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An Analysis of Errors in Arabic Speakers’ English Writings
Nada AbiSamra
(Email me if you have any comments or questions)
American University of Beirut Instructor: Dr. Kassim Shaaban Second Language Acquisition
English 345 January 2003
Click here to get it as a Word Document
(Original Form)
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Table of Contents
A. Introduction:
1. Importance of communication 2. Communicative competence 3. Oral & Written communication 4. Emphasis on written communication, the more difficult component 5. Native Speakers of English vs. Non-Native Speakers (Arabic speakers) 6. Mistake vs. Error => self-correctability factor 7. Rationale of study: Problems relating to the teaching of English as a First language to Arabic speakers are understudied. 8. Aim of paper: Attempt to identify, describe, categorize, and diagnose Arabic speakers’ errors in English essay writing + suggest some solutions. 9. Research Question: Is negative L1 transfer/interference the major cause for errors in the English writings of Brevet students?
B. Theoretical Background:
1. Error Analysis 2. Models for Error Analysis 3. Sources of Errors
C. Procedures:1. Error/Data Collection 2. Error Identification and Categorization & Taxonomy Adopted
D. ResultsE. ImplicationsF. Limitations & Suggestions for future researchG. ConclusionH. ReferencesI. Appendixes:
1. General List of Abbreviations2. School mission statement (soon)3. Student Survey4. Arabic: General Language Characteristics5. ESL Tip Sheet 1: Arabic (Sofer & Raimes, 2002)6. Table 1: Error Categories & Sources + Abbreviations7. Table 2: Categorizing & Diagnosing Errors8. Table 3: Categorizing & Diagnosing Errors- Interlingual / Transfer Errors9. Table 4: Categorizing & Diagnosing Errors- Intralingual / Dev. errors10. Table 5: Error Sources & Numbers Compared11. Oral & Written Presentations: Guidelines & Expectations12. Error Analysis Exercises & Objective Tests for Remediation
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Introduction
“My purpose in being Part in the goverment is Change. I want to change the world. Change in the means of War, Freedom, and equalness. Also as being part of the government, One should have self-confidence, can stand-up for self, and others, and at the same time have a degree in a great proffession.Then How am I working now, I’am participation in every activity Possible, that has to do with improving our community today. On top of that, I always keep in mind that to work hard, and keep my self on the right track.”
Written by a Brevet student. December 2002
Communication, "a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a
common system of symbols, signs, or behavior" (Merriam-Webster Online, 2003), is at the heart
of all human interactions; it is the basis of life.
No one can live alone. By the word "live" I do not just mean "survive" or "subsist", but "have a
life rich in experience" (Merriam-Webster Online, 2003). "Communicative competence involves
communicating in accordance with that fundamental system of rules that adult subjects master to
the extent that they can fulfill the conditions for a happy employment of sentences in utterances"
(Habermas, 1979). As we all know, we communicate orally and/or in writing. Our focus in this
paper is on the written part. "In spoken conversations with others, we make sense of the dialogue
in a complex back-and-forth process of negotiation of meaning between speakers. In written
texts, this back-and-forth negotiation is not possible; there is only 'one passÃ.' The sentence is
written and it is read. Because there is no possibility of negotiating meaning of written
documents, the inevitable problems of misunderstandings are exacerbated" (Penman, 1998).
Hence, we can say that writing is an “intricate” and complex task; it is the “most difficult of the
language abilities to acquire” (Allen & Corder, 1974, p. 177). Its level of difficulty varies
between native speakers (NS) who think in the language used (in our case it will be English) and
non-native speakers (NNS) who think in their own native language (in this case it will be
Arabic). While writing, non-native speakers have, in general, to think about all those rules they
need to apply, rules that native speakers are supposed to have automatized. Therefore, non-native
speakers are more prone to making mistakes and/or committing errors.
It is essential here to make a distinction between mistake and error; both Corder (1967, 1971)
and James (1998) reveal a criterion that helps us to do so: it is the self-correctability criterion. A
mistake can be self-corrected, but an error cannot. Errors are “systematic,” i.e. likely to occur
repeatedly and not recognized by the learner. Hence, only the teacher or researcher would locate
them, the learner wouldn’t (Gass & Selinker, 1994). And it is in this light that I choose to focus
on students’ errors not mistakes.
As an English teacher, I am well aware of the fact that my Arabic speaking students in grade 9,
brevet section, commit a lot of errors in essay writing. You can tell from the quotation with
which I begin this paper. These students have been studying English their whole lives and still,
their errors are numerous. Hence, I have decided to conduct an error analysis--the best tool for
describing and explaining errors made by speakers of other languages (Johanson, 1975) -- in
order to know the sources of these errors and the reasons behind their continued occurrence year
after year with different groups of learners. I need to familiarize myself with the types of errors
that my students make in order to determine the sequence and emphasis of instruction.
“Very surprisingly there are few published descriptions of how or what children learn. (There... is)
little about what mistakes the children made and how these can be explained, or what generalizations
and learning strategies the children seem to be developing” (Richards, 1974, p. 181).
After having reviewed the literature, I noticed that no study had been done (that I knew of, at
least!) which involves Arabic speaking students who have been studying English since nursery;
students who are studying English integratively, as a FIRST language. However, it is essential
here to mention the fact that the language these students speak at home is mainly Arabic, not
English (see appendix 3); hence, we can venture to say that they are ESL students, however
immersed in English they might be at school.
“To use two languages familiarly and without contaminating one by the other, is very difficult,” said
Samuel Johnson in 1761.
Can this fact account for our problems? Is my students’ native language (L1) “contaminating”
their English (L2)? If this were to be true, then we could say that the reason behind all those
errors is Negative L1 transfer/Mother Tongue interference. And the best way to discover such a
transfer is through error analysis (Sridhar, 1980). However, can transfer alone justify all the
errors made?
Our research question is then:
“Is negative L1 transfer/interference the major cause for errors in the
English writings of Brevet students?”
This paper will attempt to do the following:
1. Provide a theoretical background for: a) Error Analysis, b) Models for Error Analysis, &
c) Sources of Errors. (It will also examine related terms such as interlingual errors,
negative L1 transfer/interference, interlanguage, and intralingual errors);
2. Identify, describe, categorize, and diagnose Arabic speakers’ errors in English essay
writing in order to find the sources of those errors and a way for remediation;
3. Cover the implications of the findings for teaching ESL/English to Arabic speaking
students; and, finally,
4. Discuss the limitations of this study and propose future areas of research.
Theoretical Background
Error Analysis
Systematically analyzing errors made by language learners makes it possible to determine areas that
need reinforcement in teaching (Corder, 1974).
Error analysis is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make. It consists
of a comparison between the errors made in the Target Language (TL) and that TL itself. Pit
Corder is the “Father” of Error Analysis (the EA with the “new look”). It was with his article
entitled “The significance of Learner Errors” (1967) that EA took a new turn. Errors used to be
“flaws” that needed to be eradicated. Corder presented a completely different point of view. He
contended that those errors are “important in and of themselves.” For learners themselves, errors
are 'indispensable,' since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in
order to learn. In 1994, Gass & Selinker defined errors as “red flags” that provide evidence of the
learner’s knowledge of the second language. Researchers are interested in errors because they are
believed to contain valuable information on the strategies that people use to acquire a language
(Richards, 1974; Taylor, 1975; Dulay and Burt, 1974). Moreover, according to Richards and
Sampson (1974, p. 15), “At the level of pragmatic classroom experience, error analysis will
continue to provide one means by which the teacher assesses learning and teaching and
determines priorities for future effort.” According to Corder (1974), error analysis has two
objects: one theoretical and another applied. The theoretical object serves to “elucidate what and
how a learner learns when he studies a second language.” And the applied object serves to enable
the learner “to learn more efficiently by exploiting our knowledge of his dialect for pedagogical
purposes.”
The investigation of errors can be at the same time diagnostic and prognostic. It is diagnostic
because it can tell us the learner's state of the language (Corder, 1967) at a given point during the
learning process, and prognostic because it can tell course organizers to reorient language
learning materials on the basis of the learners' current problems.
Before we proceed, it is essential here to define a few terms that we shall use in this paper:
Interlingual/Transfer errors: those attributed to the native language (NL). There are
interlingual errors when the learner’s L1 habits (patterns, systems or rules) interfere or
prevent him/her, to some extent, from acquiring the patterns and rules of the second language
(Corder, 1971). Interference (negative transfer) is the negative influence of the mother
language (L1) on the performance of the target language learner (L2) (Lado, 1964). It is
'those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of
bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language' (Weinreich, 1953, p.1).
Error analysis emphasizes “the significance of errors in learners’ interlanguage system”
(Brown 1994, p. 204). The term interlanguage, introduced by Selinker (1972), refers to the
systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both the learner’s L1 and the target
language. Nemser (1974, p. 55) referred to it as the Approximate System, and Corder (1967)
as the Idiosyncratic Dialect or Transitional Competence.
Intralingual/Developmental errors: those due to the language being learned (TL),
independent of the native language. According to Richards (1970) they are “items produced
by the learner which reflect not the structure of the mother tongue, but generalizations based
on partial exposure to the target language. The learner, in this case, tries to “derive the rules
behind the data to which he/she has been exposed, and may develop hypotheses that
correspond neither to the mother tongue nor to the target language” (Richards, 1970, p. 6).
Models for Error Analysis
Corder (1967 & 1974) identified a model for error analysis which included three stages:
1. Data collection: Recognition of idiosyncracy
2. Description: Accounting for idiosyncratic dialect
3. Explanation (the ultimate object of error analysis).
Brown (1994, pp. 207-211) and Ellis (1995, pp. 51-52) elaborated on this model. Ellis (1997, pp.
15-20) and Hubbard et al. (1996, pp. 135-141) gave practical advice and provided clear examples
of how to identify and analyze learners’ errors. The initial step requires the selection of a
corpus of language followed by the identification of errors. The errors are then classified. The
next step, after giving a grammatical analysis of each error, demands an explanation of different
types of errors.
Moreover, Gass & Selinker (1994, p. 67) identified 6 steps followed in conducting an error
analysis: Collecting data, Identifying errors, Classifying errors, Quantifying errors, Analyzing
source of error, and Remediating for errors.
Sources of Errors
In 1972, Selinker (in Richards, 1974, p. 37) reported five sources of errors:
1. Language transfer
2. Transfer of training
3. Strategies of second language learning
4. Strategies of second language communication, and
5. Overgeneralization of TL linguistic material.
In 1974 Corder (in Allen & Corder, p. 130) identified three sources of errors: Language Transfer,
Overgeneralization or analogy, & Methods or Materials used in the Teaching (teaching-induced
error).
In the paper titled “The Study of Learner English” that Richards and Simpson wrote in 1974,
they exposed seven sources of errors:
1. Language transfer , to which one third of the deviant sentences from second language
learners could be attributed (George, 1971).
2. Intralingual interference : In 1970, Richards exposed four types and causes for intralingual
errors:
a. overgeneralization (p. 174): it is associated with redundancy reduction. It covers
instances where the learner creates a deviant structure on the basis of his
experience of other structures in the target language. It may be the result of the
learner reducing his linguistic burden.
b. ignorance of rule restrictions: i.e. applying rules to contexts to which they do not
apply.
c. incomplete application of rules
d. semantic errors such as building false concepts/systems: i.e. faulty comprehension
of distinctions in the TL.
3. Sociolinguistic situation: motivation (instrumental or integrative) and settings for
language learning (compound or co-ordinate bilingualism) may affect second language
learning.
4. Modality: modality of exposure to the TL and modality of production.
5. Age : learning capacities vary with age.
6. Successions of approximative systems: since the circumstances of language learning
vary from a person to another, so does the acquisition of new lexical, phonological, and
syntactic items.
7. Universal hierarchy of difficulty : this factor has received little attention in the literature
of 2nd language acquisition. It is concerned with the inherent difficulty for man of certain
phonological, syntactic, or semantic items or structures. Some forms may be inherently
difficult to learn no matter what the background of the learner.
James (1998, p. 178) exposed three main diagnosis-based categories of error:
1. Interlingual: interference happens when “an item or structure in the second language
manifests some degree of difference from, and some degree of similarity with the
equivalent item or structure in the learner’s first language” (Jackson, 1987: 101).
2. Intralingual:
a. Learning strategy-based errors:
i. false analogy
ii. misanalysis
iii. incomplete rule application
iv. exploiting redundancy
v. overlooking cooccurrence restrictions
vi. hypercorrection (monitor overuse)
vii. overgeneralization or system simplification
b. Communication strategy-based errors:
i. holistic strategies: e.g. approximation, language switch, calque
ii. analytic strategies: circumlocution (expressing the concept indirectly,
by allusion rather than by direct reference.
3. Induced errors: they “result more from the classroom situation than from either the
student’s incomplete competence in English grammar (intralingual errors) or first
language interference (interlingual errors) (Stenson, 1983, p. 256):
a. Material induced errors
b. Teacher-talk induced errors
c. Exercise-based induced errors
d. Errors induced by pedagogical priorities
e. Look-up errors
According to Dulay & Burt (1974), there are four types of “goofs”:
1. Interference-like goofs
2. L1 Developmental goofs
3. Ambiguous goofs (either interference-like or L1 developmental goofs)
4. Unique goofs (neither interference-like nor L1 developmental goofs)
The studies relating to the process of language transfer and overgeneralization received
considerable attention in the literature. Swan and Smith (1995, p. ix) gave a detailed account of
errors made by speakers of nineteen different L1 backgrounds in relation to their native
languages. Diab (1996) also conducted a study in order to show through error analysis the
interference of the mother-tongue, Arabic, in the English writings of EFL students at the
American University of Beirut. Okuma (1999) studied the L1 transfer in the EFL writings of
Japanese students.
Work on over-generalization errors, on the other hand, is reported by Richards (1974, pp. 174-
188), Jain (in Richards, 1974, pp. 208-214) and Taylor (1975). Furthermore, Farooq (1998)
identified and analyzed two error patterns in written texts of upper-basic Japanese learners, in an
EFL context. He focused on both transfer and overgeneralization errors. Habash (1982) studied
common errors in the use of English prepositions in the written work of UNRWA students at the
end of the preparatory cycle in the Jerusalem area and found out that more errors were
attributable to interference from Arabic than to other learning problems.
All these studies focused on Transfer &/or Overgeneralization errors, however, none of them
dealt with “ESL” students who have been studying English as a First Language. The reason why
I called them ESL students is that, at home, they speak mainly Arabic.
Procedures
1- Error/Data Collection:
For the selection of a corpus of language, following the guidelines offered by Ellis
(1995, pp. 51-52), a sample of written work was collected from 10 students. Those students are
in grade 9, Brevet section (cf. appendix 2). They have been studying English since nursery (cf.
appendix 3), and have been taught English mainly by American & Canadian teachers. However,
there is a point that needs to be mentioned here, and it is the fact that most of them speak Arabic
at home with their parents and at school with their friends. (cf. appendix 3).
These students were provided with the topic ‘What are your plans for the future?’ and were
asked to write on it in 200 to 250 words. They were given sufficient time to write (Ellis 1997, p.
114). They had to start with an outline, then a first draft and a final draft. This was their mid-term
examination at school, in December 2003.
2- Error Identification & Categorization:
As a first step, we developed, based on the literature (Corder, 1974; Richards, 1974; James,
1998; Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974; Richards & Sampson, 1974), a Taxonomy for Error
Analysis including the following categories and sub-categories: grammatical (prepositions,
articles, reported speech, singular/plural, adjectives, relative clauses, irregular verbs, tenses, and
possessive case), syntactic (coordination, sentence structure, nouns and pronouns, and word
order), lexical (word choice), semantic, & substance (mechanics: punctuation & capitalization,
and spelling). As for the organizational/discourse errors, we shall mention them but will not
quantify them since, first, it is difficult to do so, and, second, we had trained our students, prior
to the exam, to write a well-organized essay (thesis statement, restatement of the thesis, and the
use of transition words).
After setting the categories, we chose, also based on the literature, the error sources that we
wanted to study, and they are mainly Interlingual (negative L1 Transfer) & Intralingual
(Developmental).
Please refer to table # 1 in the appendix for further details.
So, the errors were explained in grammatical terms, and thoroughly examined to find their
sources, paying particular attention to negative L1 transfer, since we needed to address our
research question: “Is negative L1 transfer/interference the major cause for errors in the English
writings of Brevet students?” Being myself a native Arabic speaker holding a master’s degree in
translation (from/to Arabic, French, & English) and based on the literature (refer to appendix 5),
I was able to perceive and pinpoint the errors due to L1 (Arabic) Transfer. (However, we should
not forget that some errors are caused by interference from standard Arabic and others by
interference from colloquial Arabic.)
In addition, since I have been teaching English as a second language for over 12 years, and since
I have finished the coursework for my second master’s in Teaching English as a Foreign/Second
Language, I was able to detect the developmental errors in my students’ essays, and these are
listed in detail in table # 2 in the appendix.
Results:
The total number of errors that we found in the 10 essays we studied was 214. Here they are, in
the graph below, divided according to the different categories:
29 grammatical, 35 syntactic, 26 lexical, 3 semantic, and 120 substance (mechanics & spelling)
errors.
Graph number 2 shows the percentage of Transfer vs. Developmental errors for each category.
The total percentage of Transfer/Interlingual errors was 35.9%, whereas the total percentage of
Developmental/Intralingual errors was 64.1%. Based on this graph we can tell that the highest
percentage of Transfer errors was in Semantics & Lexis, respectively 100% & 73% (refer to
table 3 in the appendix). As for the highest percentage of Developmental errors, it was, by far, in
Substance (mainly spelling; refer to table 4 in the appendix).
Graph number 3 shows the number of Transfer vs. Developmental errors for each category. The
total number of Transfer/Interlingual errors was 77, whereas the total number of
Developmental/Intralingual errors was 137.
Based on these findings we can tell that Brevet students do commit errors because of
Negative L1 transfer, however, their biggest number of errors is due to
Developmental/Intralingual reasons.
Examples of Negative L1 transfer Errors: (table # 3 in the appendix)
1. Grammatical errors:
A. I would like to follow in my father’s footsteps. ( أبي خطى (على
Prepositions pose a great difficulty for an ESL learner since there are various prepositions in
English that have the same function. As a result, when students are not sure which preposition to
use in a certain sentence, they often compare that sentence with its Arabic equivalence, giving a
literal translation of that Arabic preposition in English. However, "prepositions seldom have a
one to one correspondence between English and Arabic. An Arabic preposition may be
translated by several English prepositions while an English usage may have several Arabic
translations" (Scott and Tucker, 1974, p. 85).
B. Evil is▼ force that can enter a person’s soul and conquer it. ( قوة omission of <= (الشر
the article in Arabic (refer to appendix 5)
C. When the evil comes ( الشر عندما يأتي => use of article in Arabic)
In English, abstract words referring to ideas, attributes, or qualities are used without the article
'the' to refer to that idea or attribute, etc. which belongs to everybody or everything. In Arabic,
however, such abstract words are preceded by a definite article equivalent to 'the' in English.
Hence, errors pertaining to the misuse of the article 'the' occur (Diab, 1996).
D. I wonder what god has written for me, what’s my destiny?
( مصيري هو ما (أتساءل
E. Calling others kids to come ( اآلخرين األوالد (مناداة
“In Arabic, adjectives agree in number with the nouns they modify. As a result, agreement
errors of this type occur in the English writings of Lebanese students” (Diab, 1996).
2. Syntactic errors:
A. For, them not to hate me they need to respect me and realize how much I love them and
how hard I work for them. (repetition of “wa”)
“In English, items in a series are separated by commas, and the coordinate conjunction 'and' is
used just before the last word. On the other hand, in Arabic, each item in a series is preceded by
the conjunction 'wa' which is equivalent to 'and'” (Diab, 1996).
B. I have learned a lesson in my life, that you should never ever give up ( في درسا تعلمت
وهو ، تي (... حيا
C. What I want to be? ( ؟ أكون أن أريد ( ما
D. I have a lot of people in my family that are computer engineers. (colloquial Arabic)
E. That, I have been doing since a long time ago. ( طويل وقت (منذ
F. ...most people when they grow up ( يكبرون الناسحين (also colloquial) (... معظم
In Arabic, personal pronouns are often added to verbs.
3. Lexical Errors:
A. If I hit an animal it would loose trust in me and stay on irritating me while curing it.
(colloquial)
B. Some animals are nice pets to have, when they have the right health and medications. (
الجيدة ( الصحة
C. They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any strong disease
stricked them. (حولهم)
D. They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any strong disease
stricked them. ( شديد ( مرض
E. Animals are usually very afraid of high sounds. ( عالية ( أصوات
F. For me acheiving these goals makes me happy. ( لي (... بالنسبة
G. How ever each person must succeed to his ability. ( قدرته (حسب
H. You never know what god has installed for you. ( لك ( وضع
I. For me to be counted as a one of a kind mother I need to take ( Jعد (... أ
J. In my free time I will practice on improving my basketball fundamentals.( على ( أتمرن
4. Semantic Errors: (Literal translation)
a. When I secure a job my goal is to become partner and have a quarter office.
عمال أؤمن عندما
b. By accomplishing these plans I will insure myself an outstanding life.
لنفسي أؤمن
c. Architecture works my brain. عقلي ((تشغل
5. Substance (Mechanics + Spelling):
A. Punctuation
i. However▼evil has its shapes and forms. ( الشر (...لكن
ii. As a result, I intend to get a good education, and job, which will allow me to
raise a family in a suitable enviroment. عمآل و
iii. Obtaining a good job will be a crucial part of my life for various reasons.
One of which, is that it enables me to have a stable income.
iv. It is known to be, that a person would be more appreaciated, and treated
better▼ if he were an educated individual than a failure. ( أن المعروف (...من
v. Personally▼ I beleive that you can never be sure. ( أظن (...شخصيا
vi. When I get to university▼ I will try my best to get high honors in
architecture. ( ل جهدي سأبذل الجامعة أدخل (... حين
B. Capitalization (No capital letters in Arabic)
i. last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot I have to make sure that I
am giving it in the right place.
ii. Afterwards I want to get a university level education in the united states.
iii. Next I move to wall street.
iv. arabs
Lack of capitalization in the Arabic alphabet and very different punctuation conventions.
No distinction is made between upper and lower case (Sofer & Raimes, 2002).
Examples of Interlingual / Transfer Errors: (Please refer to table # 4 in the appendix where all the errors are transcribed) I would just like to mention here the problem of spelling. It has nothing to do with L1 transfer
since Arabic is extremely different from English.
“The general question of how bad or good English children are at spelling was investigated by the National
Foundation for Educational Research (Brooks et al, 1993), who looked at essays written by 1492 secondary
school children in England at the two ages of 11 and 15. One measure was how many mistakes children made
in the first ten lines of an essay. At the age of 11, only two children out of ten had no mistakes; two out of ten
had five or more. By 15, four children out of ten had no mistakes; one out of ten had five or more. To quote
the report, 'A good deal of improvement occurs between the ages of 11 and 15. However, even by age 15 there
is still a minority of pupils who have relatively severe problems with spelling, to the extent that their ability to
communicate in writing is seriously handicapped.'
The NFER research classified spelling mistakes into five major categories:- -
- insertion of extra letters, such as the <l> added to 'untill';
- omission of letters, such as the <r> missing from 'occuring';
- substitution of different letters, such as <a> instead of <i> in 'definate';
- transposition of two letters, such as <ei> for <ie> in 'freind';
- grapheme substitution involving more than two letters but only a single cause, for example when an
equivalent according to sound correspondence rules is substituted for the usual form, as in 'thort' for
'thought'” (Cook, 2002).
Hence, we can say that our students are not the only ones to make so many spelling mistakes.
However, this does not mean that we should not train them to write properly.
Implications:
“We cannot really teach language, we can only create conditionsin which it will develop spontaneously in the mind in its own way”
Von Humboldt (Corder, 1967).
Brevet students are, according to this study, facing two kinds of problems in essay writing:
Translation from Arabic, their mother tongue & Incomplete learning of essay writing rules and
conventions. What should we, teachers, do then?
First, it would be very useful to increase the number of assignments for the sake of which the
students would have to do a lot of research during their free time, hence they would be reading a
lot of English material and thinking in English, especially if they have to make oral presentations
for their work. (cf. appendix 11 for “Oral & Written Presentations: Guidelines & Expectations”).
In addition, if we implement Team Work in class (http://nadabs.tripod.com/team.html --there are
some useful guidelines on this site) and we get the students to work in groups on their projects,
they would have to practice together for their oral presentations, and speak English with each
other instead of Arabic. Besides, they would, hopefully, correct each other’s mistakes.
As for the writing rules and conventions, these need to be “enforced” much earlier. All teachers
(from grade 1 and on) would need to get together in order to try to solve this problem. In the
meantime, I can suggest a few error analysis exercises and objective tests (Appendix 12) that
would help the students be more accurate, but still, nothing can replace Essay Writing itself in
order to improve writing. The aforementioned project/presentation assignments are good, but
they are not enough. The students need to write in class, at home, in their journals... They need to
be given some well defined Essay Writing Rules (for the thesis statement, introduction,
conclusion, transition words, etc...), and some samples of their writings need to be transcribed
and distributed to them for correction and analysis: they would be learning from their mistakes!
In brief, we definitely have to adapt ourselves and our curriculum to their needs.
Limitations & Suggestions for Further studies
“We should be aware that different types of written material may produce a different distribution of
error or a different set of error types” (Corder, 1974, p. 126).
“The recognition of error ... depends crucially upon the analyst making a correct interpretation of
the learner’s intended meaning of the context” (Corder, 1974, p. 127).
“It has already been noted that learners often appear inconsistent in their production of errors”
(Corder, 1974, p. 131).
We need to keep all these facts in mind when conducting an error analysis and reaching
conclusions on which we would base all our teaching. Besides, this study was conducted on a
small number of students, and also on a very limited number of essays. Therefore, the
conclusions reached are far from being decisive.
We consider this study a preliminary one that just “gives an idea” of those brevet students’
sources of errors. It should set the pace for other studies which would be much more
comprehensive, covering a bigger number of students and a wider range of materials; we
hope to be able to conduct one ourselves in the near future.
Conclusion:
“Humans are prone not only to commit language errors themselves but also to err in their judgements of
those errors committed by others”
(James, 1998, p. 204).
We need to be careful when conducting an error analysis study.
This study attempted to identify, describe, categorize, and diagnose the errors in English essay
writing of the Arabic speaking Brevet students. Just as George (1972), Lance (1969), Richards
(1971), and Brudhiprabha (1972) found that only one-third of the second language learner’s
errors can be attributed to NL language transfer, this is what this study came up with. Most of
the errors are caused by an overapplication of L2. We do need to incite our students to speak
English at home and with their friends in order to reduce the number of mistakes due to Negative
L1 transfer, but we also need to try to teach more effectively the rules and conventions of
writing.
However, when trying to solve these problems, we need to bear in mind that
“L2 users’ knowledge of a second language is not the same as that of native speakers even at advanced levels. L2 users’ knowledge of their first language (L1) is not the same as that of monolingual native speakers. L2 users think in different ways to monolinguals. ... Trying to get students to be like native speakers is ineffective; their minds and their knowledge of language will inevitably be different. The benefits of learning a second language are becoming a different kind of person, not just adding another language. The main obstacle to setting the successful L2 user as the goal is the belief that the native speaker speaks the true form of English. This implies the comparison of one group with another: the language of non-natives has always to be compared with that of natives; anything that deviates is wrong. For other areas of language study, William Labov established that it is discrimination to treat one group in terms of another group that they can never belong to, whether women as men, black Americans as white Americans, or working-class as middle-class. People must be allowed to be what they are when this is an unchangeable effect of birth or of early up-bringing. An appropriate goal for many students is then using the L2 competently for their own purposes and in their own ways, which may very well not be the same as those of a monolingual native speaker and indeed may not involve native speakers at all. Students can become successful L2 users rather than forever ‘failing’ the native speaker target” (Cook, 1999).
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Additional References: Web Pages
Athabasca University- Canada- Distance learning education
http://www.athabascau.ca/
Athabasca University- Canada
Distance learning education- English language support- If English is not Your First Language
http://www.athabascau.ca/courses/engl/155/support/if_english_is_not_your_first_language.htm
Cairo Demographic Center
http://www.cdc.eun.eg/en.htm
Egyptian Demographic Center, 2000
http://www.frcu.eun.eg/www/homepage/cdc/cdc.htm
English-Arabic Translation Guidelines for Nominal Compounds
by Zouhair Maalej- University of Tunis I- Tunisia
http://simsim.rug.ac.be/Zmaalej/syncom.html
Learning the English writing system 15-Oct-02
Vivian Cook
http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~vcook/EWSChap5.htm
Modern and Classical Languages- 1997
State of Maine Learning Results
http://www.state.me.us/education/lres/mcl.pdf
On Arabic-English Cross-Language Information Retrieval: A Machine Translation Approach
Mohammed Aljlayl, Ophir Frieder, & David Grossman
Information Retrieval Laboratory- Illinois Institute of Technology
http://www.ir.iit.edu/publications/downloads/073_aljlayl_m.pdf
Problems in Learning English
http://www.culturalorientation.net/iraqi/ienglish.html
Research on secondary schools and literacy
http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/Research/secondaryindex.html
The Punctuation Project Home Page
Directors: Nigel Hall and Anne Robinson
http://www.partnership.mmu.ac.uk/punctuation/punctuation.html
Transfer/Cross-linguistic influence
Cathy Benson- ELT Journal Volume 56/1 January 2002 © Oxford University Press
http://www3.oup.co.uk/eltj/hdb/Volume_56/ Issue_01/freepdf/560068.pdf
What is the Role of Transfer in Interlanguage? Powell, G.
Centre for Research in Language Education (CRILE)
Department of Linguistics and Modern English Language
LAMEL- Lancaster university- UK
http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/groups/crile/crile33Powell.pdf
http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/groups/crile/workingpapers.htm
________________________________________________________________________
APPENDIXES
________________________________________________________________________
Appendix 1: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1. Amb : Ambiguous
2. Av : Avoidance
3. BL : Blend
4. CAss : Cross-association
5. Cl : Clarity
6. Cohr : Coherence
7. Cohs : Cohesion
8. Conf : Confusable
9. DC : Deceptive cognate
10. Dev: Developmental
11. Devt : Development
12. Dist : Distortion
13. Dys : Dyslexic error
14. EFL: English as a Foreign Language.
15. EL: English Language.
16. ELT: English Language Teaching.
17. ESL: English as a Second Language.
18. FA: False Analogy
19. FC: False concepts/systems
20. FF : False friend
21. IE: Induced errors
22. Ign: Ignorance
23. IncompR/: Incomplete application of rule
24. InterL: Interlingual
25. IntraL: Intralingual
26. Inv : Inversion
27. L1: First Language (i.e. Arabic).
28. L1T : Native language transfer
29. L2: Second Language (i.e. English).
30. LS : Letter shape
31. Mat : Material induced error
32. Misord : Misordering
33. Missel : Misselection
34. Mor: Morphology
35. MT: Mother Tongue.
36. MTI: Mother Tongue Interference (i.e. native language which Includes both colloquial and
standard Arabic).
37. NL : Native language
38. OG: Over-generalization
39. OLP: Other Language Learning Problems.
40. Om : Omission
41. Orig : Originality
42. PhNM : Phonetic near-misses
43. Phono: Phonological
44. Rel : Relevance
45. SdSp : Sound spelling
46. SpConv : Spelling conventions
47. TE : Teacher explanation
48. TL : Target language
49. Typo : Typographic
50. UG: Under-generalization
51. UL : Unnecessary letter
52. Un : Unique
Appendix 2: School Mission Statement
To come soon
Appendix 3: Student Survey
When asked the question “How long have you been at this school?” 9 of the 10 students
whose essays were studied answered “Since nursery.” The remaining student answered
“since grade 2.”
When asked the question “Which language do you speak the most at home?” most of the
students answered “Arabic.” They do speak some English, but very little.
When asked the question “Which language do you speak the most with your friends?” 3
students answered “English.”
Student # Language spoken at home Language spoken with friends
1 English & Arabic Arabic
2 English & Arabic English & Arabic
3 Arabic Arabic/English
4 English & Arabic Bulgarian
5 Arabic Arabic
6 Arabic English
7 Arabic Arabic
8 Arabic Arabic
9 Arabic English
10 Arabic English
Appendix 4:
Arabic: General Language Characteristics
The Arabic language is one of the world's most widely used languages. According to Egyptian
Demographic Center (2000), it is the mother tongue of about 300 million people. Arabic is the
official language of many Arab nations in the Middle East and northern Africa, including
Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen (Sofer & Raimes, 2002 & World
Book Encyclopedia, 1997). It is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.
There are two types of Arabic, spoken and written. Spoken Arabic consists of dialects. Arabic is
the descendant of the language of the Koran, the sacred book of the Islamic religion. The
orientation of writing is from right-to left, and the Arabic alphabet consists of 28 letters. The
Arabic alphabet can be extended to ninety elements by writing additional shapes, marks, and
vowels (Tayli & Al-Salamah, 1990). Most Arabic words are morphologically derived from a list
of roots; it can be tri, quad, or pent-literal. Most of these roots are three constants. Arabic words
are classified into three main parts of speech: nouns (adjectives, and adverbs), verbs, and
particles. In formal writing, Arabic sentences are delimited by commas and periods as in English,
for instance. Many English words come from Arabic: alcohol, algebra, check, magazine, and
tariff.
Standard Arabic: is the formal language of literature and written expression.
Colloquial Arabic: is the ordinary familiar language used in everyday conversation among
Arabic speakers.
When discussing MTI from Arabic it should not be forgotten that some errors are caused by
interference from standard and others by interference from colloquial Arabic.
Appendix 5: ESL Tip Sheet 1: Arabic (Sofer & Raimes, 2002) (In green is what applies to this study)
Spoken in Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen. The written languageArabic is written from right to left.Spelling is phonetic. No distinction is made between upper and lower case. Sentence structure and word orderUnder the influence of the Qur’an (Koran), writers aim at rhythmical balance andcoordination, with the split between subject and predicate occurring midway in a sentence. Arabic favors coordination over subordination; sentences often begin with And or So. Basic word order in Classical Arabic is V-S-O: the verb precedes the subject: *Hoped the committee to solve the problem. Colloquial Arabic is S - V - O .Arabic uses a that clause where English uses infinitive: *I want that you stay. Nouns and pronounsPersonal pronouns are often added to verbs: *My father he lives in California. Relative pronoun makes no human/nonhuman distinction, and pronoun object is retained in a restrictive relative clause: *Here is the student which you met her last week. Singular noun is used after a numeral above ten: *He has eleven cousin. Verbs and verbalsNo equivalent of auxiliary do: *You have a brother? No verb be in present tense: *They going to the movies. *Where the post office? No modal verbs. No gerund or infinitive forms.Perspective of tense and time is very different from English. Past perfect is formed with be: *They were eat. Reported speech retains tense of original: *She said she is leaving. Simple present tense covers meaning of simple and progressive in English: *She working now. *She working every day. Adjectives and adverbsAdjectives follow noun: *a book interesting long. ArticlesNo indefinite article: *He is student. Definite article is used for days of the week, some months, some place names, and in many idiomatic expressions: *He went to the Peru. *He is still in the bed.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
Appendix 6- Table 1:Error Analysis: Scope of Study
Topic: What are your plans for the future?
Brevet Students || Ten 250-word essays studied
Error Categories & Sources + Abbreviations
Error Category Error Sources Error Sources / Abbreviations
Grammatical Errors A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference B- INTRALINGUAL: Developmental/ analogical errors [Corder,
1974; p. 130] or over-generalization or of TL rules (Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974) = redundancy reduction (Richards, 1974; p 175)
Ignorance of rule restrictions Incomplete application of rules = under-
generalizatione.g. nobody knew where was Barbie (Richards + James, 1998; p 185)
Building of false concepts/systems (Richards, p 174)
Morphology => 3rd pers sing “s”, “ed”, “ing” <=> Concord + Phonological error (James p 154)
False analogy => childs (James p 185) Induced errors (James p 178): from
classroom situations1. cross-association2. teacher explanation3. material induced errors
Omissions/avoidance because of ignorance (James p 176)
C- AMBIGUOUS:Both interlingual/interference and intralingual/developmental
D- UNIQUE:Neither interlingual nor intralingual <=> not in
L1 and not developmental (Richards p 115- Dulay & Burt)
InterL/L1T
IntraLDevOG
IgnIncompR/UG
FC
MorConcordPhonoFAIE
CAssTEMatOm/Av
Amb
Un
Syntactic errors
A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference B- INTRALINGUAL: (James p 157)
1. Phrase structure errors = Misselection / Misordering
2. Clause errors = Omitted, Misordered, Misselected, Blend
3. Sentence errors = Discourse <=> Coherence
4. Intersentence errors = Cohesion
InterL/L1T
IntraLMissel / Misord
OmBLCohr
Cohs
LexicalErrors(word choice)
A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference <=> False friends / Deceptive Cognates B- INTRALINGUAL/Developmental:
1. Confusables (James p. 145-147) 2. Distortions - form nonexistent in TL
(James p 150)
InterL/L1T
FF / DC
IntraL/DevConfDist
Semantic errorsINTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference
InterL/L1T
Organization (claim/thesis, transition words (TW), support, process, logical progression, flow of ideas)
+
Discourse/Process
A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference B- INTRALINGUAL / Developmental :
1. Relevance, clarity, development, originality (James p 161)
2. Coherence/content = value as a message
3. Cohesion = value as a text/product
InterL/L1T
IntraL/DevRel/Cl/DevtOrig
(Das, 1878; in James p 161)
Cohr
Cohs
Substance (Mechanics + Spelling)
A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference B- INTRALINGUAL / Developmental
InterL/L1T
IntraL/Dev Pronunciation: sound spelling,
unnecessary letters Convention of spelling: omissions,
inversion, letter shape (Corder p 138) Dyslexic errors, phonetic near-misses
(e.g. course/coarse), confusables, typographic errors (James p 130)
SdSpULSpConvOm/Inv/LSDys/ PhNM
Conf/ TypoSources: Corder, 1974; Richards, 1974; James, 1998; Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974;
Richards & Sampson, 1974.
Appendix 7- Table 2:Error Analysis: Scope of Study
Topic: What are your plans for the future?Brevet Students || Ten 250-word essays studied
Categorizing & Diagnosing Errors
“A single word may show more than one error and appear, therefore, in more than one list” (Corder, 1974, p. 132).
Error Category+ Conclusion /
InferenceError sub-category
Number of
ErrorsExamples & Error
Sources
Error Sources /
Abbreviations
Grammatical Errors 29 E14 T
A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference B- INTRALINGUAL: Developmental/over-
generalization or analogical errors [Allen & Corder, 1974; p. 130] of TL rules= redundancy reduction (Richards, 1974; p 175)
Ignorance of rule restrictions
Incomplete application of rules = under-generalizatione.g. nobody knew where was Barbie (Richards + James, 1998; p 185)
Building of false concepts/systems (Richards, p 174)
Morphology => 3rd pers sing “s”, “ed”, “ing” <=> Concord + Phonological error (James p 154)
False analogy => childs (James p 185)
Induced errors (James p 178): from classroom situations
1. cross-association
2. teacher explanation
InterL/L1T
IntraLDevOG
IgnIncR/UG
FC
MorConcord/Phono
FAIE
CAssTE
3. material induced errors
Omissions/avoidance because of ignorance (James p 176)
C- AMBIGUOUS:Both interlingual/interference and intralingual/developmental
D- UNIQUE:Neither interlingual nor
intralingual <=> not in L1 and not developmental (Richards
p 115- Dulay & Burt)
MatOm/Av
Amb
Un
Prepositions/particles
5 Errors (2 T)
I have trouble in school because▼ the lack of skills in sciences.
Getting an early start about the future can help by expanding our knowledge about our plans.
That is so because I would like to follow in my father’s footsteps.
You get a load of your chest every time you make a basket.
IntraL/Dev InterL/L1TDev InterL/L1T Dev/UG/Collocational
Articles4 E (3 T)
Evil is▼ force that can enter a person’s soul and conquer it.
My plans for the future is to become a professional basketball player, a good father, and▼ successful architect.
▼Most important thing here is that I never become a couch potato.
When the evil comes.
InterL/L1T InterL/L1T Dev/OG InterL/L1T
Reported sp. 1 E(1 T)
I wonder what god has written for me, what’s my destiny? InterL/L1T
Sing/Plural 1 E I am obsessed with
(1 T) money; it is just the way they smell.
InterL/L1T
Adjectives 2 E(2 T)
Calling others kids to come.
Many others ways. InterL/L1TInterL/L1T
Relative clauses Ø E --
Irregular verbs 1 E
They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any strong disease stricked them.
Dev/FA/Concord
Tenses (wrong tense) + omission of 3rd pers. "s"+ agreement of tenses
12 + 2 E (5 T)
What ever path a person choose.
I have planned my future a long time ago.
last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot I have to make sure that I am giving it in the right place.
They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any strong disease stricked them.
I am caring mainly because an animal doesn’t have the same mental abilities as humans do.
Without a complete and proper education, you got nothing.
My plans for the future is to become a professional basketball player, a good father, and successful architect.
Hopefully if I become a professional basketball player, I would have enough money to maintain a good life.
That, I have been
Dev/Concord Dev/Concord
InterL/L1T InterL/L1T Dev/Concord InterL/L1T Dev/Concord/OG Dev/Concord Dev/Concord/UG Amb
InterL/L1T
doing since a long time ago.
In both of the plans for my future I clearly stated, that I began working on them from the beginning of my life
Possessive case 1 E
That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers footsteps.
Dev/Concord
Syntactic errors
35 E16 T
A- INTERLINGUAL: L1 (negative) Transfer / interference B- INTRALINGUAL: (James p 157)
5. Phrase structure errors = Misselection / Misordering
6. Clause errors = Omitted, Misordered, Misselected, Blend
7. Sentence errors = Discourse <=> Coherence
8. Intersentence errors = Cohesion
InterL/L1T
IntraL
Missel / MisordOm
BLCohr
Cohs
Coordination(+ Beginning with “and” or “so”)
5 E(3 T)
For, them not to hate me they need to respect me and realize how much I love them and how hard I work for them.
All my life I’ve really enjoyed the game and played it all my life and of course it is my favorite sport.
I can’t say much here besides that playing ball gives me a good workout and I stay in shape; and architecture works my brain.
InterL/L1T InterL/L1T InterL/L1T
Sentence 27 E Animals have to be not InterL/L1T
structure (11 T) acted hard on. Consequently one must
plan his life ▼ to be successful.
A good education will help increase my self-esteem because it makes me happier, feel smarter, and feel more successful than without an education.
It is known to be, that a person would be more appreaciated, and treated better if he were an educated individual than a failure.
I have learned a lesson in my life, that you should never ever give up.
Living your life owning a beatiful mansion, and amazing cars is a relative way of my lifestyle in the future.
My essay has covered up my plans for the future: to be educated, feeling content, and having your family and your close friends stand by your side all the time. (parallelism! coherence)
When I secure a job my goal is to become partner and have a quarter office.
I have to be determined heading off to a foriegn country.
I also sacrifice a lot most of all seeing my family.
All for money and respect (fragment).
Dev/Om Missel/BL/Cohr Amb InterL/L1TCohrCohr Om/Cohr/MisselCohr BLCohrInterL/L1TCohrBL/CohrCohs/Cohr/BLInterL/L1TCohr Cohr Amb
Cohr/Missel BL/Cohr InterL/L1T Amb Cohr
This result will give me a positive attitude of authority over life.
I have many goals that I hope I will acheive.
I also have noticed something that most people when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.
I don’t just want to be a parent but a mom who is proud and deserves that position as well as an interesting lawyer.
What I want to be? My plans are for three
things: future work, future family, and sport I want to play.
I will help my children with any problems they are facing whether these problems are emotional, with friends, with a teacher, in school, etc... (parallelism!)
This image is very important, because I will be able to establish a good early start concerning my future.
The plans for my future are being a successful basketball player & to get a job as a computer engineer. (parallelism)
All my life I’ve really enjoyed the game and
InterL/L1T
InterL/L1T
InterL/L1T
played it all my life and of course it is my favorite sport.
I have a lot of people in my family that are computer engineers.
That, I have been doing since a long time ago.
In both of the plans for my future I clearly stated, that I began working on them from the beginning of my life.
That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers foot steps, I love playing ball and because I would like to be healthy in the mind as well as the body.
I can’t say much here besides that playing ball gives me a good workout and I stay in shape.
Nouns & pronounse.g. My father he lives ...
2 E(2 T)
I also have noticed something that most people when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.
when the evil comes, it is hard to defy it.
InterL/L1T InterL/L1T
Word order 1 E I also have noticed something that most people when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very close relationship
Dev/Misord
with my family and friends.
LexicalErrors(word choice)
26 E
19 T
A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference <=> False friends / Deceptive Cognates B- INTRALINGUAL/Developmental:
3. Confusables (James p. 145-147)
4. Distortions - form nonexistent in TL (James p 150)
InterL/L1T
FF / DC
IntraL/DevConf
Dist
24 E(17 T)
If I hit an animal it would loose trust in me and stay on irritating me while curing it.
Some animals are nice pets to have, when they have the right health and medications.
They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any strong disease stricked them.
They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any strong disease stricked them.
Animals are usually very afraid of high sounds.
For me acheiving these goals makes me happy.
How ever each person must succeed to his ability.
When I secure a job my goal is to become partner and have a quarter office.
You never know what god has installed for
InterL/L1T InterL/L1T InterL/L1T InterL/L1T InterL/L1T InterL/L1T InterL/L1T Dev InterL/L1T InterL/L1T Dev Dev
you. For me to be counted
as a one of a kind mother I need to take care of my kids thus they will be successful in the future.
I don’t just want to be a parent but▼ a mom who is proud and deserves that position as well as an interesting lawyer.
In my free time I will practice on improving my basketball fundamentals.
Planning for the future gives an image for our future life.
Thus I will need to put a good concentration of time, practicing my basketball skills.
Hopefully if I become a professional basketball player, I would have enough money to maintain a good life.
I need to get outside help. That outside help is provided by my family members.
Like I’ve said before. Getting an early start
about the future can help by expanding our knowledge about our plans.
Well you know what, I’ve given this a lot of thought I think I’m sure of what I want to be.
it rises problems.
DevInterL/L1T InterL/L1T InterL/L1T
InterL/L1T
InterL/L1T
InterL/L1T
Amb
InterL/L1T Dev/Conf
Semantic errors INTERLINGUAL: InterL/L1T
3 E3 T
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference
3 E(3 T)
When I secure a job my goal is to become partner and have a quarter office.
By acomplishing these pans I will insure myself an outstanding life.
Architecture works my brain.
InterL/L1T InterL/L1T
InterL/L1T
Organization (claim/thesis, transition words (TW), support, process, logical progression, flow of ideas)
+
Discourse/Process
A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference B- INTRALINGUAL / Developmental :
4. Relevance, clarity, development, originality (James p 161)
5. Coherence/content = value as a message
6. Cohesion = value as a text/product (Das, 1878; in James p 161)
InterL/L1T
IntraL/DevRel/Cl/Devt/Orig
Cohr
Cohs
5 good theses5 good support2 good TW
1. incorrect thesis- poor support- no transition words- no logical progression.
2. good thesis- good support- TW used incorrectly (“therefore” at the beginning of the body; “as a result” in the thesis.)
3. poor thesis- off topic- few TW- but good mechanics.
4. incorrect thesis- good TW- logical flow.
5. good thesis + support- few TW- third paragraph off topic.
6. good thesis- poor support-
1. Cohr/Cohs/
Cl/Devt
2. Cohs
3.
Cohr/Cl/De
vt
4. Cl
5. Devt/Cohs
shallow- incorrect TW7. good thesis- no respect for
order of thesis components- poor TW- good flow.
8. good thesis but no parallelism- too many repetitions- too long- very few transition words.
9. thesis but no parallelism- good support- good TW- good flow.
10. thesis but no narrowing down.
6. Devt/Cohs
7. Devt/Cohs
8.
Devt/Cl/Co
hs
9. Devt
10. Devt
Substance (Mechanics + Spelling)
120 E 25 T
A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference B- INTRALINGUAL / Developmental
InterL/L1T
IntraL/DevPunctuation 64 + 11
E(21 T)(28%)
1. However▼evil has its shapes and forms.
2. There are two paths▼evil and good.
3. Once I am a veterinarian▼the most important thing is that I give the right medication to my animals which are sick.
4. First of all▼ in order to do that I have to give the sick animal the most benifitial medicine.
5. last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot▼ I have to make sure that I am giving it in the right place.
6. Consequently▼ one must plan his life to be successful.
7. As a result, I intend to get a good education, and job, which will allow me to raise a family in a suitable enviroment.
8. Obtaining a good job will
InterL/L1T Dev Dev Dev Dev Dev InterL/L1T InterL/L1T Dev
be a crucial part of my life for various reasons. One of which, is that it enables me to have a stable income.
9. This factor will allow me to focus on different aspects of my life, which make me happier and, help me improve my life.
10. It is known to be, that a person would be more appreaciated, and treated better▼ if he were an educated individual than a failure.
11. Living your life owning a beatiful mansion, and amazing cars is a relative way of my lifestyle in the future.
12. How ever▼ each person must succeed to his ability.
13. My plan is to succeed. To do that▼ I want to get a good education, become a lawyer, and have positive values.
14. To get a start on my good education▼ the first stepping stone is highschool graduation.
15. Afterwards▼ I want to get a university level education in the united states.
16. There▼ I want to get a PhD in law.
17. When I accomplish that▼ I earn a certain level of respect.
18. Next▼ I move to wall street.
19. When I secure a job▼ my goal is to become partner and have a quarter office.
20. I have to be determined▼ heading off to a foriegn country.
21. I also sacrifice a lot▼ most of all▼ seeing my family.
InterL/L1TDev Dev InterL/L1T InterL/L1T Dev InterL/L1T Dev Dev DevDev
InterL/L1T Dev Dev InterL/L1T Dev Dev InterL/L1T DevDev DevDev
22. My plan is difficult, to acheive it I have to work hard at school, become a famous lawyer, and finally carry positive values.
23. No matter who you are▼ try your best to beat life.
24. If money is an issue▼ apply for financial aid, or use resources at home▼ just dont let life get the best of you.
25. Personally▼ I beleive that you can never be sure.
26. For, them not to hate me▼ they need to respect me and realize how much I love them and how hard I work for them.
27. I also have noticed something▼ that most people▼ when they grow up▼ they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress▼ But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.
28. I don’t just want to be a parent▼ but a mom who is proud and deserves that position▼ as well as an interesting lawyer.
29. To become all this is really hard▼ but if I set my mind to it▼ I know that I will acheive it.
30. I hope that this is forfilled▼ I wonder what god has written for me, what’s my destiny?
31. I have many plans for the future that, if accomplished▼ will insure me a successful life full of hapiness and joy.
32. When I get to university▼ I will try my best to get high honors in architecture.
DevDev Dev Dev DevDev Dev Dev Dev InterL/L1T
InterL/L1T Dev Dev InterL/L1T InterL/L1T DevDev Dev Dev
33. After I finish university▼ I will not start working because I also want to get a master’s degree in architecture.
34. I will help my children with any problems they are facing▼ whether these problems are emotional, with friends, with a teacher, in school, etc...
35. I will support my children in any activity they choose to join▼ whether it is Fine arts, or sports.
36. In my free time▼ I will practice on improving my basketball fundamentals.
37. My advice to everyone is to have many plans for the future▼ instead of only one plan▼ because if one plan fails▼ you can try to achieve another plan.
38. An image, is just a vision about my future life.
39. The plans for my future are▼ being a successful basketball player & to get a job as a computer engineer.
40. Thus▼ I will need to put a good concentration of time, practicing my basketball skills.
41. Of course▼ I will need a lot of people’s assistance.
42. All my life▼ I’ve really enjoyed the game.
43. Hopefully▼ if I become a professional basketball player, I would have enough money to maintain a good life.
44. Of course▼ I do not have a lot of experience as a computer engineer.
45. On the other hand▼ I gain a little bit of experience by messing around with computers.
InterL/L1TDev InterL/L1T InterL/L1T InterL/L1T InterL/L1T Dev InterL/L1T InterL/L1TDev DevDev Dev
46. I really do agree, that planning for the future is essential for a person to have a good life.
47. In both of the plans for my future▼ I clearly stated, that I began working on them from the beginning of my life.
48. Well▼ you know what, I’ve given this a lot of thought▼ I think I’m sure of what I want to be.
49. That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers foot steps, I love playing ball▼ and because I would like to be healthy in the mind as well as the body.
Capitalization
9 E(4 T)(44.4%)
1. last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot I have to make sure that I am giving it in the right place.
2. Afterwards I want to get a university level education in the united states.
3. Next I move to wall street.4. I also have noticed
something that most people when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.
5. I will support my children in any activity they choose to join whether it is Fine arts, or sports.
6. + arabs
InterL/L1T
InterL/L1TInterL/L1T
DevDevDev
DevInterL/L1T
Spelling Pronunciation: sound spelling, unnecessary letters
Convention of spelling: omissions, inversion, letter shape (Allen & Corder p 138)
Dyslexic errors,
SdSpULSpConvOm/Inv/LS Dys/ PhNM Conf/ Typo
phonetic near-misses (e.g. course/coarse), confusables, typographic errors (James p 130)
36 E(0%)
1. If I hit an animal it would loose trust in me and stay on irritating me while curing it.
2. Veterenarians are very important to have around, especially in the ergent times.
3. … which will allow me to raise my family in a suitable enviroment.
4. Belive/beleive - - - -5. What ever6. To conqere7. Gentel8. Bieng happy9. Necassary10. Benifitial --11. Acheive/acheiving - - - - -12. Appreaciated13. Beatiful14. How ever15. reuslt16. foriegn17. dont18. forfilled19. hapiness - 20. succesful - 21. acomplishing22. foot steps
UL/OG/ SdSp SdSp SdSpSpConv/SdSpOGSdSp/ULSdSpDysSdSpSdSpSpConvSdSpDys/Typo?SpConvDysDysOmSdSpSdSp/OmSdSp/OmSdSp/OmSdSp
TOTAL 214 Errors77 Transfer Errors 35.9%
Sources: Corder, 1974; Richards, 1974; James, 1998; Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974; Richards & Sampson, 1974.
Notes:
E = Error T = L1 Transfer
The number that comes after the “+” accounts for the errors found but not transcribed.
Appendix 8 - Table 3:Error Analysis: Scope of Study
Topic: What are your plans for the future?Brevet Students || Ten 250-word essays studied
Categorizing & Diagnosing Errors
Interlingual / Transfer Errors
Error Categor
yError sub-category
Number of
ErrorsExamples
Grammatical Errors- 29 E- 14 T
Prepositions/particles
5 Errors (2 T)
Getting an early start about the future can help by expanding our knowledge about our plans.
That is so because I would like to follow in my father’s footsteps.
Articles4 E (3 T)
Evil is▼ force that can enter a person’s soul and conquer it.
My plans for the future is to become a professional basketball player, a good father, and▼ successful architect.
When the evil comes.
Reported sp. 1 E(1 T)
I wonder what god has written for me, what’s my destiny?
Sing/Plural 1 E(1 T)
I am obsessed with money; it is just the way they smell.
Adjectives 2 E(2 T)
Calling others kids to come. Many others ways.
Syntactic errors 35 E- 16 T
Coordination(+ Beginning with “and” or “so”)
5 E(3 T)
For, them not to hate me they need to respect me and realize how much I love them and how hard I work for them.
All my life I’ve really enjoyed the game and played it all my life and of course it is my favorite sport.
I can’t say much here besides that playing ball gives me a good workout and I stay in shape; and architecture works my brain.
Sentence structure
27 E(11 T)
Animals have to be not acted hard on. It is known to be, that a person would be
more appreaciated, and treated better if he were an educated individual than a failure.
I have learned a lesson in my life, that you should never ever give up.
This result will give me a positive attitude of authority over life.
What I want to be? This image is very important, because I will
be able to establish a good early start concerning my future.
I have a lot of people in my family that are computer engineers.
That, I have been doing since a long time ago.
In both of the plans for my future I clearly stated, that I began working on them from the beginning of my life.
That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers foot steps, I love playing ball and because I would like to be healthy in the mind as well as the body.
I can’t say much here besides that playing ball gives me a good workout and I stay in shape.
Nouns & pronounse.g. My father he lives ...
2 E(2 T)
I also have noticed something that most people when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.
when the evil comes, it is hard to defy it.
Lexical Errors (word choice) 26 E - 19 T
24 E(17 T)
If I hit an animal it would loose trust in me and stay on irritating me while curing it.
Some animals are nice pets to have, when they have the right health and medications.
They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any strong disease stricked them.
They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any strong disease stricked them.
Animals are usually very afraid of high sounds.
For me acheiving these goals makes me happy.
How ever each person must succeed to his ability.
You never know what god has installed for you.
For me to be counted as a one of a kind mother I need to take
In my free time I will practice on improving my basketball fundamentals.
Planning for the future gives an image for our future life.
Thus I will need to put a good concentration of time, practicing my basketball skills.
Hopefully if I become a professional basketball player, I would have enough money to maintain a good life.
I need to get outside help. That outside help is provided by my family members.
Like I’ve said before. Getting an early start about the future can
help by expanding our knowledge about our plans.
Well you know what, I’ve given this a lot of thought I think I’m sure of what I want to be.
Semantic errors 3 E - 3 T
3 E(3 T)
When I secure a job my goal is to become partner and have a quarter office.
By acomplishing these pans I will insure myself an outstanding life.
Architecture works my brain.
Substance (Mechanics + Spelling) 120 E - 25 T
Punctuation 64 + 11 E(21 T)(28%)
1. However▼evil has its shapes and forms.2. As a result, I intend to get a good education,
and job, which will allow me to raise a family in a suitable enviroment.
3. Obtaining a good job will be a crucial part of my life for various reasons. One of which, is that it enables me to have a stable income.
4. It is known to be, that a person would be more appreaciated, and treated better▼ if he were an educated individual than a failure.
5. How ever▼ each person must succeed to his ability.
6. My plan is to succeed. To do that▼ I want to get a good education, become a lawyer, and have positive values.
7. Afterwards▼ I want to get a university level education in the united states.
8. I have to be determined▼ heading off to a foriegn country.
9. No matter who you are▼ try your best to beat life.
10. Personally▼ I beleive that you can never be sure.
11. When I get to university▼ I will try my best to get high honors in architecture.
12. After I finish university▼ I will not start working because I also want to get a master’s degree in architecture.
13. In my free time▼ I will practice on improving my basketball fundamentals.
14. My advice to everyone is to have many plans for the future▼ instead of only one plan▼ because if one plan fails▼ you can try to achieve another plan.
15. Of course▼ I will need a lot of people’s assistance.
16. Hopefully▼ if I become a professional basketball player, I would have enough money to maintain a good life.
17. Of course▼ I do not have a lot of experience as a computer engineer.
18. On the other hand▼ I gain a little bit of experience by messing around with computers.
19. have a good life.20. In both of the plans for my future▼ I clearly
stated, that I began working on them from the beginning of my life.
21. Well▼ you know what, I’ve given this a lot of thought▼ I think I’m sure of what I want to be.
22. That is so because I would like to follow in my fathers foot steps, I love playing ball▼ and because I would like to be healthy in the mind as well as the body.
Capitalization9 E(4 T)(44.4%)
1. last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot I have to make sure that I am giving it in the right place.
2. Afterwards I want to get a university level education in the united states.
3. Next I move to wall street.4. arabs
TOTAL 77 Transfer Errors 35.9%Out of 214 Errors
Appendix 9 - Table 4:Error Analysis: Scope of Study
Topic: What are your plans for the future?Brevet Students || Ten 250-word essays studied
Categorizing & Diagnosing Errors
Intralingual/Developmental Errors
Error Categor
yError sub-category
Number of
ErrorsExamples
Grammatical Errors 29 E - 14 T
Prepositions/particles
5 Errors (2 T)
I have trouble in school because▼ the lack of skills in sciences.
Getting an early start about the future can help by expanding our knowledge about our plans.
You get a load of your chest every time you make a basket.
Articles4 E (3 T)
▼Most important thing here is that I never become a couch potato.
Irregular verbs 1 E
They should have veterinarians around them in case they get sick or any strong disease stricked them.
Tenses (wrong tense) + omission of 3rd pers. "s"+ agreement of tenses
12 + 2 E (5 T)
What ever path a person choose. I have planned my future a long time ago. They should have veterinarians around them in
case they get sick or any strong disease stricked them.
Without a complete and proper education, you got nothing.
My plans for the future is to become a professional basketball player, a good father, and successful architect.
Hopefully if I become a professional basketball player, I would have enough money to maintain a good life.
That, I have been doing since a long time ago.
Possessive case 1 E That is so because I would like to follow in my
fathers footsteps.
Syntactic errors 35 E- 16 TSentence structure
27 E(11 T)
Consequently one must plan his life ▼ to be successful.
A good education will help increase my self-
esteem because it makes me happier, feel smarter, and feel more successful than without an education.
It is known to be, that a person would be more appreaciated, and treated better if he were an educated individual than a failure.
Living your life owning a beatiful mansion, and amazing cars is a relative way of my lifestyle in the future.
My essay has covered up my plans for the future: to be educated, feeling content, and having your family and your close friends stand by your side all the time. (parallelism! coherence)
When I secure a job my goal is to become partner and have a quarter office.
I have to be determined heading off to a foriegn country.
I also sacrifice a lot most of all seeing my family.
All for money and respect (fragment). I have many goals that I hope I will acheive. I also have noticed something that most people
when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.
I don’t just want to be a parent but a mom who is proud and deserves that position as well as an interesting lawyer.
My plans are for three things: future work, future family, and sport I want to play.
I will help my children with any problems they are facing whether these problems are emotional, with friends, with a teacher, in school, etc... (parallelism!)
This image is very important, because I will be able to establish a good early start concerning my future.
The plans for my future are being a successful basketball player & to get a job as a computer engineer. (parallelism)
All my life I’ve really enjoyed the game and played it all my life and of course it is my favorite sport.
That, I have been doing since a long time ago. In both of the plans for my future I clearly
stated, that I began working on them from the beginning of my life.
Word order 1 E
I also have noticed something that most people when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.
Lexical Errors (word choice) 26 E - 19 T
24 E(17 T)
For me to be counted as a one of a kind mother I need to take care of my kids thus they will be successful in the future.
I don’t just want to be a parent but▼ a mom who is proud and deserves that position as well as an interesting lawyer.
Getting an early start about the future can help by expanding our knowledge about our plans.
it rises problems.
Organization (claim/thesis, transition words (TW), support, process, logical progression, flow of ideas) + Discourse/Process
5 good theses5 good support2 good TW
1. incorrect thesis- poor support- no transition words- no logical progression.
2. good thesis- good support- TW used incorrectly (“therefore” at the beginning of the body; “as a result” in the thesis.)
3. poor thesis- off topic- few TW- but good mechanics.
4. incorrect thesis- good TW- logical flow.5. good thesis + support- few TW- third paragraph off
topic.6. good thesis- poor support- shallow- incorrect TW7. good thesis- no respect for order of thesis
components- poor TW- good flow.8. good thesis but no parallelism- too many
repetitions- too long- very few transition words.9. thesis but no parallelism- good support- good TW-
good flow.10. thesis but no narrowing down.
Substance (Mechanics + Spelling) 120 E- 25 T
Punctuation 64 + 11 E(21 T)(28%)
1. There are two paths▼evil and good.2. Once I am a veterinarian▼the most important
thing is that I give the right medication to my animals which are sick.
3. First of all▼ in order to do that I have to give the sick animal the most benifitial medicine.
4. last but not least, if I was giving an animal a shot▼
I have to make sure that I am giving it in the right place.
5. Consequently▼ one must plan his life to be successful.
6. suitable enviroment.7. This factor will allow me to focus on different
aspects of my life, which make me happier and, help me improve my life.
8. It is known to be, that a person would be more appreaciated, and treated better▼ if he were an educated individual than a failure.
9. Living your life owning a beatiful mansion, and amazing cars is a relative way of my lifestyle in the future.
10. To get a start on my good education▼ the first stepping stone is highschool graduation.
11. There▼ I want to get a PhD in law.12. When I accomplish that▼ I earn a certain level of
respect.13. Next▼ I move to wall street. 14. When I secure a job▼ my goal is to become
partner and have a quarter office.15. I also sacrifice a lot▼ most of all▼ seeing my
family.16. My plan is difficult, to acheive it I have to work
hard at school, become a famous lawyer, and finally carry positive values.
17. If money is an issue▼ apply for financial aid, or use resources at home▼ just dont let life get the best of you.
18. For, them not to hate me▼ they need to respect me and realize how much I love them and how hard I work for them.
19. I also have noticed something▼ that most people▼ when they grow up▼ they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress▼ But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.
20. I don’t just want to be a parent▼ but a mom who is proud and deserves that position▼ as well as an interesting lawyer.
21. To become all this is really hard▼ but if I set my mind to it▼ I know that I will acheive it.
22. I hope that this is forfilled▼ I wonder what god has written for me, what’s my destiny?
23. I have many plans for the future that, if accomplished▼ will insure me a successful life full of hapiness and joy.
24. I will help my children with any problems they are facing▼ whether these problems are emotional,
with friends, with a teacher, in school, etc...25. I will support my children in any activity they
choose to join▼ whether it is Fine arts, or sports.26. An image, is just a vision about my future life.27. The plans for my future are▼ being a successful
basketball player & to get a job as a computer engineer.
28. Thus▼ I will need to put a good concentration of time, practicing my basketball skills.
29. All my life▼ I’ve really enjoyed the game.30. I really do agree, that planning for the future is
essential for a person to have a good life.31. Well▼ you know what, I’ve given this a lot of
thought▼ I think I’m sure of what I want to be.32. That is so because I would like to follow in my
fathers foot steps, I love playing ball▼ and because I would like to be healthy in the mind as well as the body.
Capitalization9 E(4 T)(44.4%)
1. I also have noticed something that most people when they grow up they Forget their Family and Friends because of work and all that stress But, I intend to still have a very close relationship with my family and friends.
2. I will support my children in any activity they choose to join whether it is Fine arts, or sports.
Spelling 36 E(0%)
1. If I hit an animal it would loose trust in me and stay on irritating me while curing it.
2. Veterenarians are very important to have around, especially in the ergent times.
3. … which will allow me to raise my family in a suitable enviroment.
4. Belive/beleive - - - -5. What ever6. To conqere7. Gentel8. Bieng happy9. Necassary10. Benifitial --11. Acheive/acheiving - - - - -12. Appreaciated13. Beatiful14. How ever15. reuslt16. foriegn17. dont18. forfilled19. hapiness - 20. succesful - 21. acomplishing
22. foot steps
TOTAL 214 Errors137 Developmental Errors 64.1%
Appendix 10- Table 5:Error Analysis: Scope of Study
Topic: What are your plans for the future?Brevet Students || Ten 250-word essays studied
Error Sources & Numbers compared
Error CategoryInterling
ual Errors
InterL/L1T
Intralingual
ErrorsIntraL/Dev
Error Sources
Grammatical Errors
14 Transfer(48.2%)
15 Dev.
A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference B- INTRALINGUAL: Developmental/ analogical errors [Corder,
1974; p. 130] or over-generalization or of TL rules (Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974) = redundancy reduction (Richards, 1974; p 175)
Ignorance of rule restrictions Incomplete application of rules = under-
generalizatione.g. nobody knew where was Barbie (Richards + James, 1998; p 185)
Building of false concepts/systems (Richards, p 174)
Morphology => 3rd pers sing “s”, “ed”, “ing” <=> Concord + Phonological error (James p 154)
False analogy => childs (James p 185) Induced errors (James p 178): from
classroom situations1. cross-association2. teacher explanation3. material induced errors
Omissions/avoidance because of ignorance (James p 176)
C- AMBIGUOUS:Both interlingual/interference and intralingual/developmental
D- UNIQUE:Neither interlingual nor intralingual <=> not in
L1 and not developmental (Richards p 115- Dulay & Burt)
Syntactic errors 16 T(45.7%)
19 D A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference
B- INTRALINGUAL: (James p 157)1. Phrase structure errors = Misselection /
Misordering2. Clause errors = Omitted, Misordered,
Misselected, Blend3. Sentence errors = Discourse <=>
Coherence4. Intersentence errors = Cohesion
LexicalErrors(word choice)
19 T
(73%)7 D
A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference <=> False friends / Deceptive Cognates B- INTRALINGUAL/Developmental:1. Confusables (James p. 145-147)2. Distortions - form nonexistent in TL
(James p 150)
Semantic errors 3 T(100%)
0 DINTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interferenceOrganization (claim/thesis, transition words (TW), support, process, logical progression, flow of ideas)
+
Discourse/Process
A- INTERLINGUAL: L1 (negative) Transfer / interference B- INTRALINGUAL / Developmental : 1. Relevance, clarity, development, originality
(James p 161)2. Coherence/content = value as a message3. Cohesion = value as a text/product (Das,
1878; in James p 161)
Substance (Mechanics + Spelling)
25 T(20.8%) 95 D
A- INTERLINGUAL:
L1 (negative) Transfer / interference B- INTRALINGUAL / Developmental
Punctuation (28% T)Capitalization (44.4% T)Spelling (0% T) Spelling
Pronunciation: sound spelling, unnecessary letters Convention of spelling: omissions,
inversion, letter shape (Corder p 138) Dyslexic errors, phonetic near-misses (e.g.
course/coarse), confusables, typographic errors (James p 130)
TOTAL77
Transfer Errors 35.9%
137 Dev.Errors64.1%
214 Errors
Sources: Corder, 1974; Richards, 1974; James, 1998; Selinker, 1972 in Richards, 1974; Richards & Sampson, 1974
Summary
Of Negative L1 Transfer Error Percentage Semantic 100% Lexical 73.0% Grammatical 48.2% Syntactic 45.7 % Substance/Mechanics 20.8%
Appendix 11
Oral/Written PresentationsGuidelines and Expectations
http://nadabs.tripod.com/presguide1.html
Appendix 12
ERROR ANALYSIS EXERCISES & OBJECTIVE TESTS
http://nadabs.tripod.com/onlinematerials.htm#3