral and tricuspid papillary bundlesstarting the closure of these valves and, a fraction of a secondlater, the contraction of the ventricles generally.

It would be premature to enlarge upon the application ofthese new observations to the diagnosis and treatment ofcardiac disease. It seems safe, however, to conclude thatthis bundle of His, which sends ramifications holding in com-munication the whole of the heart musculature, is a more

primordial form of muscle in which the rhythmic impulsescommence normally at the "Knoten "4 as a starting point(but abnormally at other points) and spread to other partscoordinating the rhythmic action of the heart. The observa-tions give a new precision-much wanted-to our apprecia-tion of irregularities of the heart from degeneration, myo-carditis, and poison influences of tobacco and alcohol; andeven now the clinical and pathological researches of Dr.James Mackenzie and Dr. Keith have gone far to explain themechanism of intermittent heart’s action, bradycardia, Stokes-Adams disease, and to suggest an explanation of syncopalangina. One must be very modest in drawing inferencesfrom splendid work in which one has had no concern, butundoubtedly we have the promise from it of a new and dis-criminating significance in the application of the term

myocarditis, which has been somewhat loosely used to coverthe pathology of most disorders of the heart that are notvalvular.

3 See Dr. A. Keith and Mr. M. W. Flack’s able paper in THE LANCET,August 11th, 1906, p. 359; also Tawara’s elaborate photographs anddrawings in his work, Das Reizleitungssystem des Saugetierherzens,1906. Some dissections by Dr. R. A. Young and Professor P. Thompsonwere also shown.

4 Keith and Flack would place the node of departure at a higherlevel, that of the superior cava.5 The Quarterly Journal of Medicine, vol. i., No. 1, October, 1907, p. 39.

NATIONAL HOSPITAL FOR THE PARALYSED ANDEPILEPTIC (ALBANY MEMORIAL).-At a meeting ofgovernors and members of this charity to be held at

Queen-square, Bloomsbury, London, W.O., on Nov. 19th, at4.30 P.M.. H.R.H. the Duchess of Albany will be presentand an announcement will be made in respect of the jubileeof the hospital which will occur in 1909.