An Army - Its Organization and Movements by Cornelus W. Tolles (1829 - 1864)

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An Army: Its Organization and Movements by Lt. Col.C.W. Tolles (1829-1864)

AN ARMY: ITS ORGANIZATION ANDMOVEMENTS.

By Lieut.-Col. C. W. Tolles, A. Q. M., 707

Continental Monthly, June 1864 to December 1864, in five partsBIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

C.W. Tolles, Esq. was born in New Jersey in 1829. In 1856, Tolles became theproprietor of the State Gazette.

From the New York Times, June 27, 1860, page 8

CITY INTELLIGENCE.

LECTURE BEFORE THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN UNION.--A lecturewas delivered before the Young Mens Christian Union at their meeting onMonday evening, by C.W. TOLLES, Esq., of Newark. His subject was Orthodoxy

At the beginning of the Civil War, on April 27, 1861 the New Jersey Brigade wasformed in response to President Lincolns call for troops. Theodore Runyon wascommissioned Brigadier-General, and Tolles was commissioned First Lieutenantin the Third Regiment of Cavalry and then Captain and Assistant AdjutantGeneral, replacing Major A.V. Bonnell.

He became the chief quartermaster of the Sixth Corps.

From the New York Times, October 16, 1864

Death of Lieut.-Col. C.W. Tolles.

This talented and gallant officer died on Wednesday last, from the effects of awound received a short time since for a guerrilla in the Shenandoah Valley. Col.TOLLES was for many years connected with the press, and at the outbreak of therebellion was editor of the Newark, N.J.Daily Advertiser. He was a brilliantwriter, and contributed valuable papers to theAtlantic, Continentaland othermonthlies. His able series of articles in the Continentalon organization of thearmy, is deserving of being collected and given to the public in book form. At thebeginning of the war he joined the staff of Gen. RUNYON, and at the time of hisdeath held the position of Chief Quartermaster in the Sixth Army Corps with Gen.SHERIDAN. He leaves a wife, the daughter of Prof. MAPES, of Newark.

From Following the Greek Cross, or, Memories of the Sixth Army Corps by Thomas

Worcester Hyde (1894), page 228:Down the valley we went, now an independent army, three corps and the cavalry;Sheridan ubiquitous and gathering in our good opinions fast. Colonel Tolles andDr. Oehlenschlager of our staff were captured one day and promptly murderedafter surrender. This made war look more serious than ever. Were we going backinto barbarism?

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From Three years in the Sixth Corps. A concise narrative of events in the Army of thePotomac, from 1861 to the close of the rebellion, April 1865 by George E.T. Stevens(1886):

Guerrilla warfare was a favorite resort of the rebels in the Shenandoah Valley, andmany of our men were murdered in cold blood by the cowardly villains who

lurked about our camps by day as harmless farmers, and murdered our men atnight dressed in confederate uniform. Among those who lost their lives by thiscowardly species of warfare, were Surgeon Ochenslayer, Medical Inspector of ourarmy ; Colonel Tolles, Chief Quartermaster, and Captain Meigs, son of theQuartermaster-General, U. S. A.

From Mosbys Fighting Parson: The Life and Times of Sam Chapman by Peter A.Brown, page 241

While Mosby was operating against the Manassas Gap Railroad, Dolly Richardshad taken thirty-two men and gone on a scout in the Shenandoah Valley. OnOctober 11, he attacked an ambulance train on the Valley Pike, mid-way between

Newtown and Middletown, on its way to join Sheridan at Cedar Creek. The trainwas carrying Lieutenant Colonel C.W. Tolles, Sheridans chief quartermaster andDoctor Emil Ohlenschlager, assistant surgeon and medical inspector onSheridans staff. They were escorted by twenty-five troopers of the 17th

Pennsylvania Cavalry. Richards men struck the rear of the train and the attackwas so fierce that no one was able to escape. Three of the troopers were killedout-right, another five wounded, and nineteen prisoners were taken. Alsowounded were Ohlenschlager and Tolles, both mortally so. Tolles, shot in thehead, died three weeks later

Tolles was brevetted to the rank of colonel posthumously for gallant and meritoriousServices on November 1, 1864

First Paper

Continental Monthly, Vol, V, Number VI, Page 707

The immense military operations of our civil war have familiarized, toa considerable extent, not only those connected with the armies, but the

people generally with the systems on which military forces areorganized and the methods of conducting war. Much has been learnedin the past three years, and much accomplished in the improvement oftactics, internal organization, and the construction of all kinds ofmaterial. Civilians, who were well read in the history of former wars,and even professional military officers, were comparatively ignorant ofall the numerous details necessarily incident to the formation andmovement of armies. On account of the deficiency of practicalinformation on these matters, the difficulties which arose at thecommencement of the war, were, as it is well known, immense; but

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they were overcome with a celerity and energy absolutely unparalleledin the history of the world, and to-day we are able to assure ourselveswith justifiable pride that in all essential particulars our armies are fullyand properly organized, equipped, and provided for. We propose to

exhibit in a few articles the methods by which these results have beenaccomplishedto present to readers generally the system oforganization and the principles of operation existing in our armiesgiving them such information as can be obtained only from actualthorough acquaintance with military life, or extended perusal of workson military art, as now understood among the leading civilized nations.

That such information would be desirable, we were led to believe fromthe surprise expressed by an intelligent friend at the definition givenhim of the phrase 'line of battle.' He was greatly astonished on learningthat battles are fought, mostly, by lines of only two ranks in depth. Thehistory of the 'line of battle' is of great interest, and indeed contains anexposition of the principles on which a great portion of modern warfareis founded. While the chief principles of strategy, of the movement ofarmies, of attack and defence, and to some extent of tactics, are thesame now as in the earliest ages, the mode of arraying men for battlehas undergone an entire change, attributable to the improvement in theweapons of warfare. We are not superior to the ancients so much in the

science of war, as in the character of our arms. They undoubtedlyfought in the manner most appropriate to the means which theypossessed. The great change which has taken place in the method of battle, consists chiefly in thisthat formerly men were arrayed inmasses, now in lines. The Grecian phalanx was composed of 32,000men arranged as follows: 16,000 spearmen placed in sixteen ranks of athousand men each, forming the centre; on each wing, 4,000 lightspearmen in eight ranks; 4,000 men armed with bows and slings, who

performed the part of skirmishers; 4,000 cavalry. The Roman legion

contained 4,500 men, of which 1,200 were light infantry or skirmishersarmed with bows and slings. The main body consisted of 1,200spearmen, who were formed into ten rectangular bodies of twelve menfront by ten deep; behind them were ten other rectangles of the secondline; and behind these a third line of 600 in rectangles of six men front

by ten deep. To the legion was attached 300 cavalry.

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In the middle ages, infantry was considered of little importance, thecombat being principally among the knights and cavaliers. Theintroduction of gunpowder caused a change in the method of fighting,

but it was effected gradually. For a long time only clumsy[Pg 708]

cannon were used, which, however, made great havoc among theformations in mass still retained. Rude arquebuses were thenintroduced, and improvements made from time to time; but even so lateas the 17th century the ancient arms were retained in a large proportion.They did not disappear entirely until the invention of the bayonet in the18th century. This contributed as much as the use of firearms to changethe formations of battle. In the 16th century the number of ranks had

been reduced from ten to six; at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. thenumber was four; Frederick the Great reduced it to three. With this

number the wars of the French Republic and Empire were conducted,until at Leipsic, in 1813, Napoleon's army being greatly diminished, hedirected the formation in two ranks, saying that the enemy beingaccustomed to see it in three, and not aware of the change, would bedeceived in regard to its numbers. He stated also that the fire of the rearrank was dangerous to those in front, and that there was no reason forthe triple formation. In this judgment military authorities have sinceconcurred, and the two-rank formation is almost universally adopted.Russia is the only civilized power which places men in masses on the

battle field. Formations in column are used when necessary to carry aparticular local position, even at a great expenditure of life. But theusual mode of combat is that adopted by Napoleon. Our battles have

been almost universally fought in this manner. The rebels have probably used the formation in column more frequently than the Northern troops. The non-military reader can easily perceive thatformations in mass are more subject to loss from the fire of artillery andfrom that of small arms even at considerable distances, and are less ableto deliver their own fire.

Our old regular army consisted of ten regiments of infantry, two ofcavalry, two of dragoons, and one of mounted rifles, of ten companieseach, and four artillery regiments of twelve companies each. Twocompanies each of the latter served as light artillerythe companiesalternating in this service. There was also a battalion of engineers.

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At the commencement of the war our force of light artillery was veryinadequate, and rifled ordnance had scarcely been introduced. Our

present immense force of the former has been almost entirely createdsince the commencement of the war; the splendid achievements in

rifled artillery have been entirely accomplished within the last threeyears. Although it had been applied some years previously in Europe, itwas not formally introduced into our service until needed to assist insuppressing the gigantic rebellion. The Ordnance Department had,however, given attention to the matter, and boards of officers wereengaged in making experiments. A report had been made that 'the eraof smooth-bore field artillery has passed away, and the period of theadoption of rifled cannon, for siege and garrison service, is not remote.The superiority of elongated projectiles, whether solid or hollow, with

the rifle rotation, as regards economy of ammunition, extent of range,and uniformity and accuracy of effect, over the present system, isdecided and unquestionable.'[A] We shall see, in discussing artillery,how far these expectations have been realized.

The regular army was increased in 1861 by the addition of nineregiments of infantry, one of cavalry, and one of artillery. The MountedRifles were changed into the 3d Cavalry, and the two dragoonregiments into the 1st and 2d Cavalry. The old 1st and 2d Cavalry

became the 4th and 5th. All cavalry regiments have now twelvecompanies, and the new infantry regiments are formed on the latestFrench system of three battalions, of eight companies each, with acolonel, lieutenant-colonel, and three majors. Each of the 24 companieshas 82 privates.

The old regular army comprised, when full, about 18,000 officers andmen. As increased, the total complement is over 43,600, including fivemajor-generals, nine brigadier-generals, thirty-three aides-de-camp,

besides the field officers of the various regiments and the company

officers. In addition to these officers (but included in the aggregateabove given) are the various staff departments, as follows:

Adjutant-Generals. 1 brigadier-general, 2 colonels, 4 lieutenant-colonels, 13 majors.

Judge-Advocates.1 colonel.

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Inspector Generals.14 colonels, 5 majors.

Signal Corps.1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 2 majors.

Quartermaster's Department. 1 brigadier-general, 3 colonels, 4

lieutenant-colonels, 11 majors, 48 captains, 12 military storekeepers.

Subsistence Department.1 brigadier-general, 2 colonels, 2 lieutenant-colonels, 8 majors, 16 captains.

Medical Department.1 brigadier-general, 2 colonels, 16 lieutenant-colonels, 50 majors, 5 captains, 109 first lieutenants, 6 storekeepers,119 hospital chaplains, 70 medical cadets.

Pay Department.1 colonel, 2 lieutenant-colonels, 25 majors.

Corps of Engineers.1 brigadier-general, 4 colonels, 10 lieutenant-colonels, 20 majors, 30 captains, 30 first lieutenants, 10 secondlieutenants. The battalion of engineers comprises a total of 805.

Ordnance Department.1 brigadier-general, 2 colonels, 3 lieutenant-colonels, 6 majors, 20 captains, 20 first lieutenants, 12 secondlieutenants, 15 storekeepers, and a battalion of 905 men.

These figures all pertain to the regular army. A considerable number ofthe officers in the regiments have been appointed from civil life; but in

the staff departments the officers are almost exclusively graduates fromthe Military Academy at West Point.

The raising of the immense volunteer force necessitated a greatincrease in the staff departments, and large numbers of persons fromcivil life have been appointed into the volunteer staff in the Adjutant-General's, Judge-Advocate's, Quartermaster's, Commissary, Medical,and Pay Departments. The ordnance duties are performed by officersdetailed from the line, and engineer duties by regiments assigned for

that purpose. A large number of additional aides-de-camp were alsoauthorized, forming that branch of duty into a department. Aides-de-camp are also detailed from the line. The highest rank yet created forvolunteer staff officers is that of colonel in the aides-de-camp. Theheads of staff departments at corps headquarters are lieutenant-colonels, including an assistant adjutant-general, assistant inspector-

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general, a chief quartermaster, and chief commissary. Many regularofficers hold these volunteer staff appointments, gaining in this manneradditional rank during the warstill retaining their positions in theregular service; in the same manner as many regular officers are field

officers in volunteer regiments.

The aggregate militia force of the United States (including secededportions), according to the last returns, was 3,214,769. The reports ofthe last census increase this to about 5,600,000, which exceeds to someextent the number actuallyfitto bear arms. The computed proportion inEurope of the number of men who can be called into the field is aboutone-fifth or one-sixth of the population. If the population of the entireUnited States be assumed to be 23,000,000, the number of men liable,according to this computation, would be about 4,000,000, which issufficiently approximate. The European computation of the force to bekept as a standing army is a hundredth part of the populationvariedsomewhat by circumstances. This would give the United States a forceof 230,000. It will be seen how greatly in[Pg 710]ferior our regular forcehas been and still is to the computations adopted in Europe. But theUnited States will probably never require such a large force to be

permanently organized; for we have not, like the European powers,frontiers to protect against nations with whom we may at any time be at

war, nor oppressed nationalities to retain in subjugation by force. Ourfrontiers on Canada and Mexico have good natural defencesthe first by the St. Lawrence river and lakes, and the second by the greatdistance to be traversed by an invading army before it could reach anyimportant commercial position. Our vulnerability is in our extensiveseacoast. The principal requirement for an army is a large framework,which can be rapidly filled by volunteers in expectation of war. Withsuch a military constitution and a system of military education and drillin the different States, large and effective armies could be rapidly

organized.Our staff corps and regular army are insignificant, compared with thoseof European nations, in which the average strength of the standingarmies is from 250,000 to 300,000 men on the peace footing, and400,000 to 600,000 on the war footing, with immense magazines ofequipage and material, numerous military schools, and extensive

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organizations in all the departments incident to an army. Our own armyhas hitherto been modelled to a great extent on the English systemthemost aristocratic of all in Europe, and consequently the least adapted toa republic. To this is attributable much of the jealousy hitherto felt in

regard to the army and all pertaining to it. We are now, however,conforming more to the French system, and from it will probably beadopted any changes that may be introduced.

The French army, since Napoleon gave it the impress of his genius, hasin many characteristics been well adapted to the peculiarities ofrepublican institutions. A soldier can rise from the ranks to the highestcommand, by the exhibition of valor and ability, more easily, in fact,than he can in our own army, with which political favoritism has muchto do in promotions and appointments. By a recent policy of our WarDepartment, however, vacancies have been left in the subordinatecommissioned officers of the regular army, which are to be filledexclusively from the ranks. Many deserving officers in the army have

been private soldiers.

No system will be effective for providing an adequate militaryorganization that does not include thorough instruction for officers. The

prevailing feeling in our country, as remarked above, has rather been tounderrate the army, and to look with some jealousy on the West Point

Military Academy and its graduates. The present war has effected achange in this respect. The country owes too much to the educatedregular officers for the organization and conduct of the volunteerforces, to be insensible of the merits of the system which producedthem. A capable civilian can undoubtedly become just as good anofficer of any rank as a graduate of West Point; but it must be through acourse of study similar to that there pursued. No natural ability cansupply the want of the scientific training in the military, more than inany other profession. Military science is only the result of all the

experience of the past, embodied in the most comprehensive andpractical form. Napoleon was a profound student of military history. Inhis Memoirs he observes: 'Alexander made 8 campaigns, Hannibal 17(of which 1 was in Spain, 15 in Italy, and 1 in Africa), Csar made 15(of which 8 were against the Gauls, and 5 against the legions ofPompey), Gustavus Adolphus 5, Turenne 18, the Prince Eugene of

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Savoy 18, and Frederic 11 (in Bohemia, Silesia, and upon the Elbe.)The history of these 87 campaigns, made with care, would be acomplete treatise on the art of war. The principles one should follow,in[Pg 711] both offensive and defensive war, flow from them as a

source.'

To one familiar with the gradual progress in the organization of ourarmies, it is interesting to recur to the time when the first levies ofvolunteers were raised. Regiments were hurried into Washington halfaccoutred and indifferently armed. Officers and men were for the most

part equally ignorant of the details, a knowledge of which enables asoldier to take care of himself in all circumstances. Staff officers knewnothing of the various departments and the methods of obtainingsupplies. The Government had not been able to provide barrackaccommodations for the immense irruption of 'Northern barbarians,'and the men were stowed like sheep in any unoccupied buildings thatcould be obtained. These were generally storehouses, without anycooking arrangements, so that when provisions were procured, no oneknew what to do with them. Hundreds of men, who previously scarcelyknew but that beef-steaks and potatoes grew already cooked andseasoned, could be seen every day sitting disconsolately on thecurbstones cooking their pork on ramrods over little fires made with

twigs gathered from the trees. Those who happened to be the lucky possessors of a few spare dimes, straggled off to restaurants.Washington, in those days, was only a great country-town, and not theimmense city which the war has made it. The vague and laughableattempts of officers to assume military dignity and enforce discipline,with the careless insubordination of the men, furnished many amusingscenes. It was not easy for officer and man, who had gone to the sameschool, worked in the same shop, sung in the same choir, and belongedto the same base-ball club, to assume their new relations.

Privates would address their officer, 'I say, Bill, have you got anytobacco?' Officers would reply, 'Do you not know, sir, the propermethod of addressing me?' Private would exclaim, 'Well, I guess nowyou're puttin' on airs, a'n't you?' Pompous colonels strutted about in a

blaze of new uniforms, and even line officers then consideredthemselves of some consequence; while a brigadier-general was a sort

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of a demigoda man to be revered as something infallible. Now-a-days old veterans care very little for even the two stars of a major-general, unless they know that the wearer has some other claims torespect than his shoulder straps.

As matters gradually became arranged, the troops were provided withtents, and encamped in the vicinity. Never was guard duty morevigilantly performed than in those camps around Washington. Everyone of us came to the capital with the expectation of being immediatelydespatched to Virginia, and ordered to pitch into a miscellaneous fightwith the rebels. Rebel guerillas and spies were supposed to be lurkingin the surroundings of the capital, and 'taking notes' in all the camps.Woe betide the unsuspicious stranger who might loiter curiouslyaround the encampments. With half a dozen bayonets at his breast hewas hurried off in utter amazement to the guard house. At night thesentinels saw 'in every bush' a lurking rebel. Shots were pattering allnight in every direction. Unfortunate straggling cows were frequentlyreduced to beeves by the bullets of the wary guardians. The colonel'shorse broke loose one night, and, while browsing around, his long,flowing tail, the colonel's pride, was reduced to an ignominious 'bob' bya bullet, which neatly severed it near the root. Many was the trigger

pulled at me, many the bullet sent whizzing at my head, as I returned to

camp after an evening in the city. Fortunately, the person fired at wasusually safeany one within the circle of a hundred feet diameter waslikely to receive the ball. One evening, about dusk, going into camp, Itook a running jump over a ditch, and this rapid motion so fright[Pg712]ened an honest German sentinelprobably a little muddled withlagerthat he actually forgot to fire, and came at me in a more naturalway with his musket clubbed. I escaped a broken head at the expense ofa severely bruised arm. The rule for challenging, it used to be said, wasto 'fire three times, and then cry 'halt!' instead of the reverse, as

prescribed in the regulations.When the orderlong anticipatedfor actually invading Virginiaarrived, then was there excitement. Every man felt the premonition of

battle, and nerved himself for conflict. As we marched down to LongBridge, at midnight, perfect silence prevailed. Breaths were suspended,footfalls were as light as snowflakes, orders were given in hollow

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whispers. We placed our feet on the 'sacred soil' with more emotionthan the Normans felt when landing in England, or the Pilgrims atPlymouth. This was warthe real, genuine thing. But our expectationswere not realized. As the 'grand army' advanced, the scattered rebel

pickets withdrew. The only fatality of the campaign was the death ofthe gallant but indiscreet Ellsworth. We had our first experience oflying out doors in our blankets. How vainglorious we felt over it! Manya poor fellow complained jocosely of the hardship and exposure, whomsince I have seen perfectly content to obtain a few pine boughs to keephim from being submerged in an abyss of mud. Many, alas! have goneto a couch where their sleep will be no more broken by the reveille ofdrum and fife and buglein the trenches of Yorktown, in the thicketsof Williamsburg, in the morasses of the Chickahominy, on the banks of

the Antietam, at the foot of those fatal heights at Fredericksburg, in thewilderness of Chancellorsville, on the glorious ridge of Gettysburg.Comrades of the bivouac and the mess! ye are not forgotten in thatsleep upon the fields where swept the infernal tide of battle, obliteratingso much glorious life, leaving so much desolation! Even amid the roarof cannon, exulting in their might for destruction, amid the shrieking ofthe merciless shells, amid the blaze of the deadly musketry, memoriesof you occur to us. We resolve that your lives shall not have beensacrificed in vain. And in these long, dreary, monotonous days of

winter, as the sleet rattles on our frail canvas covering, and the windroars in our rude log chimneys, while the jests go around and the songarises, thoughts of the battle fields of the past cross our mindswerecall the incidents of fierce conflictswe say, there and there fell

, no nobler fellows ever lived! A blunt and hasty epitaph, but thedesultory vicissitudes of a soldier's life permit no otherwe expect noother for ourselves when our turn to follow you shall come. So we

break out into our favorite chorus:

'Then we'll stand by our glasses steady,And we'll drink to our ladies' eyes.Three cheers for the dead already,And huzza for the next man that dies.

Though your graves are unmarked, save by the simple broad slab fromwhich storms have already effaced the pencilled legend, or perhaps

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only by the murderous fragment of iron, which lies half imbedded onthe spot where you fell and where you lie, yet you live in the memoryof your comrades, you live in the hearts of those who were desolated byyour death, you live in that eternal record of heaven where are written

the names of those who have given their lives to promote the truth andthe freedom which God has guaranteed to humanity in the greatcharters of Nature and Revelation. For we are fighting in a holy cause.

No crusade to redeem Eastern shrines from infidels, no struggle for theprivilege of religious freedom, no insurrection for civil independence,has been more holy than this strife against the great curse and itsabettors, who seek to make a land of freedom a land of bond[Pg 713]ageto substitute for a Union of freemen, miserable oligarchies controlled

by breeders of slaves. If we die in this cause, we have lived a full life.

An anomalous state of things had existed between the time of the attackon Sumter and the 'invasion' of Virginia. Although the war had inreality commenced, communication was not suspended betweenWashington and Alexandria. On the day following the march over thePotomac, we found the plans of intrenchments marked out by woodenforms on the spots which subsequently became Fort Corcoran, oppositeGeorgetown, Fort Runyon, opposite Washington, and Fort Ellsworth, infront of Alexandria. How this had so speedily been done by theengineers I did not learn until many months afterward, when one of the

party who planned the works described the modus operandi. They wentover to Virginia in a very rustic dress, and professed to the rebel picketsto be from 'down country,' come up to take a look at 'them durnedYankees.' So they walked around unmolested, selected the sites for theintrenchments, formed the plans in their minds, made some stealthynotes and sketches, and, returning to Washington, plotted the works on

paper, gave directions to the carpenters about the frames, which wereconstructed; and, after the army crossed, these were put in their proper

positions, tools were placed conveniently, and, soon after the crossing

was made, the men commenced to work.

In raising these intrenchments, drilling and organizing, the army passedabout a monthvaried only by alarms two or three times a week atnight that the rebels were coming, whereupon the troops turned out andstood in line till daylight. It was shrewdly suspected that these alarmswere purposely propagated from headquarters to accustom the men to

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form themselves quickly at night without panic. In after times, in frontof Richmond, we had such duty to perform, without any factitiousreasons. It was a matter of necessary precaution to stand to our armsnightly for two or three hours before daybreak.

Until just previous to the disastrous Bull Run campaign, no higherorganization than that of brigades was adopted; but a day or two beforethe march commenced, General McDowell organized the brigades intodivisions. These were reorganized by General McClellan as the two andthree years volunteers joined the army. The organization of corps wasmade in the spring of 1862, just before the commencement of thePeninsula campaign, and is now the organization of the army.

The complete organization is now as follows:

Regiments, generally of ten companies.

Brigades, of four or more regiments.

Divisions, generally of three brigades.

Corps, generally of three divisions.

The various staffs have gradually been organized, until they now stand(in the Army of the Potomac) as follows:

At the headquarters of the army:

A Chief of Staff.

An Assistant Adjutant-General.

A Chief Quartermaster.

A Chief Commissary.

A Chief of Artillery.

An Assistant Inspector-General.

A Medical Director.

A Judge Advocate-General.

An Ordnance Officer.

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A Provost Marshal-General.

A Chief Engineer.

A Signal Officer.

Aides-de-Camp.

The rank of these officers, as the staff is now composed, is as follows:The chief of staff, a major-general; the assistant adjutant-general, chiefof artillery, and provost marshal, brigadier-generals; assistant inspector-general, a colonel; medical director, chief engineer, judge advocate-general, majors; the signal officer, chief commissary, and ordnanceofficer, captains; the aides, of various ranks, lieutenants, captains,and[Pg 714] majors. Most of these officers do not derive their rank from

their position on the staff, but it has been given them in the volunteerorganization, or pertains to them in the line of the regular or volunteerarmy. All the department officers (meaning all except aides) have anumber of assistants, and the general officers have staffs and aides oftheir own, to which they are entitled by law. The total number ofofficers on duty at the headquarters may amount to fifty or more, andthere is plenty of work for all of them during a campaign. Besides theregular staff, constituted as above related, there are the officers of aninfantry regiment which furnishes guards and escorts, and officers of

cavalry squadrons detailed to furnish orderlies. The headquarters of thearmy is therefore a town of considerable population.

At the headquarters of the different corps the staffs are as follows:

An Assistant Adjutant-GeneralLieutenant-colonel.

A Chief QuartermasterLieutenant-colonel.

A Chief CommissaryLieutenant-colonel.

An Assistant Inspector-GeneralLieutenant-colonel.

[These officers derive their rank from their position, under a law ofCongress.]

A Medical Directorbeing detailed from

the senior surgeons of the regular or

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Volunteer army, and ranking as a

major.

A Commissary of Musters.

A Provost Marshal.

A Signal Officer.

[These officers are detailed from the line, and have the ranks whichthere belongs to them. The signal corps is, however, now beingorganized, with ranks prescribed by law.]

Aides-de-Campone with the rank of major, and two with the rank ofcaptain. Besides these, additional aides are sent to the corps from thosecreated under an act of Congress of 1861now repealedand aredetailed from the line.

The quartermaster, commissary, and medical director generally haveassistant officers. There is a squadron of cavalry and usually a company

of infantry at each corps headquarters.The staffs of divisions and brigades resemble those of the corps, exceptthat the regular staff officers usually rank only as captains, except incases where a major-general commands; he is entitled to an assistantadjutant-general with the rank of major. Officers detailed from the lineto act on any staff in any capacity, bring with them the rank they holdin the line. They are not entitled, except the authorized aides and insome other particular cases, when ordered by the War Department, toadditional allowances; but if they are foot officers, and are properly

detailed for mounted duty, the quartermaster of the staff on which theyserve is obligated to furnish them a horse and equipments. Divisionsusually have an ordnance officer, whose duty it is to take charge of theammunition of the division, keep the quantity ordered, and supply thetroops in time of battle. By law the chief of artillery at corpsheadquarters is the chief ordnance officer for the corps, but this

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principal officers, so as to take orders through night and storm withunerring accuracy. They must be cool-headed, daring fellows, alert, andwell posted, good riders, and have good horses under them.

All this work cannot be accomplished in a day, a week, or a month. Thefull preparations required to render a campaign successful must have

been the result of long, patient, thoughtful consideration andorganization. It is no time to teach sailors seamanship in a hurricane.They must know where to find the ropes and what to do with them,with the spray dashing in their eyes and the black clouds scurryingacross the sky. It is no time for staff officers to begin their duties whena great army is to be moved. Then it is needed that every harness strap,every gun-carriage wheel, every knapsack, every soldier's shoe shouldhave been provided and should be in serviceable order; that the menshould have had their regular fare, and have been kept in the healthiestcondition; that clear and explicit information be ready on all details.Prepared by the assiduous, intelligent labor of a vigilant and faithfulstaff, an army becomes a compact, homogeneous masswithoutindividuality, but pervaded by one animating willcohesive bydiscipline, but pliant in all its partsimpetuous with enthusiasm, butcontrolled easily in the most minute operations.

These remarks, relative to the requirements for an effective staff,

pertain to all grades of organization. The staff officers at theheadquarters of the army organize general arrangements and supervisethe operations of subordinate officers of their department at theheadquarters of corps; these have more detailed duties, and, in theirturn, supervise the staffs of the divisions; the duties of these again arestill more detailed, and they supervise the staffs of brigades; thesefinally are charged with the specific details pertaining to theircommands, supervising the staffs of the regiments, who are in direct[Pg716] communication with the officers of companies.

Prepared for service by the unremitting labors of the staff officers, it isseldom that the army cannot move in complete order at six hours'notice. Think what preparation is required for a family of half a dozento get ready to spend a month in the countryhow tailors and millinersand dressmakers are put in requisitionhow business arrangementsmust be madehow a thousand little vexing details constantly suggest

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themselves which need attention. Think of a thousand familiestenthousandmaking these preparations! What a vast hurly burly! Whatan ocean of confusion! How many delays and disappointments! Duringthe fortnight or month which has elapsed while these families have

been getting ready, an army of fifty or a hundred thousand men hasmarched a hundred miles, fought a battle, been requipped, reclothed,reorganized, and, perhaps, the order of a nation's history hasexperienced an entire change.

Our next paper will describe in detail the operations of the staffdepartments.

FOOTNOTE

[A] Scott's Military Dictionary.[Pg 709]

SECOND PAPER.

Continental Monthly, Vol VI, No I, July 1864, pages 1-9

Having, in the preceding paper, described the general organization[1] ofan army, we proceed to give a succinct account of some of the principalstaff departments, in their relations to the troops.

Army organizationnotwithstanding the world has always beenengaged in military enterprisesis of comparatively recent institution.Many of the principles of existing military systems date no farther backthan to Frederic the Great, of Prussia, and many were originated by

Napoleon. Staff departments, particularly, as now constituted, are oflate origin. The staff organization is undergoing constant changes. Itsmost improved form is to be found in France and Prussia. Our ownstaff system is of a composite, and, in some respects, heterogeneouscharacternot having been, constructed on any regular plan, but builtup by gradual accretions and imitations of European features, from the

time of our Revolution till the present. It has, however, worked withgreat vigor and efficiency.

The staff of any commander is usually spoken of in two classesthedepartmental and the personalthe latter including the aides-de-camp,who pertain more particularly to the person of the commander, whilethe former belong to the organization. Of the departmental staff, the

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assistant adjutant-generals and assistant inspector-generals aredenominated the 'general staff,' because their functions extend throughall branches of the organization, while the other officers are confinedexclusively to their own departments.

The chief of staffis a recent French imitation. The first officer assignedin that capacity was General Marcy, on the staff of General McClellan,in the fall of 1861. Previous to that time the officers of the adjutant-general's departmenton account of their intimate relations withcommanding officers, as their official organs and the mediums throughwhich all orders were transmittedhad occupied it. The [Pg 2]duties ofthese officers, however, being chiefly of a bureau character, allowingthem little opportunity for active external supervision, it has beendeemed necessary to select for heads of the staffs, officers particularlyqualified to assist the commander in devising strategical plans,organizing, and moving troops, etc.; competent to oversee and directthe proceedings of the various staff departments; untrammelled withany exclusive routine of duty, and able in any emergency, when thecommander may be absent, to give necessary orders. For these reasons,although the innovation has not been sanctioned by any law, or anystanding rule of the War Department, and although its propriety isdiscussed by many, the custom of assigning officers as chiefs of staff

has become universal, and will probably be permanent. The extent andcharacter of their duties depend, however, upon themselves, beingregulated by no orders, and the high responsibilities attached to the

position in France have not thus far been assumed by the officersoccupying it here. In the French service, the chief of staff is the actualas well as the nominal head of the organization; he supervises all itsoperations; he is the alter ego of the commander. In the Waterloocampaign, for instance, Marshal Soult was the chief of Napoleon'sstaff, and the emperor attributed his disaster, in part, to some of the

orders issued by the marshal.Our limits will not permit a description of the duties pertaining to thevarious members of the staff, but we pass to the consideration of thosedepartments, the operations of which most directly affect the soldier,are indispensable to every army, and are most interesting to the public.

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Let us first consider the quartermaster's department, which, from thecharacter and diversity of its duties, the amount of its expenditures, andits influence upon military operations, may be ranked as among themost important. This department provides clothing, camp and garrison

equipage, animals and transportation of all kinds, fuel, forage, straw,and stationery, an immense variety of the miscellaneous materialsrequired by an army, and for a vast amount of miscellaneousexpenditures. It is, in fact, the great business operator of a militaryorganization. In an active army, the success of movements dependsvery much on its efficiency. Unless the troops are kept properlyclothed, the animals and means of transportation maintained in goodcondition, and the immense trains moved with regularity and

promptness, the best contrived plans will fail in their development and

execution.

The department, at the commencement of the war, had supplies in storeonly for the current uses of the regular army. When the volunteer forceswere organized it became necessary to make hasty contracts and

purchases to a large amount; but as even the best-informed members ofthe Government had no adequate prevision of the extent and duration ofthe war, and of the necessary arrangements for its demands, aconsiderable period elapsed before a sufficient quantity of the required

materials could be accumulated. Those were the days of 'shoddy' clothand spavined horses. The department, however, exhibited greatadministrative energy, under the direction of its able head, General M.C. Meigs, and has amply provided for the enormous demands upon it.

Depots for the reception of supplies are established in the large cities,whence they are transferred as required to the great issuing depots nearthe active armies, and from them to the depots in the field. Thus, themain depots of the Army of the Potomac are at Washington andAlexandriaa field depot being established at its centre, when lying

for any length of time in camp. Only current supplies are kept on handat the latter, and no surplus is transported on the march, except the[Pg 3]required amounts of subsistence and forage.

A great deal is said in connection with military movements, of 'bases ofoperation.' These are the points in the rear of an army from which itreceives supplies and renforcements, and with which its

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communications must at all hazards be kept open, except it has meansof transportation sufficient to render it independent of its depots for aconsiderable period, or unless the country traversed is able to affordsubsistence for men and animals. When an army marches along a

navigable river, its secondary base becomes movable, and it is lessconfined to the necessity of protecting its rear. In Virginia, however,the connection of the Army of the Potomac with Washington isimperative, and this fact explains the contracted sphere of theoperations of that army.

The transportation of supplies is limited by the ability of theGovernment to provide trains, and by the ability of the army to protectthem; for large trains create large drafts on the troops for teamsters,

pioneers, guards, etc. An army train, upon the most limited allowancecompatible with freedom of operations for a few days, away from thedepots, is an immense affair. Under the existing allowances in theArmy of the Potomac, a corps of thirty thousand infantry has aboutseven hundred wagons, drawn by four thousand two hundred mules; thehorses of officers and of the artillery will bring the number of animalsto be provided for up to about seven thousand. On the march it iscalculated that each wagon will occupy about eighty feetin bad roadsmuch more; consequently a train of seven hundred wagons will cover

fifty-six thousand feet of roador over ten miles; the ambulances of acorps will occupy about a mile, and the batteries about three miles;thirty thousand troops need six miles to march in, if they form but onecolumn; the total length of the marching column of a corps is thereforetwenty miles, even without including the cattle herds and trains of

bridge material. Readers who have been accustomed to think that ourarmies have not exhibited sufficient energy in surmounting theobstacles of bad roads, unbridged streams, etc., will be able to estimate,upon the above statements, the immense difficulty of moving trains and

artillery. The trains of an army have been properly denominated itsimpedimenta, and their movement and protection is one of the mostdifficult incidental operations of warfareparticularly in a country likeVirginia, where the art of road making has attained no high degree of

perfection, and where the forests swarm with guerillas.

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To an unaccustomed observer the concourse of the trains of an army, inconnection with any rapid movement, would give the idea ofinextricable confusion. It is of course necessary to move them upon asmany different roads as possible, but it will frequently happen that they

must be concentrated in a small space, and move in a small number ofcolumns. During the celebrated 'change of base' from Richmond toHarrison's Landing, the trains were at first obliged to move upon onlyone roadacross White Oak Swampwhich happened fortunately to

be wide enough for three wagons to go abreast. There were perhapstwenty-five hundred vehicles, which would make a continuous line ofsome forty or fifty miles. While the slow and toilsome course of thiscumbrous column was proceeding, the troops were obliged to remain inthe rear and fight the battles of Savage Station and White Oak Swamp

for its protection. A similar situation of trains occurred last fall whenGeneral Meade retired from the Rappahannock, but fortunately thecountry presented several practicable routes. It is on a retreat,

particularly, that the difficulty of moving trains is experienced, andthousands of lives and much valuable material have been lost by theneglect[Pg 4] of commanding officers to place them sufficiently far inthe rear during a battle, so as to permit the troops to fall back whennecessary, without interruption.

A march being ordered, supplies according to the capacity of the trains,are directed to be carried. The present capacity of the trams of theArmy of the Potomac is ten days' subsistence and forage, and sixtyrounds of small-arm ammunitionthe men carrying in addition anumber of days' rations, and a number of rounds, upon their persons.When the wagons reach camp each evening, such supplies as have beenexpended are replenished from them. As a general rule the baggagewagons camp every night with the troops, but the exigencies aresometimes such that officers are compelled to deny themselves for one

or even two weeks the luxury of a change of clothingthe wagons notreaching camp, perhaps, till after midnight, and the troops resumingtheir march an hour or two afterward. Those who indulge in satiresupon the wearers of shoulder straps would be likely to form a morecorrect judgment of an officer's position and its attendant hardships,could they see him at the close of a fortnight's campaign. Like thesoldier, he can rely on nothing for food or clothing except what is

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carried by himself, unless he maintains a servant, and the latter willfind a few blankets, a coffee pot, some crackers, meat, sugar, coffee,etc., for his own and his employer's consumption, a sufficient burden.

Let us see how the supplies of the quartermaster's department aredistributed.

At stated periods, if circumstances permitusually at the first of eachmonththe regimental quartermasters, after consultation with thecompany officers, forward through their superiors to the chiefquartermasters of corps, statements of the articles required by the men.These are consolidated and presented to the chief quartermaster of thearmy, who orders them from Washington, and issues them from thearmy depotthe whole operation requiring about a week. The number

of different kinds of articles thus drawn monthly is about five hundred;the quantity of each kind depends on the number of men to be supplied,and the nature of the service performed since the previous issue. Ifthere has been much marching, there will be a great demand for shoes;if a battle, large quantities of all kinds of articles to replace those loston the battle field will be required.

An infantry soldier is allowed the following principal articles ofclothing during a three years' term of service:

1st

Year.

2d

Year.

3d

Year.

Cap, 1 1 1

Coat, 2 1 2

Trowsers, 3 2 3

Flannelshirt,

3 3 3

Drawers, 3 2 2

Shoes, 4 4 4

Stockings, 4 4 4

Overcoat, 1 0 0

Blanket, 1 0 1

Indiarubber 1 1 1

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blanket,

The prices of these are stated each year in a circular from thedepartment, and, as the soldier draws them, his captain charges him

with the prices on the company books. The paymaster deducts from hispay any excess which he may have drawn, or allows him if he hasdrawn less than he is entitled to. The clothing is much cheaper thanarticles of the same quality at home. Thus, according to the present

prices, a coat costs $7.30; overcoat, $7.50; trowsers, $2.70; flannelshirt, $1.53; stockings, 32 cents; shoes, $2.05.

The commissary departmentprovides exclusively the subsistence of thetroops. Each soldier is entitled to the following daily ration:

Twelve ounces of pork or bacon, or one pound four ounces of freshbeef.

One pound six ounces of soft bread or[Pg 5] flour, or one pound of hardbread, or one pound four ounces of corn meal.

To every one hundred men, fifteen pounds of beans or peas, and tenpounds of rice or hominy.

To every one hundred men, ten pounds of green coffee, or eight poundsof roasted, or one pound and eight ounces of tea.

To every one hundred men, fifteen pounds of sugar, four quarts ofvinegar, one pound four ounces of candles, four pounds of soap, three

pounds twelve ounces of salt, four ounces of pepper, thirty pounds ofpotatoes, when practicable, and one quart of molasses.

Fresh onions, beets, carrots, and turnips, when on hand, can be issuedin place of beans, peas, rice, or hominy, if the men desire.

They can also take in place of any part of the ration an amount equal in

value of dried apples, dried peaches, pickles, etc., when on hand.

A whiskey ration of a gill per day per man can be issued on the order ofthe commander, in cases of extra hardship. It is, however, rarely issued,on account of the difficulty of finding room for its transportation in anyconsiderable quantities. Moreover, whiskey, in the army, is subject toextraordinary and mysterious leakages, and an issue can scarcely be

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made with such care that some drunkenness will not ensue. When lyingin camp, sutlers and others sell to the soldiers contrary to law, so thatold topers usually find methods of gratifying their appetitessometimes sacrificing a large proportion of their pay to the villains who

pander to them. The utmost vigilance of the officers fails to detect themethods by which liquor is introduced into the army. When a cask is

broached in any secluded place, the intelligence seems communicated by a pervading electrical current, and the men are seized with auniversal desire to leave camp for the purpose of washing, or gettingwood, or taking a walk, or other praise-worthy purposes.

The total weight of a ration is something over two pounds, but inmarching, some articles are omitted, and but a small quantity of saltmeat is carriedfresh beef being supplied from the herds of cattledriven with the army. A bullock will afford about four hundred andfifty rations, so that an army of one hundred thousand men needs overtwo hundred cattle daily for its supply.

In camp the men can refrain from drawing portions of their rations, andthe surplus is allowed for by the commissaries in money, by which acompany fund can be created, and expended in the purchase of gloves,gaiters, etc., or luxuries for the table. A hospital fund is formed in thesame wayby an allowance for the portions of the rations not

consumed by the patientsand is expended in articles adapted to dietfor the sick. The rations are ample and of good quality, though the saltmeat is rather tough occasionally, and the consistency of the hard breadis shot-proof. Company cooks are allowed, and in camp they contriveto furnish quite appetizing meals. Their position is rather difficult tofill, and woe is the portion of the cook not competent for his profession.The practical annoyances to which he is subject make him realize to thefullest extent 'the unfathomable depths of human woe.' On the marchthe men usually prefer to boil their coffee in tin cups, and to cook their

meat on ram-rodswithout waiting for the more formal movements ofthe cooks. To reach camp before sunset, after a twenty-mile march, to

pitch his little shelter tent, throw in it his heavy arms andaccoutrements, collect some pine twigs for a couch, wash in someadjacent stream, drink his cup of hot, strong coffee, eat his salt porkand hard bread, and then wrap himself in his blanket for a dreamless

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slumber, is one of the[Pg 6] most delicious combinations of luxuriousenjoyment a soldier knows. To-morrow, perhaps, he starts up at theearly reveille, takes his hasty breakfast, is marshalled into line beforethe enemy, there is a shriek in the air rent by the murderous shell, and

the soldier's last march is ended.

The next department we shall consider is that of ordnance, whichsupplies the munitions and portions of accoutrements.

The subject of artillery is perhaps the most interesting of the greatnumber connected with warfare. In the popular estimation itovershadows all others. All the poetry of war celebrates the grandeur of

'Those mortal engines whose rude throats

The immortal Jove's dread clamors counterfeit.'The thunder of great guns and the dashing of cavalry are the incidentswhich spontaneously present themselves to the mind when a battle ismentioned. Perhaps the accounts of Waterloo are responsible for this.The steady fighting of masses of infantry, having less particulars toattract the imagination, is overlooked; the fact, preminent above allothers in military science, that it is the infantry which contests anddecides battles, that artillery and cavalry are only subordinate agencies

is forgotten. So splendid have been the inventions and achievements

of the last few years in respect to artillery, as illustrated particularly atCharleston, that some excuse may easily be found for the popularmisconception. A few remarks presenting some truths relative to theappropriate sphere of artillery and its powers, and stating succinctly theresults which have been accomplished, may be found interesting.

Without entering into the history of artillery, it will be sufficient to statethat the peculiar distinguishing excellence of modern improvements incannon is the attainment of superior efficiency, accuracy, and mobility,

with a decrease in weight of metal. A gun of any given size is nowmany times superior to one of the same size in use fifty or a hundredyears ago. It is not so much in big guns that we excel our predecessors

for there are many specimens of old cannon of great dimensions; butby our advance in science we are able so to shape our guns and ourprojectiles that with less weight of material we can throw larger shot to

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a greater distance and with more accuracy. A long course ofmathematical experiment and calculation has determined the exact

pressure of a charge of powder at all points in the bore of a cannonduring its combustion and evolution into gas. These experiments have

proved that strength is principally required near the breech, and that acannon need not be of so great length as was formerly supposed to benecessary. We are thus able to construct guns which can be handled,throwing balls of several hundred pounds' weight. Another splendidresult of scientific investigation is the method adopted for casting suchmonster guns. In order that the mass of metal may be of uniformtenacity and character, it should cool equably. This has been secured bya plan for introducing a stream of water through the core of the casting,so that the metal cools both within and without simultaneously.

About the time that the Italian war commenced, the subject of rifledcannon excited much popular interest. Exaggerated expectations wereformed of the changes to be produced by them in the art of warfare.Many saw in them the means of abolishing war entirely. Of what use isit, they said, to array armies against each other, if they can be destroyedat two or three miles' distance? At the commencement of our owncontest there was an undue partiality for rifled ordnance. Almost everycommander of a battery desired to have rifled guns. The more correct

views of the thoroughly accomplished artillery officers to whom wasconfided[Pg 7] the arrangement of this branch of the service, and actualexperience, have dissipated the unfounded estimate of their utility forfield service, and established the proper proportions in an artillery forcewhich they should compose. It has been ascertained that fighting willnever be confined to long rangesthat guns which can throw largevolumes of spherical case and canister into lines only a few hundredyards distant are as necessary as ever.

The necessity for rifled cannon arose from the perfection of rifled

muskets. When these arms reached such a degree of excellence thathorses and gunners could be shot down at a distance of one thousandyards, the old-fashioned smooth-bore artillery was deprived of its

prestige. To retrieve this disadvantage and restore the superiority ofartillery over musketry in length of range, methods of rifling cannon forfield service became an important study. For assailing distant lines of

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troops, for opening a battle, for dispersing bodies of cavalry, forshelling intrenchments, for firing over troops from hills in their rear,rifled guns are of invaluable service. But, notwithstanding troops arenow universally armed with muskets of long range, no battle of

importance is fought without close engagements of the lines. Thealternate advances and retreats of the infantry, firing at distances of lessthan one hundred yards, charging with fixed bayonets and franticshouts, will always characterize any battle fought with vigor andenthusiasm. In such conflicts, wide-mouthed smooth bores, belchingtheir torrents of iron, must play a conspicuous part.

Another fact, which will perhaps surprise the general reader, is that theform and character ofprojectiles have been matters of as muchdifficulty, have received as much investigation, and are of as muchimportance, as the shape and character of the guns. In fact, rifled pieceswould be comparatively ineffective except projectiles adapted to themhad been invented. It was necessary that projectiles of greater weight,of less resistance to the atmosphere, and of more accuracy of flight,than the old round shot, should be introduced. To accomplish theseends several things were necessary: 1st, the projectiles should beelongated; 2d, they should have conical points; 3d, the centre of gravityshould be at a proper distance in front of the centre; 4th, there should be

methods ofsteeringthem so that they should always go point foremostthrough the whole curve of their flight; 5th, they should fit the gun soas to take the rifles, yet not so closely as to strain it. To attain these andother requisites, innumerable plans have been devised. The projectileoffering the best normal conditions is the arrow; it has length, a sharp

point, centre of gravity near the head, and feathers for guiding it(sometimes so arranged that it shall rotate like a rifled ball). Improved

projectiles, therefore, both for muskets and cannon, correspond in theseessentials to the first products of man in the savage state.

We cannot, in this article, further discuss either such general principlesor those of a more abstruse character, in their application to artillery,

but will briefly state a few facts relative to its employmentconfiningourselves exclusively to thefield service.

The guns now principally used for battles, in the Northern armies, are10 and 12-pounder Parrotts, three-inch United States rifles, and light

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12-pounder smooth bores. The distinguishing characteristic of theParrott guns is lightness of construction, secured by strengthening the

breech (in accordance with the principles mentioned a few paragraphsback) with a band of wrought iron. This has been applied to guns of all

sizes, and its excellence has been tested by General Gillmore in thereduction of Forts Pulaski and Sumter. The three-inch guns are made ofwrought iron, are of light weight,[Pg 8] but exceedingly tenacious andaccurate. The 12-pounders, sometimes called Napoleons, are of bronze,with large caliber, and used chiefly for throwing shell and canister atcomparatively short distances.

The greatest artillery conflict of the war (in the field) occurred atGettysburg. For two hours in the afternoon of the memorable thirdday's battle, about four hundred cannon were filling the heavens withtheir thunder, and sending their volleys of death crashing in alldirections.

It was estimated that the discharges numbered five or six a second; infact, the ear could hardly detect any cessations in the roar. The air wasconstantly howling as the shells swept through it, while the falling of

branches, cut from the trees by the furious missiles, seemed as if atornado was in the height of its fury: every few minutes, a thunderheard above all other sounds, denoted the explosion of a caisson,

sweeping into destruction, with a cataract of fire and iron, men andanimals for hundreds of feet around it. The effect of such a fire ofartillery is, however, much less deadly than any except those who have

been subject to it can believe. The prevalent impression concerning therelative destructiveness of cannon and musketry is another instance of

popular error. In the first place, all firing at over a mile distancecontains a large proportion of the elements of chance, for it isimpossible to get the range and to time the fuses so accurately as tomake any considerable percentage of the shots effective; and in the next

place, except when marching to a close conflict, the men are generallyprotected by lying down behind inequalities of the ground, or otheraccidental or designed defences. The proportion killed in any battle byartillery fire is very small. Lines of men frequently lie exposed toconstant shelling for hours, with small loss; in fact, in such cases, old

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soldiers will eat their rations, or smoke their pipes, or perhaps have agame of poker, with great equanimity.

No portion of the military service has been more misrepresented thanthe medical department. An opinion seems to prevail quite extensivelythat the army surgeon is generally a young graduate, vain of his official

position, who cares little for the health of the soldier, and glories in theopportunities afforded by a battle for reckless operations. Such anopinion is altogether fallacious. In the regiments there are undoubtedlymany physicians who have adopted the service as a resource for aliving which they were unable to find at home, but the majority areexactly the same class of professional men as those who pursue usefuland honorable careers in all our cities and villages. When a physician iscalled upon at home, it happens in a majority of casesas every honestmember of the profession will admitthat there is little or no necessityfor his services. Too sagacious to avow this, he gravely makes somesimple prescription, and as gravely pockets his fee. In camp, however,the potent argument of the fee does not prevail, and men who run to thedoctor with trifling ailments, by which they hope to be relieved fromduty, receive a rebuff instead of a pill. They instantly write letterscomplaining of his inhumanity. In regard to operations, it is a frequentremark by the most experienced surgeons that lives are lost from the

hesitancy to amputate, more frequently than limbs are removedunnecessarily.

The medical department of an army, like every other, is controlled by asystem, and it is this which regulates its connections with the soldiermore than the qualifications of individual surgeons. In the army the

system takes care of everything, even to the minutest details. Hygienicregulations for preserving the salubrity of camps and the cleanliness ofthe troops and their tents, are prescribed and enforced. Every day thereis a 'sick call' at[Pg 9] which men who find themselves ill present

themselves to the surgeons for treatment. If slightly affected, they aretaken care of in their own quarters; if more seriously, in the regimentalhospitals; if still more so, in the large hospitals established by the chiefmedical officer of the corps; and if necessary, sent to the Governmenthospitals established at various places in the country. To the latteralmost all the sick are transferred previous to a march. To be ill in the

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army, amid the constant noises of a camp, and with the non-luxuriousappliances of a field hospital, is no very pleasant matter; but the sicksoldier receives all the attention and accommodation possible under thecircumstances.

To every corps is attached a train of ambulances, in the proportion oftwo or three to a regiment. They are spring wagons with seats along thesides, like an omnibus, which can, when necessary, be made to form a

bed for two or three persons. With each train is a number of wagons,carrying tents, beds, medicine chests, etc., required for theestablishment of hospitals. On the march, the ambulances collect thesick and exhausted who fall out from the columns and have a surgeon'scertificate as to their condition. When a battle is impending, and thefield of conflict fixed, the chief medical officers of the corps take

possession of houses and barns in the rear, collect hay and straw forbedding, or, if more convenient, pitch the tents at proper localities. Adetail of surgeons is made to give the necessary attendance. While the

battle proceeds, the lightly wounded fall to the rear, and are theretemporarily treated by the surgeons who have accompanied the troopsto the field, and then find their way to the hospitals. If the fighting has

passed beyond the places where lie the more dangerously wounded,they are brought to the rear by the 'stretcher bearers' attached to the

ambulance trains, and carried to the hospitals in the ambulances.Sometimes it happens that the strife will rage for hours on nearly thesame spot, and it may be night before the 'stretcher bearers' can go outand collect the wounded. But the surgeons make indefatigableexertions, often exposed to great danger, to give their attention to thosewho require it. At the best, war is terribleall its 'pomp, pride, andcircumstance' disappear in the view of the wounded and dead on thefield, and of the mangled remnants of humanity in the hospitals. Buteverything that can be devised and applied to mitigate its horrors is

provided under the systematized organization of the medicaldepartment. In the Army of the Potomac, at least, and undoubtedly inall the other armies of the North, that department combines skill, vigor,humanity, and efficiency to an astonishing degree. Its results areexhibited not only in the small mortality of the camps, but in thecelerity of its operation on the field of battle, and the great proportionof lives preserved after the terrible wounds inflicted by deadly

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renown in overthrowing the ranks of an enemy by the impetuous rushof a mass of horses against serried bayonets.

In many respects cavalry is the most difficult branch of military serviceto maintain and to operate. It is exceedingly costly, on account of thegreat loss of horses by the carelessness of the men, by overwork, bydisease, and by the fatalities of battle. The report of General Halleck,for the year 1863, stated that from May to October there were from tenthousand to fourteen thousand cavalry in the Army of the Potomac,while the number of horses furnished them for the same period wasthirty-five thousand; adding to these the horses taken by capture andused for mounting men, the number would be sufficient to give eachman a horse every two months. There were two hundred and twenty-three regiments of cavalry in the service, which, at the same rate, wouldrequire four hundred and thirty-five thousand horses. This is animmense expenditure of animals, and is attributable in part to the

peculiarities of the volunteer servicesuch as the lack of care andknowledge on the part of the officers, and the disposition of the men to

break down their horses by improper riding, and sometimes out of merewantonness, for the purpose of getting rid of animals they do not like,for the chance of obtaining better. A measure has recently been adoptedto remedy these evils, by putting into the infantry cavalry officers and

men who show themselves incompetent to take proper care of theiranimals, and who neglect other essentials of cavalry service. The[Pg224] provision and transportation of forage for cavalry horses alsoconstitute items of great cost.

To attain proficiency and effectiveness, cavalry soldiers require muchlonger instruction than those of any other arm. They must becomeexpert swordsmen, and acquire such skill in equitation that horse andrider shall resemble the mythical centaurs of the ancientsshall beonly one individual in will. The horses should be as thoroughly trained

as the riders. In European armies this is accomplished in trainingschools. The Governments keep constantly on hand large supplies ofanimals, partly purchased and partly produced in public stables, andcapable instructors are continually employed in fitting both men andhorses for their duties.

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To insure the provision of proper horses and to recuperate those whichare sent from the army disabled or sick, an immense cavalry depot has

been established at Giesboro', near Washington. Thousands of horsesare kept there ready for service, and as fast as men in the army are

dismounted by the loss of their animals, they are sent to this depot. It isone of the most useful and best-arranged affairs connected with ourservice, and has greatly assisted in diminishing the expense attendingthe provision of animals, and in increasing the efficiency of ourcavalry.

We have had all the difficulties to contend with resulting frominexperienced riders and untrained horses. No one who has not beheldthe scene, can imagine the awkward appearance of a troop of recruitsmounted on horses unaccustomed to the saddle. The sight is one of themost laughable that can be witnessed. We have seen the attempt madeto put such a troop into a gallop across a field. Fifty horses and fiftymen instantly became actuated by a hundred different wills, anddispersed in all directionssome of the riders hanging on to the

pommels, with their feet out of the stirrups, others tugging away at thebridles, and not a few sprawling on the ground. After a few months'drills, however, a different scene is presented, and an old troop horse

becomes so habituated to his exercises that not only will he perform all

the evolutions without guidance, but will even refuse to leave the ranks,though under the most vigorous incitements of whip and spur. Anofficer friend was once acting as cavalier to a party of ladies onhorseback at a review, when, unfortunately, the troop in which hishorse belonged happening to pass by, the animal bolted from the groupof ladies, and took his accustomed place in the ranks, nor could all theefforts of his rider disengage him. Finally, our friend was obliged todismount, and, holding the horse by the bit, backhim out of the troop tohis station with the party of ladiesa feat performed amid much

provoking laughter.Cavalry can operate in masses only when circumstances are favorable

the country open, and the ground free from obstructions. Yet it is inmasses alone that it can be effective, and it can triumph against infantryonly by a shockfrom the precipitation of its weight upon the lines,crushing them by the onset. Before the time of Frederic the Great, the

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Prussian horsemen resembled those to be seen at a militia reviewtheywere a sort of picture soldiers, incapable of a vigorous charge. Herevolutionized the service by teaching that cavalry must achievesuccess by a rapid onset, not stopping to fire themselves, and not

regarding the fire of their opponents. By practising these lessons, theywere able to overthrow the Austrian infantry. But if the force of acharge is dissipated by obstructions on the ground, or is broken by thefire of the assailed, the effectiveness of cavalry, as a participant in themanuvres of a battle field, is entirely destroyed.

The question of the future of cavalry is at present one of great interestamong military investigators; for notwith[Pg 225]standing its brilliantachievements during our civil war, the fact is apparent that its spherehas been entirely changed, its old system has become obsolete, andformer possibilities no longer lie within its scope. Since Waterloo therehad not been, until our war commenced, any opportunity to test theaction of cavalry; for its operations in the Crimea and in Italy wereinsignificant. The art of warfare had, meanwhile, in many respects,

become revolutionized by the introduction of rifled arms. Military menwaited, therefore, with interest, the experience of the war in thiscountry, to judge from it as to the part cavalry was to perform in futurewarfare. That experience has shown that the day in which cavalry can

successfully charge squares of infantry has passed. When the smooth-bore muskets alone were used by infantry, cavalry could be formed inmasses for charging at a distance of five hundred yards; now theformations must be made at the distance of nearly a mile, and thatintervening space must be passed at speed under the constant fire ofcannon and rifles; when the squares are reached, the horses arefrightened and blown, the ranks have been disordered by theimpossibility of preserving a correct front during such a length of timeat rapid speed, and by the loss of men; the charge breaks weakly on the

wall of bayonets, and retires baffled. Infantry, before it learns its ownstrength and the difficulty of forcing a horse against a bayonetorrather to trample down a manhas an absurd and unfounded fear ofcavalry. This feeling was in part the cause of the panic among ourtroops at Bull Runso much had been said about the Black Horsetroop of the rebels. The Waterloo achievements of the French were thenthought possible of repetition. Now adays it is hardly probable that the

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veteran infantry of either army would take the trouble to form squaresto resist cavalry, but would expect to rout it by firing in line. Neither

party in our war has been able to make its mounted forces effective in ageneral battle. Nothing has occurred to parallel, upon the battle field,

those exploits of the cavalryFrench, Prussian, and Englishin thegreat wars of the last century, extending to Waterloo.

The enthusiastic admirers of cavalry still maintain that it is possible torepeat those exploits, even in face of the improved firearms now in use.All that is necessary, they say, is to have the cavalry sufficiently drilled.The ground to be crossed under a positively dangerous fire is only fivehundred or six hundred yards, and once taught to continue the chargethrough the bullets for this distance, and then to throw themselves onthe bayonets, horsemen will now, as heretofore, break the lines ofinfantry. All very true, ifcavalry to fulfil the conditions named can beobtained; but in them lies the difficulty. Occasional instances ofsplendid charges will undoubtedly occur in future warfare; but it seemsto be an established fact that the day for the glory of cavalry has passed.Once the mailed knight, mounted on his mailed charger, couldoverthrow by scores the poor, pusillanimous pikemen and crossbowmen who composed the infantry; he was invulnerable in his iron armor,and could ride them down like reeds. But gunpowder and the bayonet

have changed this; and now the most confident and domineeringcavalryman will put spurs to his horse and fly at a gallop, if he sees themuzzle of an infantryman's rifle, with its glittering bayonet, pointed athim from the thicket.

Another revolution effected in the mounted service by theimprovements in arms and the consequent changes of tactics, is thediminution of heavy and the increase of light cavalrythat is, thetransfer of the former into the latter. These two denominations reallyinclude all kinds of cavalry, although the non-military reader may have

been[Pg 226] puzzled by the numerous subordinate denominations to befound in the accounts of European warfaresuch as dragoons,cuirassiers, hussars, lancers, chasseurs, hulans, etc.

Heavy cavalry is composed of the heavier men and horses, and isusually divided into dragoons and cuirassiers. It is designed to act inmasses, and to break the lines of an enemy by the weight of its charge.

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Usually, also, it has had some defensive armor, and is a directdescendant from the knights of the Middle Ages. But the cuirasses,which were sufficient to resist the balls from smooth-bore muskets, areeasily penetrated by rifles. Consequently the occupation of this kind of

cavalry is gone, and it is likely to disappear gradually from the service.In this country we have never had anything except light cavalrytheonly kind adapted for use in our Indian warfare. This kind of cavalry isintended to accomplish results by the celerity of its movements, and allits equipments should therefore be as light as possible. The chiefdifficulty is to prevent the cavalry soldier from overloading his horse,as he has a propensity not only to carry a large wardrobe and a fullsupply of kitchen utensils, but also to 'convey,' in the language ofPistol, or, in army language, 'gobble up,' or, in plain English, steal

anything that is capable of being fastened to his saddle.

It is evident that the efficiency of a cavalry soldier depends as muchupon his horse as upon himself; and it is requisite, therefore, that theweight upon the horse should be as light as possible. The limit has beenfixed at about two hundred pounds for light, and two hundred and fiftyfor heavy cavalry; but both of these are too much. A cavalry soldierought not to weigh over one hundred and fifty to one hundred and sixty

pounds, and his accoutrements not over thirty pounds additional; but in

practice, scarcely any horseexcept where the rider is a very lightweightcarries less than two hundred and twenty or two hundred andthirty pounds. One great cause of the evils incident to our cavalryservice is the excessive weight imposed on the horses. The French take

particular pains in this respect; while in England the cavalry is almostentirely 'heavy,' and, though well drilled, is clumsy. John Bull, with hisroast beef and plum pudding, makes a poor specimen of a lightcavalryman. English officers are now endeavoring to revolutionize theirmounted service, so as to diminish its weight and increase its celerity.

The arms of cavalry have been various, but it is now well settled that itstrue weapon is the sabre, as its true form of operation is the charge. Agreat deal of ingenuity has been expended in devising the best form ofsabre. Different countries have different patterns, but the one adoptedin our army is very highly considered. It is pointed, so as to be used inthrusting; sharp on one edge for cutting; curved, so as to inflict a deeper

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wound; and the weight arranged, by a mathematical rule, so that thecentres of percussion and of gravity are placed where the weapon may

be most easily handled. The lance is a weapon very appropriate to lightmounted troops, and is still used by some of the Cossacks and Arab

horsemen. But to wield it effectively requires protracted training. For along time in Europe it was the chief weapon for horsemen; with theknights it was held in exclusive honor, and continued in use for aconsiderable period after firearms had destroyed the prestige of thegentlemen of the golden spurs. Prince Maurice, of Orange, when hera

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An Army - Its Organization and Movements by Cornelus W. Tolles (1829 - 1864)

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