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Ocean & Coastal Management 57 (2012) 53e61

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Ocean & Coastal Management

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An assessment on restoration of typical marine ecosystemsin china e Achievements and lessons

Bin Chen a, Weiwei Yu a, Wenhua Liu b,*, Zhenghua Liu a

a The Third Institute of Oceanography, SOA, 178 Daxue Road, Xiamen 361005, Chinab Shantou University, 243 Daxue Road, Shantou 515063, China

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online 1 December 2011

* Corresponding author. Marine Biology Institute,Building, Daxue Road 243, Shantou, Guangdong, PRC82903269; fax: þ86 754 82903403.

E-mail address: whliu@stu.edu.cn (W. Liu).

0964-5691/$ e see front matter � 2011 Elsevier Ltd.doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2011.11.007

a b s t r a c t

Marine ecosystems are among China’s most valuable resources, providing a wide range of services andbenefits to human and other species. However, the reclamation since 1950s and the explosion ofindustrialization and urbanization have created severe environmental problems along China’s vastcoastline since late 1970s, and consequently marine ecosystems have been seriously stressed anddegraded. In recent years, China has launched a series of restoration programs in order to preserve andrestore the qualities of these attractive ecosystems. In this paper, three cases in marine ecosystemrestoration (i.e. mangrove restoration in Quanzhou bay, bay ecosystem restoration in Wuyuan Bay ofXiamen and eutrophic semi-enclosed bay restoration in Xiamen western waters) were evaluated. Theresults, together with the brief assessment of practices in other coastal areas, showed that the majorbarriers for success are: (i) more comprehensive insights into ecological, socio-economic, political factorsare necessary for setting-up clear project objectives and targets; (ii) more attention should be paid toecological functions in order to restore the ecosystem’s values and benefits; (iii) more scientific processesneed to be conducted to evaluate the causes for ecosystem degradation and predict the probability fornatural recovery; and (iv) degradation causes diagnosis, restoration technologies and methods, moni-toring strategies and techniques, assessment and evaluation, adaptive management and resultsdissemination should be all emphasized during the restoration efforts.

� 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Restoration is described as returning an ecosystem to a closeapproximationof its conditionprior todisturbance (NRC,1992). A lotof literature, terminology and experience related to terrestrial andfreshwater restoration have been recorded for a very long time(McLachlan andBazely, 2003; Sondergaard et al., 2007), but it is onlyrecently that these experiences were achieved in marine ecosys-tems (Fonseca et al., 2002; French, 2006; Simenstad et al., 2006).More and more practices have been conducted for restoration ofsalt-marsh (Hinkle and Mitsch, 2005), mangrove (Lewis, 2005),coral reef (Lindahl, 2003), coastline (Jones andHanna, 2004) and seagrass ecosystems (van Katwijk et al., 2009) in different countries.

Marine ecosystems are among China’s most valuable resources,providing awide range of services and benefits to human and otherspecies (Shi et al., 2008). However, the exploration of coastal

Shantou University, Science515063, China. Tel.: þ86 754

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wetlands since 1950s and the explosion of industrialization andurbanization since late 1970s have created severe environmentalproblems along China’s vast coastline, and consequently marineecosystems have been seriously stressed and degraded (Chen andUitto, 2002). For example, about a total area of 2.19 million hacoastal wetland area of China has been destroyed and occupied dueto enclosing the sea and building cropland projects (State ForestryAdministration of China, 2004). As a result, the covering area ofmangrove forests decreased by 68.7% during 1950e1990 in China,and nearly 80% of the existing forests were secondary ones (StateForestry Administration of China, 2004). At the same time, in2009, Type III seawater area was about 18,834 km2, and Type IVseawater plus Type bad IV area reached about 47,898 km2 (StateOceanic Administration, 2009). Therefore, China is one of thenations having the most severe problems with coastal ecosystemdegradation. In recent years, China’s governments have paid muchattention to marine ecosystem protection and degraded ecosystemrestoration. A series of restoration programs were launched inorder to restore the qualities of these attractive ecosystems,especially mangrove and semi-enclosed bay ecosystems (Ren et al.,2008;Wang et al., 2008; You et al., 2009). Until 2002, about 2678 ha

Fig. 1. Locations of three restoration cases’ site.

B. Chen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 57 (2012) 53e6154

mangroves have been replanted with 57% successful efforts inHainan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces (Chenet al., 2009). Actually, comprehensive ecological, economic, andsocial insights should be taken into account in developing resto-ration and management strategies (Ren et al., 2004). However,marine ecosystem restoration efforts in China still lack such kind ofcomprehensive insights. For example, Sonneratia apetala, an alienspecies, occupies about 95% of the restoration area in mangrovereforestation in China, which can affect the integrity of naturalmangrove communities (Ren et al., 2009).

This paper aimed to assess typical marine ecosystem restorationefforts in China using mangrove restoration in Quanzhou bay,coastal wetland restoration in Wuyuan Bay of Xiamen and eutro-phic semi-enclosed bay restoration in Xiamen western waters asthe cases. Achievements and lessons were also summarized anddiscussed from the cases and other related efforts, in order topossibly provide guidance for future’s marine ecosystem restora-tion efforts in China.

2. Methods and cases

2.1. Methods

Diefenderfer et al. ever summarized the systematic approach fora coastal restoration project, including five components, i.e. plan-ning, implementation, performance assessment, adaptivemanagement, and dissemination of results (Diefenderfer et al.,2003). Planning includes the establishment of goals, objectives,and performance criteria for the project. In China, solid experienceshave been achieved in vegetation restoration, covering ecosystemdegradation diagnosis and restoration techniques (Ren et al., 2004).Accordingly, a framework for assessing marine ecosystem restora-tion projects was formed as following:

(1) Was enough baseline information collected, including exami-nation of historical or pre-disturbance conditions, degree ofpresent alteration, present ecological conditions, and otherfactors?

(2) Were degradation causes, types, process and degree fullyanalyzed?

(3) Were goals and performance criteria clear, brief, achievable andmeasurable as much as possible?

(4) Was restoration scheme set up, covering engineering design,schedule and budget?

(5) Was the ecological effect of restoration project assessed?(6) Was there any monitoring program developed and

implemented?(7) Was adaptive management conducted during the whole

restoration process?(8) Was restoration results disseminated?

Following the questions in the framework, cases together withother related efforts in China were then analyzed based on litera-ture cited.

2.2. Cases

As mentioned above, Chinese government has launched a seriesof restoration programs in recent years, especially focusing onmangrove replanting and eutrophic waters restoration (Ren et al.,2008; Wang et al., 2008; You et al., 2009). For example,mangrove area in China has increased from 14,877 ha in 1997 to23,081.5 ha in 2008 (Fu et al., 2009), and successful restorationefforts mainly occurred in Zhanjiang, Zhuhai and Shenzhen ofGuangdong Province, and Xiamen and Quanzhou of Fujian Province

(Chen et al., 2009). Restoration project in Quanzhou from 2002,comparatively later and more integrative effort was selected as thecase study in this study. For eutrophic semi-closed bay, situationsbecome increasingly severe as a result of runoff from land-baseagriculture, industrial, and other anthropogenic activities (StateOceanic Administration, 2009), and large-scale cultivation ofseaweed has been encouraged in China now, in order to improvewater quality (Yang et al., 2006). However, literature only focusingon eutrophic waters restoration is very limited, so this study chosea project in Xiamen western waters as the case study. The resto-ration project in Wuyuan Bay, Xiamen is a pioneer practice in bayrestoration in China, so this effort was also chosen for case study.Locations of three case sites were indicated in Fig. 1.

2.2.1. Case 1: mangrove restoration in Quanzhou BayQuanzhou Bay is located in the southeastern coastal area of

Fujian province, China, covering 128 km2, and this area washistorically inhabited by a large area of mangroves. In the 1960s,there were more than 600 ha mangroves in Quanzhou Bay, but thearea decreased sharply due to heavy reclamation and mariculturesince then (Zhuang, 2008). The more serious damages tomangroves in Quanzhou Bay occurred after 1980s, when the pop-ulation boom and rapid economic developments started in thecoastal areas of China. Until the end of 2001, only 17.112 hamangroves were recorded (Zhuang, 2008), and the species diversitywas also very low, dominated by Aegiceras comiculatum with fewKandelia candel and Avicennia marina (Liu, 2008). In 2002, a seriesof transplantation efforts were initiated by local governments inorder to restore mangrove ecosystem in Quanzhou Bay.

2.2.2. Case 2: coastal wetland restoration in Wuyuan BayWuyuan Bay is located in the northeastern area of Xiamen,

Fujian Province, China, which was called Zhongzai Bay before therestoration program started. The water in the bay was ever con-nected with the sea, but the dike construction for reclamation inthe late 1950s and 1970s changed the bay into a lake (Fig. 2).Historically, Wuyuan Bay wetland ever hosted 83 bird species of 13families and 66 genera, and 5 are CITES (Convention on Interna-tional Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna)appendix II species and 3 are CTIES appendix III species (Liu andChen, 2004). However, the un-exchangeable water body andpollution from agricultural, maricultural and industrial sources hadmade the bay water quality seriously bad. The zooplankton speciesdiversity was very low. There were no large copepods but only

Fig. 2. The view of Wuyuan Bay in 2004 before restoration.

Fig. 3. The view of Xiamen western waters in 2007.

B. Chen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 57 (2012) 53e61 55

small ones recorded, and the predominant species was Oithonabrevicornis which was an indicator species of eutrophication(Kamburska and Valcheva, 2003). At the same time, the naturalwetland had been seriously degraded by farming and mariculturalactivities. Wetland landscape patches shrinked a lot with very highfragmentation, and ecological services also decreased sharply (Liuand Chen, 2004).

In order to restore the wetland and improve the sustainabledevelopment in coastal area around Wuyuan Bay, Xiamen Munic-ipal Government initiated the restoration project in 2001.

2.2.3. Case 3: eutrophicated semi-closed bay restoration in Xiamenwestern waters

During the past 50 years, the reclamation largely occurred inXiamen western waters, with three dikes constructed and largeareas reclaimed in this area (Xue et al., 2004). Currently, Xiamenwestern waters (24�260-24�340240 0N, 118�10-118�60E) has becomeinto a semi-closed bay area (Fig. 3). All these reclamation activitieshas decreased the tidal prism and thus the exchange rate ofseawater between inside and outside the bay, followed by intensiveeutrophication (Zhang and Lin, 2008). In 1980, N/P in the restora-tion site was about 64, but this ratio has decreased to 24 until 2003,which was very favorable for algal blooming (Zhang and Lin, 2008).Actually, red tide occurrence has been recorded every year since1986 in this area (Cai, 2008).

In order to restore the eutrophicated waters in Xiamen westernharbors, a trial restoration effort was conducted during 2007e2008(Cai and Guo, 2008).

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Mangrove restoration

The transplantations were successful with a total area of 300 habetween 2002 and 2006 (Li et al., 2009), and they are still presentand continue to spread (Fig. 4). Until 2008, the average tree heighthas reached 1.0m, and the crab population density has increased bynearly 5 times compared to that in 2002. Actually, many other

mangrove restoration programs and practices have also beenlaunched in other coastal areas of China since 1980s (Chen et al.,2009). The mangrove area in China has consequently increasedfrom 14,877 ha in 1997 to 23,081.5 ha in 2008(Chen et al., 2009).Strategies and principles of site selection, species selection orintroduction, monitoring and conservation were initially formedfor mangrove restoration in China after nearly 20 year’s practices(Wang and Wang, 2007). However, there are still many limitationsexisting in mangrove restoration practices including that inQuanzhou Bay and those in other areas of China:

(1) Baseline information was collected, but incomplete. Generally,baseline information collected in mangrove restoration practiceswas just related mangrove itself, but other ecological parameterssuch as the processes maintaining functional mangrove ecosystemwere scarcely investigated (Zhuang, 2008; Liu, 2008; Wang andWang, 2007; Peng et al., 2008; Ye et al., 2005).

(2) Degradation causes, types, process and degree were analyzed,but too descriptive. Degradation causes, types were generallydescribed in all analyses, commonly including reclamation, pollu-tion, alien species invasion and felling (Zhuang, 2008; Liu, 2008;Wang and Wang, 2007; Peng et al., 2008; Ye et al., 2005; Bosireet al., 2008; Ellison, 2000). However, the degradation process anddegree has never been evaluated. Actually, during ecosystemrestoration, understanding the drives for degradation laid insideand outside the ecosystem will help to make a right choice inrestoration scheme set up (Elliott et al., 2007).

(3) Goals and performance criteria were clear, brief, achievable andmeasurable, but too simple. The objectives of restoration in Quanz-hou were to reforest mangrove and improve the capability inattenuating waves, promoting sedimentation and against strongwind (Ye et al., 2005). Goals and performance criteria just includedvegetation itself, especially the covering area (Chen et al., 2009; Yeet al., 2005). Actually, judgment of one restoration project shouldaddress and assess the full range of biological diversity andecological processes of mangrove ecosystems (Bosire et al., 2008;Ellison, 2000).

(4) Restoration scheme covered restoration design, schedule andcosting. Proper site selection is very important for successfulmangrove transplantation, and principles for site selection inQuanzhou Bay were summarized by Liu (2008): (i) a location withhistorical or current records of mangrove growth is preferred; and(ii) habitat requirements including temperature, salinity, tidalconditions and sediment types should be met as much as possible.The salinity of 5&e20&was found to be favorable for survival andgrowth of A. comiculatum (Ye et al., 2005). Ye also tentatively

Fig. 4. Mangrove wetland in Luoyang River estuarine area of Quanzhou Bay in October, 2008.

B. Chen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 57 (2012) 53e6156

confirmed that proper tidal inundation duration and floodingdepth were critical for the success of mangrove planting. Too long-time or deep inundation would decrease the survival rate andgrowth of transplanted A. comiculatum. At the same time, soft andpermeable tidelandmud was found to be preferred by transplantedmangroves (Ye et al., 2005).

The principles for species selection was also set up during thetransplantation trials and large-scale efforts in Quanzhou Bay, andthe species selected should be: (i) cold resistant; (ii) salt tolerant;(iii) ocean orientated; and (iv) ecologically safe. Accordingly,mangrove species, including three local ones (A. comiculatum,K. candel and A. marina) and three introduced ones (Acanthns ili-cifoliu, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Rhizophora stylosa), were chosenfor transplantation. The local species were determined as the onesof high priority in order to ensure ecological safety (Liu, 2008).

Very importantly, Ye ever tested the efficiencies of differentplanting techniques before the transplantation efforts (Ye et al.,2005). The survival rates could reach over 83% for A. comiculatumwhen transplanted with small natural seedlings, and for K. candelwhen transplanted with hypocotyls. Planting density was alsoproven to be very important for successful transplantation, andproper planting spaces of 0.5 m � 1.0 m favored the survival andgrowth of both A. comiculatum and K. candel. Actually, Borde et al.ever summarized experiences from hundreds of projects in USA,and incorporation of experimentation is a key factor for successfuland cost-effective restoration (Borde et al., 2004).

However, in the restoration scheme, more detailed scientificdata is necessary for site and species selection. Hydrological factorsincluding flooding depth, duration and frequency have been provento be critical for the survival for both mature trees and seedlings(Bosire et al., 2006). Several mangrove restoration projects in Chinaalso pointed out the importance of these hydrological factors, butthey were mainly descriptive and there were no scientific evidenceto support (Wang and Wang, 2007; Ye et al., 2005). For speciesselection, understanding existing levels of genetic diversity andpreserving the genetic integrity of a damage mangrove populationare essential for successful restoration practices (Triest, 2008). Thetransplantation efforts in China never considered the factor ofgenetic diversity until now. Faunistic impacts should also be takeninto account during species selection, because these impacts maychange mangrove vegetation structure and ecosystem function(Cannicci et al., 2008). Mono-species and alien species are oftenused in the mangrove reforestation in China, which reduces thebiodiversity of replanted forests (Chen et al., 2009; Ren et al., 2009).

(5) The ecological effect of restoration project was never assessed.Ecosystem restoration project may pose diverse effects on ecology,environment and economy etc. Proper assessment and anticipationwill help to optimize the restoration scheme and avoid losses(Diefenderfer et al., 2003).

(6) Monitoring program was developed and implemented. Ascientifically-based and relatively easily measured set of moni-toring parameters are selected to provide direct feedback on theperformance of a system with respect to the goals (Diefenderferet al., 2003). In China, cost-effective monitoring program hasbeen developed in mangrove restoration projects, including plantsurvival rate, growth rate, sedimentation rate and density of somespecial species (e.g. crabs in Ye et al., 2005), and this is consistent tothat recommended byNRC (NRC,1992), which suggests that at leastthree parameters be selected covering physical, hydrological, andecological measures.

(7) Adaptive management was seldom applied during the wholemangrove restoration process. Actually, most projects do not end upexactly as planned, and many end up quite different than predicted.Using adaptive management principles in implementing restora-tion projects can help to reduce uncertainties, reach the goals andlearn from these projects (Borde et al., 2004). Enforcement andputting adaptive management into practice are urgent for activemangrove restoration in China.

(8) Dissemination of restoration results were gradually improved. Acomprehensive consideration about the purpose, audience, timing,and appropriate venues in regard to dissemination can facilitateinformation sharing by practitioners, which enables restorationpractices to advance, makes restoration science more robust, andimproves the chances of success at future projects (Diefenderferet al., 2003). The transplanted site laid in Luoyang River EstuaryProvincial Wetland Natural Reserve, which was established in 2002by Fujian Province with an area of 876.9 ha and core area of 95.6 ha.In order to enhance the conservation efforts, this nature reservewasextended to thewholeQuanzhouBayarea in 2003, and the total areacovered 7039.56 ha (Liu and Liu, 2006). Public education programshave also been strengthened since 2003, and the reserve wasselected as the demonstration site for education in mangrove andwetland science in 2005 by Fujian Province (Zhuang, 2008). In otherareas, mangrove restoration efforts were generally carried out inmangrove reserves in China, and these reserves are also commonlyused as the education centers for students and other publics just asthat in Quanzhou (Chen et al., 2009; Ye et al., 2005). However,diverse disseminationpathways should be established in the future.

B. Chen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 57 (2012) 53e61 57

3.2. Bay restoration

The restoration processes included baseline information collec-tion, objectives and goals set up, restoration measures selection,restoration practice, monitoring and management (Fig. 5).

The water in Wuyuan Bay nearly two years after the restorationwas generally of above Grade 2 water quality as referred to “China’sSeawater Quality Standards” (Fig. 6). Recreation of the ever-existedwetland has achieved a beautiful wetland park with high plantdiversity and more birds (Figs. 7 and 8). At the same time, with theimprovement in ecological quality, the value of the land nearWuyuan Bay has increased a lot, and 12 billion RMB land has beensold until 2008 (Liu et al., 2009).

This restoration project in Wuyuan Bay, Xiamen is a pioneerpractice in bay restoration of China, and this experience has taughtseveral lessons which will be possibly useful for planners,managers and development workers associated with bay restora-tion programs in China:

(1) Sufficient ecological, socio-economic and management-relatedinformation were collected before project planning, and degradationanalysis was fully conducted. Information covered socio-economicdevelopment, diverse land uses, water quality, sediment quality,biological parameters including phytoplankton, zooplankton,macrobenthics in the waters and plants around the bay. Severedegradation was concluded. Baseline information demonstratedthat the major causes for bay ecosystem degradation were hydro-logical situation (un-exchangeable water body originated from twodikes constructed in the late 1950s and 1970s) and pollution fromdiverse sources, e.g. agriculture, salt mining and mariculture (Liuand Chen, 2004; Liu et al., 2009).

(2) Objectives and performance criteria were clear, brief, achiev-able and measurable. The objectives of Wuyuan Bay restorationproject were: (i) to improve the environmental quality of Wuyuan

Analysis of ecosystem c

set up the project objective

Set up the restoration s

measures

Practice, monitoring an

(whether ecologically fav

Yes

Management a

Socio-econom

data collection

Ecological baseline data

collection

Fig. 5. Outline of Wuyuan Ba

Baywetland; (ii) to preserve andmaintain the high biodiversity andtypical natural landscapes in this area; and (iii) found naturalecology science education and experience-distribution base forpublic education and awareness improvement. Performancecriteria included the water exchange volume, water body size,coastline length, water quality, plant diversity and area around thebay and sewage collection capability etc. All these parameters wereclear and measurable (Liu and Chen, 2004; Liu et al., 2009).

(3) Restoration scheme covered restoration design, schedule andcosting. Especially, stakeholders were well involved in. Baseline infor-mationdemonstrated that themajor causes forwetlanddegradationwere hydrological situation (un-exchangeable water body) andpollution from diverse sources (Liu and Chen, 2004; Liu et al., 2009).Accordingly, three restoration measures of priority were adopted:

(i) Improvement of hydrological situation between December,2005 and June, 2007. The dike constructed in the 1950s and1970s were removed to ensure the water exchange betweenthe bay and the outer sea. Dredging was also carried out tofurther ensure the efficiency of water exchange.

(ii) Management and control of sewage discharge. The sewagecollection system around Wuyuan Bay was constructed from2005 to 2007 in order to prevent the bay from sewagedischarge. At the same time, the agricultural, industrial andmaricultural sources for pollution were removed from theareas around the bay.

(iii) Preservation and recreation of typical habitats. Four typicalhabitats were preserved or recreated, including one wetlandand three woodlands with the wetland recreated. Maricultureinfrastructures in the bay area have been removed since 2005.

Especially, during the restoration effort from planning toimplementation, performance assessment and management in

haracteristics,

s

trategies and

d assessment

orable?) No

fter restoration

Objectives outline and

analysis

ic baseline

y restoration processes.

Fig. 6. The view of Wuyuan Bay in 2008 after restoration.

B. Chen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 57 (2012) 53e6158

Wuyuan Bay, all identified stakeholders including direct users,governments and academic institutions, were all involved in Liuet al. (2009). It has been well documented that multiple useconflicts are common in these areas due to competition amongdiverse stakeholders associated with these ecosystems (Costanzaand Farley, 2007; Ledoux and Turner, 2000). Creative partner-ships formation and community involvement have been proven tobe crucial to successful ecosystem restoration (Borde et al., 2004).

(4) Scientific environmental impact assessment was carried outbefore restoration implementation. 3S (Geographic InformationSystem GIS, Remote Sensing RS, and Global Position System GPS)were used in planning land and water uses in Wuyuan Bay.Modeling for hydrology, water quality improvement, biodiversityimprovement anticipation, sewage capacity and visitor capacitywere all carried out (Liu and Chen, 2004). At the same time,measures for natural landscape protection, important speciesconservation and cost-effective implementation were proposedaccording to risk assessment.

(5) Monitoring programwas developed, and adaptive managementwas applied during the whole restoration process. Monitoringprogram was developed, and parameters covered hydrology, bio-logical factors (aquatic ecology and land ecology), water and sedi-ment quality, and landscape (Liu et al., 2009). Based on themonitoring results, adaptive management was used during the

Fig. 7. The view of the wetland in Wuyu

restoration effort in Wuyuan Bay. The formal consultation andplanning process involved a series of meetings, some with allidentified stakeholders (direct users, governments and academicinstitutions), and others focusing on more specific issues and fol-lowed a logical process of problem identification, agreement andnegotiation of management strategies (Liu et al., 2009).

(6) Public education and results dissemination have well done. Aseries of theme-based activities have been carried out in WuyuanBay since 2007. Especially, World Ocean Week in Xiamen was heldevery year from 2005, and Wuyuan Bay was selected as one centerfor part of activities since 2007, such as sports fishing, artificialreleasing and sailing competition etc. Results of this restorationproject have been extensively distributed to people from all overthe world (World Ocean Week). At the same time, activities of birdwatching and earth protection educationwere also held inWuyuanBay from 2006 (Liu et al., 2009).

3.3. Eutrophicated semi-closed bay restoration

The Chinese coastal waters have become increasingly eutrophicduring the past several decades as a result of runoff from land-based agricultural, industrial and other anthrogenic activities (Fei,2004). Actually, many practices and researches have been carriedout trying to actively clean eutrophicated coastal waters in China in

an Bay in 2004 before restoration.

Fig. 8. The view of the wetland in Wuyuan Bay in 2008 after restoration.

B. Chen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 57 (2012) 53e61 59

recent years. Chinese governments and academic institutions haveutilized bacteria (Wan, 2009), macroalgae (Yang and Fei, 2003;Tang et al., 2005a,b; Lin et al., 2006) and plankton feeders (Yuan,2005) to mitigate overloaded N and P problems, and macroalgaemeasure is promising and of high priority now in China due to itsecological safety, high efficiency and economic value (Yang and Fei,2003). Successful restoration efforts using Gracilaria lemaneaformis(Tang et al., 2005a,b; Yang et al., 2006), Gracilaria lichenoides (Tanget al., 2005a,b), Gracilaria verrucosa (Xu et al., 2008) and Porphyrayezoensis (He et al., 2008) were achieved in Shandong, Shanghai,Zhejiang, Fujian and Guangdong provinces. However, many prob-lems still exist in these efforts just like the case in Xiamen westernwaters:

(1) Baseline information was generally not enough. Integratingscientific knowledge into large-scale coastal restoration programsis essential for the success (Fong et al., 1993), but scientific data arelacking for project planning in eutrophication mitigation efforts inChina now, especially historical and current ecological information.Causes and sources for eutrophication were seldom modeled orquantified (Cai and Guo, 2008; Fei, 2004; Wan, 2009; Yang and Fei,2003; Tang et al., 2005a,b; Lin et al., 2006).

(2) Objectives and performance criteria were very limited, justrestricted to nutrients. Actually, all restoration efforts using macro-algae cultivation now in China are only to mitigate or remedyeutrophication problems but not to restore the coastal ecosystems(Cai and Guo, 2008; Fei, 2004; Wan, 2009; Yang and Fei, 2003; Tanget al., 2005a,b; Lin et al., 2006). Management besides bioremedia-tion should be strengthened for ecosystem restoration. Integratedcoastal zone management (ICZM) has been proven to be an effec-tive way to improve the water quality and sustainability in Xiamen(Xue et al., 2004; Lau, 2005).

(3) Restoration scheme generally covered restoration design,schedule and costing, but paid little regard to a broader landscape. Inthe case of Xiamen western waters, species selection principleswere: (i) selected macroalgae need to be of high economic value;and (ii) to be of high efficiency in N and P absorption and utilization.Accordingly, G. lemaneaformis was then selected. The seedlingswere attached onto the polyethylene ropes, which were thenbound and cultured on the anchored raft with the size of50e65 m � 4.5e5.5 m, respectively (Cai and Guo, 2008). Actually,very similar choices of species and cultivation techniques wereused in other cases (Fei, 2004; Wan, 2009; Yang and Fei, 2003; Tanget al., 2005a,b; Lin et al., 2006).

The probability of a site restoration working is improved if thelandscape processes are relatively intact (Borde et al., 2004), buteutrophication restoration project design in China always over-looked a broader landscape (Cai and Guo, 2008; Fei, 2004; Wan,2009; Yang and Fei, 2003; Tang et al., 2005a,b; Lin et al., 2006).

(4) Ecological consequences were not assessed. Large-scale mac-roalgae culture may cause detrimental effects on phytoplanktonstructure and abundance, and consequently change diversity andabundance of zooplanktons and nektons (Fong et al., 1993). At thesame time, the setting-up of cultivation may block the migratorycorridor of endangered species, e.g. Chinese white dolphin (Sousachinensis). Therefore, careful examination of endangered speciesand important fishery resources is necessary during site selectionand restoration efforts.

(5) Monitoring program was generally developed and imple-mented, but adaptive management was seldom applied. In the case ofXiamen western waters, the growth of macroalgae were measuredonce aweek. Total nitrogen (TN) and phosphate (TP) concentrationsin the algae and water body around (5 m away from the raft) weremonitored every 15 days, and one reference site was chosen about1.0 km from the culture site. The results showed thatG. lemaneaformis grew very quickly, and 1 ha of macroalgaeabsorbed nitrogen of 109.7 kg and phosphate of 7.2 kg after threemonths. After one month, TN and TP concentrations in the wateraround the algae culture location decreased significantly comparedto those at the beginning, and these parameters were also muchless than those in the reference site (Cai and Guo, 2008). Actually,cases in other areas also developed similar monitoring program,covering macroalgal growth and nutrients survey (Fei, 2004; Wan,2009; Yang and Fei, 2003; Tang et al., 2005a,b; Lin et al., 2006).

(6) Dissemination of results was improved gradually. The resto-ration site in Xiamen Western waters was chosen a demonstrationsite for eutrophic waters restoration by Xiamen local government,and officials and publics were invited to visit the site for severaltimes. At the same time, local government also organized severaltraining courses for macroalgae cultivation and distributed theknowledge about macroalgal economic value and there function inwater quality improvement (Cai and Guo, 2008).

4. Conclusion

In recent years, China has launched a series of programs torestore typical coastal ecosystems including mangrove (Fu et al.,2009; Chen et al., 2009; Wang and Wang, 2007), reclaimed anddegraded bay (Cai and Guo, 2008), eutrophic waters (Wan, 2009;Yang and Fei, 2003; Tang et al., 2005a,b; Lin et al., 2006; Yuan,2005; Yang et al., 2006; Xu et al., 2008; He et al., 2008), coral reef(UNEP, 2007) and sea grass (UNEP, 2007), and many successfulcases have been achieved. For example, mangrove area in China hasincreased from 14,877 ha in 1997 to 23,081.5 ha in 2008 (Fu et al.,2009), and the mangrove ecosystem function also increased afterrestoration as indicated by macrobenthic diversity enhancement inJiulongjiang Estuary (Chen et al., 2007). In another case carried outin Yellow River Delta, wetland restoration efforts have increasedefficiency in reducing water pollution levels, re-established vege-tation community quickly, and attracted more birds (Cui et al.,2009). Sound practical experiences have also been summarizedfrom these restoration practices, especially the principles for siteselection and species selection (Zhuang, 2008; Liu, 2008;Wang andWang, 2007; Peng et al., 2008; Ye et al., 2005; Bosire et al., 2008;Ellison, 2000). At the same time, in the planning of wetlandrestoration in Sanyang wetland of Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, thepotential and current services was calculated, which was proposedas the objectives and criteria to gauge their success in the resto-ration projects (Tong et al., 2007), and this new concept can alsoused in marine ecosystem restoration projects in other areas ofChina.

However, there are still many weaknesses which may be thebarriers for efficiency and success of marine ecosystem restorationefforts in China:

B. Chen et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 57 (2012) 53e6160

(i) Generally, no comprehensive insights into ecological, socio-economic, political factors were made during the planningstage. The objectives and targets of the programs wereconsequently very unclear, and generally descriptive oneswere set up, which made the processes of monitoring,assessment and management very difficult.

(ii) Ecological functions of the coastal ecosystems were generallyneglected. Actually, the ultimate objective of a restorationproject should be to restore the ecosystem, including theecological structure, ecological function, and thus the servicesand values of the ecosystem.

(iii) The existing restoration measures can categorized into twomajor ones: (i) passive measures through management, whichallow natural processes to mitigate impact without or withonly minimal human interference (Epstein et al., 2003); and(ii) active measures through artificial manipulations (Lindahl,2003). Natural recovery through management should bealways considered for the first choice (NRC, 1992). However,nearly all restoration projects in China prioritize activemeasures as the first choice. No scientific process was con-ducted to evaluate the causes for ecosystem degradation andassess the probability for natural recovery, which generallyresulted in restoration failures. At the same time, technologiesandmethods associated with species, ecology and engineeringhave been extensively studied and practiced, but studies onrestoration measures through management have seldom beenconducted.

(iv) Most of the programs focused on the restorationmeasures, butlittle attention was paid to degradation causes diagnosis,monitoring strategies and techniques, assessment and evalu-ation, and management. However, all the above-mentionedsteps are vital for a successful restoration practice.

(v) Active restoration methods for marine ecosystems have pro-gressed very fast in recent years, mainly including one-dimensional efforts (e.g. involving single abiotic factor, singlespecies, or single application) and multidimensional effortsthat employ a combination of methods (e.g. degradationdiagnosis, objective set up, site selection, species selection,restoration technique selection, monitoring and assessment,restoration management) (Elliott et al., 2007). Until now, mostactive marine ecosystem restoration has been limited to one-dimensional and small scale schemes in China.

(vi) Monitoring and performance assessment were carried outnearly in all marine ecosystem restoration projects, but theadaptive management and results dissemination are far fromenough. As mentioned above, adaptive management princi-ples in implementing restoration projects can help to reduceuncertainties, reach the goals and learn from these projects(Borde et al., 2004). A comprehensive consideration about thepurpose, audience, timing, and appropriate venues in regardto dissemination can facilitate information sharing by practi-tioners, which enables restoration practices to advance, makesrestoration science more robust, and improves the chances ofsuccess at future projects (Diefenderfer et al., 2003). Therefore,we need to make adaptive management and results dissemi-nation into one routine mechanism in our future marineecosystem restoration processes in China.

Acknowledgments

The work described in this paper was supported by the MarinePublicWelfare Project of China (No. 20070529 and No. 200805064),National special project of Chinese Offshore Investigation andAssessment (908-02-04-08) and the Natural Sciences Foundation ofChina (40706042).

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