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An Introduction to JapaneseSyntax, Grammar & Language
ยฉ 2009-2010, Michiel Kamermans, all rights reservedDraft copy โ based on grammar.nihongoresources.com
This draft may not be reproduced in whole or in part.
April 26, 2010
Table of Contents
1 The syntax 11.1 The kana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 The basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.2 Writing the kana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1.3 Pronouncing Japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.1.4 Hiragana and katakana differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Writing spoken japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.2.1 Katakana specific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.2.2 Punctuation and writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Kanji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.3.1 Types of Kanji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181.3.2 Writing Kanji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.3.3 Reading kanji: furigana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.3.4 Reading quirks: compound words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221.3.5 Looking up kanji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221.3.6 Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4 Words and word classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271.4.1 Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.4.2 Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.4.3 Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291.4.4 Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301.4.5 Nominalisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311.4.6 Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321.4.7 Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321.4.8 Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331.4.9 Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331.4.10 Onomatopoeia and mimesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341.4.11 Compound words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.5 Sentence structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351.5.1 Word order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361.5.2 Emphasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.6 Pitch and accents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391.7 Gender roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
iii
1.8 Context language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2 Verb grammar 452.1 Inflecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.1.1 Inflection bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472.1.2 Basic inflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512.1.3 Basic inflections for irregular verbs and verbal adjectives . . . . 552.1.4 In summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.2 Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642.3 Noun inflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3.1 Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652.3.2 Inflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4 Pronouns:ใใใใฉ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722.5 Special verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.5.1 Becoming: ใชใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762.5.2 Being:ใงใโใ โใใโใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772.5.3 Doing: ใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782.5.4 Possessive: ใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792.5.5 Negative presence: ใชใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.6 More Verb Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3 More grammar 813.1 Revisits and simple inflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1.1 Politeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813.1.2 A ributive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833.1.3 Adverbial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843.1.4 Noun forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863.1.5 More negatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883.1.6 Basic inflections summarised . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2 Further inflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923.2.1 Conjunctive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923.2.2 Continuative:ใฆ form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973.2.3 Specialใฆ form conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023.2.4 Representative listing: ใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083.2.5 Conditional: ใใโใชใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093.2.6 Desire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113.2.7 Pseudo-future: ใใ/ใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1163.2.8 Hypothetical: ใใฐ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213.2.9 Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1233.2.10 Requesting:ใฆโ โใฆไธ
ใใ
ใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283.2.11 Passive: ใใ/ใใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293.2.12 Causative: ใใ/ใใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1313.2.13 Causative passive: ใใใใ/ใใใใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
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3.2.14 Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343.3 Formal speech pa erns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.3.1 Humble verb pa erns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1383.3.2 Honorific verb pa erns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.4 Classical adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4 Particles 1474.1 Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.1.1 The honorific prefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474.1.2 Negating prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1484.1.3 Assorted prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.2 Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1504.2.1 Essential particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1514.2.2 Emphatic particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1734.2.3 Further particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1794.2.4 Enrichment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.3 Translating prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2094.3.1 Prepositions already covered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2104.3.2 Prepositions translating to conceptual temporal or location nouns2104.3.3 The conceptual nouns list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.4 In Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5 Counters and counting 2215.1 Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.1.1 Rules forไธใใก . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2255.1.2 Rules forไธ
ใใ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.1.3 Rules forๅ ญใใ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.1.4 Rules forๅ ซใฏใก
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.1.5 Rules for ๅใใ ใ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2265.1.6 How many? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2265.1.7 The rules in summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.2 Ranges and estimations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2285.3 Counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.3.1 Numerical counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2305.3.2 General counters for articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2335.3.3 Counters for living things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2405.3.4 Occurrences and ranking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2435.3.5 Counting time related units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2475.3.6 Additional words for quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
5.4 Using numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2615.4.1 Telling time and date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
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5.4.2 Basic arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2655.4.3 More advanced mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6 Language pa erns 2696.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
6.1.1 Binary choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2696.1.2 Open choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2706.1.3 Comparison through likenessโ and impressions . . . . . . . . . 2716.1.4 Discussing possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2796.1.5 Discussing certainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
6.2 Nominalising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2826.2.1 Back referralโ usingใฎ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.2.2 Abstract conceptualisationโ usingไบใใจ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.2.3 Real conceptualisationโ using็ฉใใฎ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
6.2.4 Illustrating a circumstanceโ case or occasionโ usingๅ ดๅใฐใใ
. . . . . 285
6.2.5 Indicating a moment of opportunityโ usingๆฌก็ฌฌใใ ใ
. . . . . . . . . 286
6.2.6 Describing an occurrenceโ usingๅบฆใใณ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
6.2.7 Indicating a specific time or eventโ usingๆใจใ
. . . . . . . . . . . . 287
6.2.8 Stating an expectationโ using็ญใฏใ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2886.2.9 Stating a social expectation or customโ usingในใ . . . . . . . . 288
6.2.10 Indicating a moment in timeโ using ๆใจใใ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
6.2.11 Stating an intentionโ using็ฉใค
ใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
6.2.12 Stating a situational explanationโ using่จณใใ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.2.13 Describing a wayโ usingๆงใใ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2926.2.14 Indicating an exact mannerโ usingใพใพ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
6.2.15 Stating purposeโ using็บใใ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
6.2.16 Indicating apparent behaviourโ using็ไผผใพใญ
. . . . . . . . . . . . 294
6.2.17 Talking about a โsomethingโโ usingใจ่จใ
ใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2956.3 Social language pa erns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
6.3.1 Showing and demanding face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2966.3.2 Addressing people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
6.4 Acknowledging social status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3056.4.1 Giving and receiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3056.4.2 Indirect speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
6.5 More advanced grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
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Appendices
A Conjugation Schemes 325A.1 Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
A.1.1 Regular verbs: ไบๆฎตใใ ใ
verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
A.1.2 Regular verbs: ไธๆฎตใใกใ ใ
verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326A.1.3 Irregular verbs: ใใ (ใใ/ใใ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
A.1.4 Irregular verbs: ๆฅใ
ใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327A.1.5 Special verbs: ใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327A.1.6 Special verbs: ใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327A.1.7 Special verbs:ใงใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328A.1.8 Special verbs:ใพใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328A.1.9 Verbal adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
A.1.10 Special bases forๅพกๅบงใใ
ใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328A.1.11 Special bases forใใใฃใใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329A.1.12 Special bases forใใฃใใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
A.1.13 Special bases forไธใใ
ใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329A.1.14 Special bases forใชใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
A.2 Conjugation schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
A.2.1 Regular verbs: ไบๆฎตใใ ใ
verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
A.2.2 Regular verbs: ไธๆฎตใใกใ ใ
verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331A.2.3 Irregular verbs: ใใ (ใใ/ใใ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333A.2.4 Irregular verbs:ใใ (ๆฅใ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334A.2.5 Special verbs: ใใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335A.2.6 Special verbs: ใ /ใงใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336A.2.7 Special verbs:ใพใ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337A.2.8 Verbal adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
B Set phrases 339
Glossary 357
Indexes 367English index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367Japanese index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
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Acknowledgements
This bookโ like its precursorsโ wasnโt wri en in one go โ many people contributed insome way or other to making sure that this book got turned from just a thought intosomething real. Foremost my teachers at Leiden Universityโ Mr. M. Kunimori andMr. N. Oyaโ have contributed to me enjoying learning the language greatlyโ muchmore than I would have had I merely kept on studying the language at home. Theircomments while teachingโ sometimes related to the languageโ and sometimes goingoff on completely random tangentsโ have enriched my experience of the language insuch a way that has made it funโ as well as something to play with rather than toformally study. I owe them gratitude.
Secondlyโ many people from the online community helped me in learninghow to phrase myself so that explanations were understandableโ and corrected mewhen I got things wrong โ something that definitely improves anyoneโs skill at any-thing by reinforcing that some things shouldnโt be what you thought them to be.Many of these were from the IRC channel โ#nihongoโ on the irchighway networkโand while some people have since moved onโ others have stuck around and it re-mains a nice source of conversation concerning Japanese and other ma ers to thisday.
My thanks go out to those people that have helped proof the book or partsof its content in either the old or new incarnation; Sarah Wiebeโ Ayako Sasakiโ An-dreas Wallinโ Raymond Callaโ Maarten van der Heijdenโ Giulio Agostiniโ EmmanuelAuclairโ Sergi Esteve and many unnamed others deserve not just myโ but also yourthanks โ they helped refine the material from a mass of typos and convoluted phrasesinto the publication it is now!
Special thanks goes out to Edmund Dickinsonโ who took upon him the taskof scrutinising the bookโs English. Without his helpโ this book would have been offar lower quality.
Gratitude should also be extended to the people on the XeTeX mailing listโwithout whose help this book would have taken far longer to realise. Their helpwith (Xe)LaTeX related questions has been greatly appreciatedโ and although sin-gling individual users out would be nearly impossibleโ the principle creater of Xe-TeXโ Jonathan Kewโ and the author of Fontspecโ Will Robertsonโ do deserve specialmention.
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Finallyโ as a special dedicationโ I would like to thank Cynthia Ngโ who hasbeen my support for years nowโ kept me motivated to finish this bookโ helped inediting the contentโ and became my wife during the final stages of finishing this book.Thank you for being in my life โ this book is dedicated to you.
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Preface
You are reading the first revision (or if you bought thisโ also the first print version!)of the Japanese grammar book that I started writing while I was still taking classes inJapanese... and consequently failed at (the bookโ not the courses). I have to admitโ Iwas a bit overzealous. While I enjoyed learning and through the process of explain-ing the things I had learnt to others via what became www.nihongoresources.comโ Iwas still a first year student with not exactly a lot of weight or experience under mybelt. The first version of my book I offered to my teacher to scrutiniseโ and scrutinisehe did. In retrospectโ itโs a good thing he didโ because it took forever to get from thedraft version to an edited final version. Insteadโ in 2005 I decided that the informa-tion I was offering the world was somewhat out of dateโ and needed a rewrite. I alsoknew that I had to do something with the book: I had promised many people by nowI would finish it and I didnโt like the idea of le ing those people down. As suchโ Ibegan to write what ended up as a permanent draft copy of a grammar bookโ freelyavailable from the nihongoresources.com websiteโ in 2005-2006.
Three years laterโ the book has certainly proved its popularity. Well over ahundred thousand downloads laterโ and with over fifteen thousand hits on it perweek stillโ the time has finally come to revise itโ and give everyone what theyโve beenasking for for some time now: a proper paper version in addition to the digital copy.
Itโs taken close to a year to go from deciding to revise the old grammar book tobeing able to offer you a restructuredโ reworkedโ and more than half rewri en bookon the Japanese languageโ but hopefully the wait was worth it. Iโve spent as muchtime on it as I couldโ in between my normal job and spending time on vacations inCanada to be with the person who has helped me tremendously in ge ing this bookdone and keeping me motivated to do soโ and I hope the result is something you feelwas worth paying money for. Orโ if you didnโt buy it but are reading this as a digitalcopyโ then I hope you might find it good enough to want to have it si ing on yourshelf as paper copy as well.
This book was wri en in several phasesโ using several programs. The firstfull-content version was based on the original โAn Introduction to Japanese Syn-taxโ Grammar and Languageโ wri en in 2005โ which was wri en in plain text usingTextpadโ after which it got turned into DocBook XML using XMLmind XML Edi-tor. This was then converted to WordprocessingML using a custom scriptโ and fi-nal styling was done in Microsoft Wordโ before converting that to PDF form using
xi
Adobeโs Acrobat PDF building tools.The new process is actually much more funโ and allows me to automate the
whole book-making process in the futureโ when errata must be processedโ and newcontent is added. The data itself now lives on the internetโ and can be found onh p://grammar.nihongoresources.com as a dokuwiki documentation project. Be-cause dokuwiki stores its data as plain text filesโ I wrote a set of conversion scripts toturn the dokuwiki code into LaTeX codeโ which then gets run through the XeLaTeXprocessing engineโ which results in a fully indexedโ cross-referencedโ ToC-ed and forall intents and purposes publication-ready PDF file.
In the endโ I had fun rewriting the bookโ and pu ing together the technologiesto turn the book content into something you can actually readโ and I hope you willhave fun reading thisโ and find it aids you in your studies of Japanese. Thank youfor making writing this worth whileโ and good luck!
Mike โPomaxโ Kamermans
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Chapter 1
The syntax
Syntax in the Japanese language comes in several parts. From the lowest to the high-estโ we see the kana and kanjiโ used to compose wordsโ which are used to composesentencesโ which in turn function as the building blocks of the spoken and wri enlanguage. We will look at each of these โblocksโ in orderโ and look at how they allcome together to form the Japanese language.
1.1 The kana
1.1.1 The basics
What the alphabet is to western languagesโ the ไบๅ้ณโ โgojuuonโโ is to Japanese.This Japanese syllabary is a collection of 46 syllables (roughly half of which haveโvoicedโ counterparts) that act as phonetic building blocks in the Japanese language.Arranged in the traditional wayโ and read top-downโ right-to-leftโ these 46 syllablescan be wri en in either of two scripts: hiragana and katakana:
ใ ใ ใ ใ ใพ ใฏ ใช ใ ใ ใ ใ(ใ) ใ ใฟ ใฒ ใซ ใก ใ ใ ใ
ใ ใ ใ ใต ใฌ ใค ใ ใ ใ(ใ) ใ ใ ใธ ใญ ใฆ ใ ใ ใใ ใ ใ ใ ใป ใฎ ใจ ใ ใ ใ
ใณ ใฏ ใฉ ใค ใ ใ ใ ใฟ ใต ใซ ใข(ใฐ) ใช ใ ใ ใ ใ ใท ใญ ใค
ใซ ใฆ ใ ใ ใ ใ ใน ใฏ ใฆ(ใฑ) ใฌ ใก ใ ใ ใ ใป ใฑ ใจใฒ ใญ ใจ ใข ใ ใ ใ ใฝ ใณ ใช
1
2 The syntax โ ยง 1.1 The kana
Transcribing these tables into westernโ and more specifically Englishโ soundsโthe table looks roughly as follows:
n wa ra ya ma ha na ta sa ka a(wi) ri mi hi ni chi shi ki i
ru yu mu fu nu tsu su ku u(we) re me he ne te se ke e(w)o ro yo mo ho no to so ko o
These tables seem to contain 48 syllables instead of 46โ but the two syllablesโwiโ and โweโโ (ใ/ใฐ and ใ/ใฑ) have not been in use since the Japanese languagewas revised following shortly after the second world war. They have been includedhere only for completenessโ and in modern Japanese do not appear in the syllabariestable. The ใ is still very much in useโ but only as a grammatical particle that ispronounced asใโ and so the only accurate transcription is as โoโ. Howeverโ in namesit may be pronounced as โwoโโ and so we find the consonant in parentheses in thetable of transcriptions.
We can look at these tables in two ways. Firstlyโ as arrangements in columns.When doing soโ the first column (going right to left rather than left to right) is calledtheใโcolumnโ the second column theใโcolumnโ and so forth. We can also lookat them as arrangements of rowsโ in which case the first row is called theใโrowโ thesecond one theใโrowโ followed by theใโโใโ andใโrows. Thusโ the katakanasymbolใก for instance can be found on theใโrow of theใพโcolumn.
Some of these columns have โvoicedโ variants. Voicing is a linguistic termused to indicate consonants that are pronounced with air running past the vocalcords. In Japaneseโ theใ-โใ-โใ- andใฏโcolumns (kaโ saโ ta and ha) can be given
a special diacritic markโ called โdakutenโ (ๆฟ็นใ ใใฆใ
) to indicate they are voiced rather thanplainโ changing their pronunciation:
ใฐ/ใ ใ /ใ ใ/ใถ ใ/ใฌใณ/ใ ใข/ใ ใ/ใธ ใ/ใฎใถ/ใ ใฅ/ใ ใ/ใบ ใ/ใฐใน/ใ ใง/ใ ใ/ใผ ใ/ใฒใผ/ใ ใฉ/ใ ใ/ใพ ใ/ใด
Which is transcribed as:
ba da za gabi dzi ji gibu dzu zu gube de ze gebo do zo go
The syntax โ ยง 1.1 The kana 3
A note about โdziโ and โdzuโ: while these are technically the correct transcrip-tions forใข andใฅโ these syllables have been rendered obsolete in current Japaneseโwith words that used to useใข now usingใโ and words that useใฅ now usingใ.This will be explained in a bit more detail in the section on pronunciation.
In addition to this regular voicingโ the ใฏโcolumn has a secondary voic-
ingโ indicated with a small circle diacritic markโ called โhandakutenโ (ๅๆฟ็นใฏใใ ใใฆใ
)โ whichrather than producing a โbโ soundโ produces a โpโ sound:
ใฑ/ใ paใด/ใ piใท/ใ puใบ/ใ peใฝ/ใ po
1.1.2 Writing the kana
Both hiragana and katakana may be relatively simple scripts compared to the com-plex Chinese characters also in use in Japaneseโ but they both have specific ways ofwriting each syllable. The following tables show how to write both hiragana andkatakana the proper way. Note that these wri en versions look different in placesfrom print form.
6 The syntax โ ยง 1.1 The kana
1.1.3 Pronouncing Japanese
Pronunciation wiseโ each of these syllables is equally long. This is traditionally ex-plained by referring to the pronunciation of Japanese as moraโ a linguistic term mean-ing โthe time required to pronounce an ordinary or normal short sound or syllableโ.In Japanโ this concept of mora is usually explained with the easier concept of drumbeats: each basic syllable is one beat longโ with certain combinations of kana lastingone and a half or two beats.
The vowel sounds of Japaneseโใโ ใโใโใ andใ do not all have Englishequivalents;ใ is actually identical to the initial vowel sound in โIโ or โeyeโ โ that isโthe โaโ sound without the finalising โiโ sound. Theใ is a li le easierโ sounding like theโeeโ in โcreepโ. Theใ is particularly annoyingโ because there is no English equivalent.It is identical to the vowel sounds of properly Sco ish โyouโ or โdoโโ or the Dutch openโuโ such as in โhurenโ.ใ is pronounced like in the English โhelpโโ and theใโ finallyโ ispronounced like the โoโ in โorโ.
While for most kana the consonant sound is reasonably approximated by thetranscribed consonant as listed in the earlier tablesโ there are a few notable exceptions.For instanceโ while romanised as โhiโโใฒ/ใ is usually pronounced with a consonantthat doesnโt sound like an โhโโ but more like the German or Sco ish โchโ as found inGerman words such as โichโ (meaning โIโ) and Sco ish words such as โlochโ (meaningโlakeโ).
Also in the ใฏ-columโ the syllable ใต/ใ does not have an โhโ as consonantsoundโ or even the โfโ consonant sound that it is typically transcribed withโ but ratheruses only pure aspiration as initial sound. This is mostly unknown in western lan-guagesโ and will be the hardest to get right for people starting out with Japanese.Rather than being formed in the mouthโ the syllable ใต starts being formed at thediaphragmโ while breathing out. Paired with the lips shaped as if casually blowingout a match or candle (rather than tightened for whistling)โ this rush of air is thengiven a vowel soundโ and the syllable is complete.
In theใคโcolumn we also see an interesting pronunciation โquirkโ: whileใกandใคโ strictly speakingโ have voiced versionsโ wri enใข andใฅโ over the years thedifference in pronunciation betweenใข andใโ andใฅ andใโ has all but disappearedโleading to an official move towards replacing theseใข andใฅwithใ andใ entirely.Howeverโ there are (quite a number of) exceptions to this move for replacement: ifthe two first kana of a word are the sameโ but the second one is voicedโ the samekana are used (for exampleโ ใคใฅใ and ใกใขใใ). Alsoโ in compound words in
which voicing occursโ the original kana form is used (for instanceโ็ใใ
+ไปใค
ใโ็ไปใใใฅ
ใ
and้ผปใฏใช
+่กใก
โ้ผป่กใฏใชใข
). This exception only applies when the compound word can beconsidered a combination of words. Both็ไปใ and้ผป่ก derive their meaning from
their constituent wordsโ but in a word like็จฒๅฆปใใชใใพ
โ meaning โlightningโโ the first kanjirefers to rice plantsโ and the second kanji refers to (someoneโs) wife. In these wordsโ
The syntax โ ยง 1.1 The kana 7
even if the affixed compound would normally have aใค orใกโ the voicing is wri enasใ orใ in modern Japaneseโ rather thanใฅ orใข.
That saidโ voicing in compound nouns is a bit strange in that there are no rulesto tell when something willโ or will not voiceโ so the best strategy โ which applies tolearning words in general anyway โ is to learn words as word firstโ then learn themas combinationsโ rather than the other way around.
Finallyโ theใโcolumn can be a problem because for most western listenersโdifferent people will seem to pronounce the initial consonant in this column differ-ently. While in many western languages the consonants โdโโ โlโโ and โrโ are consid-ered quite distinctโ in Japanese this distinction is far less; any syllable starting with aconsonant ranging from a full fledged โlโ to a rolling Spanish โrโ will be interpreted asa syllable from theใโcolumnโ with the โstandardโ pronunciation being somewherebetween a โdโ and an โrโ.
Not pronouncing Japanese
This sounds like an oddly named sectionโ but some bits in wri en Japanese are ac-tually not really pronounced at all. In factโ not infrequently you will hear Japanesethat does not seem to reflect the wri en formโ with the verb โdesuโ seemingly beingpronounced โdesโโ the adjective โhayakuโ seemingly being pronounced โhayakโโ thecommand โshiroโ seemingly being pronounced โshโroโโ and many more of such vocalomissions.
In factโ many syllables with an ใโ orใโsound tend to have these vowelsounds left almost unpronounced. I say almostโ because the vowel sound is typ-ically preserved by virtue of the consonants used. For instanceโ the word ใใใฆโtranscribed as โsoshiteโ is typically pronounced in such a way that it can be consid-ered transcribable as โsoshโteโ instead. Howeverโ forming โshโ means also forming apseudo-vowel sound. In factโ even in this โomi ed vowelโ there is room for variationโso that a โshโ can sound like it was supposed to become โshiโ or โshuโโ and it is thisfeature that is exploited quite heavily in Japanese.
This leads to a small problem. Because it sounds like the vowel is entirelymissingโ you might be tempted to mimic this soundโ but end up genuinely omi ingthe vowel entirely because thatโs what your ears โ which are not yet accustomed toJapanese phonetics โ think is happening. Howeverโ this also makes your Japanesehighly unnaturalโ because to a Japanese ear the vowel is only mostly omi edโ notentirely.
The problem then is one of hearing: when learning a new language it is im-portant to โunlearnโ how to hear language. Much like how we have learned to seethe world in a way that itโs actually not (you will consider a brown table with a lightshining on one endโ brownโ instead of brown on one endโ and a completely differ-ent colour where the light is hi ing it)โ as infants we learn to disregard any and allsounds that donโt feature in the languages weโre raised with. As suchโ remarkable as
8 The syntax โ ยง 1.1 The kana
this may soundโ we unlearn how to hear things accuratelyโ and instead learn how tomap what we hear to what we know the language is supposed to sound like. Whilehighly effective when learning a languageโ or a family of languages with similar pro-nunciationsโ itโs disastrous when learning a language that has a different phoneticsystem.
The best advice with regards to this is to simply listen to a lot of Japanese. Ittakes time and effort to unlearn the unconscious mapping your brain does for you.Youโre going to get it wrongโ but as long as you know you areโ youโll be on the righttrack.
1.1.4 Hiragana and katakana differences
If hiragana and katakana sound exactly the sameโ why then are there two differentscripts?
When the Japanese first developed a wri en systemโ it was based on the char-acters used in China for the Chinese languageโ in which for the most part the meaningof the characters were subservient to what they sounded like: if a word had an โaโsound in itโ then any Chinese character that sounded like โaโ could be used for itโwith-out any real regard for its meaning. This โusing certain characters for their soundonlyโ became more widespread as the number of characters per syllable droppedfrom quite many to only a handfulโ and as writing became more widespread twosyllabic scripts developed. Oneโ which simplified phonetic kanji by omi ing partsof them lead to what is today called katakana. Anotherโ which simplified phonetickanji by further and further reducing the complexity of the cursive forms for thesekanjiโ has become what is known today as hiragana. We can see this illustrated inthe next figureโ which shows the characters the hiragana came fromโ and the highlystylistic cursive form characters hadโ highlighting the degree of simplification thatcursive writing brought with it.
The syntax โ ยง 1.1 The kana 9
The hiragana derivations from cursive script
Katakana got a slightly different treatmentโ in that these are actually frag-ments of charactersโ rather than stylistic simplifications. The second derivations fig-ure illustrates thisโ with a note that the fragments were lifted from handwri en char-actersโ so that the โlogicโ is mostly found in the cursive line of characters.
These two scripts have differed in roles throughout historyโ and in modernJapanese hiragana is used for anything Japanese that does not use (or need) kanjiโand katakana is used in the same way that we use italics in western languageโ as wellas for words that have been imported into Japanese from other languages over thecourse of history. The only genuine difference between the two scripts is the way inwhich long vowel sounds are wri enโ as we shall see in the next section.
10 The syntax โ ยง 1.2 Writing spoken japanese
The katakana derivations
1.2 Writing spoken japaneseUsing the kana as basic building blocksโ Japanese pronunciation consists of a fewmore things beyond basic syllables: in addition to โsimpleโ syllable soundsโ it con-tains long vowelsโ glides and double consonants.
Long vowelsโ contrary to the nameโ do not always mean โthe same vowelโtwice as longโ. Strictly speakingโ a long vowel in Japanese is a combination of twovowelsโ pronounced over two โdrum beatsโ. In katakanaโ long vowels are really justthatโ a vowel with a dash to indicate the sound has been doubled in lengthโ but inhiragana the doubling is different. Of the five basic Japanese vowel sounds (ใโใโใโใ andใ) the first three have fairly simple long vowel counterparts in hiraganaโsimply doubling in writingโ but the la er two are more complicatedโ having two dif-ferent wri en forms:
The syntax โ ยง 1.2 Writing spoken japanese 11
hiragana katakanaใ ใใ ใขใผใ ใใ ใคใผใ ใใ ใฆใผใ ใใโใใ ใจใผใ ใใโใใ ใชใผ
While the pronunciation forใใโ ใใ andใใ are intuitive (same soundโtwice as long)โ the pronunciations for ใใโ ใใโ ใใ and ใใ and more subtle.The firstโใใโ may be pronounced as a โsame soundโ twice as longโใโ but may alsobe pronounced as ใใโ which is similar to the โ-ayโ in the English โhayโ. For ใใโthe pronunciation is like โoaโ in โoakโโ withใใ often sounding the sameโ but whenpronounced slowlyโ having a distinct hint of โuโ at the end.
This doubling is the same for syllables with consonant soundsโ so that forinstance vowel doubling for the syllables from theใพโcolumn look as follows:
hiragana katakanaใ ใพใ ใใผใ ใฟใ ใใผใ ใใ ใ ใผใ ใใโใใ ใกใผใ ใใโใใ ใขใผ
In addition to long vowelsโ Japanese words may contain โglidesโ. Being con-sidered contractions of ใโrow syllables with any one of the three syllables ใโ ใandใโ glides are wri en as theใโrow syllableโ normal sizedโ and then theใโใorใ syllable at either half height (for horizontally wri en Japanese) or half width(for vertically wri en Japanese). To illustrate:
kana pronunciation as glide pronunciationใ +ใ ใใ kiya ใใ kyaใ +ใ ใใ shiyu ใใ shuใก +ใ ใกใ chiyo ใกใ choใฟ +ใ ใฟใ miya ใฟใ myaใฒ +ใ ใฒใ hiyo ใฒใ hyoใซ +ใ ใซใ niyu ใซใ nyuใ +ใ ใใ riyo ใใ ryo
While a wri en combination of two syllablesโ the glide it represents is onlya single โdrum beatโ longโ just as the regular syllables. Thusโ the wordใญใฃใณใ isthree beats long: spelled outโ it will be pronouncedใใโใ andใท.
12 The syntax โ ยง 1.2 Writing spoken japanese
Finallyโ the last feature of spoken Japanese reflected in writing is what isknown as the โdouble consonantโ: a reasonably recent change to the way Japanese iswri en (in the sense that this change occurred sometime during the medieval periodโwhen wri en Japanese had been around for a li le under a millennium) which indi-cates that a particular consonant has a short pause before it is actually pronounced.This consonant doubling is found in a number of western languages as wellโ suchas in Italianโ where words like โtu iโ have a wri en double consonant while in termsof pronunciation there is simply a pause before the consonant. In Japaneseโ becausethere are no actual โlooseโ consonantsโ the doubling is represented by a special char-acter: aใค (orใ) wri en either half height (in horizontal writing) or half width (invertical writing) to indicate the pause. To illustrate the difference between this smallใค/ใ and the regular formโ a few example words:
smallใฃ pronunciation meaningใฏใฃใ โhakkaโ ignitionใใฃใ โshikkeโ humidityใพใฃใ โmakkaโ intensely red
normalใค pronunciation meaningใฏใคใ โhatsukaโ 20 days/20th dayใใคใ โshitsukeโ upbringingใพใคใ โmatsukaโ the โPineโ family of trees
This โใค/ใ as a pauseโ is also applied when a glo al stop is needed in forinstance an exclamationโ โใใฃ!โโ which is an exclamation with a โcut offโ rather thanlong vowel sound.
1.2.1 Katakana specificAs katakana has been used to write out words imported from other languages intoJapaneseโ it has a few extra โrulesโ that do not apply to wri en hiraganaโ including anumber of ways to produce normally โillegalโ syllables: syllables that do not fit in theJapanese table of syllablesโ but are found in foreign words nonetheless. Examples ofthese are for instance the initial syllable โfiโ in the English word โfireโโ or the โsweโ inโSwedenโ.
The table of approximating writing is as followsโ observing English pronun-ciation rules (combinations with normal Japanese orthography are omi ed):
The syntax โ ยง 1.2 Writing spoken japanese 13
a e i o uch ใใงd ใใฃ ใใฅf ใใก ใใง ใใฃ ใใฉ
ใใฃใชj ใธใงq ใฏใก ใฏใง ใฏใฃ ใฏใฉ ใฏs ใปใฃsh ใทใงsw ในใก ในใง ในใฃ ในใฉ ในใฅt ใใฃ ใใฅv (1) ใดใก ใดใง ใดใฃ ใดใฉ ใดw ใฆใง ใฆใฃ ใฆใฉ ใฆx ใใฏใต ใใฏใป ใใฏใปใฃ ใใฏใฝ ใใฏในy ใคใง ใคz ใผใฃ
Note that โwoโ is notใฒ (as that is pronouncedใ)โ and that for the โxโ seriesโthe leadingใ is the consonant doubling symbol.
In addition to theseโ there are also a number of consonants whichโ in terms ofpronunciationโ already have Japanese counterparts:
consonant columncโ pronounced as โsโ uses theใโcolumncโ pronounced as โkโ uses theใโcolumnl uses theใโcolumnv (2) uses theใฐโcolumn. Preferred to โv (1)โ in the above table.
Due to the fact that most loan words have come from some specific languageโmany of which are not Englishโ Japanese loan words may have a different wri enform than expected. For instanceโ Brussels is wri en asใใชใฅใใปใซโ โburyusseruโโrather thanใใฉใปใซใบโ โburaseruzuโโ and English (the people) is wri en asใคใฎใชในโ โigirisuโโ rather thanใคใณใฐใชใใทใฅโ โingurisshuโ.
1.2.2 Punctuation and writingOf courseโ in addition to a โle erโ scriptโ there is interpunctionโ symbols that indicatepausesโ stopsโ quotes and other such things. In Japaneseโ the following punctuationsymbols are common:
14 The syntax โ ยง 1.2 Writing spoken japanese
symbolfull stop ใcomma ใsingle quotes ใandใdouble quotes ใ andใparentheses ๏ผ and๏ผkanji repeater ใ separators ใป and๏ผdrawn sound ๏ฝellipsis โฆ (usually wri en twice: โฆโฆ)
Less usedโ but always good to have seen are the following:
symbolidem dito ใ
hiragana repeaters ใโใkatakana repeaters ใฝโใพkanji sentence finaliser ใ
And then there are western punctuations which have Japanese counterpartsโbut tend to be expressed differently instead:
The symbol ? is wri en the same way as in Englishโ but typically the particleใ is used instead. This particleใ serves both as question markโ as well as a markerfor parts of a sentencesโ indicating they are questioning instead of stating. Similarlyโthe symbol ! is wri en the same way as in Englishโ but typically exclamations aresimply avoided. Insteadโ emphasis particles such asใ orใ may be used for effectโbut these do not signify real exclamation.
Finallyโ not quite interpunction but important nonetheless are the two waysto emphasise parts of wri en language in the same way we use bold or underlining inwestern composition: do ing and lining. In horizontal writingโ words will have dotsover each syllable or kanjiโ or a line over the entire emphasised section. In verticalwritingโ the dots and lining is placed on the right side of text.
In addition to knowing the basics about which symbols can be usedโ Japanese(as well as some other Asian languages such as Chinese) has the unique problem ofdeciding in which direction to write. For all its modernisingโ some things such aswriting remain unchanged. As suchโ for the most part printed Japanese (as well ashandwri en material) is wri en top downโ right to left. In contrastโ most Japanesematerial on the internet is typically wri en in a western fashionโwith the text runningleft to rightโ top to bo om.
To make ma ers more interestingโ in recent historyโ Japanese could also bewri en horizontally right-to-left. This practice has pre y much disappeared except
The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji 15
in shipping (ship names may still be wri en in this way) and for โolder styleโ shopsigns. You will not encounter full texts wri en in this way in modern or even justpost-Meiji older Japanese.
There are a few differences between horizontal and vertical writingโ most no-tably in terms of where to place half size characters and interpunction:
horizontal verticalhalf size characters half-height half-widthโ right alignedfull stopโ comma lower left: [ใ]โ [ใ] upper-right: [ใ]โ [ใ]opening quotes corner in the upper left (ใ) corner in the upper right (ใ)closing quotes corner in the lower right (ใ) corner in the lower left (ใ)parentheses left and right: i.e. ( and ) above and below: i.e. โ and โฟdo ing above characters to the right of characterslining above characters to the right of charactersdrawn soundโ hyphen horizontal (ใฐโ โ) vertical (๏ธดโโ)ellipsis horizontal (โฆ) vertical (โฆ)
1.3 KanjiOne of wri en Japaneseโs most well-known features is that it comprises three writingsystems: the two kana scriptsโ and a third script called kanjiโ translating as โChinesecharactersโโwhich are ideographs that over the course of history made their way fromChina to Japan. One of the biggest problems with kanji is that there arenโt just manyโbut each one can have a multitude of pronunciations dependent on which words thekanji is being used for. To look at why this isโ a brief history of how modern Japanesegot the kanji that are used today is in order.
Early Japanese evolved as a purely spoken language. Without a wri en formโindeed seemingly without having discovered writing at allโ the first instances of writ-ing in Japan were in fact not Japanese at allโ but Chinese: after having come into con-tact with the Chinese and their intricate writing systemโ writing in early Japan (circathe late sixth century) was restricted to immigrant scribesโ who wrote official recordsin classical Chinese. While initially a rarityโ the Taika reform of the mid-seventh cen-tury changed all that.
Reforming Japan to a more Chinese inspired stateโ based on centralisation ofgovernment and Confucian philosophyโ the need for a state clergy transformed thelargely illiterate Japanese society to one with literacy as an essential part of court andintellectual life. The prestigious rank of scribe became a hereditary rankโ and so asgenerations of scribes came and wentโ the Chinese that was used slowly drifted awayfrom proper Chineseโ and more towards a hybrid style of Chinese and the form ofJapanese as it was used at the time. Howeverโ the readings used for Chinese char-acters were more or less fixedโ and the readings that survive from that period are
16 The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji
known today asๅ้ณใใใ
โ goโonโ readings.Thenโ in the seventh and eighth centuryโ during the Chinese Tang dynastyโ
there was another cultural exchange between Japan and Chinaโ leading to a secondinflux of readings for Chinese characters. As China changed rulersโ so too did thedominant dialect for the Chinese languageโ and the readings that were brought backto Japan from this second exchange were in some cases radically different from theinitial readings the Japanese had become familiar with. Readings for kanji from this
period are known asๆผข้ณใใใใ
โ kanโonโ readings.Finallyโ in the fourteenth centuryโ during the most famous of Chinese dynas-
ties โ the Ming Dynasty โ there was another influx of Chinese. This influx camefrom two fronts: firstlyโ the merchants doing business with the Chinese brought back
home readings that are referred to asๅ้ณใจใใใ
โ tลโonโ and secondly from Zen monks whowent to study Zen Buddhism in China and brought back readings that are referred
to asๅฎ้ณใใใใ
โ sลโon. Rather than a single exchangeโ this was an ongoing effortโ and soๅ้ณ readings tend to span from the late thirteenth century to well into the Edo period
(ๆฑๆธๆไปฃใใฉใใ ใ
โ edojidai)โ also known as the Tokugawa period (ๅพณๅทๆไปฃใจใใใใใ ใ
โ tokugawajidai)โnamed after the first Edo shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu (ๅพณๅท
ใจใใใ
ๅฎถๅบทใใธใใ
)โ which lasted until thelate nineteenth century.
The naming for these readingsโ howeverโ can be slightly confusing. ๅ้ณ read-ings are known as โwuโ readings. Howeverโ this name does not refer to the Wu dy-nasty (which spans the first two centuries a.d.) but simply to the region the readingsare believed to have come from (ๅ being the name of the Wu region in Jiangnanโๆฑๅโ in modern China). The ๆผข้ณ readings are called โhanโ readingsโ but have es-sentially nothing to do with the Han Dynastyโ which spanned the late third centuryBCE.
Theๅ้ณ readingsโ equally confusingโ are referred to as Tang readingsโ eventhough this name would be more appropriate for theๆผข้ณ readingsโ which actuallyderive from Tang Chinese. Ratherโๅ้ณ derive their readings from Chinese as it wasused during the Sung dynasty and onward.
In addition to these changes to Chinese readingsโ the wri en language it-self slowly moved away from Chinese properโ through a Chinese-Japanese hybridwri en languageโ to what is essentially the Japanese we know today: mixed Chinesecharacters with syllabic script (itself derived from Chinese characters being used pho-netically) with different readings for Chinese characters typically indicating differentinterpretations of the characters used.
While there had been no wri en language before the introduction of Chineseโthere had certainly been a languageโ which survived throughout the ages by virtueof the commoners not needing to bother with writingโ and thus not incorporatingChinese into their language as much as royals and officials would. This eventuallyled to native Japanese pronunciation being applied to wri en Chineseโ giving us two
The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji 17
different reading โsystemsโ: the ้ณ่ชญใใใ
ใฟโ โonโyomiโโ which are the Chinese derived
readingsโ and the่จ่ชญใใใ
ใฟโ โkunโyomiโโwhich are the native Japanese derived readings.A major problem with kanji is that without a knowledge of the kanji in ques-
tionโ it is not always clear when to use which reading. There are no rules that statethat certain kanji are read in a particular way when used on their ownโ or when partof a wordโ and so the only real way to make sure you are using the right reading fora kanji is to look it up and then remember the reading for the context the kanji wasused in.
This usually leads to the question of why kanji are still being usedโ whenother languages only use phonetic scripts. The Japanese abstracted syllabic scriptsfrom Chinese for phonetic writingโ so why the continued reliance on kanji? Whileit seems odd that Chinese characters are still being used in a language that also hasa phonetic scriptโ the main reason it still uses Chinese characters is because of a keyaspect of the Japanese language: it is homophonic.
Words in the English languageโ for instanceโ are essentially distinct. Whilethere are a number of words that sound the same but mean different thingsโ the vastmajority of words in the English language only mean one thing. In Japanese we seequite the opposite: there are only 71 distinct single syllable soundsโ but there are closeto 300 words which can be wri en using a single syllable. It is easy to see that thismeans that for any single syllable word you can think ofโ there will be (on average)at least three other words that you can write in exactly the same way. How do youknow which is meant if you donโt use kanji or additional notes?
For two syllable wordsโ we see the same thing; there are a bit over 2000 com-binations possible when using two syllables (not all combinations of two syllablesare actually used in Japanese) but there are over 4000 words with a two syllable pro-nunciation. That means that on averageโ for every two syllables you writeโ you canbe referring to one of two words. Even with three and four syllablesโ the problempersistsโ with a greater number of words available than there are possible readings.
Because of thisโ Japanese is known as a โhomophonicโ language - a languagein which a large number of distinct words will share the same pronunciation. For in-stanceโ a word pronounced โhareโ can refer either to โfair weatherโโ or a โboil/swellingโ.The word โfumiโ can mean either โa wri en le erโโ or โdistasteโ. The word โhaiโ canmean either โyesโโ โactorโโ โashโโ โlungโ or โdispositionโโ and that doesnโt even cover allpossible words that are pronounced similarly: without the use of kanjiโ it would beincredibly hard to decipher wri en Japanese.
Of courseโ one can argue that spoken Japanese doesnโt rely on kanjiโ so it mustbe possible to do away with them in the wri en language tooโ but this ignores the factthat just because a simplification can be madeโ it might make things harder in otherrespects. For instanceโ there are no capital le ersโ spacesโ full stopsโ or all those othersyntactic additions in spoken Western languages eitherโ and yet we still keep thosein for ease of reading. Similarlyโ the use of kanji has clear benefits to Japanese as awri en language: they act as word boundary indicatorsโ allow readers to get the gist
18 The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji
of a text by quickly glossing over themโ and solve the problem of needing to applycontextual disambiguation all the time like one has to in spoken Japanese.
Howeverโ just because they are usefulโ there have been โimprovementsโ interms of their use in wri en Japanese. At the turn of the 20th centuryโwri en Japanesewas as complicated as wri en Chinese in terms of kanji useโ and even more compli-cated as a wri en language on its ownโ because kana did not reflect pronunciation.In this classical Japaneseโ a word wri en as โsauโ would be pronounced as a long โsoโโand something like โkefuโ would instead be pronounced as a long โkyoโ. Whenโ af-ter the second world warโ the Japanese ministry of education reformed the wri enlanguageโ they didnโt just get rid of this discrepancy between wri en and spokenJapaneseโ they also got rid of some 7000 kanjiโ restricting the number of kanji to beused in daily life to around 3500โ and designating a set of less than 2000 kanji as part
of general education (initially known as theๅฝ็จใจใใใ
โ โtouyouโโ kanjiโ and after refinement
to the set in 1981โ became known as the ๅธธ็จใใใใใ
โ โjouyouโโ kanji). This still sounds likea lotโ but given that the average English speaker knows around 12โ000 wordsโ withacademics knowing on average anywhere up to 17โ000 wordsโ having to know 2000kanji in order to understand the vast majority of your wri en language isnโt actuallythat much.
1.3.1 Types of KanjiOne of the things that one notices after having looked at kanji for a while is that agreat number of kanji use a great number of simpler kanji as their building blocks.Similar to how kana syllables can be combined to form wordsโ kanji have throughouthistory been combined to form more complex kanjiโ and complicated kanji have beenreduced to combinations of simple kanji for the sake of remembering themโ as wellas organising them.
Traditionallyโ kanji are organised in four classesโ and two categoriesโ follow-ing the convention that was introduced in the very first comprehensive Chinese char-acter dictionaryโ at the beginning of the Western calendarโs second century. The fourclasses relate to the way in which characters are composed:
1. Pictographs (่ฑกๅฝขๆๅญใใใใใใใ
โ shoukeimoji) โ Hieroglyphic characters that look likewhat they mean (numbersไธโไบโไธโ orๅฑฑ for โmountainโ)
2. Ideographs (็ตตๆๅญใใใ
โ emoji) โ Characters that represent things in some visualwayโ divided into two subclasses:
(a) Simple ideographs (ๆไบๆๅญใใใใ
โ shijimoji)โ such asไธ andไธ (for โaboveโ andโbelowโ respectively)โ and
The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji 19
(b) Compound ideographs (ไผๆๆๅญใใใใใ
โ kaiimoji)โ such asไผโ โrestโโ consisting ofthe compoundsไบบโ โpersonโโ next toๆจโ โtreeโ)
3. Form/Reading combinations (ๅฝขๅฃฐๆๅญใใใใใใ
โ keiseimoji) โ These characters com-bine two kanji into a single characterโ with one of the two indicating a rootmeaningโ and the other indicating (at least one of) the reading(s) for the char-acter.
The two categories are related to how characters are actually used:
1. Derivatives (่ปขๆณจๆๅญใฆใใกใ ใใใ
โ tenchuumoji) โ These are characters of which the mean-ings are derivationsโ or extensionsโ of the characterโs original meaning.
2. Phonetic loans (ไปฎๅๆๅญใใใใใ
โ kashamoji) โ These are characters which are usedpurely phoneticallyโ ignoring their original meaningโ or characters that are con-sistently used โwronglyโ. This class includes those kanji that had to be madeup โon the spotโ in order to accommodate words and concepts imported intoJapanese from foreign languages for which no pre-existing kanji form was avail-able.
To make ma ers even more interestingโ there are also characters which fallin either the third or fourth classโ but for which certain meanings have become tiedto certain readings. An example of this is the characterๆฅฝโ which can mean โmusicโwhen pronounced as โgakuโโ but mean โcomfortโ or โenjoymentโ when pronouncedas โrakuโ.
1.3.2 Writing KanjiWriting kanji follows relatively strict rules. Because kanji are mostly composed ofsmaller kanjiโ there is a uniform way of writing that allows people to remember kanjias combinations of simpler kanjiโ rather than as combinations of strokes that onlyonce finishedโ form a kanji. There are a limited number of strokes that are used fordrawing kanji.
straight strokes
stroke drawing order examplesไธ left to right ไบโไธใ starting at the lower left ๅซไธถ called a โtick markโโ starting upper left ๅซโไธธโ็ฌ
20 The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji
stroke drawing order examplesใไน starting at the top ไนโๅไธฟ starting at the top ไนไธจ starting at the top ๅไบ starting at the topโ with a serif to the left at the end ไบโๅฐใ starting upper leftโ and then pulling back at the end ็ญใ starting at the topโ with an upward serif at the end ๅผโๆ
angled strokes
stroke drawing order examplesใ top to bo omโ then left to rightโ as one stroke ๅ ฆโๅฑฑใ left to rightโ then top to bo omโ then left to right ๅนใ left to rightโ then a hook curving down left ๆฐดใ left to rightโ then top to bo om with a serif to the upper left ๅโๆน๐ left to rightโ then top to bo om ๅไน top to bo omโ then left to right with a serif upward at the end ็คผไน top left to rightโ then down right with an upward serif at the end ่ฑโไธฎ
multi-angled strokes
stroke drawing order examplesใ top to bo omโ then the same asใ ไธ
ใ top left to rightโ then the same asไน ไนใ top left to rightโ top to bo omโ then the same asใ ไนโๅปดใ a connected stroke consisting ofใ andใ ้
Composition
Several compositional rules apply when a kanji consists of more than one stroke:
1. Strokes that do not intersect each otherโ follow each other in a top to bo omโleft to right fashion.
2. Kanji used to form more complex kanji also follow this rule. For instanceโ ไนดis wri en as first ๆโ which in turn is first ๆโ then ๆคโ and then ไน is placedunderneath.
3. When strokes intersectโ the following rules apply:
(a) For a vertical/horizontal intersection where the vertical stroke does notprotrude at the bo omโ such as in ็โ draw the top horizontal firstโ thenthe vertical (formingไธ )โ then the rest.
The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji 21
(b) For a vertical/horizontal intersection where the vertical stroke does pro-trude at the bo omโ such as inๅโ็ orๅนดโ draw all horizontals firstโ andfinally the vertical.
(c) Forไน crossed strokes such as inๆ or็ถโ the stroke that runs upper-rightto lower-left is drawn first.
(d) Strokes that intersect complete shapesโ such as the vertical in ไธญ or thehorizontal inๆฏโ are wri en last.
4. Box enclosuresโ such as inๅฝโ are wri en left๏ฝfirstโ then followed up withใto form ๅโ then have their content drawnโ and are then closed at the bo omwithไธ.
5. Semi enclosuresโ such as around ๅ ฅ in ่พผ or around ่ฟ in ๅปบโ are wri en lastโafter the semi-enclosed component.
There are a few exceptions to these rules (of course)โ so when learning kanjiโone should always have some reference on how to draw kanji.
1.3.3 Reading kanji: furiganaOne problem with kanji is that there is no โbuilt-inโ way to tell which pronunciationof a kanji is being used. For instanceโ when a text has the word่กใฃใ in itโ then itโsclear how to pronounce the hiragana partโ โ aโโ but whether the kanji่ก should bepronounced as โiโ or as โokonaโ is not clear. The context will helpโ but sometimes forverbsโ and often for nounsโ thatโs not enough to figure out how to pronounce a kanji.Because of thisโ Japanese has a unique aspect to its wri en language: furigana.
Furiganaโ ๆฏใต
ใไปฎๅใใช
โ literally means โsprinkled kanaโโ and refers to phoneticguide text wri en over or alongside kanji to indicate the specific reading a readershould use. You have seen several examples of furigana already in this bookโ wherewhenever a Japanese term was used involving kanjiโ its pronunciation was wri enabove it in small le ering. This is not something particular to this bookโ but a com-mon occurence in Japanese wri en materialโ used most often to help the reader dis-ambiguate or pronounce โhardโ wordsโ but also for stylistic or even comic effect.
As an illustration of comic effectโ one might consider the case of long wordsthat are used with some frequency in a text. These words might only be given twophonetic guide texts throughout the writing: a first time with the โproperโ pronunci-ationโ and a second time with the pronunciation โareโ instead โ a pronoun with thecontextual meaning โwhatever I wrote last timeโ.
While comic effect is perhaps an added bonus to using furiganaโ it is certainlywidely used for stylistic effect. For instanceโ while the word ้ฆๅ does not exist inJapaneseโ the kanji mean โneckโ and โswordโ respectively. A Fantasy novelist coulduse this โmade upโwordโ and add a phonetic text to note that it should be pronounced
22 The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji
asใจใฏใตใญใฅใผใทใชใณใปใฝใผใโ โekusakyuushion soodoโโ a transliteration of the En-glish words โexecution swordโ into Japanese. While this doesnโt make ้ฆๅ a realwordโ it does allow a writer to paint with words - using the kanji as โpicturesโ toinstil a sense of meaningโ and adding an explicit pronunciation so that the sentencecan be pronounced as well as wri en.
Anotherโ even wider used application of furigana is the kind employed in
sentences such asใใฎๅฅดใฒใจ
ใๅซใใ
ใโ โI dislike that personโ. In this sentenceโ the kanjiๅฅดis used with the phonetic guide text โhitoโโ meaning โpersonโ. Howeverโ this is notthe real pronunciation ofๅฅดโ which is normally pronounced โyatsuโโ and doesnโt justmean โpersonโโ but is a derogatory version of the word instead. In essenceโ whilethe reading reflects what the speaker is sayingโ the kanji form of the word expresseswhat the speaker is actually thinking. This โbeing able to express both what is beingthought and what is being said at the same timeโ is something that is impossiblewithout this particular feature of wri en Japanese.
1.3.4 Reading quirks: compound wordsAs mentioned in the section on kana pronunciationsโ thereโs an odd quirk involvingthe pronunciation of compounds words. This is best illustrated with an example.If we combine the noun ๆฐโ โkiโโ meaning โspiritโโ or โa entionโโ with the verb ไปใโโtsukuโโ to form the compound verbๆฐไปใโ then its pronunciation is not โkitsukuโ.In factโ the second compound voicesโ leading to the pronunciation being โkidzukuโ(or according to modern spellingโ โkizukuโ). Why this voicing occurs isโ sadlyโ com-pletely and entirely unknown. There are no rules that say when compound wordsare โsupposedโ to voiceโ nor are there any rules we can abstract from all the wordsthat do โ any rule that seems to explain half of all voicings that occur in Japaneseโseems not to apply to the other half.
The best advice here is simply: โlearn compound words as complete wordsโ.Even though they can be analysed as compoundsโ their meaning is typically differentfrom what the compounds individually meanโ so learning them as combinations oflooseโ smaller wordsโ makes very li le sense anyway.
1.3.5 Looking up kanjiIf we wanted to look up kanji likeๆโๆข andๆชฅโ then one very obvious feature we seeis that all three seem to share a similar structure: ๆจ to the leftโ and something elseto the right. This is not a coincidence: most kanji can be described as some bit thatis used by a number of other kanjiโ plus a unique part that identifies that particularkanji. The bit of kanji that is shared by several (or in some cases lots of) kanji is calleda โradicalโโ and can be used to look up a kanji if you have no idea what it means oreven how to pronounce it.
The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji 23
The very first Chinese character dictionary โ the Shuลwรฉn Jiฤzรฌ (่ชชๆ่งฃๅญ)โpublished in the year 121 โ used 214 such characters as indexing shapesโ callingthem bรนshวu. (a name that the Japanese copied to the best of their abilityโ calling
them bushuโ ้จ้ฆใถใใ
). While this scheme was thought up almost two millennia agoโamazingly this method of organising kanji has not been fundamentally altered eversince: while wri en Chineseโ and later Japaneseโ changed over the centuriesโ the onlything that has really changed is the number of indexing radicals. Current indices listaround 400 shapes as radicalsโ compared to the original 214โ mostly due to manyshapes being considered โvariationsโ of the classic radicals these days. For instance:while originally onlyๅทฑwas considered a radical (radical number 49โ in fact)โ Chinesecharacters have changed over the course of centuries so that now the shapesๅทฒ andๅทณ are also usedโ and are considered variations of the originalๅทฑ. Kanji that use anyof these three shapes may thus be found grouped together.
Some variations on the traditional radicals are simpleโ such as ็ changingever so slightly to become็โ the only real difference being that the lower horizon-tal stroke is slanted a li le. Howeverโ some variations are more drasticโ such as ๆbecomingๆ; the top stroke has disappeared. The most drastic changes we seeโ how-everโ are those where a radical is no longer readily recognisable as stemming from aparticular kanji. For instanceโ if you didnโt know anything about kanjiโ you would behard pressed to imagine that็ญ is actually considered the radical form of็ฌ. Or thatโบพ in kanji such as่ is actually the radical form of the kanji่ธ. Probably the mostconfusing of all radicals are the radical forms of the kanji pair้ and้โ which bothturn into้โ but on different sides of kanji: ้ is indexed by้โ while้จ is indexedby้!
1.3.6 StylesThere are several writing โstylesโ for Japaneseโ each associated with different uses.
The most commonly used style by far is the kaishoโๆฅทๆธใใใใ
โ styleโ or โprintโ style. Text-booksโ novelsโ newspapersโ webpagesโ virtually all material intended for mass read-ing consumption uses this style. There are a few different variants of this formโ of
which the Minchouโ ๆๆใฟใใกใใ
โ and gothicโใดใทใใฏโ variants are the most common. TheMinchou variant is characterised by fine lines and serifs (the font that was used forthe Japanese in this book is a Minchou variant of the kaisho styleโ for instance)โ whilethe gothic variant is characterised by thickโ clear lining without any serifs. This vari-ant is often used for signs and pamphletsโ as well as a visually offset style contrastedto Mincho (performing the same role italic scripts do for most Western languages).
To show the differenceโ let us look at two images using minchou and gothicversions of the kaisho typeface. These examples use theใใใฏ poem as textโ whichcan be considered a Japanese equivalent of an alphabet songโ containing each basicsyllable only once (although some are voiced). Observing the โproperโ writing style
24 The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji
and reading top-downโ right to leftโ this poem is wri en as follows:
่ฒใใ
ใฏๅใซ
ใป
ใธใฉ
ๆฃใก
ใใฌใใ
ๆใ
ใไธใ
่ชฐใใ
ใ
ๅธธใคใญ
ใชใใ
ๆ็บ
ใใ
ใฎๅฅฅๅฑฑ
ใใใใพ
ไปๆฅ
ใใต
่ถใ
ใใฆ
ๆต ใใ
ใๅคขใ
ใ
่ฆใฟ
ใ
้ ใ
ใฒใใใ
Theใใใฏ poemโ with classical kana transcription
There are many translations possibleโ given the classical nature of the poem.Howeverโ a translation offered by professor Ryuichi Abe in his 1999 work โThe Weav-ing of Mantra: Kรปkai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourseโ โ published byColumbia University Pressโ is as follows:
Although its scent still lingers on โใใใใthe form of a flower has sca ered away.For whom will the glory โใใใใof this world remain unchanged?Arriving today at the yonder side โใใใใof the deep mountains of evanescent existenceโwe shall never allow ourselves to drift away โใใใใintoxicatedโ in the world of shallow dreams.
Wri en in Mincho and gothic stylesโ this poem looks like:
Theใใใฏ poemโ in theๆๆ variant ofๆฅทๆธ style
The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji 25
Theใใใฏ poemโ in theใดใทใใฏ variant ofๆฅทๆธ style
In addition to the kaisho styleโ there are the two โcursiveโ styles called gy-
oushoโ ่กๆธใใใใใ
โ and soushoโ่ๆธใใใใ
โ which are โsimplifiedโ forms of wri en Japanese. Thesimplification here refers to the fact that these two styles connect many strokes intosingle strokesโ or in extreme casesโ even simplify entire kanji to single strokes. How-everโ this does not make them simpler to read - far from itโ the simplifications canmake it much harder to tell certain kanji apartโ or look up in a dictionary.
Gyousho is usually associated with handwriting: while we can all write let-ters the way they come rolling out of a printerโ we have a special way of writingeverything if we do it by handโ and in Japanese this is expressed through a slightlymore flowing form of kanji and kanaโ connecting strokes butโ quite oftenโ preservingmost of the looks of a kanji. Soushoโ on the other handโ is the highly stylised sim-plifications associated with brush calligraphy โ shapes are simplified according toreasonably rigid rulesโ but these simplifications look drastically different from theoriginal shapeโ and certain shapes are simplified in such a way that it is nearly im-possible to tell one from another without having received some form of educationin reading and writing brush calligraphy. Illustrating this again using the ใใใฏpoem:
26 The syntax โ ยง 1.3 Kanji
Theใใใฏ poemโ in่กๆธ style
Theใใใฏ poemโ in่ๆธ style
Lastlyโ there are two โtraditionalโ styles that you only find used in very spe-
cific applications: reishoโ้ทๆธใใใใ
โ โsquare styleโ or โblock styleโโ and tenshoโ็ฏๆธใฆใใใ
โ โsealstyleโ. These two styles are not just traditional but โancientโ stylesโ in that they arestyles found used far back in Japanese history on official records and seals (respec-tively). Reisho is associated with the style of carved kanji on woodblocks (explainingits โblock styleโ name)โ and is still in use today for things such as traditional signs. Ten-sho is also still used in modern Japanโ featuring most prominently in personal stampsโ in Japanโ you do not sign documents with a signatureโ but you put your personalstamp on the document. Everyone who has ever signed something has one of theseโand youโll probably know them from the distinctive red-ink kanji-in-a-circle or kanji-in-a-square signs on Chinese and Japanese paintings and brush works. Illustratingthese two styles using theใใใฏ again:
The syntax โ ยง 1.4 Words and word classes 27
Theใใใฏ poemโ in้ทๆธ style
Theใใใฏ poemโ in็ฏๆธ style
Special dictionaries exist that list kanji in their different forms. These come
in the form of santaijitenโ ไธไฝ่พๅ ธใใใใใใฆใ
โ which list kaishoโ gyousho and sousho forms
(โsantaiโ meaning three forms)โ and gotaijitenโไบไฝ่พๅ ธใใใใใฆใ
โ which list all five forms fora kanji (โgotaiโ meaning five forms). There are even reference works which donโt somuch list the forms in a neatly ordered fashionโ but show you different interpretationthat artists have of the gyousho and sousho forms of kanjiโ which makes them moreโartbookโ than reference bookโ even when they are invaluable resources to studentsof Chinese and Japanese calligraphy.
1.4 Words and word classesWith all this talk about le eringโ one would almost forget that just le ers hardly getus anywhere if we donโt know any words to write with them. Howeverโ Japanese
28 The syntax โ ยง 1.4 Words and word classes
doesnโt have quite the same words as most western languages have. You may haveheard the terms โnounโ and โverbโโ and you may even be familiar with terms likeโprepositionsโ and โadverbโโ but there are quite a number of these word typesโ andweโll look at all of these in terms of whether or not Japanese uses themโ and whatthey look like.
1.4.1 ArticlesThis is a group of words that you rarely think about as real words: in Englishโ โtheโโโaโ and โanโ are articles. They precede a word to tell you whether itโs an undeterminedโsomethingโ (by using โaโ or โanโ) or a specific โsomethingโ (by using โtheโ). Japaneseโon the other handโ doesnโt have articles at all. Itโs not just that it uses a differentway to indicate the difference between for instance โa carโ and โthe carโ: there are nosimple words you can use to show this difference. This might sound like a rather bigtumbling blockโ but there are many languages which do not have articlesโ and thepeople that use those languages can get the meaning across just fine without them -as we will see when we talk about context later in this chapter.
1.4.2 VerbsVerbs are words that represent an action either taking place or being performedโ andcan be modified to show things like negatives or past tense. In Englishโ words likeโflyโ and โfloatโ are verbs for actions that are being performedโ and we can makethem negative or past tense: โnot flyโโ โnot floatโโ โflewโ and โfloatedโ respectively.Similarlyโ words like โwalkโ and โeatโ are verbs for actions that can be performedโand we can make them negative or past tense too: โnot walkโโ โnot eatโโ โwalkedโ andโateโ respectively. Verbs also have a regularity: walk and float are regular verbs inthat they follow the same rules: past tense is โโฆ + edโโ but โflyโ and โeatโ are irregular:they do not become โflyedโ and โeatedโโ but โflewโ and โateโ.
Finallyโ verbs can be transitiveโ or intransitive. The verb โwalkโโ for instanceโis something that you just do. You walk. When you see this kind of construction ina sentenceโ we say that the verb is used โintransitivelyโ - in contrastโ โeatโ is a verbyou can either use intransitively (โWhat are you doing?โ - โIโm eatingโ) or transitively:โI eat an appleโ. In this useโ youโre applying the verbโs action to something: โI throwthe ballโโ โI eat an appleโโ โI fly a planeโ are all examples of this. Howeverโ there issomething funny about transitivity: some verbsโ like โwalkโโ you can only use intran-sitively (we donโt say that we โwalked the streetโโ for instance)โ but many verbs canbe used either intransitively or transitivelyโ like โeatโ.
There are also a number of verbs that can only be used transitivelyโ but theseare special verbsโ typically called auxiliary verbs. In Englishโ โhaveโ and โwantโ areexamples of these. Without an additional โsomethingโโ these verbs do not have anymeaning on their own: saying โI have.โ or โI want.โ is grammatically incorrect. At the
The syntax โ ยง 1.4 Words and word classes 29
very leastโ youโd need to say something like โI have it.โ or โI want that.โ for the verbsto be used correctly.
Japanese verbs are characterised by a high degree of regularity asโ except forthree verbsโ all verbs are regular. These regular verbs fall into two categoriesโ namely
the โfive gradeโ verbs called godanโ ไบๆฎตใใ ใ
โ and the โsingle gradeโ verbsโ called ichi-
danโไธๆฎตใใกใ ใ
. These two categories inflect (take on different tenseโ moodโ etc) in the sameway on almost all possible inflectionsโ but of course differ on some (otherwise therewouldnโt be two categoriesโ but just one).
With respect to transitivityโ Japanese verbs can be a li le problematic. Ratherthan being labelled intransitive or transitiveโ Japanese verbs are labelled as being
่ชๅ่ฉใใฉใใ
orไปๅ่ฉใใฉใใ
โ literally โverb that works on its ownโ and โverb that works pairedwith somethingโ. Quite often these two map to intransitive and transitiveโ respec-tivelyโ but sometimes they donโt. For instanceโ traversal verbs (such as โwalkโโ โrunโโโflyโโ โsailโโ etc.) are intransitive in Englishโ but are ไปๅ่ฉ in Japanese: they can beused with an object to indicate what is being walked or run overโ what is being flownthroughโ whatโs being sailed inโ etc. As suchโ while in English one cannot โwalk thestreetโโ in Japanese this is exactly what youโre doing.
่ชๅ่ฉ on the other hand do not have a โverb objectโ; they operate on theirown. For instanceโ in English we can say โI understand the textโโ and if we look atthe sentence from a grammatical point of view we can say that โthe textโ may be con-sidered the verb object for the verb โunderstandโ. Howeverโ in Japan the verb for
understandingโๅใ
ใใโ is a่ชๅ่ฉ verbโ and so even though youโre used to thinkingof โunderstandingโ as a transitive verb actionโ you suddenly have to get used to itbeing an intransitive verb action in Japanese. Particularly at firstโ this can be some-what confusingโ but like all foreign languagesโ exposure to frequently used verbsmeans youโll quickly develop a sense of how to use them properly (even if you canโtremember the terms โintransitiveโโ โtransitiveโโ่ชๅ่ฉ andไปๅ่ฉ!).
1.4.3 Nouns
Nouns are words that are used to name โsomethingsโโ although those somethingsdonโt need to be things you can actually hold in your hand and look at: โcarโโ โNewYorkโโ โmagnificationโ and โambiguityโ are all nounsโ but while you can touch a carโ orpoint at New Yorkโ itโs impossible to point at something and go โthat is magnificationโor โthat is ambiguityโ. A good rule of thumb is โif you can say itโs โsomething elseโโitโs a nounโ:
30 The syntax โ ยง 1.4 Words and word classes
โThis car is old.โโNew York is hot.โโThe magnification is high.โโThis ambiguity is omnipresent.โ
These are all examples where the noun is said to be something else (and thatsomething else is known as an โadjectiveโ). This even works with things that youmight think are verbsโ but actually arenโt: โwalkingโ for instance looks like itโs a verbโbecause โwalkโ is a verbโ but there are instances when โwalkingโ is most definitelya noun. Of the following two sentencesโ the first uses โwalkingโ as a verbโ while thesecond uses โwalkingโ as a noun:
โI went to work walking.โโI like walking.โ
We can verify that in the first sentence weโre using a verbโ and in the seconda nounโ by replacing โwalkingโ with a word which we know is a nounโ like โcheeseโ:
โI went to work cheese.โโI like cheese.โ
The first sentence suddenly makes no sense at all anymoreโ while the secondsentence is still perfectly fine. This โwords can belong to multiple classesโ and which itis depends on how itโs used in a sentenceโ is something quite important to rememberwhen dealing with Japaneseโ as well as learning foreign languages in general.
As a last bit of noun related informationโ in Japanese (as in Englishโ in fact)nouns do not inflect. They usually need verbs to indicate negativeโ past tenseโ andother such things: in English we can say โThis is not a bookโ or โThis was a bookโโbut the negative and past tense comes from inflections of the verb โbeโโ not the nounitself.
1.4.4 Pronouns
There is a special class of words called โpronounsโ in Englishโ which act as if theyโrenounsโ but are used to replace nouns in sentences. The best known pronoun in theEnglish language is the word โitโโ but words like โthisโโ โthatโ as well as โyouโ or โweโare all examples of pronouns. Rather than constantly referring directly to what weโretalking aboutโ it is far more natural to use pronouns instead:
The syntax โ ยง 1.4 Words and word classes 31
โI bought a really good book. I had already read itโ having borrowed itfrom the library last monthโ but I saw it in the book store on discountโ so Idecided to buy it.โ
In this sentenceโ the pronoun โitโ is used quite a number of timesโ replacingโthe bookโ at every instance:
โI bought a really good book. I had already read the bookโ having borrowedthe book from the library last monthโ but I saw the book in the book storeon discountโ so I decided to buy the book.โ
This sounds unnatural to English earsโ even though grammatically speakingthere is nothing wrong. In Japaneseโ pronouns are part of a class of words colloquiallyreferred to as โkosoadoโโใใใใฉโ for the fact that they all start with either โko-โโ โso-โโ โa-โ or โdo-โ depending on their level of proximity (for instanceโ โthisโ vs. โthatโ) andwhether they are stative or interrogative (โthatโ vs. โwhatโ).
1.4.5 Nominalisers
Japanese has an extra class pertaining to nounsโ known as the nominalisers: wordsthatโ when used with other words or phrasesโ turn these words or phrases into some-thing that can act as if the whole construction is a noun. In Englishโ an example ofthis is the collection of words โthe way in whichโ:
โThe way in which the government is handling the issue of criminal law isquestionable.โ
In this sentenceโ โthe way in whichโ is used to turn โthe government is han-dling the issue of criminal lawโ into a single noun construction. As such we can re-place โthe way in which the government is handling the issue of criminal lawโ witha simple pronoun if we wish to talk about it in later sentences:
โThe way in which the government is handling the issue of criminal law isquestionable. It does not seem to be motivated by sound principlesโ but byback-office politics.โ
Japanese has quite a number of these nominalisersโ each with its own mean-ing and nuanceโ and we shall look at these nominalisers in the chapter on languagepa ernsโ too.
32 The syntax โ ยง 1.4 Words and word classes
1.4.6 Adjectives
As we saw in the section on nounsโ any word that can be used to be โmore specificโabout a noun is called an adjective. Words like โbigโโ โcoldโโ โsquareโ can all be usedas adjectives to be much more specific aboutโ for instanceโ the noun โboxโ:
โThis is a box.โโThis is a square box.โโThis is a bigโ square box.โโThis is a bigโ coldโ square box.โ
In Japaneseโ there are two types of adjectivesโ namely โverbalโ adjectives andโnominalโ adjectivesโ the difference being that the first type can โ unlike in Englishโ be inflected without relying on a copula verb. In Englishโ we have to say โThe carwas fastโโ but in Japanese this โwas fastโ does not use a copula verb such as โwasโโ butthe adjective itself can convey this meaning. In essenceโ in Japanese we get somethingakin to โThe car is fast-in-past-tenseโ. The copula stays the way it isโ but the adjectiveitself changesโ something which trips up many beginning students of Japanese.
The โnounโ adjectives behave in the same way English adjectives doโ needinga copula to change. โIt was a square boxโ is the same in Japanese as it is in Englishโwith โisโ becoming โwasโโ and the adjective staying the way it is.
While we can use adjectives to be more specific about a nounโ they cannot beused to be more specific about a verb. As an exampleโ in the next two sentences theword โfastโ is used as an adjective in the firstโ but is used as a different kind of wordin the second sentence:
โThis is a fast car.โโI walked quite fast.โ
In the first sentenceโ the word โfastโ is used to be more specific about the nounโcarโโ but in the second sentenceโ the word โfastโ is used to be more specific about theverb action โwalkโ. While they look like the same wordโ their use falls in differentword classes. When used to be specific about a nounโ a word is called an adjective.When used to be specific about a verbโ itโs called an adverb.
1.4.7 Adverbs
Using words to be specific about verbs and verb actions is called using them ad-verbially. In factโ in that sentence the word โadverbiallyโ is an adverbโ le ing us bespecific about the way in which โusingโ is used. While in English it can sometimesbe confusing as to whether a word is being used as an adjective or as an adverbโ in
The syntax โ ยง 1.4 Words and word classes 33
Japanese this overlap does not exist: both verbal and nominal adjectives are modi-fied (in different ways) so that they can be used as adverbs instead. Because of thisโthere is no way to mistake whether a word is used as adjective or adverb when youlook at a sentence.
In addition to adjectives-turned-adverbโ Japanese also has words that are onlyadverbs. The most important of these are the quantifiersโ which include things likeโa lotโโ โnot so muchโ and โoftenโ.
1.4.8 ParticlesJapanese has an extra word class that isnโt found in most western languages: theparticle class. Words in this class fulfil a wide variety of roles: denoting grammarexplicitlyโ adding emphasisโ disambiguatingโ marking how parts of a sentence bearrelation to each otherโ supplying reasonโ contradictionโ logical argumentsโ you nameit โ there is probably a particle that can be used for it.
Most particles are suffixesโ so that when you use a particle to indicate forinstance a contrast between two thingsโ it gets added after the first thingโ rather thanadding it in front like in English.
English: While (X is the case)โ (also Y).Japanese: (X is the case) whileโ (also Y).
Within this word classโ there is an important subclass known as the counters.Like Chineseโ but very much unlike most western languagesโ counting in Japaneserequires not just a knowledge of numbersโ but also of which particle to use in orderto describe the category of things you are counting. In the same way that you can askfor two mugs of beer or two glasses of beer in Englishโ you need to use the counterfor โmugsโ or โglassesโ in Japanese. Howeverโ while you can ask for โtwo teasโ in anEnglish establishmentโ this kind of request is impossible in Japanese. You have toorder โtwo (units of) teaโโ where the counter that you chose for your units makes thedifference between whether youโre asking for two cups or teaโ two bags of teaโ or areaccidentally asking for two sheets of tea.
1.4.9 PrefixesSome particlesโ as well as some common concept markersโ are prefixes rather than suf-fixesโ they are placed in front of words belonging to certain word classes. A handfulof special prefixes are used for things like marking words as honorificโ performing โin-herentโ negation (an English example of which is โthe house was windowlessโ ratherthan โthe house had no windowsโ)โ indicating repetitions (โrereading a bookโ) andacting as category marker for categories such as โnewโโ โbigโ or โmostโโ as well as
34 The syntax โ ยง 1.4 Words and word classes
some more exotic categories such as extents or limits. These will be discussed indetail in the chapter on particlesโ in the section on prefixes.
1.4.10 Onomatopoeia and mimesis
Two final word classes which are important to know when dealing with Japaneseare the onomatopoeiaโ and the mimesis. Quite a mouthfulโ onomatopoeia (from theGreek onomato-โ โnameโโ and poi- โto makeโ) are words that are used to reflect thesounds that things make. For instanceโ โThe heavy rock splooshed into the lakeโ isan example of an onomatopoeic verb. It doesnโt tell us what the rock actually did โnamelyโ fall into the water โ but implies it by virtue of the sound we know a rockfalling in water makes: โsplooshโ.
In addition to such โsoundโ wordsโ there are also โstateโ wordsโ which do notindicate a particular soundโ but indicate a particular property. Rare in Englishโ anexample of this would be the word โgloopyโ when describing something. Callingsomething โgloopyโ doesnโt tell you something objective about itโ but you can sur-mise itโs probably of a viscous liquid gel-like consistencyโ as well as unpleasant tothe touch.
While in English (and in most other western languages) using these wordsis considered a sign of a poor grasp of the language (after allโ why use a word likeโgloopyโ when you can call something a โliquidโ but viscousโ unpleasant gelโ)โ andmainly associated with โchildrenโs languageโโ in Japanese using onomatopoeia is es-sential to natural sounding language: with thousands of these words available tochoose fromโ each with its own connotations and implicationsโ picking the right ono-matopoeia or mimesis at the right time is something that demonstrates a high levelof competency in the language.
Onomatopoeiaโ calledๆฌ้ณ่ชใใใใ
(โgiongoโโ in which the โgiโ part means โto mimicโโthe โonโpart means โsoundโโ and the โgoโpart means โwordโ) and mimesisโ calledๆฌๆ ่ช
ใใใใ
(โgitaigoโโ in which โtaiโ means condition or state)โ are some of the hardest words tolearnโ as they usually carry very specific nuances in meaning. For instanceโ in relationto a leaking tapโ a Japanese person might say โthe water was dripping outโโ pickingone specific word from among a great number of possible onomatopoeia to indicatewhether the dripping was intermi ent or continuousโ whether the drips were lightor heavyโ whether their impact in the sink was almost silent or accompanied by back-splash noisesโ each of these qualities being represented by a different onomatopoeicword.
Because of thisโ onomatopoeia and mimesis are an unofficial yardstick whenit comes to learning Japanese: if you can use the right onomatopoeic expression atthe right timeโ you have mastered a crucial element to speaking natural soundingJapanese.
The syntax โ ยง 1.5 Sentence structure 35
1.4.11 Compound words
This is technically not a word classโ but a language feature: in some languages severalwords can be combined into single words with more meaning that just the individualparts. This practiceโ called compoundingโ is something that some languages have aknack forโ and some languages simply do not bother with. Englishโ for instanceโ is alanguage in which compound words are rare โ although not unheard of. A commonEnglish compound word is the word โteapotโโ for instance. A combination of thenouns โteaโ and โpotโโ this would have to be a pot for tea. Howeverโ itโs not really apotโ itโs more a decanter. Similarlyโ the โteaโ in question is never dry tea leafโ eventhough thatโs also called โteaโ in English; it has to be boiled water infused with tealeaf. Soโ the single compound noun โteapotโ has more meaning than if you looked atthe meaning of just the two nouns it was built from.
This โjoining up two (or more) words to form newโ single wordsโ is one ofthe major dividing lines we can use when trying to classify languages: English is alanguage sparse in compound wordsโ as are Frenchโ Spanish and Italianโ but GermanโDanishโ Dutchโ Finnishโ Polishโ Hungarianโ Arabianโ and also Japaneseโ are languagesin which compound words are frequently used.
In Japaneseโ nouns are not the only compound words available โ compoundadjectives as well as compound verbs are also quite common.
1.5 Sentence structure
In addition to knowing which word classes are used in a languageโwe can also look atlanguages in terms of how sentences are structured. The most simplistic categorisa-tion of languages in this respect is by looking at the โSubjectโObject andVerbโ ordering.This categorisation looks at how languages order these three words classesโ leadingto the conclusions that Englishโ for instanceโ is an SVO languageโ while Japanese isan SOV language: in Englishโ most sentences are of the form โwe do somethingโโwhere the subject (โweโ) precedes the verb (โdoโ) which in turn precedes the object(โsomethingโ) for that verb. Japaneseโ in contrastโ follows a different ordering: mostsentences are of the form โweโ something doโ (with the comma added purely for easeof reading) where the subject precedes the object for the verbโ after which the actualverb is used. There are also VSO languagesโ such as formal Arabic or Welshโ wherethe sentence structure is predominantly โdoโ weโ somethingโ and VOS languagesโsuch as Malagasi (used in Madagascar) and Fijian (used in Fiji) where the structureis predominantly โdo somethingโ weโ.
Howeverโ while this terminology allows us to broadly categorise languagesโbased on what the โtypically usedโ pa ern looks likeโ it doesnโt tell us anything abouthow correct or incorrect sentences are if they do not adhere to these S/V/O โrulesโ.For instanceโ while โwe ate some cakeโ is a normal English sentenceโ a slightly lessconventional but still grammatically perfectly valid English sentence could be โcake;
36 The syntax โ ยง 1.5 Sentence structure
we ate someโ. This sentence does not fall in the SVO category that is associated withEnglishโ but that doesnโt mean itโs an incorrect sentence โ it just means the SVOlabel doesnโt tell the whole story. This becomes particularly apparent when we lookat what โminimal sentencesโ may look like in different languages.
In Englishโ a minimal sentence (that isโ one that isnโt considered an expressionlike โhi!โ or โhmmโ) consists of a subject and a verb: โI ateโ or โshe runsโ are examplesof minimal sentences. Trying to shorten a sentence further โ without making thesentence context sensitive โ yields broken Englishโ which is arguably simply notEnglish. This notion of context is important: if we are asked โHow many cookies areleft?โ and we answer with โfourโโ then this โfourโ is technically a sentence comprisedof a single wordโ and sounds natural. Howeverโ if we were to use the sentence โfour.โon its ownโ it is impossible to tell what we mean by it. This means that while Englishis an SVO languageโ itโs really an SV(O) language: you need an Sโ you need a Vโ andif you use an Oโ it comes lastโ but youโre not obliged to have one.
When we look at Japanese we see the S/V/O category crumbling even fur-ther. Rather than just being an SOV languageโ itโs actually an (S)(O)V language: Youneed a verbโ but you donโt need a subject or object at all to form a correct minimalsentence in Japanese. While in English saying โateโ is considered not enough in-formation to make sense ofโ Japanese is a language in which competent listeners orreaders fill in these blanks themselvesโ choosing which subject and object make themost senseโ given what they know about the speaker. This is what makes Japanesehard: most of the timeโ in every day Japaneseโ subjects and objects will be omi edleft and right becauseโ as a competent listenerโ you should know what they shouldhave been โ Japanese relies heavily on peopleโs ability to guess what someone elseis talking aboutโ something which can only come through regular exposure toโ anduse ofโ the language.
1.5.1 Word order
While itโs all well and good to know that minimal Japanese is an (S)(O)V languageโitโs also important to know that in Japaneseโ grammar is put directly into the sen-tence through the use of particles. While in English grammar only becomes appar-ent through the positioning of wordsโ in Japanese words are โtaggedโโ as it wereโ withtheir grammatical role. To illustrate thisโ an example sentence:
ๆจๆฅใใฎใ
ใฏ็ฌใใฌ
ใ็งใใใ
ใฎใ้ฃฏใฏใ
ใ้ฃใ
ในใพใใใkinou wa inu ga watashi no gohan o tabemashita.
This sentence is composed of several โblocksโ: ๆจๆฅใฏโ โkinou waโโ indicatesthe noun โkinouโ (โyesterdayโ) as context. In ็ฌใโ โinu gaโโ the noun โinuโ (โdogโ)is marked as verb actorโ in ็งใฎโ โwatashi noโโ the noun โwatashiโ (โIโ/โmeโ) is made
The syntax โ ยง 1.5 Sentence structure 37
genitive (forming โmyโ) and linked toใ้ฃฏใโ โgohan oโโ the noun โgohanโ (โdinnerโ)marked as direct verb objectโ with the final word โtabemashitaโ being the past tenseof the verb โeatโ:
โYesterdayโ (a/my/our) dog ate my dinner.โ
In Englishโ there is very li le position variation possible in this sentence: โAdog ate my dinnerโ yesterdayโ is still okayโ but rearranging the sentence to read โYes-terdayโ my dinner ate a dogโ completely changes the meaning of the sentence fromsomething unfortunate to something unse ling. In Japaneseโ the explicit presence ofgrammar markers in a sentence means that rearranging the โblocksโ doesnโt changethe meaning of the sentence at all:
ๆจๆฅใฏ็งใฎใ้ฃฏใ็ฌใ้ฃในใพใใใkinou wa watashi no gohan o inu ga tabemashita.โYesterday: my dinnerโ (a/my/our) dog ate.โ
็งใฎใ้ฃฏใใๆจๆฅใฏใ็ฌใ้ฃในใพใใใwatashi no gohan oโ kinou waโ inu ga tabemashita.โMy dinner โ yesterday โ (a/my/our) dog ate.โ
ๆจๆฅใฏ็ฌใ้ฃในใพใใใ็งใฎใ้ฃฏใใkinou wa inu ga tabemashitaโ watashi no gohan o.โYesterday (a/my/our) dog ate; my dinner.โ
้ฃในใพใใใ็ฌใใ็งใฎใ้ฃฏใใๆจๆฅใฏใtabemashitaโ inu gaโ watashi no gohan oโ kinou wa.โAteโ a dog (did)โ my dinnerโ yesterday.โ
All of these are perfectly valid sentences in Japaneseโ because all the wordswith meaning are explicitly tagged with the role they play in the sentence. Whilesome of these sentences will sound more usual than othersโ they all mean the samething. Howeverโ once we start moving the particles aroundโ pairing them with wordsfrom different blocksโ the same problem arises as we saw for English:
ๆจๆฅใฏ(็ฌใ)(็งใฎใ้ฃฏใ)้ฃในใพใใใkinou wa inu ga watashi no gohan o tabemashitaโYesterdayโ (a/my/our) dog ate my dinner.โ
38 The syntax โ ยง 1.5 Sentence structure
ๆจๆฅใฏ(ใ้ฃฏใ)(็งใฎ็ฌใ)้ฃในใพใใใkinou wa gohan ga watashi no inu o tabemashitaโYesterdayโ (the) dinner ate my dog.โ
In summaryโ it is not so much word order that inherently gives meaning toa sentence in Japaneseโ but the โsemantic blocksโ of wordsโ paired with specific par-ticles. Their combination tells you what the block meansโ and what role it plays ina sentence. As long as the pairings are preservedโ you can order these blocks in anyway you like and maintain the same sentence meaning. Which blocks go whereโ fi-nallyโ depends entirely on what you believe is the most important bit of the sentenceโas is highlighted in the next section.
1.5.2 EmphasisAnother feature of languages is where emphasis lies in a sentence. In Englishโ wetend to put the most pressing bit of information early in the sentenceโ and then saywhatever is further relevant to this information later in the sentence. The previoussentence is a good example of this: the main point is that โimportant informationcomes earlyโโ which is found earlier in the sentence than the additional information.In Japaneseโ things are the other way around: the more important the information isโthe later it will be placed in a sentence.
A rather simple example is the following pair of sentences:
โI fell off my bike while riding home today.โ
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏ่ช่ปข่ปใใฆใใใ
ใงๅธฐใใ
ใไธญใกใ ใ
ใง่ปขใใ
ใใงใใพใใพใใใkyou wa jitensha de kaerichuu de korondeshimaimashita.
While the English sentence is up front with the emphasisโ namely that we felloff our bikeโ the Japanese sentence doesnโt actually tell you what happened until thevery last wordโ โkorondeshimaimashitaโโ โ(I) (regre ably/unfortunately) fell downโ.
Being unfamiliar with this difference in emphasis (pointโ then details in En-glish vs. detailsโ then point in Japanese) can lead to confusion when dealing withwords in which this ordering is importantโ such as indicating simultaneous actions:in Englishโ โwhileโ. If someone asks โwhat are you doing?โ and we answer with โeat-ing some dinner while watching TVโโ then the main activity is eating dinner. Theโwatching TVโ is additional informationโ but not strictly speaking required for the an-swer to be complete. In Japaneseโ with the same core information and details usedโthe placement is opposite: the Japanese answer โterebi o minagaraโ gohan o tabe-masuโ lists โwatching TVโ first (โterebi o mi-โ)โ then adds the marker for simultaneousaction (โnagaraโ) and then concludes with โeating dinnerโ (โgohan o tabemasuโ). Both
The syntax โ ยง 1.6 Pitch and accents 39
in English and Japaneseโ the concise answer would simply have been โeating dinnerโโor โgohan o tabemasuโ.
Anotherโ more common example is the use of โratherโ: โI would rather haveX than Yโ is a well known sentence pa ern in Englishโ listing the thing with mostpreference first. This becomes even more obvious in the shortened pa ernโ โI wouldrather have Xโ. In Japaneseโ the โratherโ construction uses the particle โyoriโ andโ likebeforeโ the order is quite opposite:
Y yori X no hou ga ii to omoimasu
Trying to project the way โratherโ works in English onto what โyoriโ means caneasily lead to confusion: the English word โratherโ assumes that the most importantbit is on the leftโ so if we think โyoriโ does the same โ because we know it can betranslated as โratherโ โ we might mistakenly believe that this sentence says โI wouldrather have Y than Xโโ instead of what it really meansโ โI would rather have X than Yโ.While potentially confusing at firstโ this reversal of placement for emphasis becomesmore intuitive the more one practises Japanese.
Howeverโ having important information at the end of a sentence leads to aunique problem when interpreting or translating Japanese: how does one deal withtrailing sentences? In Englishโ when the la er part of a sentence is left offโ the mostimportant information has already been presentedโ so when the sentence is cut off wemight be missing the detailsโ but only the details. In Japaneseโ and other languageswhere more important information comes later in the sentenceโ leaving off the la erpart of a sentence leaves a reader or listener with the detailsโ but no knowledge ofwhat these details actually apply to!
Whileโ of courseโ this doesnโt lead to problems for people who grew up using alanguage in which emphasis comes later in a sentenceโ this โfeatureโ can be a great painfor people who grew up with โimportant bits firstโ. To themโ it feels very much likethe language is based on the concept of โfilling in the blanksโโ without any indicationof what can be used to fill them in. Sadlyโ this too can only be remedied throughcontinued exposure toโ in this caseโ Japaneseโ so that one becomes intuitively familiarwith which words might be implied if theyโre left off.
1.6 Pitch and accentsLinguistically speakingโ Japanese - like various other Asian languages such as Thaior Chinese - uses syllable pitch to place accents in words. Quite often you will find thisexplained as Japanese being a language with two pitch levelsโ high and lowโ whichmakes it relatively easy to learn compared to a more complicated language (in termsof pitch) such as Chineseโ which has four pitch levels for Mandarinโ and at least sixfor Cantonese. Howeverโ this creates the false impression that there are only twotones at which you should pronounce Japaneseโ which is simply not true. Insteadโ
40 The syntax โ ยง 1.7 Gender roles
accent through pitch in Japanese is best described in terms of tone difference:
1. If a word has its accent on the first syllableโ then the pitch of the word startsat a high tone and then drops in pitch at the second syllable. After thisโ thepitch may remain either constantโ or (slowly) go down as the rest of the wordis pronounced. Due to this relatively large difference between the first andsecond syllableโ the first syllable is considered accented by the Japanese ear.
2. If a word has its accent on a syllable other than the first or the lastโ the pitchmay remain constant or rise gradually until the syllable after the one that isaccentedโ where the pitch goes down suddenly to create the pitch differencethat is considered an accent in Japanese.
3. If a word has its accent on the last syllableโ the pitch may remain constant orrise gradually until the last syllableโ which is pronounced at a notably higherpitchโ marking it as accented to the Japanese ear.
4. If a word has no accentโ the pitch may remain constant or rise gradually. Thiscovers the majority of Japanese words and while the pitch may changeโ the lackof sudden discontinuous change makes this sound unaccented to the Japaneseear.
The presence and order of pitch change can make the difference between rain(้จ) and candy (้ฃด)โ both pronounced โameโ but with their accents on the first and sec-ond syllable respectivelyโ or more drastically between an umbrella (ๅ) and syphilis(็ก)โ both pronounced โkasaโ but again with their accents on the first and secondsyllable respectively.
For sentencesโ tooโ pitch plays an important role. A sentence ending with ahigh and then a low syllableโ compared to the same sentence ending with the last twosyllables in neutral pitchโ will be experienced as a question rather than as a statementโfor instance. Angerโ lecturingโ boredomโ and a wide variety of emotions can be toldfrom the pitch pa ern of a sentenceโ not unlike in most Western languages. Howeverโwhile in western languages pitch only adds emotionโ in Japaneseโ a misplaced pitchmay also change the meaning of the words being used.
1.7 Gender rolesDue to the different formality levels in Japaneseโ a particular style of speech is oftenassociated with a particular gender โ the more polite and reserved speech beingassociated with female speechโ and the more brash and forward plain speech beingassociated with male speech. While this is an understandable associationโ the prob-lem with associating speech pa erns with genders is that people often mistakenlyapply backward logic: if the female speech pa ern is reservedโ then reserved speechis female speech.
The syntax โ ยง 1.8 Context language 41
This isnโt how it worksโ though. Typicallyโ speech pa erns fall into categoriessuch as polite reserved speechโ plain informal speech or honorific speechโ which areused by a particular gender more than the other by virtue of statistics. Howeverโthis does not mean that what is considered โfemale speechโ is never used by menโ orwhat is considered โmale speechโ isnโt used by womenโ as there is no such thingas exclusively male or female speech. A more accurate distinction is to considerspeech pa erns as direct versus indirect or assertive versus reserved. Women tend tobe more reserved and use less direct speechโ and men tend to be more assertive anduse more direct speech. Howeverโ when the situation warrants itโ there is nothingto prevent men from using reserved indirect speechโ or women from using assertivedirect speech. Itโs all about what the social se ing warrants.
This saidโ there are a few words (not speech pa erns) that are genuinely effem-inate or masculineโ such as the effeminate dubitative particleใใใโ or the masculine
personal pronounไฟบใใ
. It is important to notice that the labels used here are โeffem-inateโ and โmasculineโโ and not โfemaleโ and โmaleโ. Very effeminate men (such astransvestites or homosexuals) may very well use very effeminate wordsโ and hard-core business ball-busting career women may very well use very masculine wordsto demonstrate their dominance. Againโ itโs all about the social se ing.
1.8 Context language
As mentioned in the section on sentence structureโ Japanese is a context sensitive lan-guageโ relying heavily on the reader or listener to be able to keep track of informationduring a conversationโ and omi ing any information once it has become contextual.Before we look at an example of thisโ we will look at how a โcontextโ differs from aโsubjectโโ as this can cause some confusion: in our day-to-day experience of languageโthe words โcontextโ and โsubjectโ refer to the same thing. If a public speaker at someconvention is talking about the physics of Star Trekโ then we can say that โthe subjectof his talk is the physics of Star Trekโโ or that his talk should be interpreted withinthe context of โthe physics of Star Trekโโ making the two refer to essentially the sameidea โ a topic.
Grammaticallyโ the terms are much further apart. Rather than both โsubjectโand โcontextโ being able to refer to some topicโ the two mean wildly different things.A โcontextโ is the overall topic of some text or conversation; it doesnโt necessarilyhave to be mentionedโ but it is clear what the text or conversation is all about. Aโsubjectโโ on the other handโ refers to specific words in individual sentences within atext or conversation. The best way to indicate the difference when we use the wordsโcontextโ and โsubjectโ from a grammatical perspective is as follows:
โA sentence says something about a subjectโ within a certain context.โ
42 The syntax โ ยง 1.8 Context language
For instanceโ given that this section talks about โcontextโโ the sentence โIt canbe a problematic โfeatureโ of Japanese for people who only know Englishโ is readilyinterpreted as meaning โContext can be a problematic โfeatureโ of Japanese for peoplewho only know Englishโ. You know what โitโ refers to because of the context youโrereading it in. Had this sentence been in a section on the sparsity of languageโ thenyou would have understood โitโ to refer to โthe sparsity of Japaneseโ.
In Japaneseโ this concept of โsentences say things about subjects within a cer-tain contextโ is taken further than in English. The following conversation may illus-trate this:
A:ใใใใฎใณใใใ่ฆใฟ
ใใใพใใใงใใใ๏ผ
B:ใใใ่ฆใฟ
ใฆใพใใใ
A:ใใใใใใใคใใใฃใใพใงๆใ
ใฃใฆใใใงใใใฉใ
B:ๅฑ ้ใใพ
ใฎใใผใใซใซ็ฝฎใ
ใใฆใใฆใใพใฃใใฎใงใฏใชใใงใใใใใA:ใใฃโฆโฆใใใใใใใพใใใใญใ
Transcribedโ this reads:
A: atashi no koppu o mikakemasen deshita ka?B: aaโ mitemasen.A: okashii wa. tsui sakki made mo etandesukedo.B: ima no teeburu ni oitekiteshima a no dewanai deshou ka.A: aโฆ soukamoshiremasenโ ne.
This conversation can be translated to natural sounding English in the fol-lowing manner:
A: โYou havenโt seen my cupโ have you?โB: โNoโ I havenโt seen it.โA: โThatโs odd. I just had it a moment ago.โB: โPerhaps you left it on the table in the living room?โA: โAh! That might be.โ
In this translation there are a number of contextual simplifications: โyouโ hasbeen used to refer to a specific personโ โitโ has been used to contextually refer tothe cup in questionโ and โthatโ has been used by speaker A to refer to what speakerB said. In Japaneseโ rather than using contextual words like thisโ they are simplyomi ed entirely. If we do a literal translation to Englishโ we see a rather differentโcontext-heavy kind of conversation:
The syntax โ ยง 1.8 Context language 43
A: โHavenโt seen my cup?โB: โIndeedโ havenโt seen.โA: โOddโฆ had just a moment ago.โB: โCould be left on living room table?โA: โAh! Might be so.โ
Itโs not just โitโ which has been omi edโ even personal pronouns are typicallyleft out. This makes for a seemingly very sparse languageโ which can be hard to in-terpretโ especially when one is just starting out with the language. For this reasonโsome textbooks and courses will present Japanese sentences with all the contextualinformation in them โ while this does not violate Japanese grammarโ it does lead tohighly artificial sentencesโ existing only in textbooks rather than reflecting the lan-guage as it is actually used. Because of thisโ all the examples in this book will try touse โnaturalโ Japanese phrasesโ with contextual words required for the sentence tomake sense in translation added in parentheses. For instance:
A: okashii wa. tsui sakki made mo etandakedo.A: (Thatโs) odd. (I) just had (it) (a) moment ago.
And with thatโ we are finally able to move on from introductory text to thelanguage itself: letโs sink our teeth in some grammar!
Chapter 2
Verb grammar
As mentioned in the introductory chapter on syntaxโ there are two classes of verbalwords in Japanese: verbsโ and verbal adjectives. Both of these can be considered to
consist of two parts: a verbal stemโ called the โgokanโ (่ชๅนนใใใ
)โ which indicates whatthe core meaning of a verb or verbal adjective isโ and some additional hiragana called
โokuriganaโ (้ใใ
ใไปฎๅใใช
)โ which is used to indicate inflection.Unlike Englishโ where verb stems are already usable on their own โ the verb
stem of โwalkโ is โwalkโโ for instance โ verb stems in Japanese require an inflectionindicator in the form of okuriganaโ so before we move on to the actual rules of gram-mar concerning Japanese verbs and verbal adjectivesโ we must look at how verbs andverbal adjectives are composed in Japanese. We will first be deconstructing the verbsโafter which weโll deconstruct the verbal adjectives.
Note that in this chapterโ as well as all following chaptersโ Japanese will nolonger be romanised. Soโ if you havenโt learned the hiragana script yet: now wouldbe a good time to start!
2.1 Inflecting
In Englishโ we are used to thinking of verb inflections in terms of โthe verbโ plus sometext that indicates the inflection. We consider โwalkedโ to consist of โwalkโ with โ-edโtacked on the endโ and โpassingโ as being โpassโ with โ-ingโ added to it. Howeverโmany verb forms in English actually use helper verbsโ so things like โwill helpโโ โletโsdanceโโ โbe able to diveโ are considered verb chainsโwith the helper verb(s) indicatingthe tenseโ mood and aspect.
In Japaneseโ all verb inflections are in fact chains of helper verbs and verbaladjectivesโ but rather than being a long list of separated verbs like in Englishโ theyare added to the base verb one by one until all the tensesโ moods and aspects have
been dealt with. For instanceโ the verb constructionๅพ ใพ
ใใใใฆใใพใใ means โ(I)
45
46 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting
had been made to waitโ. While hard to tell without spaces or a knowledge of verbalgrammar at this pointโ this is actually a series of six verbs chained together in a veryspecific way:
Firstโ we see (ใพ)ใโ the imperfect base form forๅพ ใคโ โwaitโ. This base form isused when forming the negativeโ passiveโ causative or โpseudo-futureโ form of a verb.Then we seeใใโ the continuative base for the helper verb for causativesโใใใ. Thisbase form is a general purpose โintermediate formโ for a great number of inflections.Thenใฆโ the continuative base for the helper verb for conjunctionโใค. Then ใโ thecontinuative base for the verb ใใโ โto beโ for animate objects. Combined withใฆit forms the โ-ใฆใใโ formโ which marks a verb as present progressive. Thenใพใโthe continuative base for the helper verb for politenessโใพใ. Then finally ใโ theterminal base for the helper verb for past tenseโใ.
We can see two things in this decomposition. Firstโ the โcoreโ verb is all the wayat the beginningโ and the helper verbs follow each other in inflection order: first thecausative of โwaitโ is formedโ then that is made a present progressiveโ this is thenmade politeโ and then finally the whole construction is turned from present to pasttense. Secondโ all the verbs are in some โbaseโ form; this is the crucial differencebetween Japanese verbal grammar and most other languages.
There are five โbase formsโ which are used in combination with specific in-flectionsโ and knowing how to identify these base forms makes verbal grammar sig-nificantly easierโ because it lets us view complex verb conjugations in terms of a seriesof simple โbase formโ + โhelperโ rules. For the past tense progressive causative forinstanceโ we see a huge inflection thatโs really composed of four fairly simple rulesโapplied one after another:
inflection rule examplecausative imperfect base +ใใใ ๅพ ใคโๅพ ใ +ใใใprogressive continuative base +ใฆใใ ๅพ ใใใใโๅพ ใใใ +ใฆใใpolite continuative form +ใพใ ๅพ ใใใใฆใใโๅพ ใใใใฆใ +ใพใpast tense continuative form +ใ ๅพ ใใใใฆใใพใโๅพ ใใใใฆใใพใ +ใ
All complex verb constructions can be described in this wayโ being a series offixed-order simple rules being applied. Whatโs moreโ because the two different verbclasses in Japanese mostly differ in what their base forms look likeโ inflecting verbsin Japanese is mostly a ma er of picking the right base formโ and then applying thesame rules for both verb classesโ making most inflections the same for the two. Verbaladjectives also rely on this concept of โbase formโ + โhelperโโ and as will becomeapparent when looking at the rules of grammar for verbal wordsโ some inflectionsare formed by adding verbal adjectives to verbsโ while others are formed by addingverbs to verbal adjectives.
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting 47
Without ge ing ahead of the materialโ let us first examine which base formsare used by verbs and verbal adjectivesโ and what they look like for each of the verbalword classes.
2.1.1 Inflection basesTraditionallyโ there are six โbase formsโ for Japanese verbal wordsโ of which five are
still used in modern Japanese. This traditional scheme is calledๆ่ชใถใใ
โ literary styleโand is associated with classical Japaneseโ while the modern scheme is called ๅฃ่ช
ใใใ
โcolloquial styleโ and is associated with normal modern Japanese. Because it is alwaysa good idea to look at where a language has come fromโ in order to understand whyit does what it does in its current formโ the relation between classical and modernJapanese will be mentioned wherever possible.
Firstโ letโs look at which base forms are used in classical and modern Japanese:
ๆ่ช ๅฃ่ช Base forโฆ
ๆช็ถๅฝขใฟใใใใ
ๆช็ถๅฝข Imperfect constructionsโ such as negative form andโpseudo-futureโโ as well as passiveโ potentialโ honorificand causative forms.
้ฃ็จๅฝขใใใใใใ
้ฃ็จๅฝข Continuative and conjunctive constructionsโ covering themajority of constructions involving helper verbsโ as wellas joining up sentences and forming nouns.
็ตๆญขๅฝขใใ ใใใใ
no longer used Finalising form. In modern Japaneseโ this role has beenassumed by the้ฃไฝๅฝข instead.
้ฃไฝๅฝขใใใใใใ
้ฃไฝๅฝข A ributive constructions (using verbs like adjectives)โ andin modern Japaneseโ finalised form.
ๅทฒ็ถๅฝขใใใใใ
ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข (ไปฎๅฎๅฝขใใฆใใใ
) Perfect constructions. In modern Japanese this form is onlyused for hypothetical constructionsโ which is why itโscolloquially known as theไปฎๅฎๅฝขโ โassumingโ form.
ๅฝไปคๅฝขใใใใใใ
ๅฝไปคๅฝข Imperative constructionsโ such as commands andprohibitive commands.
The way these bases are formed for the two classes of verbs and the verbaladjectives is the major difference between these verbal classes. Verbs in Japanese aremostly regular (there are only a handful of verbs with irregularities)โ and fall into
one of two classes: โgodanโโไบๆฎตใใ ใ
โ or โfive gradeโ verbsโ and โichidanโโไธๆฎตใใกใ ใ
โ or โsingle
48 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting
gradeโ verbs. Both verb classes endโ in their โdictionaryโ formโ on one of theใโrowsyllables (although notใโ and consequentlyใฅโ and notใต orใท)โ so that any verbyou may encounter can be found in a dictionary to end onใโใโใโใโใคโใฌโใถโใ orใ (the โdictionaryโ form mentioned here is a common descriptor used in literature
on Japaneseโ and is synonymous with the้ฃไฝๅฝขใใใใใใ
form of verbs or verbal adjectives.Theไบๆฎต verbs (also referred to as โclass Iโโ โtype Iโ or โu verbโ in literature)
can end on any of the aforementioned syllablesโ but ไธๆฎต verbs (also referred to asโclass IIโโ โtype IIโ or โru verbsโ in literature) only end onใ. Verbal adjectives โ theclass of adjectives in Japanese that inflect just like regular verbs do โ only come inone class and always end on the syllableใโ which is why they are also referred to inliterature as โi-adjectivesโ (a second class of adjectivesโ the adjectival nounsโ are com-monly referred to as โna-adjectivesโ). Howeverโ while it is useful to know on whichsyllables verbs and verbal adjectives can endโ bear in mind that just because verbsend onใโrow syllables and verbal adjectives end onใโ not everything ending onanใโrow syllable is a verbโ and not everything ending onใ is a verbal adjectiveโ โall cats have four legsโ but not everything with four legs is a catโ.
Let us look at how the bases for both verbs and the verbal adjectives areformed. Looking at them as a combination of verbal stem and some final syllable(s)โthe following table describes each of the bases for these word classes:
Base ไบๆฎตใใ ใ
verbs ไธๆฎตใใกใ ใ
verbs verbal adjectives
stem (่ชๅนนใใใ
) removeใโrow syllable removeใ removeใๆช็ถๅฝข stem +ใโrow syllable stem stem +ใ้ฃ็จๅฝข stem +ใโrow syllable stem stem +ใ้ฃไฝๅฝข stem +ใโrow syllable stem +ใ stem +ใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข stem +ใโrow syllable stem +ใ stem +ใใๅฝไปคๅฝข stem +ใโrow syllable stem (+ใ/ใ *) (stem +ใใ *)
In this tableโ theๅฝไปคๅฝข for theไธๆฎต verbs and verbal adjectives are starredโto indicate thereโs something special about them. Firstโ theไธๆฎต verbๅฝไปคๅฝข is a bitof a problem: the wordๅฝไปคๅฝข can refer to either the grammatical base formโ or tothe actual verb inflection as it is used in sentences. In classical Japaneseโ both inter-pretations of theๅฝไปคๅฝข were โstem +ใโ; the grammatical base form was the sameas the final inflected form. Howeverโ in modern Japanese the final inflected form is
either โstem +ใโโ if youโre in an area that adheres to ๆจๆบ่ชใฒใใใใ ใใ
โ โstandard Japaneseโ (thekind spoken in Tokyo)โ or fairly uniformly โstem +ใโโ if youโre not. This raises theproblem that either theๅฝไปคๅฝข is listed as two separate forms โ something Iโm nottoo fond of โ or listing it as just the stemโ and then telling you the final inflectedforms are either ๅฝไปคๅฝข +ใ or ๅฝไปคๅฝข +ใ depending on where you are. In this
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting 49
bookโ Iโve taken the la er approach.In addition to thisโ the verbal adjectiveๅฝไปคๅฝข is a point of contention. In clas-
sical Japaneseโ verbal adjectives came in two types: ใ adjectives andใ adjectives.Both of these had a regular formโ as well as a form involving a contraction with theverbใใโ meaning โto beโโ forming๏ฝใใ adjectives. Because of thisโ theใ andใversions were โpureโ adjectivesโ in that they had no imperfective or commanding form;for adjectives those would make no sense. Howeverโ because ofใใโ theใใ vari-ants did have these formsโ instead missing a finalising and perfect form. This gaverise to the following rather elaborative set of bases inๆ่ช:
Base ๏ฝใ form ๏ฝใใ form ๏ฝใ form ๏ฝใใใ formๆช็ถๅฝข - stem +ใใ - stem +ใใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข stem +ใ stem +ใใ stem+ใใ stem +ใใใ็ตๆญขๅฝข stem +ใ - stem+ใ -้ฃไฝๅฝข stem +ใ stem +ใใ stem+ใใ stem +ใใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข stem +ใใ - stem +ใใใ -ๅฝไปคๅฝข - stem +ใใ - stem +ใใใ
This is a lot of inflectional potentialโ but as classical Japanese transitioned tomodern Japaneseโ all these forms have essentially become mergedโ leading to a singleinflectional scheme that mixes forms from the โpureโ versions of adjectives with theใใ-contracted versions of those adjectivesโ leading to the question of which formsare to be considered belonging to the adjective as it exists nowโ and which belongto the the verb ใใโ which happens to work together with verbal adjectives a lot.In this bookโ weโll consider the final inflected ๅฝไปคๅฝข for verbal adjectives to be acontraction of the verbal adjectiveโs้ฃ็จๅฝข and theๅฝไปคๅฝข for the verbใใโ whichisใใ. This gives us โverbal adjective stem +ใโ + โใใโโ โverbal adjective stem+ใใใโโ whereใใ contracts toใโ giving us a final rule โstem +ใใโ. Soโ in thisbookโ verbal adjectives are considered not to have a genuine ๅฝไปคๅฝข of their ownโinstead relying on the helper verbใใ for one. Howeverโ other books list it as beingsimply โstem +ใใโโ and so for completeness it has been included in the earlier tableof bases.
Having covered the โwhat they look likeโโ letโs look at what this means for anumber of verbs from both classesโ and for verbal adjectives:
ไบๆฎต verbs ๆช็ถๅฝข ้ฃ็จๅฝข ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ๅฝไปคๅฝข
ไผใ
ใ ไผใ ไผใ ไผใ ไผใ ไผใ
ๆญฉใใ
ใ ๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ
ๆฅใใ
ใ ๆฅใ ๆฅใ ๆฅใ ๆฅใ ๆฅใ
50 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting
ไบๆฎต verbs ๆช็ถๅฝข ้ฃ็จๅฝข ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ๅฝไปคๅฝข
่ฉฑใฏใช
ใ ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ
ๅพ ใพ
ใค ๅพ ใ ๅพ ใก ๅพ ใค ๅพ ใฆ ๅพ ใฆ
ๆญปใ
ใฌ ๆญปใช ๆญปใซ ๆญปใฌ ๆญปใญ ๆญปใญ
ๅญฆใพใช
ใถ ๅญฆใฐ ๅญฆใณ ๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใน ๅญฆใน
่ชญใ
ใ ่ชญใพ ่ชญใฟ ่ชญใ ่ชญใ ่ชญใ
ไบๆฎต verbs ๆช็ถๅฝข ้ฃ็จๅฝข ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ๅฝไปคๅฝข
ๅใ
ใใ ๅใใ ๅใใ ๅใใ ๅใใ ๅใใ
ๅใ
ใ ๅใ ๅใ ๅใ ๅใ ๅใ
ๅฃฒใ
ใ ๅฃฒใ ๅฃฒใ ๅฃฒใ ๅฃฒใ ๅฃฒใ
ๅธฐใใ
ใ ๅธฐใ ๅธฐใ ๅธฐใ ๅธฐใ ๅธฐใ
ๆใใ
ใ ๆใ ๆใ ๆใ ๆใ ๆใ
There are two things worth noting in these tables. Firstlyโ theๆช็ถๅฝข forไผใ is not a typographical error; it really isใโ notใ. This is a left-over from classicalJapanese: ไบๆฎต verbs ending onใ used to be verbs ending onใต andใ (being โwuโโrather than โuโ)โ which inflected respectively as -ใฏโ -ใฒโ -ใตโ -ใธโ -ใธ and -ใโ -ใโ -ใโ-ใโ -ใ (ใ andใ being the now obsolete Japanese syllables for โwiโ and โweโโ whichhave not been in use since the wri en language was reformed in 1946 by cabinetorder). Howeverโ both were pronounced as -ใโ -ใโ -ใโ -ใ and -ใ. When these twoverb classes were simplified to todayโsไบๆฎต verbs ending on the modernใโ theๆช็ถๅฝข pronunciationใ was keptโ as well as its wri en form.
The second thing worth noting in the table is the seemingly disproportionatenumber of examples for ไบๆฎต verbs ending on -ใ. The reason for this is that forsome verbs ending onใโ just looking at the verbโs dictionary form is not enough todetermine whether itโs actually aไบๆฎต or anไธๆฎต verbโ so a few examples are neededto show how to tell the two apart. If a verb ends onใโ and the syllable preceding itin theใโโใโ orใโrow (such as is the case forๅใใโๅฃฒใ and่ตทใใ) then thisis always aไบๆฎต verb. Howeverโ if the syllable before theใ is in theใโ orใโrowโthen it might be an ไธๆฎต verb instead. The annoying thing is that without actuallylooking up the verb in a dictionaryโ or seeing it used in some inflected form that letsyou spot the difference between a ไบๆฎต base and an ไธๆฎต base being usedโ there isno way to tell what kind of verb youโre dealing with. Luckilyโ telling the differencewhen we do have an inflected form is really easyโ as we can tell from the followingไธๆฎต inflection examples (taking note that theๅฝไปคๅฝข as used in this book is just thestem):
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting 51
ไธๆฎต ๆช็ถๅฝข ้ฃ็จๅฝข ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ๅฝไปคๅฝข
่ฆใฟ
ใ ่ฆ ่ฆ ่ฆใ ่ฆใ ่ฆ (ใ/ใ)
ไผธใฎ
ใณใ ไผธใณ ไผธใณ ไผธใณใ ไผธใณใ ไผธใณ (ใ/ใ)
้ฃใ
ในใ ้ฃใน ้ฃใน ้ฃในใ ้ฃในใ ้ฃใน (ใ/ใ)
Comparing this table with the previous one shows that for any inflection in-volving the ๆช็ถๅฝขโ ้ฃ็จๅฝข or ๅฝไปคๅฝขโ which cover most verbal inflectionsโ we canreadily tell the difference between a ไบๆฎต and ไธๆฎต verb. The only cases that canleave us uncertain are the้ฃไฝๅฝข andๅทฒ็ถๅฝข forms. In these casesโ weโll just have toresort to checking a dictionary to be sure of which verb class weโre dealing with.
Lastlyโ a list of examples for the verbal adjectives is quite uniform:
adjective ๆช็ถๅฝข ้ฃ็จๅฝข ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข (ๅฝไปคๅฝข)
้ซใใ
ใ ้ซใ ้ซใ ้ซใ ้ซใใ (้ซใใ)
ๆฅฝใใฎ
ใใ ๆฅฝใใ ๆฅฝใใ ๆฅฝใใ ๆฅฝใใใ (ๆฅฝใใใ)
่ใใ
ใ ่ใ ่ใ ่ใ ่ใใ (่ใใ)
ๅคงใใ
ใใ ๅคงใใ ๅคงใใ ๅคงใใ ๅคงใใใ (ๅคงใใใ)
Of courseโ the examples of verbal adjectives wouldnโt be complete withoutone very curious verbal adjective:
adjective ๆช็ถๅฝข ้ฃ็จๅฝข ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข (ๅฝไปคๅฝข)
ๅทๅฟตใใ ใใญ
ใ ๅทๅฟตใ ๅทๅฟตใ ๅทๅฟตใ ๅทๅฟตใใ (ๅทๅฟตใใ)
Normallyโ verbal adjectives end onใโ preceded by either anใโโใโโใโorใโrow syllable. Howeverโ ๅทๅฟตใ is the only verbal adjective in Japanese thatends in anใโrow syllable +ใ. This is in fact so unusual that it is virtually neverusedโ and you will likely not find this adjective in most dictionaries. Soโ becausethereโs only the oneโ we can safely state that if you find something that ends in ใbut it has anใโrow syllable preceding itโ it is virtually certain not to be a verbaladjective.
2.1.2 Basic inflectionsThroughout the course of this section we will look at basic inflections for verbs andverbal adjectivesโ as well as look at a small number of particles that are intricatelyinterwoven with verbal grammar. We shall also look at the basic use and formationof nouns and adverbsโ so that this chapter in effect covers the minimal basics of โbasicJapaneseโ. We will start by looking at which particles are essential in order to under-
52 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting
stand basic verb grammarโ and will move from there to simple verb forms: presentand past tenseโ as well as affirmative and negative forms. In order to get an overviewof the basic concepts involved without offering too much information at onceโ politeverbal grammar will not be introduced until the next chapterโ after basic grammarhas been covered.
Particles
Verbs and verbal adjectives are used in combination with a number of particles to ex-plicitly mark parts of a sentence as relating to them. For verbsโ these are the particlesใโใซ andใโ and for verbal adjectives this is just the particleใ.
First offโ ใ (pronounced as ใ). This particle is used to mark a transitiveverbโs direct object. This particle is fairly straightforward and does what one expectsfrom it given this explanation. In โI eat an appleโ the noun โappleโ is the direct object
for the verb โeatโโ and in the corresponding Japanese sentenceโใชใณใดใ้ฃใ
ในใโ thewordใชใณใด (โappleโ) is the direct object to the verb ้ฃในใ (โeatโ). Howeverโ noteverything that is considered a direct object in Japanese is considered a direct objectwhen translated to English. For instanceโ in Japanese an aeroplane can โfly the airโโwhereas in English aeroplanes just fly.
Second isใซโ which broadly speaking marks verb details. Translating a sen-tence usingใซ to English yields the parts marked withใซ as becoming indirect ob-jectsโ prepositional phrases or even adverbs. Anything that is โnot the verb actorโ orthe direct objectโโ but adds more details to the verb actionโ will be marked withใซ.
For instanceโ the Japanese sentenceใกใผใชใซ่ฑใฏใช
ใ่ฒทใ
ใฃใฆใใใ translates to the En-glish sentence โI bought flowers for Maryโโ withใซmapping to the word โforโโ whichin English indicates an indirect object. This is hardly its only โmeaningโ; the Japanese
sentence๏ผๆใ
ใซๆฅใ
ใ translates to โIโll be there at nineโโ withใซmapping to the prepo-
sition โatโ. Moreoverโ in the Japaneseใใใใซๅใ
ใใโ translating to the English โtodivide cleanlyโโ the ใซ marks the nounใใใโ โclean/neat/tidyโโ as being used ad-verbiallyโ โneatlyโ cleanlyโ.
Finallyโ the particleใ is an interesting particle. When used with verbal adjec-tivesโ it marks the thing the adjective applies to. For instanceโ in the English sentenceโthat car is fastโโ the adjective โfastโ pertains to โthat carโ. Similarlyโ in the correspond-
ing Japanese sentenceใใฎ่ปใใใพ
ใ้ใฏใ
ใใงใโ the verbal adjective้ใ (โfastโ) pertains toใใฎ่ป (โthat carโ). This concept is carried over to verbsโ too. Some verbs have whatwould in English be considered a direct objectโ but in Japanese are not considered di-rect object because the verb does not โimpartโ its action on it. For instanceโ in โI throwthe ballโโ the throwing action is imparted on the ball. Howeverโ in โI know the text-bookโs materialโโ knowing is not an action imparted โonโ the material โ in these casesโrather thanใโใ is used in Japaneseโ so that for instance โI understand Japaneseโ is
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting 53
not expressed asๆฅๆฌ่ชใซใปใใ
ใๅใ
ใใ but asๆฅๆฌ่ชใๅใใ. This is particularly obviouswhen using verbs in passive modeโ changing for instance โI eat the cakeโ to โthe cakeis being eaten by meโ. In the corresponding Japanese sentencesโ the particle changesfromใ toใ: ใฑใผใญใ้ฃในใ becomesใฑใผใญใ้ฃในใใใ. In addition to thisโใmay mark a verbโs actorโ so that it is possible to have two different uses ofใ in the
same sentence: ็งใใใ
ใใใใๅใใโ translates to โI (็งโ actor) understand (ๅใใโverb) this (ใใโ pertaining object)โ.
In addition to these three particlesโ you will also often see the particleใฏ (pro-nounced asใ) being used in example sentences. This particle acts as a disambigua-tor when a sentence would otherwise be confusing in terms of who or what it was
aboutโ or what it was in relation to. For instanceโ ๆญฉใใ
ใใชใ and ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏๆญฉใใชใtranslate to โI do not walkโ and โI wonโt be walking todayโ by virtue of the secondsentence disambiguating the context from as broad as possible (i.e.โ โin generalโ)โ toโjust todayโ (ไปๆฅ). This can have some perhaps unexpected side effectsโ too: when
saying ็งใใใ
ใฏๆณณใใ
ใใพใใโ โI do not swimโโ the explicit presence of็งใฏmeans that youapparently felt that you needed to disambiguate the statementโ which means any lis-tener will suddenly wonder who then โdoes swimโโ as opposed to you. On the otherhandโ็งใๆณณใใพใใ merely means โI do not swimโโ usingใ to mark yourself as
verb actor forๆณณใใ
ใ.
Verbal grammar - present tense
Before we look at how to form the present tenseโ a note. There is no distinction betweenpresent tense such as โI walkโ and indicative future tense such as โI will walkโ. Both
roles are performed by the same verb form in Japanese: the ้ฃไฝๅฝขใใใใใใ
. Any verb orverbal adjective in้ฃไฝๅฝข is automatically in present/indicative future tense. Listingthis form for example words from all three verbal classesโ we see the following:
้ฃไฝๅฝข meaning plain present affirmative
ไบๆฎต verb ๆญฉใใ
ใ walk ้ฃไฝๅฝข: ๆญฉใ
ไธๆฎต verb ่ฆใฟ
ใ see ้ฃไฝๅฝข: ่ฆใ
verbal adjective ้ซใใ
ใ highโ expensive ้ฃไฝๅฝข: ้ซใ
Some examples of the present tense used in simple sentences:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏๆญฉใใToday (Iโll) walk.
54 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting
ใใฌใใ่ฆใใ(I) watch TV.
ใใใ้ซใใThis is expensive.
Negative
Having covered the present affirmative tenseโ the next important basic inflection isthe negative form. In Japaneseโ negative verb and verbal adjective forms are createdwith the helper adjective of negationโใชใ (็กใ)โ or using the rather classical verbใฌwhich will be discussed after polite forms have been introduced later in this chapter.
ใชใ is actually a verbal adjectiveโ and so inflects like any other verbal adjec-tive:
bases formๆช็ถๅฝข ใชใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใชใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใชใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใชใใ
This helper is combined with both verbs and verbal adjectives by joining upwith theๆช็ถๅฝขโ or imperfect base:
้ฃไฝๅฝข meaning plain present negative
ไบๆฎต verb ๆญฉใใ
ใ walk ๆช็ถๅฝข+ใชใ: ๆญฉใใชใ
ไธๆฎต verb ่ฆใฟ
ใ see ๆช็ถๅฝข+ใชใ: ่ฆใชใ
verbal adjective ้ซใใ
ใ highโ expensive ๆช็ถๅฝข+ใชใ: ้ซใใชใ
Recycling our example sentences from the present tense sectionโ we get thefollowing sentences:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏๆญฉใใชใใToday (I) donโt/wonโt walk.
ใใฌใใ่ฆใชใใ(I) donโt/wonโt watch TV.
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting 55
ใใใ้ซใใชใใThis isnโt expensive.
Howeverโ please note that this rule does not apply to the special verbใใโwhich we shall treat in the next section. Rather than becomingใใใชใโ it is simplyreplaced withใชใ.
(On a final noteโ it is imperative this ใชใ should never be confused withanother adjective pronouncedใชใโไบกใโ as that means โdeceasedโ)
2.1.3 Basic inflections for irregular verbs and verbal ad-jectives
There are three irregular verbs in Japanese that we need to look at before moving on
to further inflectionsโ beingใใโ โdoโ/โdecide onโโๆฅใ
ใโ โcomeโ andใใโ โexistโ (forinanimate things).
The irregular verbใใ
Looking atใใโ โdoโโ firstโ we see the following bases and inflection table:
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใโใโใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใ(ใ)โใ(ใ)โใใ
affirmative negativeplain ้ฃไฝๅฝข โใโโๆช็ถๅฝข+ใชใ:ใใชใ
We see that ใใ actually has three different ๆช็ถๅฝข formsโ as well as threedifferent ๅฝไปคๅฝข forms โ which of these gets used is fully determined by whichinflection youโre going forโmaking this verb a bit trickier than any of the other verbs inthe language. Luckilyโ itโs such a common verb that even though itโs highly irregularyou will most likely become familiar with all its inflections fairly quickly by virtueof them popping up almost as often as all other verbs put together.
Technicallyโใใ is considered aใตโๅคใธใ
verbโ or โirregular verbโ operating ontheใต columnโ. For the most partโ it inflects as anไธๆฎต verbโ but there are rules forwhat pronunciation to use when using which baseโ which makes it a truly irregularverb.
56 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting
ใใ has two common โvariationsโ: ใใ andใใ. Both of these are typicallyfound used as a verb in a noun/verb compound (meaning they are paired with anoun without using any particles)โ and only constitute a small number of all verbs inJapanese. Howeverโ while only used in a small number of verbsโ some of those verbsare quite common and frequently usedโ so knowing how to inflect these two verbs isnot unimportant.
base ใใ ใใ ใใๆช็ถๅฝข ใโใโใ ใโใโใ ใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใ ใ ใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใ ใใ ใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใ ใใ ใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใ(ใ)โใ(ใ)โใใ ใ(ใ)โใ(ใ)โใใ ใ(ใโใ)
affirmative negativeใใ ้ฃไฝๅฝข โใโโๆช็ถๅฝข+ใชใ:ใใชใใใ ้ฃไฝๅฝข โใโโๆช็ถๅฝข+ใชใ:ใใชใใใ ้ฃไฝๅฝข โใโโๆช็ถๅฝข+ใชใ:ใใชใ
For ใใโ the โใโ and โใโ ๆช็ถๅฝข are actually not used a lot in modernJapanese anymore. Insteadโ you will findใ used for virtually allๆช็ถๅฝข construc-tionsโ withใ and ใ indicating respectively classical and non-classical older styleJapaneseโ instead.
The irregular verbๆฅใ
ใ
ๆฅใ
ใ (โcomeโ) on the other handโ inflects like any normal ไธๆฎต verb (except for aslightly different ๅฝไปคๅฝข)โ but shares ใใโs irregularity: the pronunciation for itsstem changes for each base. Howeverโ unlike forใใ there is only one pronuncia-tion for each baseโ so inflection doesnโt involve โpicking the right pronunciationโโ butmerely remembering it:
base kanji form pronunciationๆช็ถๅฝข ๆฅ ใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ๆฅ ใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆฅใ ใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ๆฅใ ใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ๆฅใ ใใ
affirmative negativeplain ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข+ใชใ:ใใชใ
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting 57
As is evident from the table of basesโ and the table of inflectionsโ this verb isvirtually indistinguishable from any otherไธๆฎต verb. Howeverโ in spoken languageits irregularity is plainly obvious.
The irregular verbใใ
Finallyโ the verbใใโ โexistโ (for inanimate things) has seemingly normal basesโ butits inflection is quite special:
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใใ
affirmative negativeplain ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใชใ
This verb is irregular in all its negative forms: rather than using theๆช็ถๅฝข+ใชใ ruleโ justใชใ itself is used. Thusโ we see the following:
ๆฌใปใ
ใใใใโThere is a book.โ
ๆฌใใชใใโThere is no book.โ
The irregular adjectiveใใ
In addition to these verbsโ there is the irregular verbal adjectiveใใโ โgoodโโ whichis actually the irregular verbal adjectiveใใ:
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใโใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใใ
58 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting
affirmative negativeplain ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข+ใชใ:ใใใชใ
The only irregularity for this verbal adjective is its้ฃไฝๅฝขโwhich is technicallyใใโ but is almost always used asใใ instead. Of the twoโใใ is actually consid-ered the plain pronunciationโ andใใ a formal variant. Not knowing that these twoare actually the same adjective can lead to confusion in more complex inflectionsโsuch as when the adjectiveใใ turns into the past tenseใใใฃใ.
Past tense
The last basic inflection we will look at on its own in this chapter is the past tenseโwhich relies on the classical helper verb for past tenseโใ. This helper verb has thefollowing bases:
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใ
This verb has no้ฃ็จๅฝข (it doesnโt make sense to mark something as a pasttense and then continue inflecting it to something else)โ nor does it have a ๅฝไปคๅฝข(because one cannot command someone to do something in the past). It is combinedwith verbal้ฃ็จๅฝข formsโ being wholly unremarkable for theไธๆฎต verbsโ simply pair-ing up with the้ฃ็จๅฝขโ but being not quite so unremarkable forไบๆฎต verbs. While inclassical Japaneseโ the same rule applies as forไธๆฎต verbsโ in modern Japanese mostpast tenses for ไบๆฎต verbs have become contractedโ as we can see in the followingtable:
ไบๆฎต ้ฃ็จๅฝข classical past tense modern past tense change โruleโ
่ฉฑใฏใช
ใ ่ฉฑใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ่ฉฑใใ ่ฉฑใใ ใ verbs: no change
ๆญฉใใ
ใ ๆญฉใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ๆญฉใใ ๆญฉใใ ใ verbs:ใใโใใ
ๆฅใใ
ใ ๆฅใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ๆฅใใ ๆฅใใ ใ verbs:ใใโใใ
ๆญปใ
ใฌ ๆญปใซ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ๆญปใซใ ๆญปใใ ใฌ verbs: ใซใโใใ
ๅญฆใพใช
ใถ ๅญฆใณ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ๅญฆใณใ ๅญฆใใ ใถ verbs: ใณใโใใ
่ชญใ
ใ ่ชญใฟ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ่ชญใฟใ ่ชญใใ ใ verbs: ใฟใโใใ
ไผใ
ใ ไผใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ไผใใ ไผใฃใ ใ verbs: ใใโใฃใ
ๅพ ใพ
ใค ๅพ ใก ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ๅพ ใกใ ๅพ ใฃใ ใค verbs:ใกใโใฃใ
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting 59
ไบๆฎต ้ฃ็จๅฝข classical past tense modern past tense change โruleโ
ๅใ
ใใ ๅใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ๅใใใ ๅใใฃใ ใ verbs:ใใโใฃใใใ ใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ใใใ ใใฃใ ใ verbs:ใใโใฃใ
These rules for contraction in ไบๆฎต verbs (luckily) do not just apply to thepast tenseโ but to several other inflections (namely the continuativeใฆ formโ whichis tremendously important to knowโ the representativeใใ formโ and the conditionalใใ form)โ so that this is not a set of rules you will need to remember for a singleinflectionโ but applies to a number of often used inflectionsโ making the exceptionitself somewhat โregularโ.
Of courseโ there are a few exceptions to these rules. First upโ ่กใโ whichfollows the โwrongโ rule:
verb ้ฃ็จๅฝข classical past tense modern past tense
่กใ
ใ ่กใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ ใใฃใ
The verb่กใโ pronouncedใใ orใใ (the first being used in every day lifeโthe la er being used in poetry and song lyrics)โ does not follow the contraction ruleforไบๆฎต verbs ending onใ. There is no real reason for thisโ other than โthatโs just howpeople use itโ. In all other respectsโ่กใ is just anotherไบๆฎต verb. Luckilyโ this is notsome obscure verb you will run into only occasionally and will have forgo en thisexception for: ่กใ means โgoโโ and is used so frequently you will not get a chanceto forget it has an irregular past tense.
Secondlyโ there is a (very small) set of verbs that have a rather abnormal pasttenseโ based on addingใ to the้ฃไฝๅฝข instead of the้ฃ็จๅฝข. These verbs are mostlyused in writingโ and in formal speechโ but since there are only two (with two kanjiforms each) it cannot hurt to look at them:
verb meaning past tense
ๅใจ
ใ askโ questionโ accuse ๅใใ
่จชใจ
ใ ใ ่จชใใ
ไนใ
ใ ask ไนใใ
่ซใ
ใ ใ ่ซใใ
These verbs canโ technicallyโ also be inflected like regularไบๆฎต verbsโ but sincethey are mostly reserved for formal spoken and literary wri en Japaneseโ if you en-counter them you will most likely encounter them as้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใ.
Forไธๆฎต verbs things are a lot simplerโ and we see a regular table of inflection:
60 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting
ไธๆฎต ้ฃ็จๅฝข past tense
่ฆใฟ
ใ ่ฆ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ่ฆใ
ไผธใฎ
ใณใ ไผธใณ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ไผธใณใ
้ฃใ
ในใ ้ฃใน ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ: ้ฃในใ
And for the irregular verbs we see the sameโ bearing in mind that the stemshave a different pronunciation:
Irregular ้ฃ็จๅฝข past tenseใใ ใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ:ใใ
ๆฅใ
ใ ใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใ:ใใ
To form the plain past negativeโ rather than just the plain pastโ we have totake the plain present negative based onใชใโ and turn this into a past tenseโ whichmeans we need to look at how to form the past tense for verbal adjectives in generalfirst.
For verbal adjectivesโ rather than a plain inflectionโ the adjectives work to-gether with the verb ใใ (โto beโโ for inanimate objects and concepts). Howeverโbecauseใใ is aไบๆฎต verbโ it contracts: the classical past tenseใใใ has becomeใใฃใโ and it is this that the verbal adjective itself contracts with. Again for reasonsmostly due to โthatโs just what people ended up usingโโ the verbal adjective้ฃ็จๅฝขpaired withใใฃใโ [โฆ]ใใใฃใโ has become contracted over the course of linguistichistory to become [โฆ]ใใฃใ in modern Japanese:
adjective meaning ้ฃ็จๅฝข + past tense ofใใ resulting past tense
้ซใใ
ใ highโ expensive ้ซใ ้ซใ +ใใฃใ ้ซใใฃใ
ๆฅฝใใฎ
ใใ funโ enjoyable ๆฅฝใใ ๆฅฝใใ +ใใฃใ ๆฅฝใใใฃใ
่ใใ
ใ thinโ light ่ใ ่ใ +ใใฃใ ่ใใฃใ
ๅคงใใ
ใใ big ๅคงใใ ๅคงใใ +ใใฃใ ๅคงใใใฃใ
irregular meaning ้ฃ็จๅฝข + past tense ofใใ resulting past tenseใใ good ใใ ใใ +ใใฃใ ใใใฃใ
negation meaning ้ฃ็จๅฝข + past tense ofใใ resulting past tenseใชใ - ใชใ ใชใ +ใใฃใ ใชใใฃใ
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting 61
Past negative
So now we can also form the plain past negative for verbsโ usingๆช็ถๅฝข + โpast tenseofใชใโโใชใใฃใโ noting that for the verbใใ things are (of course) different:
ไบๆฎต ๆช็ถๅฝข negative past negative tense
่ฉฑใฏใช
ใ ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใใชใ ่ฉฑใใชใใฃใ
ๆญฉใใ
ใ ๆญฉใ ๆญฉใใชใ ๆญฉใใชใใฃใ
ๆฅใใ
ใ ๆฅใ ๆฅใใชใ ๆฅใใชใใฃใ
ๆญปใ
ใฌ ๆญปใช ๆญปใชใชใ ๆญปใชใชใใฃใ
ๅญฆใพใช
ใถ ๅญฆใฐ ๅญฆใฐใชใ ๅญฆใฐใชใใฃใ
่ชญใ
ใ ่ชญใพ ่ชญใพใชใ ่ชญใพใชใใฃใ
ไผใ
ใ ไผใ ไผใใชใ ไผใใชใใฃใ
ๅพ ใพ
ใค ๅพ ใ ๅพ ใใชใ ๅพ ใใชใใฃใ
ๅใ
ใใ ๅใใ ๅใใใชใ ๅใใใชใใฃใ
ไธๆฎต ๆช็ถๅฝข negative past negative tense
่ฆใฟ
ใ ่ฆ ่ฆใชใ ่ฆใชใใฃใ
ไผธใฎ
ใณใ ไผธใณ ไผธใณใชใ ไผธใณใชใใฃใ
้ฃใ
ในใ ้ฃใน ้ฃในใชใ ้ฃในใชใใฃใ
Irregular ๆช็ถๅฝข past tense past negative tenseใใ ใ ใใชใ ใใชใใฃใๆฅใ ใ ใใชใ ใใชใใฃใใใ ใใ ใชใ ใชใใฃใ
Againโ of the irregular verbsใใ is the most irregularโ its past negative formsimply being the past form ofใชใโ rather than the typicalไบๆฎต inflectionใใใชใ.In several major dialects this isnโt actually the caseโ and for instance in the Kansaibendialect (where the wordใธใ is used instead ofใชใ)ใใ inflects like any otherไบๆฎตverbโ with a negative formใใใธใ. Why standard Japanese has this โdual natureโforใใ is mainly because of historic use (languages serve the people using themโand if that use changesโ the language changes). Howeverโ we can at least look atwhy this duality can even exist in the first place: ใใ means โto beโโ for inanimateobjects and conceptsโ andใชใ is an adjective for non-existenceโ which is in conceptthe complete opposite. Soโ while they belong to different word classesโใใ andใชใ
62 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting
can be considered two sides of the same coin. This is also the reason whyใใ onlyhalf counts as an irregular verb; all affirmative inflections work in exactly the sameway as normalไบๆฎต verbs. It also counts as a half irregular verbal adjectivesโ becauseall the negatives forใใ are just affirmative inflections ofใชใ. Itโs li le things likethis that make languages interesting.
2.1.4 In summary
In summaryโ we can draw up tables for verbal inflectionโ plus the irregularities:
inflectingไบๆฎต verbs
affirmative negativepresent ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใpast ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
In this schemeโ (c) indicates that a contraction occursโ with what the contrac-tion looks like being dependent on which of the ใโใโใโ ใคโ ใฌโ ใถโ ใ orใ ไบๆฎตverbs is being inflected.
inflecting่กใ
ใ
affirmative negativepresent ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใpast ใใฃใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
inflectingใใ
affirmative negativepresent ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใชใpast ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ (c) ใชใใฃใ
inflectingไธๆฎต verbsโ includingๆฅใ
ใ
affirmative negativepresent ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใpast ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.1 Inflecting 63
Observing that the stem forๆฅใ changes: its้ฃไฝๅฝข isใโ its้ฃ็จๅฝข isใโ anditsๆช็ถๅฝข isใ.
inflectingใใ
affirmative negativepresent ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใpast ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ ใโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
inflectingใใ andใใ
present ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใpast ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ ใโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
inflecting verbal adjectives
affirmative negativepresent ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใpast ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใฃใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
inflectingใใ (ใใ)
affirmative negativepresent ใใโใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใpast ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใฃใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
Of the two possible้ฃไฝๅฝขโใใ is considered normalโ whileใใ is consid-ered formalโ but for bothโ theๆช็ถๅฝข and้ฃ็จๅฝข areใใ.
inflectingใชใ (็กใ)
affirmative negativepresent ใชใ theoreticallyโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใpast ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใฃใ (c) theoreticallyโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
โTheoreticallyโ is used hereโ because often it doesnโt make a lot of sense tonegate the adjective for negation itself. Weโd end up withใใ again.
64 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.2 Adjectives
2.2 Adjectives
We need to spend some extra time looking at verbal adjectivesโ and adjectives in gen-eralโ because they can do something verbs cannot doโ and thatโs to indicate properties.With thatโ we get the added bonus that they let us compare propertiesโ allowing usto say something is redโ redder than something elseโ or the reddest thing weโve everseen. While in English these are three distinct conceptsโ Japanese shows itself to be
a sparse language yet againโ using the้ฃไฝๅฝขใใใใใใ
for both the a ributive as well as com-parative forms:
A: ้ญใใใช
ใจ่จใฃใฆใ้ฎญใใ
ใ้ฎชใพใใ
ใๆ่ฟใใใใ
้ซใใ
ใใชใฃใใใชใใ
B:ใใใใๅฎใใ
ใ้ญใ่ฒทใ
ใใ
A: โFish like salmon and tunaโs go en expensive recently.โB: โSo buy a cheap(er) fish.โ
Even thoughๅฎใmeans โcheapโ when used as normal a ributiveโ it can alsomean โcheaperโ when there is some context in which the property โcheapโ contraststo some other property โexpensiveโ. This goes for all adjectives: there is no distinc-tion between the a ributive (normal adjective) and comparative (the English โ-erโform of adjectives) forms of verbal adjectives in Japaneseโ similar to how there is nodistinction between present and immediate future tense for verbs in Japanese.
When we want to compare the same propertyโ howeverโ such as comparing acheap fish to an even cheaper fishโ we can useใใฃใจ to indicate explicit comparative:
A:ใใฎใใๅฎใๅใใ
ใๆขใใ
ใใฆใใใใงใใใฉโฆโฆB:ๅฎใๅใงใใญใใใใใใใใงใใใใใA:ใใใใใๅใงใใญใใใใฉใใใฃใจๅฎใใฎใใใพใใใใใB:ใฉใใใใฟใพใใใใใใใใๅฎใใฎใฏใใใพใใใ
A: โI am looking for a cheap umbrella.โB: โA cheap umbrella you said? What about this one?โA: โAhโ thatโs a nice umbrella. But I was wondering whether you had aneven cheaper one.โB: โAhโ Iโm sorry but we do not have any umbrellas cheaper than this.โ
In this conversationโใใฃใจ is used to ask for an โeven moreโ cheap itemโ butonly after it has been established that the item in question is (already) cheap. Anexample of incorrect use ofใใฃใจ would be:
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.3 Noun inflection 65
A:ใใฎๅใฏใกใใฃใจ้ซใใ
ใใงใใญใใใฃใจๅฎใใฎใใใใพใใใ
If we were to translate this sentenceโ it would say โThis umbrella is a bit ex-pensive. Do you have an even cheaper one?โ This is clearly incorrect use of languageโas we can only ask for an even cheaper item if the present one is already cheap.
The superlativeโ in English the โmost โฆโ version of an adjectiveโ is formed in
Japanese by prefixing the wordไธ็ชใใกใฐใ
to the adjective (which literally means โfirstโโ inthe context of a ranking):
ไธ็ช้ใใกใฐใใฏใ
ใ่ปใใใพ
ใฏใใฎใใงใฉใผใชใงใใโThe fastest car (here) is that Ferrari.โ
Remember that this is an adjective construction and that ไธ็ช requires anadjective to turn into a superlative. Many students new to the language will useไธ็ช
without an adjectiveโ and end up saying things likeไธ็ชๅ ็ใใกใฐใใใใใ
or ไธ็ช่ปใใกใฐใใใใพ
โwhich wouldliterally mean โmost teacherโ and โmost carโ. These sentences are not grammaticalin either Japanese or Englishโ since they lack a modifier to explain exactly what thesenouns are the most of. Usually when this mistake is madeโ all that is missing is the
adjectiveใใโ meaning good: ไธ็ชใใกใฐใ
ใใ creates the superlative โbestโ.
2.3 Noun inflection
Nouns do not inflect in Japanese. More interestinglyโ they donโt even decline likethey do in English; turning โbookโ into โbooksโ for instanceโ or โusโ into โourโโ aredeclensions that indicate something in addition to the root nounโ like plurality orpossession. Insteadโ everything is either done by marking nouns (or indeed entirenoun phrases) with particlesโ or by using copula verbs in Japanese.
2.3.1 ParticlesThere are three important particles that we can use when dealing with noun inflec-tion/declensionโ beingใฎโใจโ andใ.
The particleใฎ is generally explained as being used to genitivally link nounsโbut that doesnโt tell us what it really does. In Japaneseโ genitive is expressed as eithermarking possession (origin or root concept)โ descriptionโ or a contextualising con-struction. In Englishโ examples of these would be โmy carโ in โthis is my carโโ โlovesongโ in โthis is a love songโโ and โold storyโ in โthatโs just an old storyโโ but while inEnglish these are seemingly different constructionsโ in Japanese they all useใฎ:
66 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.3 Noun inflection
ใใใฏๅใผใ
ใฎ่ปใใใพ
ใงใใโThis is my car.โ
In this sentenceโ which illustratesใฎ being used for possessionโ the function isfairly obvious: โ[X]ใฎ[Y]โ means โ[X]โs [Y]โ or โ[Y] of [X]โ. This is the simplest use ofใฎ. Howeverโ things get more complicated when we look at the other three functions.
ใใใฏๆใใ
ใฎๆญใใ
ใงใใโThis is a love song.โ
In this sentenceโ the idea behind the pa ern is slightly more complicatedโ be-cause itโs related to a pa ern of thought that weโre generally not used to in English.In the sentenceโ the โsongโโ ๆญโ is considered a specific kind of songโ which we canexplain by saying โit genitivally stems fromๆโโ meaning that as a wholeโ the wordderives its core meaning fromๆญโ but its nuance fromๆ. This is a complicated wayto look at whatโs going on in a seemingly simple particleโ so it is usually easier to notethe specific interpretation instead: we can say thatๆ describesๆญโ or thatๆ acts ascontext forๆญโ and that this construction is closely related to the idea of a compoundnoun.
In this interpretationโ โ[X]ใฎ[Y]โ typically translates to โ[X] [Y]โ in Englishโso that ๆใฎๆญ becomes โlove songโโ and for instance ๆ
ใใใ
ใฎ่ฉฑใฏใชใ
becomes โold storyโ(withๆ being a noun meaning โlong agoโโ and่ฉฑ meaning โstoryโ). If we use this ina slightly biggerโ more interesting sentenceโ we see the following:
ใใ ใฎๆใใใ
ใฎ่ฉฑใฏใชใ
ใงใใโ(That)โs just an old story.โ
This sentence is particularly interesting because it usesใฎ twice. ใใ ใฎ[X]means โjust Xโโ withใใ meaning โjustโ or โmerelyโโ and [X] being any noun phraseโin this case โๆใฎ่ฉฑโ. This kind of chaining can be taken to extremesโ such as in thefollowing example:
ใใกใฎๅงใญใ
ใใใฎๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใฎใไฝๅดใใใ
ใใ้ใใ
ใณใซๆฅใ
ใใโMy sisterโs friendโ Sasakiโ came over (today).โ
Let us analyse what happens in this chain. It usually makes most sense toanalyse long chains like these by looking at the [X]ใฎ[Y] pa erns in a last-to-firstorderโ because (as always) the most important words come last:
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.3 Noun inflection 67
[X]ใฎ[Y] translationๅ้ใฎใไฝๅดใ (my/your/his/her/our/their) friendโ Sasakiๅงใใใฎๅ้ (my/your/his/her/our/their) sisterโs friendใใกใฎๅงใใ (my/our) sister
While this sounds like an artificial exampleโ it is actually quite common tofind three or even four nouns linked through ใฎ to create a singleโ more and morespecific noun phrase. The main issue with learning to use these pa ernsโ and moreimportantlyโ understanding them while listening to native speakersโ is that the mostimportant information comes lastโ so you have to keep track of all the context nounsbefore the final operative noun gets used.
The other two particlesโใจ andใโ are much simpler to understand thanใฎ:ใจ links nouns to form an exhaustive listโ while ใ forms a representative list. Forinstanceโ if someone went to the supermarket and bought orange juiceโ milk and teaโand thatโs all they boughtโ then we can list all these things withใจ:
ใธใฅใผในใจ ็ไนณใใ ใใซใ ใ
ใจใ่ถใกใ
ใ่ฒทใ
ใฃใใโ(I) bought juiceโ milk and tea.โ
Howeverโ if they instead bought a lot of refreshments (say they were planninga party)โ then the following sentence would be easier than listing every individualitem on the shopping list:
ใธใฅใผในใ็ไนณใใ่ถใ่ฒทใฃใใโ(I) bought juiceโ milkโ tea (and the like).โ
Thatโs the only difference betweenใจ andใ (for the purpose of noun listing).Both form a list of itemsโ and by usingใจ you imply that what you describe is thewhole listโ while if you useใ you imply that even though itโs a listโ itโs not the wholelistโ just a representative snippet. Of courseโ it (almost) goes without saying that youcannot mixใจ andใ.
2.3.2 InflectionActual inflection of nouns relies on copula verbsโ as it does in English. While inEnglish only the verb โto beโ fulfils the role of copulaโ in Japanese there are a numberof copulae to pick from. Soโ for the momentโ we will look at the two most commoncopulae: the plain form ใ and its polite counterpartโ ใงใ. Technicallyโ these areboth verbsโ although ใ is somewhat more complex thanใงใ. If we look at theirverb basesโ we see the following:
68 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.3 Noun inflection
ใงใ ใ copulaๆช็ถๅฝข ใงใใ ใ ใ ใ ใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใงใ ใ ใฃ (ใง) ใง็ตๆญขๅฝข ใงใ ใ ใงใ/ใ ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใงใ ใช ใงใ/ใชๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใชใ ใชใ
Firstโ there is noๅฝไปคๅฝขโwhich kind of makes sense โ one cannot order some-thing to all of a sudden have some property; chairs donโt become red because youorder them toโ people donโt become angry just because you tell them toโ and it doesnโtsuddenly become night because you ordain it so. At least not without superpowersof some sortโ which are beyond the scope of this book.
Secondlyโ the โcopulaโ column is a bit special: it tells you which form is typ-ically used when a certain base form is relied on. When we need a ้ฃไฝๅฝข copulaโwe can use either ใ orใงใ depending on whether we want plain form or politeformโ but when we need a continuative (which will be explained in the next chapter)โmodern Japanese usesใง.
Thirdโ there is a ็ตๆญขๅฝข entryโ which most modern verbs do not use. Thereason it exists for (this) copula is that ใ is relatively special: when used to endnoun phrasesโ its ็ตๆญขๅฝข is usedโ and so it uses the formใ . Howeverโ when useda ributively (effectively turning nouns into adjectives)โ which uses the ้ฃไฝๅฝขโ theclassical้ฃไฝๅฝข is used and we end up withใช. Although the language reforms ofthe 20th century have for the most part merged the functions of็ตๆญขๅฝข and้ฃไฝๅฝขโthis particular instance of separate form has been preservedโ rather than go en rid of.Luckily you will rarelyโ if everโ need to recite the bases forใงใ orใ โ butใ is useda ributively so frequently that you should have li le problem remembering whento useใ and when to useใช.
Present tense
The present tense forใ andใงใ are just as simple as for any other verb:
ใใใฏๆฌใปใ
ใ ใใใใฏๆฌใงใใโThis is a book.โ
There is no difference in meaning between those two sentencesโ the only dif-ference is the perceived politenessโ withใงใ being neutral politeโ whileใ is plainform.
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.3 Noun inflection 69
Past tense
The past tenses for bothใ andใงใ are also reasonably straightforwardโ althoughwe do need to know a li le bit more about whereใ came from. The common ex-planation forใ is that it came fromใงโ the continuative ofใงใโ and the verbใใโto form the copulaใงใใ. This copula is actually still used in modern Japanese informal se ings. Howeverโ theใง+ใ in thisใงใใ has contracted over timeโ to formใ ใโ which explains theๆช็ถๅฝข forใ โ which isใ ใ. It also explains its past tense:ใ ใฃใโ sinceใใ is a normalไบๆฎต verb and thus contracts in its past tense.
Forใงใ the story is a bit simpler: its้ฃ็จๅฝข isใงใโ and so its past tense isใงใใ.
ใใใฏๆฌใปใ
ใ ใฃใใโThat was a book.โ
ใใใฏๆฌใงใใใโThat was a book.โ
Againโ there is no difference in meaningโ only in perceived politeness.
Negative
The negative forms forใ andใงใ are more interesting. Forใ โ the plain negative isใใใชใโ which isใใ plus the adjective for negation that we already saw for verbsโใชใ. Again we see evidence of the presence ofใใ. Howeverโ what is thisใใ?
Interestinglyโใใ is (and not just for this particular inflectionโ but in general)the โparticleโ ใงโ which is the ้ฃ็จๅฝข forใงใโ and the disambiguating particle ใฏ(pronounced ใ). This ใงใฏ can either be used by itself (and frequently is)โ or itscontractionใใ can be usedโ with the only difference between the two being thatใงใฏ is more formal thanใใ. To illustrate:
ใใใฏๆฌใปใ
ใ ใโThis is a book.โ
ใใใฏๆฌใใใชใใโThis isnโt a book.โ
ใใใฏๆฌใงใฏใชใใโThis is not a book.โ
70 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.3 Noun inflection
There is no difference in meaning between the la er two sentencesโ just informality.
Forใงใ the story gets more complicatedโ because instead of using the neg-ative form ofใงใ itselfโ the polite formใงใฏใชใ is used in polite formโ using thepolite negative ofใใ instead ofใชใโ which means we need to introduce the classi-cal helper verb of politeness:ใพใ.
bases formๆช็ถๅฝข ใพใ (ใพใใ)้ฃ็จๅฝข ใพใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใพใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใพใ (ใพใใ)ๅฝไปคๅฝข ใพใ
This helper verb is used in combination with verbs in their้ฃ็จๅฝขโ so that thepolite form ofใใ becomesใใ+ใพใโ and the polite negative is formed by takingthisใใใพใ and makingใพใ negative using the super classical negative โใโ: ใใใพใ+ใ. While the explanation might be more complicated than you might haveexpectedโ the final result should sound familiarโ since the polite negation โใพใใโand the general statementใใใพใใโ are used constantly in modern Japanese.
With thisโ we can form the polite negative of the copulae:ใใใใใพใใโ ormore formallyโใงใฏใใใพใใ
ใใใฏๆฌใงใใโThis is a book.โ
ใใใฏๆฌใใใใใพใใใโThis is not a book.โ
ใใใฏๆฌใงใฏใใใพใใใโThis is not a book.โ
Past negative
Forใ โ the present negativeใใใชใ (ใงใฏใชใ) is placed in past tenseโ turningใชใintoใชใใฃใ:ใใใชใใฃใ (ใงใฏใชใใฃใ).
ใใใฏๆฌใปใ
ใ ใฃใใโThis was a book.โ
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.3 Noun inflection 71
ใใใฏๆฌใใใชใใฃใใโThis was not a book.โ
ใใใฏๆฌใงใฏใชใใฃใใโThis was not a book.โ
Forใงใโ things get really weird: the polite negativeใใใพใใ inใใใใใพใใ (ใงใฏใใใพใใ) is placed in past tense by adding the past tense forใงใโใงใใโ at the end:ใใใใใพใใใงใใ (ใงใฏใใใพใใใงใใ).
ใใใฏๆฌใงใใใโThis was a book.โ
ใใใฏๆฌใใใใใพใใใงใใใโThis was not a book.โ
ใใใฏๆฌใงใฏใใใพใใใงใใใโThis was not a book.โ
Whileโ againโ this derivation is rather complicatedโ the important bit is thatyou remember the copula inflection table.
In summary
The best way to reiterate the different inflections for the copulae is in the form of atable:
affirmative negativeplain present noun +ใ noun +ใใใชใ
(noun +ใงใฏใชใ)polite present noun +ใงใ noun +ใใใใใพใใ
(noun +ใงใฏใใใพใใ)plain past noun +ใ ใฃใ noun +ใใใชใใฃใ
(noun +ใงใฏใชใใฃใ)polite past noun +ใงใใ noun +ใใใใใพใใใงใใ
(noun +ใงใฏใใใพใใใงใใ)
72 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.4 Pronouns:ใใใใฉ
2.4 Pronouns:ใใใใฉIn addition to regular nounsโ Japanese has a set of words which are often (but mistak-enly) labelled pronouns. These are colloquially known as theใใใใฉโ and theyโrecalled this because they come as series of fourโ starting withใ-โใ-โใ- andใฉ-โ torefer to (conceptually or physically) close to the speakerโ close to the listenerโ close toneitherโ and as a question word.
To properly understand thisโ the concept of a personal zone is important: theJapanese do not separate locations in just โhereโ and โthereโโ but in โhereโโ โthereโ anda conceptual location akin to โyonderโ. Words starting withใ refer to things in thespeakerโs personal zoneโ words starting withใ refer to things in the listenerโs per-sonal zoneโ and words starting withใ refer to things that are neither in the speakerโsnor the listenerโs personal zone. Finallyโ words starting withใฉ are the questionwords for the seriesโ known as interrogatives.
I mentioned that theใใใใฉ are often mistakenly called pronounsโ becausemany series in theใใใใฉ actually work together with nouns rather than replacingthemโ as they would if they were genuine pronouns.
The most frequently usedใใใใฉ series are the following:
ใใใใฉ meaningใใฎ[noun] this [noun]ใใฎ[noun] that [noun]ใใฎ[noun] that [noun] over thereใฉใฎ[noun] which [noun]
with examples:
ใใฎ่ปใใใพ
ใ้ใฏใ
ใใงใใโThis car is fast.โ
ใใฎ่ปใ้ปใใ
ใใงใใโThat car is black.โ
ใใฎ่ปใๅฃใใ
ใใใโThat car (over there) is broken.โ
ใฉใฎ่ปใใใ๏ผโWhich car do you like?โ
It should be obvious that this series is not actually a pronoun seriesโ since it
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.4 Pronouns:ใใใใฉ 73
doesnโt replace the noun in question. Howeverโ that saidโ there are a fewใใใใฉseries that act as a genuine series of pronounsโ such as:
ใใใใฉ meaningใใ this.ใใ that.ใใ that over there.ใฉใ which.
with examples:
ใใใ้ใใงใใโThis is fast.โ
ใใใ้ปใใงใใโThatโs black.โ
ใใใๅฃใใใโThat (over there)โs broken.โ
ใฉใใใใ๏ผโWhich do you like?โ
Notice the periods after the English translations for the individualใใใใฉ;these have been added to make sure you understand that these words are โdone.โThey are replacement nounsโ and cannot be used in conjunction with a noun.
The rest of the commonใใใใฉ series are:
ใใใใฉ meaningใใใช[noun] this kind of [noun]ใใใช[noun] that kind of [noun]ใใใช[noun] that kind of [noun] over thereใฉใใช[noun] which kind of [noun]
Beginning students often confuseใฉใใช with the word ไฝใชใซ
which meansโwhatโโ when thinking of dialogues such as: โI bought a velour pillowโ - โwowโ whatdoes that feel like?โ. While the English dialogue uses the word โwhatโโ the Japanesequestion would actually be โwhich/what kind of feeling does that have?โ
74 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.4 Pronouns:ใใใใฉ
ใใใใฉ meaningใใกใ this direction/this honourable person.ใใกใ that direction/that honourable person.ใใกใ that direction/that honourable person over there.ใฉใกใ which direction/which honourable person.
This series can mean two thingsโ depending on context. Since personal pro-nouns are avoided as much as possible in Japaneseโ it is considered polite to referto someone by referring to the direction in which they are locatedโ relative to thespeakerโ similar to using the English indirect way of referring to someone: โOverhere we have Mr. Carverโโ rather than just saying โThis is Mr. Carverโ.
ใใใใฉ meaningใใฃใก this direction/this person.ใใฃใก that direction/that person.ใใฃใก that direction over there/that person over there.ใฉใฃใก which direction/which person.
Since this is a contracted version of the previous setโ it cannot be used to referto people respectfully - you donโt use colloquially contracted words when youโrebeing respectful. You canโ technicallyโ use this word to refer to peopleโ but then onlyin a familiar conversation.
ใใใใฉ meaningใใ hereใใ thereใใใโใใใ over thereใฉใ where
The locationใใใใฉโ like theใใ/ใใ/ใใ/ใฉใ seriesโ acts as a pronoun.There is an irregularity with the โnot near meโ not near youโ versionโ which has twopossible pronunciationsโ neither of which use just anใ rather than aใโ ใโ orใฉ;insteadโ they have an additional syllableโ being eitherใ orใ. Both these versionsare accepted Japaneseโ althoughใใใ is slightly more โproperโ thanใใใ.
ใใใใฉ meaningใใ this way/this manner.ใใ that way/that manner.ใใ that way/manner (referring to something distal).ใฉใ how/in which way/in which manner.
Notice the seeming irregularity forใใ here. I say seemingโ because thisใใใใฉ series is actually each of the four โprefixesโ with a long vowel sound โ forใโ
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.4 Pronouns:ใใใใฉ 75
ใ andใฉ this is aใโ forใโ this is (clearly) not aใ at allโ but anotherใ.Finallyโ there is also a somewhat more classical seriesโ of which theใ- variant
should sound familiar:
ใใใใฉ meaningใใชใ this person (I/me/you/him/he/her/she).ใใชใ that person (him/heโ her/she).ใใชใ that person over there (you).ใฉใชใ which person (who).
Since this set is a tad classicalโ there are a few things to notice. First of allโใใชใ refers to a third person (he/she)โ whileใใชใ refers to second person (you). Alsoโwhile somewhat classicalโ this set is still used in formal se ings. Howeverโ because itis used exclusively in formal se ings it is considered distal and very impersonalโ andshould thus only be used in formal se ings where it would be improper to addresssomeone the normal way. As an added bonusโใใชใ is also commonly understoodto be two seemingly completely opposite things. On the one handโ it is the deferredโdistalโ formal word for โyouโโ and on the other hand it also means โyouโ in a highlyintimate relationshipโ akin to the English terms โdearโโ โdarlingโ or โhoneyโ being usedby couples to call each other.
Lastlyโ whileใฉใชใmeans โwhoโโ it is considered a distal and reserved inter-
rogative. The plain version of โwhoโ is the pronoun่ชฐใ ใ
โ which is not associated withanyใใใใฉ series.
ใใใใฉ meaningใใใค this person (I/me/you/him/he/her/she).ใใใค that person (him/heโ her/she).ใใใค that person over there (you).ใฉใใค which person (who).
In addition to theใใกใ (etc.)โใใฃใก (etc.)andใใชใ (etc.) seriesโ we alsohave this series available for referring to people. Where the former are all reasonablypolite in some wayโ this series actually borders on derogatoryโ so you should proba-bly try to avoid using it. Howeverโ itโs also frequently used in the expressionใฉใใคใใใใคใโ meaning โeach and every oneโ in the sense of people:
ใใใใใใฉใใคใใใใคใ้ช้ญใใใพ
ใใใฆไปไบใใใจ
ใๅบๆฅใงใ
ใใใใชใใใใชใใใโOhโ for crying out loud. How can I be expected to do my job with everyoneand their dog ge ing in the way?โ
76 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.5 Special verbs
Technically thisใฉโฆใใโฆใ pa ern can be used for anyใใใใฉ seriesโalthough the more polite or formal the seriesโ the less this pa ern can be applied.
Finallyโ someใใใใฉ are used in more complicated pa ernsโ such as theใ
ใใชโฆ series +้ขจใตใ
โ or theใใฎโฆ series +ๆงใใ
โ which we shall look at in the chapter onlanguage pa erns.
2.5 Special verbsThere are a number of special verbs that deserve a bit of extra a ention as they areused so frequently in the language that it would be a miss to not highlight their roles.
2.5.1 Becoming: ใชใBefore you can say something โisโ something elseโ it first has to โbecomeโ this some-thing else. In Japaneseโ the process of becoming is expressed with the verb ใชใโwhich can be used to describe becoming a particular state (such as โbecoming coldโ)through the use of state nouns or adjective-derived adverbsโ as well as being usable todescribe becoming a particular thing (such as โbecoming an adultโ) by using it withnouns. Finally it can of course also be used to describe the process of โbecomingโitselfโ (such as โto quickly become [โฆ]โ) by using proper adverbs.
The verbใชใ is aไบๆฎต verbโ without any irregularitiesโ meaning its bases areใชใโใชใโใชใโใชใ andใชใ.
While typically used in combination with the verb particleใซโ it can also beused in combination with the particleใจ (not in its role as noun lister)โ in which caseits meaning changes from โbecomeโ to โbeโ (often interpreted as the immediate futureโwill beโ). This can be illustrated with someใซ/ใจ comparison sentences:
ๅใกใใ
ใซใชใใพใใโ(This) will become (our) strengthโ.
ๅใจใชใใพใใโ(This) will be (our) strengthโ.
ใใณใใฎๅบๆผใใ ใคใใ
ใฏไบๆใใใค
ไบๅๅๆฅใซใใ ใใใฃใ
ใซใชใใพใใโThe bandโs performance will be set to (literally: become) May the 24th.โ
ใใณใใฎๅบๆผใฏไบๆไบๅๅๆฅใจใชใใพใใโThe bandโs performance will be on May the 24th.โ
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.5 Special verbs 77
2.5.2 Being:ใงใโใ โใใโใใ
We already looked atใงใ andใ โ but we havenโt really looked at how they fit to-gether with other existential verbsโ and how each differs from the other.
Where in English the verb โto beโ is used as both a copula (the verb that sets updefinitions such as โA is Bโ) and as a existential verb (the verb that indicates existencesomewhereโ such as โA is [here]โ)โ in Japanese these are two (or more accuratelyโthree) distinct roles. To indicate that โA is Bโโ distinct copulae are used in Japanese.These includeใ โใงใโ but also several less frequently used copulae such asใงใใโใงใใใ andใงใใใฃใใใ.
The existential verb roleโ on the other handโ is actually performed by twodistinct verbs in Japanese: one describing existence for animate objects (such as hu-mansโ animalsโ and things that can be considered animateโ like โAIBOโ robot puppiesand the like) and one describing existence for inanimate objects and abstract things.These are ใใ (ๅฑ ใ) andใใ (ๆใ)โ respectively. To illustrate the difference be-tween animate and inanimateโ letโs look at two sentences:
็ฌใใฌ
ใใใใโ(There) is a dog.โ
ๆฌใปใ
ใใใใโ(There) is a book.โ
In both sentencesโใmarks the preceding part as subject of the sentence. Bothsentences translate to โthere is Xโโ but in the first sentence X is a dogโ which is ananimate โobjectโโ and because of thisโ we need to useใใ. In the second sentence X isa bookโ which is rather inanimateโ and thusใใ is used. Alsoโ in both sentencesโ theword โthereโ is entirely implied. Because we are using verbs to mark existence andwe are talking about actual instances of dogs and booksโ saying they exist means wealso say they exist at some location.
If we only want to define somethingโ i.e. say something โisโ a thingโ such as โitis a dogโ or โit is a bookโโ we use a copula instead. For most people used to westernlanguageโ these verbs may at first glance seem to do the same as whatใใ andใใdo; after allโ the sentence โit is a dogโ is essentially the same as the sentence โthere isa dogโ with the word โthereโ replaced with โitโ. Howeverโ there is a very importantdifference: in โthere is a dogโโ we are saying that a dog exists somewhereโ whereas inโit is a dogโโ we are defining some โitโ to be of the category โdogโ.
Put conciselyโ definitions in Japanese can only be done using copulaeโ andmarking existence can only be done usingใใ orใใ:
78 Verb grammar โ ยง 2.5 Special verbs
็ฌใงใใโIt is a dog.โ
ๆฌใ ใโIt is a book.โ
ๆฌใๅ่งใใใ
ใงใใโBooks are rectangular.โ
็ฌใๅ็ฉใฉใใถใค
ใ ใโDogs are animals.โ
2.5.3 Doing: ใใWeโve already seenใใ as irregular verbโ and it has been used in enough examplesentences to let it be no surprise that it means โdoโ. Howeverโ this isnโt the onlymeaning for this verb. When used in combination with a direct object โ as transitiveverb โใใ does mean โdoโโ but when used as intransitive verbโ its meaning shouldbe considered to be โdecide onโ or โchooseโ. To show this difference in meaning
between the transitive (strictly speakingโไปๅ่ฉใใฉใใ
) and intransitive (strictly speakingโ่ชๅ่ฉใใฉใใ
) versions ofใใโ two short sentences:
ไฝใชใซ
ใใใใใโWhat are (you) doing?โ
ไฝใซใใใใโWhat will (you) pick?โ
In the first sentenceโใmarks the preceding as direct object to the verbโ whilein the second sentenceโใซmarks the preceding part as indirect object to the verb. Thedifference in meaning is striking.
There is a third meaning toใใโ when paired with the particleใจโ which isโto consider something โฆโ:
ใใใ็งใใใ
ใๅฟ ่ฆใฒใคใใ
ใจใใใใฎใงใใโThese are the things (that) I consider important.โ
Verb grammar โ ยง 2.6 More Verb Grammar 79
2.5.4 Possessive:ใใWeโre not quite done treatingใใ; while it means โexistโ for inanimate thingsโ thismeaning also leads it to be usable for what in English is represented by โto haveโin sentences like โI have a radioโ. In Japaneseโ you donโt say you โhaveโ somethingโbut that โsomething is with youโ. For instanceโ if I want to say that aside from myportable radio I also have a radio at homeโ instead of saying โI have a radio at hometooโ I would say โthere is a radio at my house tooโ:
ใใกใใฉใธใชใใใใโ(I) have a radio at homeโ too.โ
Because of this double roleโ itโs quite an important verb.
2.5.5 Negative presence: ใชใI know thatใชใ is not a verbโ but the reason itโs in this list is because ofใใโ whichis very much a verb. Since ใใ means โexistโ for inanimate thingsโ and since theadjectiveใชใ means โnot (exist)โโ there are actually (almost) always two interpreta-tions possible whenใชใ is used in a sentenceโ by virtue ofใใ having two possibleinterpretations:
ใฉใธใชใใชใใ1) โ(There) is no radio.โ2) โ(I) do not have a radio.โ
So for this reason it has been included in the list of important verbs; if we lookat it as the negative form forใใโ which we shouldโ then itโs a verb formโ and a veryimportant one at that.
2.6 More Verb GrammarThis covers the basics of verbal grammar. You should now be able to use most verbsin plain present affirmative and negative formsโ as well as past tenseโ and hopefullybe interested enough to move on to the next chapterโ which will briefly recap theinflections covered in this chapter before moving on to the (rather extensive!) list ofverbal inflections that are found in Japanese.
Chapter 3
More grammar
Having covered the basics in the previous chapterโ we will revisit and elaborate oncertain inflections and conjugationsโ as well as list all of the other inflections that areused in the Japanese language. This chapter treats the inflections one by oneโ startingwith a recap of politeness and explaining how it applies to all verbsโ then treatingall the basic โ but not yet covered โ inflectionsโ followed by the more advancedinflections that are used in Japanese.
Note that as of this chapter all the verbs and adjectives that have been usedin the previous chapterโ which we will continue to use in this oneโ will not come withfurigana. At this pointโ you should know how they are read (and if you donโtโ justflip back to the previous chapter for the readings).
3.1 Revisits and simple inflections
3.1.1 Politeness
Politenessโ or the use ofไธๅฏง่ชใฆใใญใใ
as it is called in Japaneseโ revolves around usingใงใ andใพใ. We saw these explained in the previous chapterโ but for completenesstheir bases will be listed again here:
ใพใ ใงใ ใ copulaๆช็ถๅฝข ใพใ (ใพใใ) ใงใใ ใ ใ ใงใใ/ใ ใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใพใ ใงใ ใ ใฃ (ใง) ใง็ตๆญขๅฝข ใ ใงใ/ใ ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใพใ ใงใ ใช ใงใ/ใชๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใพใ (ใพใใ) ใชใ ใชใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใพใ
81
82 More grammar โ ยง 3.1 Revisits and simple inflections
Of theseโ the copulae are used in combination with nouns and verbal adjec-tivesโ andใพใ is used in combination with verbs (in their ้ฃ็จๅฝข form). For bothverb classes the procedure is the same: the present polite is formed by addingใพใ to the้ฃ็จๅฝขโ whereas the past polite is formed by taking the present politeโ andturningใพใ into its past tenseโใพใใ:
ไบๆฎต present polite past polite้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ polite present้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ
ไผใ ไผใ +ใพใ ไผใใพใ +ใๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ +ใพใ ๆญฉใใพใ +ใๆฅใ ๆฅใ +ใพใ ๆฅใใพใ +ใ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ +ใพใ ่ฉฑใใพใ +ใๅพ ใค ๅพ ใก +ใพใ ๅพ ใกใพใ +ใๆญปใฌ ๆญปใซ +ใพใ ๆญปใซใพใ +ใๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใณ +ใพใ ๅญฆใณใพใ +ใ่ชญใ ่ชญใฟ +ใพใ ่ชญใฟใพใ +ใ
ไบๆฎต present polite past polite้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ polite present้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ
ๅใใ ๅใใ +ใพใ ๅใใใพใ +ใๅใ ๅใ +ใพใ ๅใใพใ +ใๅฃฒใ ๅฃฒใ +ใพใ ๅฃฒใใพใ +ใๅธฐใ ๅธฐใ +ใพใ ๅธฐใใพใ +ใๆใใ ๆใใ +ใพใ ๆใใใพใ +ใ
ไธๆฎต present polite past polite้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ polite present้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ
่ฆใ ่ฆ +ใพใ ่ฆใพใ +ใไผธใณใ ไผธใณ +ใพใ ไผธใณใพใ +ใ้ฃในใ ้ฃใน +ใพใ ้ฃในใพใ +ใ
The irregular verbsใใโใใ andๆฅใ
ใ are regular with respects to usingใพใโ although of courseใใโs โใโ becomes โใโโ andๆฅใโs stem gets pronounced โใโ.
For nouns we useใงใโ which is inflected to indicate tense:
More grammar โ ยง 3.1 Revisits and simple inflections 83
noun meaning polite present polite pastnoun +ใงใ noun +ใงใใ
ๅ้ใจใใ ใก
friend ๅ้ +ใงใ ๅ้ +ใงใใ
ๅฎถใใ
house ๅฎถ +ใงใ ๅฎถ +ใงใใ
For verbal adjectivesโ we also useใงใโ but unlike nounsโ verbal adjectivesinflect to show tenseโ rather thanใงใ:
adjective polite present polite past้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใงใ past tense +ใงใ
้ซใ ้ซใ +ใงใ ้ซใใฃใ +ใงใๆฅฝใใ ๆฅฝใใ +ใงใ ๆฅฝใใใฃใ +ใงใ่ใ ่ใ +ใงใ ่ใใฃใ +ใงใ้ ใ ้ ใ +ใงใ ้ ใใฃใ +ใงใ
A cautionary note: many beginning students of Japanese make the mistakeof forge ing that verbal adjectives are verbalโ and are themselves inflectedโ ratherthan usingใงใ for tense. One of the first mistakes (and arguably one of the biggest)made by beginning students is saying something like:
ๆฅฝใใฎ
ใใใงใใใ
To mean โit was funโ. Tryโ very hardโ not to make this mistake. Rememberfor verbal adjectives โinflect firstโ then addใงใ for politenessโโ not โaddใงใ firstโthen inflectโ.
3.1.2 A ributive
When something is a ributiveโ it means that it is essentially doing what an adjectivedoes: it a ributes some quality to a noun. Verbsโ verbal adjectives and nouns can alldo thisโ but they do so in different ways.
For verbs and verbal adjectivesโ the้ฃไฝๅฝข is a ributive by its very definition(it is the โa ributiveโ base). For verbal adjectives this seems fairly obviousโ but forverbsโ things are no different:
ใใไบบใฒใจ
ใงใใโ(he/she/it) is (a/the) good person.โ
84 More grammar โ ยง 3.1 Revisits and simple inflections
ใณใผใใผใ้ฃฒใฎ
ใไบบใงใใโ(he/she/it)โs (a/the) coffee drinking person.โ
For nounsโ things are a li le trickier. There are two classes of nounsโ namelythe ones we already saw in the previous chapterโ linking up usingใฎโ and โnoun ad-jectivesโโ which are nouns denoting qualities or aspectsโ and are used in combinationwith the้ฃไฝๅฝขforใ โใชโ as a ributives:
ใใใใช้จๅฑใธใ
ใงใใโ(this/it) is (a) clean/tidy room.โ
้ใใ
ใใชไบบใฒใจ
ใงใใโ(he/she/it) is (a/the) quiet person.โ
The reason for this is that we want to use the qualities that these nouns expressa ributively. On their ownโ the qualities in these two sentences would be โใใใใ โโโis cleanโโ and้ใใ โ โis quietโ. When we wish to use these a ributivelyโ we mustchangeใ from its็ตๆญขๅฝขโ or finalising formโ to้ฃไฝๅฝขโ which is the a ributive form.So:
ใใใใ โใใใใช[noun]้ใใ โ้ใใช[noun]
For these kind of nounsโ usingใฎ as in โใใใใฎ[noun]โ or โ้ใใฎ[noun]โwould be incorrectโ becauseใฎ is not used to a ribute qualities. Sadlyโ without anyprior knowledge it is essentially impossible to tell whether a noun will requireใฎ orใช when it is being linked with other nouns. Sometimes you can guessโ based on thefact that the noun marks some quality or aspectโ but often you cannot.
3.1.3 AdverbialIn addition to the a ributiveโ which a ributes qualities to nounsโ there are adverbsโwhich a ribute qualities to verb actions. There are three word classes that can dothisโ namely the verbal adjectivesโ the noun โadjectivesโ (the ones that takeใช) andโof courseโ true adverbs.
True adverbs are easyโ since they do exactly what youโd expect:
ๆฌใปใ
ใ่ชญใ
ใฟใพใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ weโ they) read(s) (a) book(s).โ
More grammar โ ยง 3.1 Revisits and simple inflections 85
ๆใ ใจใใฉใ
ๆฌใ่ชญใฟใพใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ weโ they) sometimes read(s) (a) book(s).โ
Hereโ the adverbๆใ โ โsometimesโโ also wri enๆๆ (the symbolใ indicateskanji repetition) qualifies the action of reading to apply only sometimesโ rather thanin general.
We can achieve the same effect of qualifying the verb action by using verbaladjectives in้ฃ็จๅฝข form:
็ดใชใ
ใใพใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ weโ they) will fix (it).โ
้ใฏใ
ใ็ดใใพใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ weโ they) will fix (it) quickly.โ
In this sentenceโ the adjective้ใโ โfastโ (not to be confused withๆฉใฏใ
ใโ โearlyโ)โis turning into the adverb โquicklyโ by using its้ฃ็จๅฝข.
With noun adjectivesโ which do not inflect but must be paired up with theright particle to show their use in a sentenceโ we must use ใซโ instead of ใชโ to usethem as adverbial words:
ๅใ
ใใใโdivide (up).โ
ใใใใซๅใใโdivide cleanly/neatlyโ
You might recognise thisใซ from the section on verb particles from the pre-vious chapter. When used with quality or aspect nouns (and noun adjectives in gen-eral)โ usingใซ leads to the noun being interpreted as a verb detailโ which we gram-matically term as being used adverbially. Howeverโ when the noun is a true nounโใซ does something very different. To illustrate thisโ two sentences:
ๅฎๅ จใใใใ
ใซ่ฒ ใพ
ใใใ
86 More grammar โ ยง 3.1 Revisits and simple inflections
ๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใซ่ฒ ใใใ
The first sentence has a noun that describes an aspectโ ๅฎๅ จโ meaning โcom-pleteโ. Thusโ because it is paired withใซโ this noun is being used as an adverb to่ฒ ใใโ โloseโ. This sentence translates to โLosing completelyโ. On the other handโ ๅ้ does not describe a quality or aspectโ it just means โfriend(s)โ. As suchโ when it ispaired withใซ it becomes a verb detail: โ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ weโ they) lost to (myโ yourโhisโ herโ ourโ their) friend(s).โ
So be careful. If the noun youโre using is not a noun โadjectiveโโ you can quiteeasily say something completely different from what you intended to say.
3.1.4 Noun formsNot just nouns can act as nouns: verbs and verbal adjectivesโ tooโ can be inflected sothat they act like nouns. In the same way that we can either โwalkโ through a neigh-bourhoodโ or take โa walkโ through a neighbourhood in Englishโ so too in Japanesecan verbs be used as nounsโ provided we use their้ฃ็จๅฝข:
ๅใผใ
ใฎ่ฒ ใพ
ใใ ใโ(It)โs my loss.โ
Hereโ the noun ่ฒ ใโ โlossโโ comes from the ไธๆฎต verb ่ฒ ใใโ โto loseโ. Byusing its ้ฃ็จๅฝขโ it can be used as a noun in a sentence. Both ไธๆฎต and ไบๆฎต verbsfollow this rule.
For verbal adjectivesโ things are a bit more complicatedโ because using anadjective as a noun requires you to know what kind of noun you want to use. For in-stanceโ in English we can turn the adjective โdeepโ into the noun โdepthโ. This nounis then ambiguous in meaning: do we mean a measurable depthโ like the depth of acrevasse or a lakeโ or do we mean the immeasurable quality of โdepthโ of paintingsor poetryโ for instance? In Japaneseโ this ambiguity doesnโt existโ because the twodifferent interpretations are expressed through different noun forms: turning a ver-bal adjective into a measurable (quantifiable) noun requires addingใ to the stemโwhereas turning it into an immeasurable (qualifying) noun requires addingใฟ to thestem:
adjective meaning quantified noun meaning
้ซใใ
ใ high ้ซใ height (e.g.โ of a mountain)
ๆทฑใตใ
ใ deep ๆทฑใ depth (e.g.โ of a lake)
More grammar โ ยง 3.1 Revisits and simple inflections 87
adjective meaning qualified noun meaning้ซใ high ้ซใฟ height (e.g.โ of an achievement or position)ๆทฑใ deep ๆทฑใฟ depth (e.g.โ of a poem or painting)
In addition to these twoโ thereโs alsoใโ ใ orใ (all pronunciations forๆฐ)โwhich instead of creating a quantified noun or qualified nounโ creates a noun thatstands for โhaving the impression ofโ. To use this in a sentenceโ it is used as a nounadjective (asๆฐ itself is a noun adjective):
adjective meaning impression noun meaning
ๅฏใใ
ใ cold ๅฏๆฐใใใ
the sense/feeling of being cold
ๅฑใใถ
ใชใ dangerous ๅฑใใถ
ใชๆฐใ
the sense/feeling of danger
ๅ ใใ
ใ firmโ honest ๅ ๆฐใใใ
instilling a sense/feeling of honesty
There are two notes to this scheme. The most important one is: โthis doesnot apply to all adjectivesโ. That may sound oddโ but it comes down to the fact thatwhile grammatically these rules are valid for all verbal adjectivesโ Japanese has beenin use for many centuries and verbal adjectives for which this kind of nominalisingmade sense have long since been accepted as words on their ownโ while verbal ad-jectives for which this nominalising was simply not required simply arenโt acceptedas natural speech when you use them.
Secondlyโ the two irregular verbal adjectivesโใใ andใชใโ have their ownforms. Theใใ (่ฏใ) form existsโ butใใฟ does notโ and rather than someใๆฐโthere is ่ฏใๆฐ
ใ
. For ใชใโ there is no ใชใโ except in the pa ern ใชใใใโ whichwill be treated in the section on impressions and likenessโ and there are noใฟ orๆฐvariants either.
More noun forms: ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ๆนใใ
A more subtle noun form for verbs is the โway of doing โฆโ noun form. For instanceโโthe way one readsโ in English is a full noun phraseโ but in Japanese itโs a compoundnoun consisting of the verb โreadโ in้ฃ็จๅฝขโ paired with the nounๆน (pronouncedใ
ใ in this use) meaning โwayโ. Thusโ่ชญใ
ใโ meaning โreadโโ becomes่ชญใฟๆนโ meaningโway of readingโ.
88 More grammar โ ยง 3.1 Revisits and simple inflections
ใ็ฎธใฏใ
ใฎไฝฟใคใ
ใๆนใซๆ ฃใช
ใใฆใชใไบบใฒใจ
ใซ้ฃใใใ
ใใใงใใโItโs hard for people who arenโt used to the โway of usingโ chopsticks.โ
The verb โto useโโ ไฝฟใโ is a transitive verbโ and since transitive verbs havetheir direct object marked withใโ the subphrase โto use chopsticksโ could beใ็ฎธใไฝฟใ. Howeverโ since bothใ็ฎธ andไฝฟใๆน are nounsโ we can also choose to useใฎto link them together. The difference is the followingโ noting the placement of thebrackets:
(ใ็ฎธใไฝฟใ)ๆนThe way of โusing chopsticksโ
ใ็ฎธใฎ(ไฝฟใๆน)The โway of usingโโ for chopsticks
Both express the same ideaโ but the emphasis in the first sentence lies on thefact that itโs about using chopsticksโwhile the emphasis in the second sentence simplylies with the โway of usingโ somethingโ which in this case happens to be chopsticks.
3.1.5 More negatives
The basic negative form was already discussed in the previous chapterโ but it onlycovered one of the two plain negative formsโ and didnโt cover polite negative formsat all.
Let us first look at the second plain negative form first. In addition to thehelper adjective of negationโ ใชใโ there is a classical helper verb of negationโ ใฌโwhich is used quite frequently in formal speech (in its้ฃ็จๅฝข formใ) and even moreoften in daily speech as part of the polite negation in the form ofใ at the end ofใพใใ.
bases form้ฃ็จๅฝข ใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใ (ใฌ)ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใญ
Technicallyโ the้ฃไฝๅฝข for this classical helper verb can be placed at the endof any verbโsๆช็ถๅฝขโ to form a curt negative. While not in use in standard Japaneseโthis use is still prevalent in several modern Japanese dialectsโ such as Kansaiben. Inaddition to thisโ it is used for the negative of the helper verb of politenessโใพใโ toform its (polite by very definition) negative formใพใใ.
More grammar โ ยง 3.1 Revisits and simple inflections 89
The้ฃ็จๅฝข formโใโ is used frequently to form a rather special kind of word:the adverbial negative. Added to a verbโs ๆช็ถๅฝขโ and paired with ใซ (as it acts asa noun adjective) it turns the verb action into a โnot-takenโ verb action instead. Toillustrate thisโ an example:
ๆใใ
ใ้ฃฏใฏใ
ใ้ฃใ
ในใใซๆฅใ
ใพใใใโI came (over) without eating (my) breakfast.โ
In this sentenceโ the phraseๆใ้ฃฏใ้ฃในใ acts as adverb toๆฅใพใใโ so thatwe can say that โใใพใใ is performed in anๆใ้ฃฏใ้ฃในใชใใฃใmannerโ. In thissentenceโใ itself has no temporal aspectโ so it gets its tense from whatever follows.As suchโ present or past tense comes from the final verb:
ๆใ้ฃฏใ้ฃในใใซๆฅใพใใใโI came (over) without eating (my) breakfast.โ
ๆใ้ฃฏใ้ฃในใใซๆฅใพใใโI will come (over) without eating (my) breakfast.โ
This is considered an elegant form of negationโ and is in formal and semi-formal se ings preferred to the negative continuative forใชใโwhich for our examplesentence would be:
ๆใ้ฃฏใ้ฃในใชใใฆๆฅใพใใใโI didnโt eat (my) breakfast and came (over).โ
We will look at continuative forms that use this โใฆโ in detail later in this chap-terโ when looking at continuatives.
3.1.6 Basic inflections summarised
With the knowledge of whatใ doesโ we can now (finally) look at the complete in-flection schemes in terms of plain and politeโ present and pastโ and affirmative andnegative forms. First offโใพใ; sinceใพใ is inherently politeโ it only has four formswe need to know:
affirmative negativepresent ใพใ ใพใ +ใpast ใพใ +ใ ใพใ +ใ +ใงใใ
90 More grammar โ ยง 3.1 Revisits and simple inflections
Secondโใงใ. This too is inherently politeโ so again we see four formsโ two ofwhich are contractions with a corresponding full form:
affirmative negativepresent ใงใ ใใใใใพใใ
ใงใฏใใใพใใpast ใงใใ ใใใใใพใใใงใใ
ใงใฏใใใพใใใงใใ
Thenโใ . As this is the plain counterpart toใงใโ it has no inherent politenessformsโ although two forms are contractions with a corresponding full form. How-everโ because the negative forms rely onใชใโ and becauseใชใ is a verbal adjectiveโthis copula can also be made polite (at least for its negative forms) by addingใงใ.It will make the inflection more polite than plain formโ but not as polite as the corre-sponding negative form forใงใ itself.
affirmative negativepresent ใ ใใใชใ(ใงใ)
ใงใฏใชใ(ใงใ)past ใ ใฃใ ใใใชใใฃใ(ใงใ)
ใงใฏใชใใฃใ(ใงใ)
Next up are the verbal adjectives. Verbal adjectives have one polite affirma-tive formโ usingใงใโ and two polite negative formsโ because we can either useใชใโor the polite counterpart toใชใ: ใใใพใใ (the polite negative form of the verbใใ). This leads to the following inflection table:
affirmative negativepresent plain ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใ
polite ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใงใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใ +ใงใpolite (2) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใพใใ
past plain ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใฃใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใpolite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใฃใ (c) +ใงใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ +ใงใpolite (2) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใพใใ +ใงใใ
In this tableโ (c) has been used to indicate that a contraction occurs.
For completenessโ the two irregular verbal adjectives get their own tables.Firstโใใ (which is reallyใใ):
More grammar โ ยง 3.1 Revisits and simple inflections 91
affirmative negativepresent plain ใใโใใ ใใใชใ
polite ใใใงใโใใใงใ ใใใใใพใใpast plain ใใใฃใ ใใใชใใฃใ
polite ใใใฃใใงใ ใใใชใใฃใใงใ
(of the two possible ้ฃไฝๅฝขโ ใใ is considered normalโ while ใใ isconsidered formal)
And then finallyโ the helper adjective of negationโใชใ (็กใ):
affirmative negativepresent plain ใชใ ใชใใชใ
polite ใชใใงใ ใชใใชใใงใpast plain ใชใใฃใ ใชใใชใใฃใ
polite ใชใใฃใใงใ ใชใใชใใฃใใงใ
Note that while technicallyใชใ has negative formsโ they need pre y specificcontext before they make any sense.
Then the verbs: while the polite forms are the same for the two verb classes (aswell as the irregular verbs)โ all verb classes will have all forms listed for completeness.
Firstโไบๆฎต verbsโ except forใใ:
affirmative negativepresent plain ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใpast plain ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใ
In this tableโ (c) has been used to indicate that a contraction occursโ dependingon whether itโs aใโใโใโใคโใฌโใถโใ orใไบๆฎต verb. It should also be noted that
the verb่กใ
ใ has an irregular past tense: ่กใฃใ instead of่กใใโ and that the ratherrare verbsๅใโ่จชใโไนใ and่ซใ getใ suffixed to their้ฃไฝๅฝขโ not้ฃ็จๅฝข.
Forใใโ the scheme is subtly different:
affirmative negativepresent plain ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใชใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใpast plain ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ (c) ใชใใฃใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใ
92 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
Thenโ theไธๆฎต verbsโ includingๆฅใ
ใ
affirmative negativepresent plain ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใpast plain ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใ
(The stem forๆฅใ changes: its้ฃไฝๅฝข isใโ its้ฃ็จๅฝข isใโ and itsๆช็ถๅฝขisใ - howeverโ inflection uses the same rules)
And finallyโ the irregular verbใใ:
affirmative negativepresent plain ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใ-ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใpast plain ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ ใ-ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใ
And soโ with these basic inflection tables finally completeโ we can move on togenuinely new inflectionsโ to examine the rest of what can be done with verbs andverbal adjectives in the Japanese language.
3.2 Further inflections
3.2.1 Conjunctive
Conjunctives are words or constructions that join up two or more phrases. For in-stanceโ in the English sentence โThe birds are singingโ the flowers are blooming;spring had arrived properlyโโ the comma between โthe birds are singingโ and โtheflowers are bloomingโ acts as a conjunctiveโ as does the semi-colon between โthe flow-ers are bloomingโ and โspring had arrivedโ. In Japaneseโ this particular kind of con-junction can be done in a remarkably simple way: each sentence that is to be โcon-joinedโ with the next has its final verb put in้ฃ็จๅฝขโ and weโre done:
้ณฅใจใ
ใ้ณดใช
ใใโ(The) birds sing.โ
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 93
่ฑใฏใช
ใๅฒใ
ใใโ(The) flowers bloom.โ
ๆฅใฏใ
ใๆฅใ
ใใโSpring is here.โ
If we change the final verbs in the first two sentence from้ฃไฝๅฝข to้ฃ็จๅฝขโthen we can join them up to form the translation for our original English sentence:
้ณฅใ้ณดใ่ฑใๅฒใๆฅใๆฅใใโ(The) birds are singingโ (the) flowers are blooming; spring is here.โ
For added emphasisโ we can also place a Japanese comma after each of theconjoined sentences:
้ณฅใ้ณดใใ่ฑใๅฒใใๆฅใๆฅใใ
While not required for the sentence to be grammatically correctโ the addi-tion of a comma can make a sentence easier to read. When translating this kind ofconjoined sentenceโ one can usually either use a commaโ or the conjunctive โandโ.Howeverโ it should be noted that the real meaning is just a comma or a semi-colon:since this construction creates a sentence where the second part of the full sentence ismerely a continuation of a story started in the first partโ there is no real โandโ to speakof. Typically in English the word โandโ will look like it belongs thereโ but you shouldremember that the Japanese sentence only faintly implies it. As such the followingtranslations are all possibleโ but not all of them sound like natural English.
้ณฅใ้ณดใ่ฑใๅฒใๆฅใๆฅใใ
โ(The) birds are singingโ (the) flowers are blooming; spring has arrived.โ
โ(The) birds are singing and (the) flowers are blooming; spring has arrived.โ
โ(The) birds are singingโ (the) flowers are blooming and spring has arrived.โ
โ(The) birds are singing and (the) flowers are blooming and spring hasarrived.โ
94 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
A further note on translating โandโ: even though a Japanese conjunction canbe translated to โโฆ and โฆโโ going the other way โ from English to Japanese โtypically means you cannot translate โandโ with this้ฃ็จๅฝข construction. The reasonfor this is that conjunction is a very specific thingโ whereas the word โandโ performsmany roles in English:
โI ate breakfast and went to schoolโ serial actionโI bought juice and tomatosโ noun listโItโs my carโ and donโt you forget itโ emphatic
Typicallyโ when you encounter โandโ in an English sentenceโ the Japanesesentence (unless youโre translating to formal Japanese) will not have it mapped to a้ฃ็จๅฝข construction.
In addition to this conjoining of sentencesโ the้ฃ็จๅฝข conjunctive also worksfor certain word combinationsโ which we shall look at here.
Verb/verb conjunctions
The most common conjunction is the verb/verb conjunction. This takes two verbsโand forms a compound verb with themโ by placing the first verb in้ฃ็จๅฝข and com-bining it with the second verb in its normal form. There are plenty of examples tochoose from for this type of conjunction:
first verb second verb compound verb
้ฃใจ
ใถโ โflyโ ๅบใ
ใโ โtake outโ ้ฃใณๅบใโ โcome flying outโ
ๆญฉใใ
ใโ โwalkโ ๅใพใ
ใโ โgo roundโโ โturnโ ๆญฉใๅใโ โwalk around in circlesโ
When verbs are conjoined this wayโ it is quite common for the okurigana (thehiragana that indicates inflection on verbs and verbal adjectives) of the first verb tobe omi ed: ้ฃใณๅบใmay be wri en as้ฃๅบใโ but is still pronouncedใจใณใ ใโ andๆญฉใๅใ may be wri en asๆญฉๅใ but is still pronouncedใใใใพใใ.
A lot of the timeโ compound verbs created this way have a meaning which isreadily guessable. Howeverโ sometimes the compound verb is one thatโs been in usefor ages and its meaning has changed over time. This is a good reminder that whilethe grammar explains formsโ it doesnโt necessarily explain semantics (i.e.โ the actualintended meaning). Be careful when creating your own compound verbs - itโs notunlikely you will come up with a combination that already means something else insome subtleโ or even not so subtle way.
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 95
Common conjunctions
There are a few common verbs whichโ when used in this fashionโ add a specific mean-ing to the compound. These are:
็ดใชใ
ใโ โFixโโ โcorrectโโ โrepairโ
Used as second verb in a verb/verb compoundโ this verb creates a โto re-[โฆ]โ verbโsuch as:
original verb meaning joined verb meaning
ๆธใ
ใ write ๆธใ็ดใ rewriteใใ do ใใ็ดใ redoโ do over
่พผใ
ใโ โCrowdโโ โfill upโ
This verb helps create compound verbs that calls forth a mental image of somethinggoing into something elseโ such as something being filled upโ something enteringsomething elseโ or even something being invested in something else. Examples ofthis are:
original verb meaning joined verb meaning
ๅ ฅใฏใ
ใ enter ๅ ฅใ่พผใ go into (someoneโs) house/room
ๅทปใพ
ใ rollโ wind ๅทปใ่พผใ become involved/entangled in
ๅใ
ใโ โCutโ
Used in compoundsโๅใ can mean anything from cu ing physically to cu ing con-ceptuallyโ such as cu ing off someoneโs speechโ cu ing a meeting shortโ or doingnothing but that one thing (which can be thought of as cu ing off any other action).A few examples are:
original verb meaning joined verb meaning
่จใ
ใ say ่จใๅใ declareโ assert
ๅใ
ใใ understand ๅใใๅใ to fully understand
96 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
ๅบใ
ใโ โCome outโ
When used in compoundsโๅบใ roughly speaking indicates the inverse of่พผใโ sig-nifying something is going or coming out of something else. This can be objects froma containerโ words from a mouthโ or even thoughts from a cloudy mind:
original verb meaning joined verb meaning
ๆใใ
ใ think ๆใๅบใ to suddenly remember
่จใ
ใ say ่จใๅบใ to break the ice (i.e.โ to start talking)
Verb/adjective conjunctions
There are three adjectives that are commonly used in verb/adjective compoundsโ be-
ing ๆใใ
ใโ ้ฃใซใ
ใ and ้ฃใใ
ใโ used to mean โeasy to โฆโ and โhard to โฆโ (twice). Forinstanceโ if a book is easy to readโ then this can be said in Japanese by combining the
verb for readingโ่ชญใ
ใโ with the adjective easyโๆใโ to form่ชญใฟๆใโ meaning โeasyto readโ. In English this is a noun phraseโ but in Japanese this is still an adjectiveโ andcan be used to describe objectsโ such as for instance:
่ชญใ
ใฟๆใๆฌใปใ
ใAn easy to read book.
And of course the same goes for้ฃใ:
่จใ
ใ้ฃใซใ
ใไบใใจ
ใSomething that is hard to say.(literally: โa hard-to-say thingโ)
Unlike the verb/verb conjunctionsโ this type of conjunction never drops theverbโs okurigana.
While bothใซใใ andใใใ signify โhard to โฆโโใซใใ is a more modernreading; most things that are โhard to โฆโ in modern Japanese will use the ใซใใ
reading. Examples of theใใใ reading are found in for instanceๆใ
ใ้ฃใใ
ใโ whichis commonly known as paired with the verbใใใใพใโ with which it becomesใใใใจใใใใใพใโ meaning โthank youโ.
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 97
Verb/noun conjunctions
This conjunction is a very nice oneโ because it shows an elementary simplicity in thecreation of some of Japaneseโs nouns: compounding. By combining a verb in ้ฃ็จๅฝขโ which we know can act as a noun on its ownโ with another nounโ we can form anew compound noun. This particular conjunction can be seen in some words thatone would not immediately think of as compound nouns:
verb meaning noun meaning conjunction meaning
็ใ
ใ wear (on the body) ็ฉใใฎ
thing ็็ฉใใใฎ
kimono
ไนใฎ
ใ boardโ get on ๅ ดใฐ
place ไนใฎ
ใๅ ดใฐ
a stop (i.e. bus stop)
3.2.2 Continuative:ใฆ formThe continuative in Japanese is also commonly referred to as the โใฆ formโโ becauseit relies on the ้ฃ็จๅฝข of the classical helper verb for completionโ ใคโ which is ใฆ.This inflection is used for at least three things in Japaneseโ of which verb chaining isprobably the most frequently used. Aside from thisโ it is also used to issue (implied)imperativesโ and it can be used in combination with several special verbs to createspecial constructions.
bases formๆช็ถๅฝข ใฆ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใฆ็ตๆญขๅฝข ใค้ฃไฝๅฝข ใค (orใ)ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใคใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใฆใ
Forไบๆฎต verbsโ the combination of้ฃ็จๅฝขwithใฆ leads to contracted forms inmodern Japaneseโ with different contractions occurring for the differentไบๆฎต verbsโjust like for the plain past tenseใ. The following table again lists which contractionsoccurโ and what the โchange ruleโ is:
98 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
ไบๆฎต classical continuative modern continuative change rule่ฉฑใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ่ฉฑใใฆ ่ฉฑใใฆ ใ verbs: no changeๆญฉใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ๆญฉใใฆ ๆญฉใใฆ ใ verbs:ใใฆโใใฆๆฅใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ๆฅใใฆ ๆฅใใง ใ verbs:ใใฆโใใงๆญปใฌ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ๆญปใซใฆ ๆญปใใง ใฌ verbs: ใซใฆโใใงๅญฆใถ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ๅญฆใณใฆ ๅญฆใใง ใถ verbs: ใณใฆโใใง่ชญใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ่ชญใฟใฆ ่ชญใใง ใ verbs: ใฟใฆโใใงไผใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ไผใใฆ ไผใฃใฆ ใ verbs: ใใฆโใฃใฆๅพ ใค ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ๅพ ใกใฆ ๅพ ใฃใฆ ใค verbs:ใกใฆโใฃใฆๅใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ๅใใใฆ ๅใใฃใฆ ใ verbs:ใใฆโใฃใฆใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ใใใฆ ใใฃใฆ ใ verbs:ใใฆโใฃใฆ
And again่กใ is an exception:
Irregular ้ฃ็จๅฝข classical continuative modern continuative
่กใ
ใ ่กใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ ใใฃใฆ
For theไธๆฎต verbsโ as well as verbal adjectivesโ no contractions occur:
ไธๆฎต continuative่ฆใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ่ฆใฆไผธใณใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ไผธใณใฆ้ฃในใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ: ้ฃในใฆ
Irregular ้ฃ็จๅฝข continuativeใใ ใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ:ใใฆๆฅใ ใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ:ใใฆ
And finallyโ no contractions occur either for the small set of formal literaryverbs that use their้ฃไฝๅฝข instead of their้ฃ็จๅฝข for this inflection:
verb meaning continuative
ๅใจ
ใ askโ questionโ accuse ๅใใฆ
่จชใจ
ใ ใ ่จชใใฆ
ไนใ
ใ ask ไนใใฆ
่ซใ
ใ ใ ่ซใใฆ
As we saw earlierโ the้ฃ็จๅฝข conjoins sentencesโ and so it should be relativelyobvious that this construction conjoins sentences tooโ but in a slightly different way
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 99
from the plain้ฃ็จๅฝข. Rather than simply joining sentences in such a way that thereโsno order in which verb actions take placeโ theใฆ form explicitly preserves the orderin which the actions occur. For instanceโ the following two sentences say differentthingsโ in terms of which actions follow which other actions:
ๆใใ
ใ้ฃฏใฏใ
ใ้ฃใ
ในใฆใๅญฆๆ กใใฃใใ
ใซ่กใ
ใฃใฆใๆๆฅญใใ ใใใ
ใซๅบใง
ใพใใใโ(I) had breakfastโ went off to school and went to class.โ
ๅญฆๆ กใซ่กใฃใฆใๆๆฅญใซๅบใฆใๆใ้ฃฏใ้ฃในใพใใใโ(I) went off to schoolโ went to class and had breakfast.โ
These are two very different ways of spending oneโs morning.You may have noticed that in these two sentences only the last verb in the
sentence has an inflection indicating tense (present/past) and polarity (affirmative/negative). This is a consequence of usingใฆ: whileใค itself is the classical helper verbfor verb completionโ its้ฃ็จๅฝข means there is no indication in which way the actionhas been completed. To indicate the particular completionโ the last verb is placedin whichever form is requiredโ and this form then applies to all previous verbs inใฆform. To illustrate:
ๆฌใปใ
ใ่ชญใ
ใใง้ณๆฅฝใใใใ
ใ่ใ
ใใพใใโ(I) read a book and listen to music.โ
ๆฌใ่ชญใใง้ณๆฅฝใ่ใใพใใใโ(I) read a book and listened to music.โ(โreadโ is past tense in this sentence)
Verbal adjective continuative
Verbal adjectivesโ tooโ can be chained in this way by using their้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆ:
adjective ใฆ form้ซใ ้ซใ +ใฆๆฅฝใใ ๆฅฝใใ +ใฆ่ใ ่ใ +ใฆๅคงใใ ๅคงใใ +ใฆใใ (ใใ) ใใ +ใฆใชใ ใชใ +ใฆ
100 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
This lets us write the previous โbookโ sentence in the following mannerโ using
the adjectivesๅคงใใ
ใใโ bigโ่ตคใใ
ใโ red and้ใใ
ใโ heavy.:
ใใใฏๅคงใใ
ใใใฆ่ตคใใ
ใใฆ้ใใ
ใๆฌใปใ
ใงใใโThis is a bigโ redโ heavy book.โ
Just like with verbsโ the actual inflection of the adjectives inใฆ is determinedby the final adjective. To illustrateโ the following sentence is entirely in past tenseaffirmative:
ๅคงใใใฆ่ตคใใฆ้ใใฃใ็ฎฑใฏใ
ใงใใโ(It) was a bigโ redโ heavy box.โ
To make everything negativeโ we take the plain negative form of adjectivesโending onใชใโ and simply useใชใโsใฆ form:
ๅคงใใใชใใฆ่ตคใใชใใฆ้ใๆฌใงใใโ(It)โs a not bigโ not redโ heavy book.โ
Of courseโ since theyโre both justใฆ formsโ we can even mix the two:
ๅคงใใใฆ่ตคใใชใใฆ้ใใฃใ็ฎฑใฏใ
ใงใใโ(It) was a bigโ not redโ heavy box.โ
This โplacingใชใ inใฆ formโ to form the negativeใฆ form for verbal adjec-tives also applies to verbsโ by first forming their plain negative formโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใโand then turning this negative into aใฆ form:
้ฃใ
ในใชใใฆๅธฐใใ
ใใพใใใโ(I) didnโt eatโ and went home.โ
Noun continuative
For nounsโ which rely on copulae for inflectionsโ we do not use the้ฃ็จๅฝข forใคโ butinstead rely on the้ฃ็จๅฝข forใงใโ which isใง:
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 101
ใใใใงใๆใใ
ใใ้จๅฑใธใ
ใงใใโA tidyโ bright room.โ
As with the verbalใฆ formโ tense and polarity are expressed by the final verbal(which can be either a verbโ verbal adjective or a copula)โ so that if we want to place
the previous sentence in past tenseโ we need only change the tense forๆใใ
ใใ:
ใใใใงใๆใใใฃใ้จๅฑใงใใโ(It) was a tidyโ bright room.โ
The negative form for this continuative usesใใใชใ (orใงใฏใชใ)โ whichdue to it ending onใชใ uses the adjectivalใฆ form. So far so goodโ but this is wherethings get a li le complicated: becauseใชใ is a verbal adjectiveโ and verbal adjec-tives can be paired withใงใโ we can actually choose between two โใฆโ forms. Oneis the regular ใฆ formโ ใชใใฆ; the other is ใชใ + ้ฃ็จๅฝข of ใงใโ giving us ใชใใง instead. Both are usedโ but depending on the speakerโs intentionโ one is usuallypreferred over the other. For regular chainingโ ใชใใง tends to be preferred; for achaining with an implied contrast of sortsโ ใชใใฆ is typically preferred. To illus-trate:
ใใใใใใชใใงใๆใใ้จๅฑใงใใโ(it) is a not (so) tidyโ (but) bright room.โ(no real contrastโ although in English the phrasing makes it sound like one)
้ใใ
ใใใใชใใฆใ่ณใซใ
ใใใช็ฉบๆฐใใใ
ใงใใใโRather than quietโ it was a very lively atmosphere.โ(real contrastโ explicit โrather than Xโ Y insteadโ connotation)
Of course this continuative also works for verbal adjectives and verbs in plainnegative formโ as these end onใชใ:
ๅคงใใ
ใใใฆ่ตคใใ
ใใชใใง้ใใ
ใใฃใ็ฎฑใฏใ
ใงใใโ(It) was a bigโ not redโ heavy box.โ
้ฃใ
ในใชใใงๅธฐใใ
ใใพใใใโ(I) didnโt eatโ (then) went home.โ
As mentioned in the section on negatives in this chapterโ the negative con-
102 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
tinuative ใชใใง/ใชใใฆ is actually similar in role to using a verbal ๆช็ถๅฝข + ใ +ใซโ meaning โwithout โฆโโ but there is the subtle difference: ใชใใง is a verb formโwhile -ใใซ is an adverbial form. Chaining many affirmative and negative verb ac-tions using the negativeใฆ form is possibleโ whileๆช็ถๅฝข+ใใซ doesnโt allow you toโchainโ:
้ฃในใชใใฆๅญฆๆ กใธ่กใ
ใฃใฆใในใไนใฎ
ใใชใใฆ็ใค
ใใพใใใ้ฃในใชใใงๅญฆๆ กใธ่กใฃใฆใในใไนใใชใใง็ใใพใใใโ[I] didnโt eatโ went to schoolโ didnโt take the bus and arrived.โ
We can interpret this sentence as the more natural sounding โI went to schoolwithout eating and (then) arrived without taking the bus.โ but this misrepresents theactual Japaneseโ which chains four verb phrases. For actual Japanese that reflects thisEnglish sentenceโ we must use the following:
้ฃในใใซๅญฆๆ กใธ่กใฃใฆใใในใไนใใใซ็ใใพใใใ
In theใฆ form sentenceโ weโre chaining four different actionsโ namely not eat-ingโ goingโ not boardingโ and arriving. Howeverโ in this sentence using -ใใซ we arelisting just two actionsโ and both of these are adverbially constrained: ้ฃในใใซ่กใis โgoing without eatingโ andใในใไนใใใซ็ใ is โarriving without having takenthe busโ.
3.2.3 Specialใฆ form conjunctionsWeโre not quite done with theใฆ form yetโ because there are a number of specialใฆform combinations with verbs that should not be taken literallyโ but should be con-sidered idiomatic: they mean something different from what the used words wouldnormally imply themselves. These combinations only work for verbs inใฆ formโ anddo not apply to verbal adjectives inใฆ form or nouns followed byใง (orใชใใง).
Special conjunctions:ใฆใใ/ใฆใใ
Combining theใฆ form withใใ andใใ profoundly changes the verbโs meaningin terms of its grammatical role. Using these two verbs as helper verbs lets us turnany verb into a resultant stateโ a present progressive form or an habitual actโ dependingon whether the verb is transitive or intransitiveโ and whether we useใใ or ใใ.The table of which combinations can imply which constructions is as follows:
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 103
ใฆ+ใใ ใฆ+ใใtransitive 1. Resultant state 1. Habitual
(implying something or 2. Progressivesomeone caused the state)
intransitive (impossible combination) 1. Habitual2. Progressive3. Resultant state
Looking at the tableโ we see that the ใฆ+ใใ form is used to indicate thatsomething is in a particular stateโ and that this state was caused by someone or some-thing. Examples of this โresultant stateโ are for instance:
ใใฟใณใๅคใฏใ
ใใฆใใใโThe bu on is (in an) unfastened (state) (because someone unfastened it).โ
่ปใใใพ
ใๆญขใจ
ใใฆใใใโThe car is (in a) stopped (state) (because someone stopped it).โ
This construction describes the state of somethingโ just like a normal intransi-tive verb wouldโ but also implies that someone is responsible for this state. The rea-son for this is the fact that a transitive verb is used as basis: a transitive verb describesan action being performed by something or someone. Thusโ even if the something orsomeone that performs the verb is left offโ the fact that a transitive verb was used isin itself enough to tell us that something or someone must have performed it.
On the other handโ the resultant state that is created using theใฆ+ใใ formdoes not imply this additional โsomeone did itโโ because it uses an intransitive verbinsteadโ which merely passively describes the current state of the world without anyimplications of how it might have come to be this way:
ใใฟใณใๅคใใฆใใใโThe bu on is (in an) unfastened (state)โ
่ปใๆญขใพใฃใฆใใใโThe car is (in a) stopped (state).โ
One principal difference is that while ใฆ+ใใ operates on transitive verbsfor resultant stateโใฆ+ใใ operates on intransitive verbs. Another difference is thatwhileใฆ+ใใ can only be used to create a resultant stateโใฆ+ใใ can also be used tocreate the progressive verb formโ as well as to indicate a habitual action. Both these
104 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
forms can be made with either transitive or intransitive verbs:
ใใพๆ ็ปใใใ
ใ่ฆใฟ
ใฆใใพใใโ(I) am watching a film right now.โForm: transitive progressive
ใใๆฐ่ใใใถใ
ใ่ชญใ
ใใงใใพใใโ(I) frequently read the newspaper.โForm: transitive habitual act
็ชใพใฉ
ใ้ใใฆใใพใใโ(The) window is opening.โForm: intransitive progressive
ใใฎใใขใใใ่ปใใ
ใฃใฆใใพใใโThat door often creaks.โForm: intransitive habitual
To make sure thereโs no mistakes possible: ใฆ+ใใ/ใฆ+ใใ can both do re-sultant stateโ but they operate on transitive and intransitive verbsโ respectively: โAruโTrAnsitive - Iruโ Intransitiveโ. In addition to thisโใฆ+ใใ can also signify progressivestate and habitual form of any verb.
Colloquiallyโ theใฆ+ใใ form is often shortened by dropping theใโ to createใฆ+ใ instead. This means that the following two sentences are technically the sameโbut the first is formalโ and the second less formal:
ไฝใชใซ
ใใใฆใใพใใใไฝใใใฆใพใใใโWhat are [you] doing?โ
Special conjunctions:ใฆใใ/ใฆใใ
Another important pair is theใฆ+่กใ
ใ/ใฆ+ๆฅใ
ใ pairโ where ่กใ is sometimes writ-ten or pronounced asใใ instead (this is not wrongโ but simply an olderโ alternateway to write and say ่กใโ used a lot in songsโ poetry and still commonly used inmany dialects). These two constructions stand for a gradual process directed eithertowards the speaker in some wayโ or heading away from the speaker in some way.This towards/away can be either a physical process or an abstract process such as โitfeels like her mind is slowly slipping awayโ:
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 105
ๅคใใ
ใซใชใฃใฆใใใโItโs (gradually) becoming night.โ
ๆฅใฏใ
ใซใชใฃใฆใใใโIt has (gradually) become spring.โ
ๅฏๅฃซๅฑฑใตใใใ
ใ่ฆใฟ
ใใฆใใพใใโMt. Fuji is (gradually) coming into view.โ
When used in this wayโๆฅใ or่กใ are usually wri enใใ andใใ insteadof using kanji.
Note that these โgradual processโ interpretations do not always apply. Forinstanceโ [โฆ]ใฆ+ใใ is also a common pa ern used in combination with activity
verbs to indicate โใฆใใโ. For exampleโ่ฒทใ
ใฃใฆใใ means โgoing to buy something(and then come back afterwards)โ or ่กใฃใฆใใ means โgoing (somewhere) (andthen coming back after whatever one had to do there is done)โ.
Note that a verb can sometimes be interpreted in two or three ways:
้ฃใจ
ใใงใใใInterpreted normally: โ(He) came flying over.โAs a gradual process: โIt came flying into view.โ
ไปใใพ
ๅบใง
ใฆใใพใใAs a gradual process: โItโs coming out (into view) right now.โAs โdo and come backโ: โ(Iโm) going out (to do somethingโ and will thencome back) now.โ
Special conjunctions:ใฆใใ ใใ
This construction signifies a semi-formal requestโ something which we will look at inmore detail when treating verbs for giving and receiving in the chapter on language
pa erns. For now it suffices to say that usingใฆ+ไธใใ
ใใ turns a verb into a politecommand or request:
็ชใพใฉ
ใ้ใ
ใใฆไธใใใโPlease open the window.โ
106 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
้ฃใ
ในใฆไธใใใโPlease eat (this).โ
Special conjunctions:ใฆใใพใ
The constructionใฆ+ใใพใ is a very interesting construction. It lacks an adequatecorresponding construction in Englishโ but indicates that some action has been irre-vocably performed. This can either be a good thing (โwe are done working on thisprojectโ)โ a bad thing (โI broke the radioโฆโ) or something of which one might wish itwasnโt irrevocable (โI finished reading this series of booksโฆ I wish there were moreโ).Because of thisโ translations for this construction are highly context sensitive:
ใใใ่จใ
ใฃใฆใใพใฃใโฆโฆโOh (man)โ now (you)โve said itโฆโliterally: โAhโ youโve said it (even though it would have been be er if youhadnโtโ but you canโt take it back now)โ
One can expect to hear something like this when someone says somethingthat everyone knowsโ but no one had dared say because of the repercussionsโ suchas telling the boss that everyone in his department is be er suited for his job than heis.
ใฉใธใชใๅฃใใ
ใใฆใใพใฃใใโ(I) broke the radioโฆ (and thatโs something I wish I hadnโt).โ
In this lineโ it should be obvious why the fact thatๅฃใใโ โbreakโโ having beencompleted is a bad thing.
Colloquiallyโใฆ +ใใพใ can be contracted intoใกใพใ orใกใใโ (withใง +ใใพใ contracting toใใพใ orใใใ respectively) resultingโ for instanceโ in:
ใใฃใๆ็งๆธใใใใใใ
ใๅฟใใ
ใใกใใฃใใโAh! (I) forgot (my) textbookโฆโ
Againโ it is clear thatๅฟใใโ โforgetโโ is a bad or regre able thing when com-pletedโ especially in relation to needing your textbook in class.
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 107
Special conjunctions:ใฆใใ
Also important is theใฆ+ใใ construction. On its ownโ the verb็ฝฎใ
ใmeans โto put[something] [somewhere]โโ but when paired with a verb inใฆ formโ it creates a con-struction meaning โto do something with the intention of leaving it that way [forwhatever reason]โ. This may sound a bit crypticโ so letโs look at an example for clar-ification:
้ปๆฐใงใใ
ใไปใค
ใใฆใใใฆไธใใ
ใใใโPlease turn on the lights.โ
This sentence uses theใฆ form ofใใ for a polite command (usingไธใใ)โand asks for the lights to be turned on without there being a need for them to be onright nowโ other than it saving having to turn them on later. Literally this sentencewould read โPlease turn on the lights and leave them that wayโ. Colloquiallyโ thecombination ofใฆ+ใ is often changed toใจ insteadโ so the following two sentencesare the sameโ except that the first is more formalโ and the second more colloquial:
็ชใพใฉ
ใ้ใ
ใใฆใใใพใใ็ชใ้ใใจใใพใใโ(I)โll open the windows (nowโ rather than having to do it later when itbecomes genuinely necessary).โ
Special conjunctions:ใฆใฟใ
Another construction that changes the meaning of the suffixed verb is theใฆ+ใฟใform. ใฟใ (่ฆใ) alone means โto seeโโ but suffixed toใฆ formsโ this constructionmeans โto do โฆ to see what itโs likeโ or โto do โฆ to see what happensโ:
ๅฏฟๅธใใ
ใ้ฃใ
ในใฆใฟใพใใใใโWonโt (you) try eating (some) sushi?โ
Here a negative question is asked as a more polite way of offering a sugges-tionโ and the ้ฃในใฆใฟใพใ part stands for โtrying to eatโ to see what happensโ. Inthis caseโ the โto see what happensโ is probably related to โseeing if you like itโ.
่ช่ปข่ปใใฆใใใ
ใไนใฎ
ใฃใฆใฟใพใใใๅ จ็ถใใใใ
ใ ใใงใใใโ(I) tried to ride a bicycleโ but failed horribly.โliterally: โbut (it/I) was no good at all.โ
108 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
Hereโ the act of riding a bicycle was tried to see what would happenโ butwe can conclude from the remainder of the sentence that riding a bike isnโt for thisparticular speaker.
3.2.4 Representative listing: ใใIfโ instead of chainingโ you want to only list representative actions for which orderdoesnโt ma erโ such as โToday I read my bookโ played some video games and walkedthe dogโ in which you probably did all those things a few times in no real orderโ thentheใฆ form is of li le use. Insteadโ the classical helper verbใใ is the one you wantto be working with. This verb has the following bases:
bases formๆช็ถๅฝข ใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใใ
Just likeใฆโ the้ฃ็จๅฝข ofใใ is usedโ and just like forใฆ andใโ contractionsoccur when used with ไบๆฎต verbs (with ่กใ having an irregular contractionโ andๅใโ ่จชใโ ไนใ and่ซใ inflecting via their้ฃไฝๅฝข rather than้ฃ็จๅฝข). Howeverโunlike theใฆ formโ which can pair up with any โfinal verbโ for its inflectionโใใ getsits inflection specifically from the verbใใโ meaning โto doโ:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏๅญฆๆ กใใฃใใ
ใซ่กใ
ใฃใใใๆๆฅญใใ ใใใ
ใซๅบใง
ใใใใ้ฃฏใฏใ
ใ้ฃใ
ในใใใใพใใใโToday (I) went to schoolโ went to class and ate.โ
This sentence literally reads โToday I did: going to schoolโ going to classโeatingโโ without any distinction in which action occurred whenโ in relation to otheractions; weโre literally only summarising activities performed.
Verbs inใใ form can also be used on their own in a sentenceโ in which caseit translates to โdoing things such asโโ and still get closed off byใใ:
ๆจๆฅใใฎใ
ใๆฌใปใ
ใ่ชญใ
ใใ ใใใใโYesterday (I) did things like reading a book.โ
The negative ใใ form is constructed by placing a verb in plain negativeform first (ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใ) and then turning this verbal negative into aใใ form by
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 109
the same formula: ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใใ (with a contraction just as for past tense)โ formingๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ.
3.2.5 Conditional: ใใโใชใIn the same series of inflections that contract with ไบๆฎต verbs (ใโใฆ andใใ)โ we
findใใโ which is the conditional formโ orไปฎๅฎๅฝขใใฆใใใ
โ forใ. It combines in the same wayasใโใฆ andใใ doโ being added to the ้ฃ็จๅฝขโ and contracts with ไบๆฎต verbs aswell as with verbal adjectives:
ไบๆฎต conditionalไผใ ไผใฃใใๆญฉใ ๆญฉใใใๆฅใ ๆฅใใ ใ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใใใๆญปใฌ ๆญปใใ ใๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใใ ใ่ชญใ ่ชญใใ ใๅพ ใค ๅพ ใฃใใๅใใ ๅใใฃใใ
Noting the exception for the verb่กใ
ใ:
Irregular conditional่กใ ่กใฃใใ
No contractions occur forไธๆฎต verbs:
ไธๆฎต conditional่ฆใ ่ฆใใไผธใณใ ไผธใณใใ้ฃในใ ้ฃในใใ
And the irregular verbs get their own table:
110 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
Irregular ้ฃ็จๅฝข conditionalใใ ใ ใใใๆฅใ ใ ใใใใใ ใใ ใใฃใใใพใ ใพใ ใพใใใ
For verbal adjectives we see contractions:
verbal adjectives conditional้ซใ ้ซใใฃใใๆฅฝใใ ๆฅฝใใใฃใใ่ใ ่ใใฃใใๅคงใใ ๅคงใใใฃใใ
And for nouns the copulae inflect instead:
nouns past tensenoun +ใ noun +ใ ใฃใใnoun +ใงใ noun +ใงใใใ
So what does it do? In simple termsโ this construction sets up an โif โฆโ thenโฆโ condition:
็บใพใก
ใๆญฉใใใใ้ข็ฝใใใใ
ใใ่ฆ็ฉใฟใใฎ
ใใใฃใฑใ่ฆใพใใโIf (you) walk around townโ (you) will see many interesting sights.โ
This can also be used for actions that are constrained by some conditionโ suchas:
๏ผๆ้ใซใใใ
ใใใใๅๅผทในใใใใ
ใใพใใโIโll go study 2 hours from nowโ
Hereโ the act of studying is constrained by 2 hours of something else needingto pass first.
In less simple termsโ theใใ construction is a โhypothetical future pastโ. Thatisโ it sets up a hypothetical future in which some action has already been takenโ aboutwhich comments are then made. Looking at the previous sentences using this expla-nationโ we get some rather conceptual translations:
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 111
็บใๆญฉใใใใ้ข็ฝใใ่ฆ็ฉใใใฃใฑใ่ฆใพใใโIn a future where you are walking around townโ you see lots of interestingthingsโ
๏ผๆ้ใใใใๅๅผทใใพใใโIn a future in which I have spent 2 hours doing (something)โ I will (then)go study.โ
This explanation doesnโt quite work for noun conditionalsโ which useใชใ.This is theๅทฒ็ถๅฝข for the copulaใ โ rather than for the conditional form of the helperverb of past tenseโ and rather than a hypothetical future pastโ is essentially just a plainif[โฆ]then[โฆ] construction:
ๅ ็ใใใใ
ใชใใใฃใจๅใใใโIโm sure the teacher will understand.โliterally: โIf the teacherโ (he/she) will understand.โ
There are a few more conditionals in Japaneseโ so (much like with โandโ andthe ้ฃ็จๅฝข) when translating from Japanese to Englishโ translatingใใ with โif โฆthen โฆโ is fineโ but translating an English sentence that has an if/then constructionto Japanese requires figuring out exactly which style of if/then is being used.
For instanceโ โIf you walk around townโ you will see many interesting sightsโis an example of a conditional pertaining to a current situationโ โIf you get firedโ Iโllquit tooโ is a conditional pertaining to a hypothetical situationโ and โIf youโre late forthe examโ you fail it.โ is actually not a conditional but a factual statement (โif Aโ thenB as wellโ).
Of theseโ the first usesใใ as conditionalโ the second uses the hypotheticalconstruction -ใใฐ (explained later in this chapter) and the third uses the simulta-neous action markerโใจ (possibly the most abused particle by beginning students)โwhich is explained in the chapter on particles.
3.2.6 Desire
First person desirative: ใใ
Unlike the previous constructions starting with the syllableใโ this inflection doesnโtinvolve a classical helper verbโ but a helper adjectiveโใใ (which has a kanji formโๅบฆใโ but this is not used in modern Japanese). This also means that unlike the previous-ใโ -ใฆโ -ใใ andใใ constructionsโ no contractions occur withไบๆฎต verbsโ whichmakes forming the first person desirative very easy. Since this is an adjectiveโ rather
112 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
than a verbโ it has a slightly different set of bases for further conjugation:
bases formๆช็ถๅฝข ใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใใ
Howeverโ as an inflection the first person desirative is about as simple as itgetsโ pairing with้ฃ็จๅฝข:
verb first person desirativeไผใ ไผใ +ใใๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ +ใใๆฅใ ๆฅใ +ใใ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ +ใใๆญปใฌ ๆญปใซ +ใใๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใณ +ใใ่ชญใ ่ชญใฟ +ใใๅพ ใค ๅพ ใก +ใใๅใใ ๅใใ +ใใ
verb first person desirative่ฆใ ่ฆ +ใใไผธใณใ ไผธใณ +ใใ้ฃในใ ้ฃใน +ใใ
verb first person desirativeใใ ใ +ใใๆฅใ ใ +ใใ
You may have noticed thatใงใ andใพใ are not listed here. The absenceofใงใ is easy to explain because it is the copulaโ and one cannot want somethingto have a particular property in Japanese using the copula (this uses the adjective
ๆฌฒใป
ใใ insteadโ explained later in this section on desiratives). The absence of aใใform forใพใ is more subtle: there is noใใ form forใพใ because usingใใ toexpress oneโs desire is intrinsically selfishโ and thus mutually exclusive with politephrasing. To make a statement that expresses desire that is less selfishโ the Japaneseuse a construction that expresses โI think I want/would like to โฆโโ using the particle
ใจ and the verb ๆใใ
ใโ which makes the actual desire less strong because itโs only a
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 113
thoughtโ rather than a โgenuineโ desire:
ๆฐใใใ
ใใ่ปใใใพ
ใ่ฒทใ
ใใใใจๆใใ
ใใพใใโI think I would like to buy a new car.โ
This is a very civil way of expressing oneโs own desireโ compared to the plain:
ๆฐใใ่ปใ่ฒทใใใใโI want to buy a new car.โ
Becauseใใ is an adjectiveโ it can also be followed byใงใ to make it morepoliteโ in which case the translation stays the sameโ but the perceived strength of thedesire is tuned down just a bitโ although not as much as when the desire is turnedinto a thought using +ใจ+ๆใ:
ๆฐใใ่ปใ่ฒทใใใใงใใโI want to buy a new car.โ
To say one doesnโt want somethingโ all we have to do is form the negative ofใใโ which we know isใใใชใ:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏไฝใชใซ
ใใใใใชใใโI donโt want to do anything today.โ
Second and third person desirative: ใใใ
Because of the way Japanese worksโ and the way the world is interpreted and thoughtabout in the Japanese mindsetโ one never presumes to truly know whatโs going onin someone elseโs head. Because of thisโ you cannot say that โBob wants an appleโโbecause even though he might give off all the signals that he doesโ and even thoughhe may have said so himselfโ you might still be interpreting the signals wrongโ andhe might have only said he wanted one instead of really wanting one. Because ofthisโ rather than usingใใ for second/third person desirativesโ the classical helperverbใใใ is used.
bases formๆช็ถๅฝข ใใใ /ใใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใใใ /ใใใค้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใใ
114 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
Likeใใโ this form does not suffer from contracted inflectionsโ and is addeddirectly to the้ฃ็จๅฝข:
verb second/third person desirativeไผใ ไผใ +ใใใๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ +ใใใๆฅใ ๆฅใ +ใใใ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ +ใใใๆญปใฌ ๆญปใซ +ใใใๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใณ +ใใใ่ชญใ ่ชญใฟ +ใใใๅพ ใค ๅพ ใก +ใใใๅใใ ๅใใ +ใใใ
verb second/third person desirative่ฆใ ่ฆ +ใใใไผธใณใ ไผธใณ +ใใใ้ฃในใ ้ฃใน +ใใใ
verb second/third person desirativeใใ ใ +ใใใๆฅใ ใ +ใใใ
Againใงใ andใพใ are missing. Not unlikeใใโใใใ can be consideredsomewhat rude as it presumes to know something about someone else. This con-struction can be made less rude by adding the noun adjectiveใใ to the้ฃไฝๅฝขโ toemphasise that this is merely an impression:
ๅๅญใใฟใ
ใใใๅบใง
ใใใใใใงใใโIt seems Kimiko wants to leave.โ
Howeverโ note that the following is also possibleโ usingใใwith the้ฃ็จๅฝข:
ๅๅญใใใๅบใใใใใใงใใโIt seems Kimiko wants to leave.โ
When ใใ follows a ้ฃไฝๅฝขโ it generally does not mean the same thing aswhen it follows a ้ฃ็จๅฝข. Normallyโ ใใ following a ้ฃไฝๅฝข expresses a form ofhearsayโ implying the informationโs been read somewhere or has been told to the
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 115
speaker by someoneโ andใใ following a้ฃ็จๅฝข expresses the concept of somethingโbeing at the point of โฆโ or โseeming to be โฆโ. While generally two different thingsโboth can be used due to the nature ofใใใโ but the different uses have differencenuances:
ๅๅญใใใๅบใใใใใใงใใโIt seems Kimiko wants to leave (I know this because she for instance toldusโ or someone else told me this was the case).โ
ๅๅญใใใๅบใใใใใใงใใโIt seems Kimiko wants to leave (this is my impressionโ because sheโs givingoff all the signs of someone who wants to leave).โ
The negative form forใใใ is a normal verb negativeโ being eitherใใใใชใ orใใใใพใใ.
Desiring a particular state: โใฆๆฌฒใป
ใใ
Unlike the previous two desirative formsโ there is also the โdesire for something tobe in a particular stateโ that was previously hinted at. For instance โI want this doorto be redโ cannot be expressed with the previous two formsโ because they cannotexpress this stateโ but can only express verb actions or processes. To express a statedesirativeโ the verbal adjectiveใฆ form plus the adjectiveๆฌฒใใโ a verbal adjectivefor indicating that something is desirableโ is used:
ใใฎใใขใ่ตคใใ
ใใฆๆฌฒใใใโ(I) want this door red.โ
Note that because these are verbal adjectivesโ we use the particleใโ notใ.Even though โdesireโ is a verb in Englishโ it is an adjective in Japaneseโ so rather thansaying โI want this door redโโ the more literally translation would be โthis door is(more) desired (when) redโ.
In terms of politenessโๆฌฒใใ is just as direct and selfish asใใโ and it canbe softened by addingใงใ:
ไฝฟใคใ
ใฃใฆๆฌฒใใใโ[I] want it made.โ
116 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
ไฝฟใฃใฆๆฌฒใใใงใใโ(I) want it made (being said in a less direct manner than the abovesentence)โ
Since ๆฌฒใใ is a normal verbal adjectiveโ we can inflect it further like anyother verbal adjective:
bases formๆช็ถๅฝข ๆฌฒใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ๆฌฒใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆฌฒใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ๆฌฒใใใ
3.2.7 Pseudo-future: ใใ/ใใThe pseudo-future is used for three thingsโ which are called the presumptive (โitโs prob-ably the case thatโฆโ)โ the dubitative (โwill/shall โฆ?โ) and the cohortative (โletโs โฆโ).
Dubitative / cohortative
These formsโ as mentioned in the outline for Japaneseโ turn theๆช็ถๅฝข into somethingthat ends on anใ sound through a contraction. There are both a normal and a politeform of this constructionโ with the polite form simply being the verb in polite formโwithใพใ turned into a pseudo-future.
The way in which the direct pseudo-future is constructed differs for the twoverb classes: ไบๆฎต verbs getใ added to theๆช็ถๅฝขโ but the combination of theๆช็ถๅฝขใโrow syllable and theใ changes the pronunciation (as well as wri en form)to anใโrow syllable insteadโ so ใ+ใ becomesใใโใพ+ใ becomesใใโ etc. Tosee why this happens we have to look back at classical Japaneseโ where the combi-nation of anใโrow syllable and anใ always changed the pronunciation to thatof the correspondingใโrow syllable; not just forๆช็ถๅฝข constructionsโ but for anywri en combination of the two. While the language reforms of the mid 20th centurychanged many of the rules for wri en language so that it would correspond to spo-ken language moreโ constructions involving theๆช็ถๅฝข have generally been left alone(anotherๆช็ถๅฝข โquirkโ can be found inไบๆฎต verbs ending onใโ which becomesใrather thanใ).
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 117
ไบๆฎต verb pseudo-future polite pseudo-futureไผใ ไผ [ใโใ] +ใ =ไผใใ ไผใ +ใพใใใๆญฉใ ๆญฉ [ใโใ] +ใ =ๆญฉใใ ๆญฉใ +ใพใใใๆฅใ ๆฅ [ใโใ] +ใ =ๆฅใใ ๆฅใ +ใพใใใ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑ [ใโใ] +ใ =่ฉฑใใ ่ฉฑใ +ใพใใใๆญปใฌ ๆญป [ใชโใฎ] +ใ =ๆญปใฎใ ๆญปใซ +ใพใใใๅญฆใถ ๅญฆ [ใฐโใผ] +ใ =ๅญฆใผใ ๅญฆใณ +ใพใใใ่ชญใ ่ชญ [ใพโใ] +ใ =่ชญใใ ่ชญใฟ +ใพใใใๅพ ใค ๅพ [ใโใจ] +ใ =ๅพ ใจใ ๅพ ใก +ใพใใใๅใใ ๅใ [ใโใ] +ใ =ๅใใใ ๅใใ +ใพใใใใใ ใ [ใโใ] +ใ =ใใใ ใใ +ใพใใใ
Forไธๆฎต verbsโ we simply addใใ to theๆช็ถๅฝขโ and for the irregular verbsand copulae we see special cases:
ไธๆฎต verb pseudo-future polite pseudo-future่ฆใ ่ฆ +ใใ ่ฆ +ใพใใใไผธใณใ ไผธใณ +ใใ ไผธใณ +ใพใใใ้ฃในใ ้ฃใน +ใใ ้ฃใน +ใพใใใ
irregular pseudo-future polite pseudo-futureใใ ใ +ใใ ใ +ใพใใใๆฅใ ใ +ใใ ใ +ใพใใใใพใ ใพใ +ใใ =ใพใใใ already politeใงใ ใงใใ +ใ =ใงใใใ already politeใ ใง +ใใใ =ใ ใใ ร
For verbal adjectivesโ the plain pseudo-future is formed by (once again) com-bining the adjectiveโs้ฃ็จๅฝข withใใโ this time in pseudo-future form. The politeversion is simply the adjective followed byใ orใงใ in pseudo-future form:
adjective pseudo-future polite pseudo-future้ซใ ้ซใ +ใใใ =้ซใใใ ้ซใ +ใ ใใ/ใงใใใๆฅฝใใ ๆฅฝใใ +ใใใ =ๆฅฝใใใใ ๆฅฝใใ +ใ ใใ/ใงใใใ่ใ ่ใ +ใใใ =่ใใใ ่ใ +ใ ใใ/ใงใใใๅคงใใ ๅคงใใ +ใใใ =ๅคงใใใใ ๅคงใใ +ใ ใใ/ใงใใใ
For nounsโ there is li le choice: they are followed byใ orใงใ in pseudo-future form:
118 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
noun +ใ โ noun +ใ ใใnoun +ใงใ โ noun +ใงใใใ
Using the pseudo-future is fairly straight forward:
ๆตทใใฟ
ใซ่กใ
ใใใโLetโs go to the beach.โ
ๆตทใซ่กใใใใโShall [we] go to the beach?โ
ใฉใใงใใใใ?โWhere could it be?โ
ใใฎๆฌใปใ
ใฏ้ข็ฝใใใใ
ใใงใใใใใโ(I) wonder if that book (over there) is interesting.โ
ใใใใพใใใใโLetโs do so.โ
Presumptive
The presumptive form uses the pseudo-future of the copulae to turn verbs into pre-sumed acts. While this form uses theๆช็ถๅฝข of the copula verbโ the verb conjugationitself is actually technically a้ฃไฝๅฝข conjugationโ and therefore is explained in moredetail in the section on้ฃไฝๅฝข. For nowโ it suffices to say that it lets us say things likeโThis computer will probably still workโ or โI am sure my coffee isnโt cold yetโ andsimilar presumptive statements in Japanese:
ใณใผใใผใฏใใๅทใ
ใใใ ใใใโThe coffeeโs probably cold by now.โ
ใใฎไบบใฒใจ
ใฏๅคๅใใถใ
ๅ ็ใใใใ
ใงใใใใโ(he/she)โs probably a teacher.โ
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 119
The pseudo-future +ใจ + verbs
One of the special things about the pseudo-future is that when combined with severalverbsโ the intuitive meaning isnโt always preserved. We can distinguish at least two
such cases: the pseudo-future +ใจ +ใใ and the pseudo-future +ใจ +ๆใใ
ใ. While[โฆ]+ใจ+ใใ normally means โto consider something [โฆ]โโ the meaning changes toโat the point of doing [โฆ]โ when combined with a pseudo-future:
ใ้ฃฏใฏใ
ใ้ฃในใใใจใใใใ้ป่ฉฑใงใใ
ใใใใฃใฆใใใโAs (we) were about to eatโ the phone rang.โ
Similarlyโ on its ownๆใ means โto thinkโโ but when used with the pseudo-futureโ the combination becomes more nuancedโ expressing โto think about [doingโฆ]โ:
ๆ็ดใฆใใฟ
ใๆธใ
ใใใจๆใใพใใโ(I)โm thinking about writing a le er.โ
Negative pseudo-future
Since the pseudo-future doesnโt quite end on a verb that can be placed in aๆช็ถๅฝขโcreating the negative form cannot be done using ใฌ or ใชใ. Insteadโ the negativepseudo-future uses the classical helper verbใพใ. To make ma ers slightly moreconfusingโ whileไธๆฎต verbs use theirๆช็ถๅฝข as base formโไบๆฎต verbs use their้ฃไฝๅฝข as base form for the negative pseudo-future.
ไบๆฎต verb negative pseudo-future polite negative pseudo-futureไผใ ไผใ +ใพใ ไผใ +ใพใ +ใพใๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ +ใพใ ๆญฉใ +ใพใ +ใพใๆฅใ ๆฅใ +ใพใ ๆฅใ +ใพใ +ใพใ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ +ใพใ ่ฉฑใ +ใพใ +ใพใๆญปใฌ ๆญปใฌ +ใพใ ๆญปใซ +ใพใ +ใพใๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใถ +ใพใ ๅญฆใณ +ใพใ +ใพใ่ชญใ ่ชญใ +ใพใ ่ชญใฟ +ใพใ +ใพใๅพ ใค ๅพ ใค +ใพใ ๅพ ใก +ใพใ +ใพใๅใใ ๅใใ +ใพใ ๅใใ +ใพใ +ใพใใใ ใใ +ใพใ ใใ +ใพใ +ใพใ
120 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
ไธๆฎต verb negative pseudo-future polite negative pseudo-future่ฆใ ่ฆ +ใพใ ่ฆ +ใพใ +ใพใไผธใณใ ไผธใณ +ใพใ ไผธใณ +ใพใ +ใพใ้ฃในใ ้ฃใน +ใพใ ้ฃใน +ใพใ +ใพใ
ไบๆฎต verb negative pseudo-future polite negative pseudo-futureใใ ใใ +ใพใ ใ +ใพใ +ใพใๆฅใ ใใ +ใพใ ใ +ใพใ +ใพใใพใ ใพใ +ใพใ already polite
And some example sentences:
ใใใชไบใๅใใใพใใโ(I) do not expect (him) to understand such ma ersโฆโ
ใใฎๆ ็ปใใใ
ใ่ฆใฟ
ใใใ่ฆใพใใใโShould (I) go see that filmโ or not see that filmโฆโ
ใฉใใใฆใไผธใฎ
ใณใพใใโThat shouldnโt stretch regardless of what (you) do.โ
For verbal adjectivesโ the negative pseudo-future uses the verbal adjective innegative formโ โใใชใโ withใชใ in pseudo-future formโ โใชใใใ:
adjective negative pseudo-future polite negative pseudo-future้ซใ ้ซใ +ใชใใใ ้ซใใใใพใใ +ใ ใใ/ใงใใใๆฅฝใใ ๆฅฝใใ +ใชใใใ ๆฅฝใใใใใพใใ +ใ ใใ/ใงใใใ่ใ ่ใ +ใชใใใ ่ใใใใพใใ +ใ ใใ/ใงใใใๅคงใใ ๅคงใใ +ใชใใใ ๅคงใใใใใพใใ +ใ ใใ/ใงใใใ
For nouns the idea isโ againโ to inflectใ orใงใ appropriately:
negative pseudo-future polite negative pseudo-futurenoun +ใ noun +ใใใชใ +ใ ใใ noun +ใใใใใพใใ +ใ ใใnoun +ใ noun +ใงใฏใชใ +ใ ใใ noun +ใงใฏใใใพใใ +ใ ใใnoun +ใงใ noun +ใใใชใ +ใงใใใ noun +ใใใใใพใใ +ใงใใใnoun +ใงใ noun +ใงใฏใชใ +ใงใใใ noun +ใงใฏใใใพใใ +ใงใใใ
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 121
Howeverโ for the negative pseudo-future form for nouns the typical pa erninvolves the copulaใงใใ insteadโ and its (small) table is as follows:
negative pseudo-future polite negative pseudo-futurenoun +ใงใใ noun +ใงใใใพใ
Howeverโ the negative pseudo-future is a pa ern that you will likely not heartoo oftenโ as there are otherโmore frequently used constructions that express negativeexpectation.
3.2.8 Hypothetical:ใใฐThe hypothetical constructionโ hinted at earlier in the section onใใโ is created by
adding the particleใฐ to theๅทฒ็ถๅฝขโ forming theไปฎๅฎๅฝขใใฆใใใ
โ known as the hypotheticalform. The negative hypothetical is formed by addingใฐ to the ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข of the plainnegative formโ as the following tables show:
ไบๆฎต verb hypothetical negative hypotheticalไผใ ไผใ +ใฐ ไผใใชใใ +ใฐๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ +ใฐ ๆญฉใใชใใ +ใฐๆฅใ ๆฅใ +ใฐ ๆฅใใชใใ +ใฐ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ +ใฐ ่ฉฑใใชใใ +ใฐๆญปใฌ ๆญปใญ +ใฐ ๆญปใชใชใใ +ใฐๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใน +ใฐ ๅญฆใฐใชใใ +ใฐ่ชญใ ่ชญใ +ใฐ ่ชญใพใชใใ +ใฐๅพ ใค ๅพ ใฆ +ใฐ ๅพ ใใชใใ +ใฐๅใใ ๅใใ +ใฐ ๅใใใชใใ +ใฐใใ ใใ +ใฐ ใชใใ +ใฐ
ไธๆฎต verb hypothetical negative hypothetical่ฆใ ่ฆใ +ใฐ ่ฆใชใใ +ใฐไผธใณใ ไผธใณใ +ใฐ ไผธใณใชใใ +ใฐ้ฃในใ ้ฃในใ +ใฐ ้ฃในใชใใ +ใฐ
irregular hypothetical negative hypotheticalใใ ใใ +ใฐ ใใชใใ +ใฐๆฅใ ใใ +ใฐ ใใชใใ +ใฐ
Forใพใโ the negative hypothetical is a bit differentโ since its negative uses
122 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
the classical helper verbใฌ:
hypothetical negative hypotheticalใพใ ใพใใ +ใฐ ใพใใญ +ใฐ
For verbal adjectivesโ the same rules apply as for verbs:
adjective hypothetical negative hypothetical้ซใ ้ซใใ +ใฐ ้ซใใชใใ +ใฐๆฅฝใใ ๆฅฝใใใ +ใฐ ๆฅฝใใใชใใ +ใฐ่ใ ่ใใ +ใฐ ่ใใชใใ +ใฐๅคงใใ ๅคงใใใ +ใฐ ๅคงใใใชใใ +ใฐ
For nounsโ the hypothetical construction has three possible affirmative ver-sionsโ two using the ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข forใ โ which is ใชใโ either with or without ใฐโ and athird using a slightly different copula: ใงใใโ of which theใใ part is the familiarverb.
hypothetical negative hypotheticalnoun +ใ noun +ใชใ noun +ใใใชใ +ใชใ
noun +ใชใ +ใฐ (noun +ใใใชใ +ใชใ +ใฐ)noun +ใงใ noun +ใงใใ +ใฐ noun +ใใใชใใ (ใงใฏใชใใ) +ใฐ
Note that the noun +ใใใชใ +ใชใ(ใฐ) forms are possible due to the factthatใชใ is a verbal adjective; while it may not be followed byใ โ it may be followedby ใชใ. In this caseโ we cannot substituteใใใพใใ for ใชใโ as this is a normalverb form and can therefore never be (directly) followed by a present tense copula.Alsoโ while โnoun +ใใใชใ +ใชใ +ใฐโ is technically a valid negative hypotheticalโit isnโt really usedโ as the polite form โใชใ + ใฐโ is considered not to mix with theplain form โใใใชใโ.
So which is what? For the affirmativeโ in increasing order of politeness: ใชใโthenใชใใฐโ and thenใงใใใฐ. For the negative:ใใใชใใชใโ thenใใใชใใใฐโthenใงใฏใชใใใฐโ and then finally the overly formalใใใใใพใใญใฐ andใงใฏใใใพใใญใฐ. As a word of cautionโ do not use these last two unless you know whyyou are using them. They will typically be considered clumsy speech.
How do we interpret the hypothetical? The simplest explanation is that thiscreates an if/then constructionโ with the note that the specific type of conditional cre-ated is one that is best thought of as meaning โshould [X] be the caseโ then [Y]โ. Thefollowing two example sentences should illustrate this quite clearly:
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 123
ใใคใใฌใผใ่ชญใ
ใใฐๅใ
ใใใพใใโIf (you) read Heideggerโ (you)โll understand.โliterally: โShould (you) read Heideggerโ (you)โll understand.โ
ใ้ใใญ
ใใใใฐใใใใใ้ฃใ
ใน็ฉใใฎ
ใ่ฒทใ
ใใพใใโIf (you) have moneyโ (you) can buy delicious food.โliterally: โShould (you) have moneyโ (you) can buy delicious food.โ
It is important to note thatโ while usually these sentences are translated withโifโ or โwhenโ (because they sound more natural than โshouldโ)โ the real meaning oftheไปฎๅฎๅฝข is not really โifโ or โwhenโโ but is really only a hypothetical conditional:โsupposing that โฆโ or โshould โฆโ. The danger in using the word โifโ lies in thefact that it implies a more general kind of truth: compare โIf it rainsโ we get wetโ toโassuming that it rainsโ weโll get wetโ. The first states a truth under all circumstancesโthe second gives a possible truth for only one instance. Similarlyโ โwhenโ carries theimplication that something will definitely happenโ being only a ma er of time beforeit does. Theไปฎๅฎๅฝข implies neither of these things.
3.2.9 CommandsThere are two kinds of commandsโ namely imperative commands (things one shoulddo) and prohibitive commands (things one should not do). There are a number ofways in which to issue imperative and prohibitive commandsโ and weโll look at allof these.
Imperative commands
Imperative commands are quite easy to form in Japanese: forไบๆฎต verbsโ simply taketheๅฝไปคๅฝข and youโre done:
ไบๆฎต verb imperative formไผใ ไผใๆญฉใ ๆญฉใๆฅใ ๆฅใ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใๆญปใฌ ๆญปใญๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใน่ชญใ ่ชญใๅพ ใค ๅพ ใฆ
124 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
ไบๆฎต verb imperative formๅใใ ๅใใใใ ใใใพใ ใพใ
Forไธๆฎต verbs there is a bit of choiceโ as one can either use theๅฝไปคๅฝข +ใโ ortheๅฝไปคๅฝข +ใโ depending on how strong the imperative should be:
ไธๆฎต verb imperative form alternative form่ฆใ ่ฆ +ใ ่ฆ +ใไผธใณใ ไผธใณ +ใ ไผธใณ +ใ้ฃในใ ้ฃใน +ใ ้ฃใน +ใ
What is the difference between these two forms forไธๆฎต verbs? In standardJapaneseโ the -ใ imperative is a true command. If someone says่ฆใโ you look. Thesecond is more of an instruction than a command. For instanceโ if youโre browsingthough a dictionary and there is a footnote telling you to see page 214 for furtherinformationโ this will typically use่ฆใโ rather than่ฆใ. Howeverโ this distinction
only applies to standard Japaneseโ or ๆจๆบ่ชใฒใใใใ ใใ
โ which is the โdialectโ spoken in the
้ขๆฑใใใจใ
regionโ which is where Tokyo lies. North of this regionโ the -ใ form is typicallyused to issue imperativesโ whereas South of this region the -ใ form tends to be usedinstead.
Not unexpectedlyโ the irregular verbs have their ownๅฝไปคๅฝข:
verb imperative alternativeใใ ใใ ใใๆฅใ ใใ ใใ
Howeverโ there is also another verb with an irregular commanding formโnamely theไธๆฎต verbๅ
ใ
ใใ (usually wri en in hiragana rather than using its kanjiform). This verb is part of the set of verbs used in giving and receivingโ and is thusvitally important to know. It only has one imperative form:
verb imperativeใใใ ใใ
To illustrate the use of the imperative commandโ some example sentences:
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 125
ใฟใใชใใใ่ใ
ใใโEveryoneโ listen up!โ
้ใฏใ
ใใใใโHurry up!โ
ใใใ่ตทใ
ใใใโOh come onโ wake up already!โ
There is a second way to issue imperative commandsโ using the verbใชใใโwhich is the (normally) honorific counterpart to the verbใใ. This verb belongs to aset of verbs with a deviant้ฃ็จๅฝข andๅฝไปคๅฝขโ so to see how these differโ letโs brieflylook at the bases for all five verbs in this set:
ใชใใ ไธใใ
ใใ ใใใฃใใใ ใใฃใใใ ใใใmeaning do issue beโ comeโ go say beๆช็ถๅฝข ใชใใ ไธใใ ใใใฃใใใ ใใฃใใใ ใใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใชใใ ไธใใ ใใใฃใใใ ใใฃใใใ ใใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใชใใ ไธใใ ใใใฃใใใ ใใฃใใใ ใใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใชใใ ไธใใ ใใใฃใใใ ใใฃใใใ ใใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใชใใ ไธใใ ใใใฃใใใ ใใฃใใใ ใใใ
This set tells us several things: firstโ it tells us thatใใ ใใ in the specialใฆform -ใฆใใ ใใ is theๅฝไปคๅฝข forใใ ใใ. Secondโ it explains whyใใใ wouldbecomeใใใใพใ: its้ฃ็จๅฝข is simplyใใใ. Thirdโ it tells us what we need toknow to form a command usingใชใใ. If we add theๅฝไปคๅฝข forใชใใโใชใใโ toa verbโs้ฃ็จๅฝขโ we get a command that is less direct than a plainๅฝไปคๅฝข (and thusโmore formal/polite)โ but is still a command:
ไบๆฎต verb ใชใใ imperativeไผใ ไผใ +ใชใใๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ +ใชใใๆฅใ ๆฅใ +ใชใใ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ +ใชใใๆญปใฌ ๆญปใซ +ใชใใๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใณ +ใชใใ่ชญใ ่ชญใฟ +ใชใใ
126 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
ไบๆฎต verb ใชใใ imperativeๅพ ใค ๅพ ใก +ใชใใๅใใ ๅใใ +ใชใใ
ไธๆฎต verb ใชใใ imperative่ฆใ ่ฆ +ใชใใไผธใณใ ไผธใณ +ใชใใ้ฃในใ ้ฃใน +ใชใใ
irregular ใชใใ imperativeใใ ใ +ใชใใๆฅใ ใ +ใชใใ
And finallyโใใโใพใ and the copulae do not have this imperative form.For verbal adjectivesโ the idea of an imperative is a bit oddโ but that doesnโt
mean we canโt form one. Relying on ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ for the inflection againโ we canform the imperative command for verbal adjectives. We can either leave these as isโor contract them. The difference is subtle: the uncontracted form is considered anadjectival statement akin in use toโ for instanceโ the English โbe faster!โ (in Japanese:
้ใฏใ
ใใใ). Contractedโ this is an adverbial statement (้ใฏใ
ใใ)โ which has no Englishequivalent and is thus harder to explain; it is experienced as an adjectival statementin the same way that the past tense for verbal adjectives is still an adjectival statement.
adjective imperative form contracted้ซใ ้ซใ +ใใ ้ซใใๆฅฝใใ ๆฅฝใใ +ใใ ๆฅฝใใใ่ใ ่ใ +ใใ ่ใใๅคงใใ ๅคงใใ +ใใ ๅคงใใใ
The same goes for the copulaโ for which we must useใงใใ (since neitherใ norใงใ have a commanding form of their own):
copula imperative formใงใใ ใงใใ
Prohibitive commands
If you want to tell people to not do somethingโ then the form of the command is muchsimpler: simply add the particleใช to the้ฃไฝๅฝข of any verb:
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 127
ไบๆฎต verb prohibitive formไผใ ไผใใชๆญฉใ ๆญฉใใชๆฅใ ๆฅใใช่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใใชๆญปใฌ ๆญปใฌใชๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใถใช่ชญใ ่ชญใใชๅพ ใค ๅพ ใคใชๅใใ ๅใใใช
ไธๆฎต verb prohibitive form่ฆใ ่ฆใใชไผธใณใ ไผธใณใใช้ฃในใ ้ฃในใใช
irregular prohibitive formใใ ใใใชๆฅใ ใใใชใพใ ใพใใช
And finallyใใโ which has a negative imperative based onใชใ: ใชใใ.Even easier than the normal imperative commandโ some example sentences
are:
ไบๅบฆใซใฉ
ใจๆฅใ
ใใชใโDonโt come (round here) a second time!โ
ใชใใ ใ่ฆใใชใใโWhatโ donโt look (at me).โ
(ใ is an emphatic particleโ added to the end of a sentence as an extra level ofโI am telling you โฆโ. This particle will be treated in more detail in the chapter onparticles.)
In addition to this rather simple prohibitiveโ we can also turn the้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ imperative into a prohibitiveโ by using ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ +ใช. Howeverโ whilegrammatically soundโ practically speaking this form is very rarely used. This worksfor any verbโ except forใใโ which is technically the same verb asใชใใ but at adifferent formality/politeness level. Rather than usingใ +ใชใใ +ใชโ justใชใใ +ใช is used.
128 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
3.2.10 Requesting:ใฆโโใฆไธใใ
ใใ
Imperative request
We already saw that we can use the verb้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆใใ ใใ to form a requestโ
ใณใผใใผใไบๆฏใซใฏใ
ไธใใ
ใใใโTwo coffeeโ please.โ
But we can also use the plainใฆ form to form an informal requestโ or plea:
ๅพ ใพ
ใฃใฆใโWait (please)โ
ใใใ่ฒทใ
ใฃใฆ๏ผโBuy this (for me)?โ
Of courseโ like all requestsโ they can be made to sound demandingโ so into-nation counts. If we sayๅพ ใฆ instead ofๅพ ใฃใฆโ cu ing out the stop in the middle tosound curtโ then rather than a request this may very well be experienced as a com-mand instead. Similarlyโ sayingใใฆ in a stern tone might be less commanding thanใใโ but will still be experienced as a command more than as request. Howeverโ us-ing this plainใฆ form (rather than paired withใใ ใใ) can be experienced as curtโor even impolite languageโ depending on the se ing it is used inโ so be careful.
Prohibitive request
This kind of requesting can of course also be done in a prohibitive mannerโ in whichcase we rely on the continuative form forใชใ usingใงใโใชใใง:
่กใ
ใใชใใงใ(Please) donโt go.
In this sentence the โpleaseโ is impliedโ and depending on intonation and con-text this form may be experienced as anything between a mandate (such as a policeofficer asking you not to come too close to a crime scene) or a plea for someone tonot do something (such as a friend in need asking you not to leave quite yet). We canalso use an explicit โpleaseโ in the form ofใใ ใใ:
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 129
่กใใชใใงไธใใ
ใใใPlease donโt go.
Againโ depending on intonation and context this might be experienced asanything between a mandate and a plea.
3.2.11 Passive: ใใ/ใใใPassive constructions areโ as their name impliesโ constructions which describe actionsin a passive voice. Unlike โI eat dinnerโ or โThe cat is playing with the squeaky toyโโwhich are in active voiceโ they refer to phrases like โDinner was eaten by meโ or โThe
squeaky toy was played with by the catโ. In Japaneseโ this passive voiceโ calledๅ่บซใใใฟ
โis achieved through the use of the two helper verbsใใ (forไบๆฎต verbs) andใใใ(forไธๆฎต verbs)โ which are added to a verbโsๆช็ถๅฝข:
ไบๆฎต verb passiveไผใ ไผใ +ใใๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ +ใใๆฅใ ๆฅใ +ใใ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ +ใใๆญปใฌ ๆญปใช +ใใๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใฐ +ใใ่ชญใ ่ชญใพ +ใใๅพ ใค ๅพ ใ +ใใๅใใ ๅใใ +ใใ
ไธๆฎต verb passive่ฆใ ่ฆ +ใใใไผธใณใ ไผธใณ +ใใใ้ฃในใ ้ฃใน +ใใใ
irregular passiveใใ (1) ใโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใโ formingใใใ (most common)ใใ (2) ใโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใโ formingใใใใๆฅใ ใ +ใใใ
The helper verbs involved are both ไธๆฎต verbsโ so they can themselves beconjugated further by using their appropriate base:
130 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
bases ใใใ ใใๆช็ถๅฝข -ใใ -ใ้ฃ็จๅฝข -ใใ -ใ้ฃไฝๅฝข -ใใใ -ใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข -ใใใ -ใใๅฝไปคๅฝข -ใใ -ใ
Thusโ a simple phrase like้ฃใ
ในใพใโ meaning โ(I) eatโโ can be made passive:้ฃในใใใพใโ โ(something) is being eaten (by someone)โ.
This change from active voice to passive voice comes with two complicationsin Japanese: firstโ what was first the direct object has now become the verb subject in-stead. This is no different from Englishโ except because in Japanese the grammaticalroles are explicitly wri enโ we must make sure we use the right particles:
ๆฉใฐใ
ใ้ฃฏใฏใ
ใ้ฃในใพใใโ(I) eat dinner.โActiveโ verb usesใ in relation toใ้ฃฏ.
ๆฉใ้ฃฏใ้ฃในใใใพใใโDinner is being eaten (by me).โPassiveโ verb usesใ in relation toใ้ฃฏ.
Secondโ what used to be the verb actor has become a verb detail instead. InEnglish we see this expressed by the fact that the verb actor moves to being part of apreposition phrase (โIโ becomes โby meโโ for instance)โ and from the section on verbparticles in chapter 2โ we know that these kind of phrases are marked with ใซ inJapanese:
ไฟบใใ
ใๆฉใ้ฃฏใ้ฃในใพใใโI eat dinner.โActiveโ actor is marked withใ.
ๆฉใ้ฃฏใไฟบใซ้ฃในใใใพใใโDinner is being eaten by me.โPassiveโ actor is marked withใซ.
็ฌใใฌ
ใใปใใฆใๆใใ
ใใฃใใโ(A) dog barked (at me)โ (and that) was scary.โActiveโ actor is marked withใ.
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 131
็ฌใซใปใใใใฆๆใใฃใใโ(I) was barked at by (a) dogโ (and that) was scary.โPassiveโ actor is marked withใซ.
In addition to the regular passive constructionโ these verbs are also used to
form what is known as the ่ฟทๆใใใใ
ใฎๅ่บซใใใฟ
โ or โpassive form of botherโ. A somewhatinelegant nameโ this specific passive is used to indicate that some action (taken bysomeone) has inconvenienced youโ or someone else. Let us look at how this works:
่ชฐใ ใ
ใใ ๅผใใจใใจ
ใฎ่ช่ปข่ปใใฆใใใ
ใ็ใฌใ
ใฟใพใใใโSomeone stole my (younger) brotherโs bicycle.โActiveโ verb usesใ in relation to่ช่ปข่ป.
่ชฐใใซๅผใฎ่ช่ปข่ปใ็ใพใใใโMy brotherโs bike was stolen by someone.โPassiveโ verb usesใ in relation to่ช่ปข่ป.
Howeverโ this โform of botherโ only applies to actions that were taken bysomeoneโ which inconvenienced you (or someone else). In the following sentenceโfor instanceโ the verb form is merely passive rather than a โpassive form of botherโ:
้จใใ
ใซ้ใต
ใใใใโ(I) was rained on.โ
While inconvenientโ this is not a ่ฟทๆใฎๅ่บซโ because the rain isnโt activelyinconveniencing you โ it is simply something that happens. Remember that for apassive to also be a่ฟทๆใฎๅ่บซโ the act has to have been performedโ intentionallyโ bysomeone.
In addition to describing the passive and passive form of botherโ the helperverbsใใ andใใใ are also used to form potential verb constructionsโ as well ashonorific verb formsโ and we shall look at these later on in this chapter.
3.2.12 Causative: ใใ/ใใใ
Causative constructions areโ as their name impliesโ constructions which indicate some-thing was caused by someone. In Englishโ this comes down to statements such as โIwas made to do the dishes by my momโโ and in Japaneseโ these constructions use the
132 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
verbsใใ (forไบๆฎต verbs) andใใใ (forไธๆฎต verbs). These are pairedโ likeใใ/ใใใ with theๆช็ถๅฝข.
(ใ)ใใ follow theไธๆฎต scheme:
bases ใใใ ใใๆช็ถๅฝข -ใใ -ใ้ฃ็จๅฝข -ใใ -ใ้ฃไฝๅฝข -ใใใ -ใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข -ใใใ -ใใๅฝไปคๅฝข -ใใ -ใ
As mentionedโ the way these two helper verbs are added is identical to theway (ใ)ใใ are added:
ไบๆฎต verb causativeไผใ ไผใ +ใใๆญฉใ ๆญฉใ +ใใๆฅใ ๆฅใ +ใใ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใ +ใใๆญปใฌ ๆญปใช +ใใๅญฆใถ ๅญฆใฐ +ใใ่ชญใ ่ชญใพ +ใใๅพ ใค ๅพ ใ +ใใๅใใ ๅใใ +ใใ
ไธๆฎต verb causative่ฆใ ่ฆ +ใใใไผธใณใ ไผธใณ +ใใใ้ฃในใ ้ฃใน +ใใใ
irregular causativeใใ ใโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใๆฅใ ใ +ใใใ
Againโwe should take note that we use the correct particlesโ except in this casewe cannot rely on a parallel with English: the person doing the causing is markedwithใโ because they are the verb actorโ the person(s) affected are marked withใซโand the direct object is left as such (if there is one):
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 133
ใๆฏใใ
ใใใๅญไพใใฉใ
ใใกใซๆใ้ฃฏใ้ฃในใใใพใใใโThe mother made (her) children eat breakfast.โ
Some more examples:
ๅพ ใพ
ใใใใญใโ(I) made you waitโ (didnโt I)?โ
ๅฆนใใใใจ
ใซ่ตทใ
ใใใใพใใใโ(I) had (my younger) sister wake me up.โ
In addition to being a causativeโ this construction is also a โpermissiveโโ whichjust means that itโs a construction that indicates giving permission to โlet someone dosomethingโ:
็คพ้ทใใใกใใ
ใซใใญใธใงใฏใใๅใ
ใใใใพใใใโ(The) CEO let me take on (the) project.โ
This sentence could technically also mean โThe CEO caused me to take onthe projectโ or โThe CEO made me take on the projectโโ so context is all-important.Howeverโ in most cases where it could either be a forced action or a permissionโ itโsusually a permission.
3.2.13 Causative passive: ใใใใ/ใใใใใThe title sounds like a combination of the causative and the passiveโ and thatโs es-sentially what it is. Itโs longโ and its use is not rare. In Englishโ this form reads โhavebeen made to do โฆโ and is also quite long. Soโ just like in most western languageโthe more nuance you want to place in your verb conjugationโ the longer itโll get.
Howeverโ because this is a passiveโ we must make sure to use particles ac-cordingly:
ๅญไพใใฉใ
ใใกใใๆฏใใ
ใใใซๆใใ
ใ้ฃฏใฏใ
ใ้ฃใ
ในใใใใใพใใใโThe children were made to eat breakfast by their mother.โ
ๅ ็ใใใใ
ใซๅฎฟ้กใใ ใใ ใ
ใใใ็ดใชใ
ใใใใใพใใใโ(I) was made to redo (my) homework by (the) teacher.โ
134 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
3.2.14 Potential
Long potential:ใใใ
As mentioned in the section on the passiveโ one of the other roles thatใใ/ใใใ canplay is that of the (long) potential. The potential form of a verb in English is typicallyconstructed using the auxiliary verb โcanโโ such as when turning โI swimโ into โI canswimโโ but in Japanese this is a conjugation instead. The reason this form is calledthe โlongโ potential is that there exists a shorter potential form for the ไบๆฎต verbsโwhich will be discussed after this section. Forming the long potential is no differentfrom forming the passiveโ except that it is generally not used forไบๆฎต verbs:
Formation of the long potential form is the same as for the passive form:
verb meaning potential meaning่ฆใ see ่ฆใใใ be able to seeไผธใณใ stretch ไผธใณใใใ be able to stretch้ฃในใ eat ้ฃในใใใ be able to eat
ๆฅใ
ใ come ๆฅใ
ใใใ be able to come
There is one striking exception to this potential formโ and thatโs the irregularverbใใโ โdoโ. Rather than inflectingโ this verb is simply replaced entirely with the
verbๅบๆฅใงใ
ใโ which literally means โbe able to doโ.We need to be mindful of particles again: verbs in potential form are always
intransitiveโ and so any direct object it might take in normal use becomes a verb sub-ject insteadโ requiring the use ofใ rather thanใ. Howeverโ quite often in colloquialJapaneseโ the direct object particleใ will be heard used in combination with theseverbsโ rather than the subject particle ใโ not because this is grammatically correctโbut because it โfeels rightโ. If you are a beginning student of Japaneseโ howeverโ it isrecommended you stick with proper grammar until you have mastered it to a levelthat allows you to interact with native speakersโ so that you get a feel for what isโrightโ through exposure to the language as it is used by people.
You may also hear people usingใใ rather thanใใใโ but at the momentthis is discouraged language abuse: the idea behind it is that the short potential formforไบๆฎต verbs always ends onใโrow syllable +ใโ and so usingใใ forไธๆฎต verbsโdoes the same thingโ. Howeverโ while they might sound the sameโใใ is a classicalhelper verbโ whereas the ใโrow syllable +ใ sound for ไบๆฎต verbs is actually acontraction from what used to beใโrow syllable +ใใโ so they have completelydifferent background. So until the Japanese language authorities start accepting thishighly colloquial โshort potential forไธๆฎต verbsโ as right and properโ youโre best offavoiding it; at least outside of colloquial interaction with Japanese people who useit.
Note that because this is a potential formโใ has to be swapped forใ:
More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections 135
A: ่ปใใใพ
ใๆญขใจ
ใใฆไธใใ
ใใใ
B:ใใฟใพใใใ่ปใไปใใพ
ๆญขใใใใพใใใ
A: โPlease stop the car.โB: โ(I am) sorryโ but (I) cannot stop the car right now.โ
On a final noteโ this potential form is one of a temporary nature. For instanceโrather than meaning โI can seeโ in general (because you have eyes that work)โ่ฆใใใ means โI can see (whatever I am supposed to see right now)โ. Similarlyโ้ฃ
ใ
ในใใใ means โ(I) can eat (this)โโ rather than the more general โ(I) can eatโ. If we want tosay that we have an inherent ability to do (or not do) somethingโ we have to use้ฃไฝ
ๅฝข +ใใจใๅบๆฅใงใ
ใโ which will be explained after we cover the short potential form.
Short potential: ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ๅพใ
ใ
The short potential form is called โshortโ because it is simply a lot shorter than thefullๆช็ถๅฝข+ใใใ version of the potential. Howeverโ in modern Japaneseโ this con-struction only exists forไบๆฎต verbs. Forไธๆฎต verbsโ the only grammatically correctpotential form is theใใใ potential form. To create the short potential formโ the้ฃ
็จๅฝข is paired with the verbๅพใ
ใโ meaning โto acquireโโ to form an โa ainableโ formof verbs.
In this combinationโ the finalใโrow syllable of the้ฃ็จๅฝข forไบๆฎต verbs hasbecome contracted with theใ sound fromๅพใ over the course of historyโ becominganใโrow syllable instead. To illustrate:
verb meaning classical inflection contracted via modern inflectionไผใ meet ไผใใใ ไผใใใ ไผใใ่ชญใ read ่ชญใฟใใ ่ชญใฟใใ ่ชญใใๅใใ understand ๅใใใใ ๅใใใใ ๅใใใ
While this construction in modern Japanese is a contractionโ there are a hand-ful of verbs in which this contraction never occurredโ and as such are still in use today
in the uncontracted form. Verbs such asใใใใ (fromใใ) or ่ตทใ
ใใใใ (from่ตทใใโ โto occurโ) are examples of this. Interestinglyโ this potential form can also beseen in certain modernไธๆฎต verbs that have traditionally been paired withๅพใโ such
136 More grammar โ ยง 3.2 Further inflections
as่ฆใฟ
ใใโ โto (be able to) seeโโ from theไธๆฎต verb่ฆใโ or็ ฎใซ
ใใโ โ(be able to) boilโโfrom theไธๆฎต verb็ ฎใ.
Just like with theๆช็ถๅฝข potential formโ verbs placed in this short potentialform become intransitiveโ which means that technically they can only be used in re-lation to subjectsโ and no longer in relation to direct objects.
ไบๆฎต verb short potential formไผใ ไผใใๆญฉใ ๆญฉใใๆฅใ ๆฅใใ่ฉฑใ ่ฉฑใใๆญปใฌ ๆญปใญใๅญฆใถ ๅญฆในใ่ชญใ ่ชญใใๅพ ใค ๅพ ใฆใๅใใ ๅใใใใใ ใใใใ
Some examples to show this potential form:
็ ๆฐใณใใใ
ใงใใใพใๆญฉใใ
ใใพใใใโBecause of (my) illnessโ I canโt walk that well (at the moment).โ
ใใใงใใใใงใใใใใโI wonder if this will do.โ
Theใใใ in this second sentence is actually a fairly important word to know. While
strictly speaking the short potential form of่กใ
ใโ its meaning of โbeing able to goโ hasbecome overloaded with the figurative meaning of โsomething being able to go wellโ.As suchโ ใใใ means โbeing fineโโ โbeing goodโ as well as noting that somethingโwill doโ or โis acceptableโ.
Note again that because this is a potential formโใ has to be swapped forใ:
A:ๆฌใปใ
ใใใใ่ชญใฟใพใใใ
B:ใใใงใใญใๆ้ใใใ
ใใใฃใทใใใฃใฆใๆฌใใใฃใฑใ่ชญใใพใใ
More grammar โ ยง 3.3 Formal speech pa erns 137
A: โHow much do you read?โB: โGood question. (I) have plenty of timeโ so (I) can read a lot of books.โ
Nominalised potential
A third way to form the potentialโ for any verbโ is by using the construction้ฃไฝๅฝข
+ ไบใใจ
ใๅบๆฅใงใ
ใ. ไบ literally means โconceptโโ and we already saw that ๅบๆฅใ meansโbe able to doโโ and this in combination with a verb in้ฃไฝๅฝข creates a generalisedability.
For instanceโ as mentioned earlierโ่ฆใใใ means โbeing able to see (some-
thing) (at this moment)โ. Similarlyโ ๆญฉใใ
ใใ means โbeing able to walk (at this mo-ment)โ. In contrastโ ่ฆใใใจใๅบๆฅใ and ๆญฉใใใจใๅบๆฅใ mean being able toseeโ or walkโ in general. Particularly with negativesโ this difference is striking. Forinstanceโ a person whose glasses are so dirty they canโt really see any of the thingswe point out to them might say:
่ฆใใใพใใใโI canโt (really) see (it).โ
This is hardly anything to worry about as the potential form used is one as-sociated with temporary impairment. Howeverโ if they had used:
่ฆใใใจใๅบๆฅใพใใใ
We would have good reason to apologise for telling them to look at some-thing; theyโre blind.
3.3 Formal speech pa ernsIn addition to being politeโ an important aspect of formal Japanese is to use the right
mix of humble (่ฌ่ญฒใใใใใ
) and honorific (ๅฐๆฌใใใใ
) speech pa erns. In partโ this is expressedby picking the right words to useโ but in part it also depends on which verb inflec-tions you pick. One can argue whether this belongs in a reader that should serve asintroduction to Japaneseโ as itโs a rather advanced subjectโ but I would argue that interms of how verbs can generically be made humble or honorificโ the rules are rel-atively straight forward. What makes it an advanced topic is not how to do itโ buthow to do it in such a way that a native speaker doesnโt raise an eyebrow at it. Andthatโs hard enough to make even Japanese people get it wrong once they need to startusing it.
138 More grammar โ ยง 3.3 Formal speech pa erns
Humble and honorific pa erns are significantly different from politeness.This can be made fairly obvious by using an English example. Compare the fol-lowing sentences:
1. โI would like to humbly offer my apologies.โ
2. โI do apologise.โ
3. โIโm sorry.โ
Of theseโ the first sentence is humbleโ polite English. The second sentenceis merely politeโ and the third is essentially neutral. Itโs not really politeโ nor is ithumbleโ but then itโs not offensive either. Of courseโ we can mix these pa erns toproduce something that sounds odd to our ears:
โI humbly am sorry.โ
This sentence mixes humble form with neutral terms. This sounds very oddto an English speakerโ and likewise mixing humble or honorific speech without usingappropriate politeness will sound odd in Japaneseโ but it can be done; just like inEnglish.
3.3.1 Humble verb pa ernsWhen one addresses someone who stands much higher on the social ladder thanoneself (in a particular se ing)โ it is customary to lower oneโs own status by usinghumble speech. Humble speech applies to everything that has to do with oneself;not just verb actionsโ but also opinions and things requiring copula statements.
The way to turn any old verb into a humble variant is relatively straight for-ward: the honorific particleๅพก (pronouncedใ for most verbsโ andใ for noun+ใใ
verbs where the noun uses้ณ่ชญใใใ
ใฟ reading)โ is prefixed to the verb in้ฃ็จๅฝข formโ and
suffixed either withใใโ or the explicitly humble counterpart toใใโ่ดใใ
ใ. Whenใใ is usedโ the honorary prefix can sometimes be omi ed for a slightly less formalhumble formโ but when่ดใ is usedโ it has to be present.
ไบๆฎต verb ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข+่ดใไผใ ใ +ไผใ +ใใ ใ +ไผใ +่ดใๆญฉใ ใ +ๆญฉใ +ใใ ใ +ๆญฉใ +่ดใๆฅใ ใ +ๆฅใ +ใใ ใ +ๆฅใ +่ดใ่ฉฑใ ใ +่ฉฑใ +ใใ ใ +่ฉฑใ +่ดใๆญปใฌ ใ +ๆญปใซ +ใใ ใ +ๆญปใซ +่ดใ
More grammar โ ยง 3.3 Formal speech pa erns 139
ไบๆฎต verb ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข+่ดใๅญฆใถ ใ +ๅญฆใณ +ใใ ใ +ๅญฆใณ +่ดใ่ชญใ ใ +่ชญใฟ +ใใ ใ +่ชญใฟ +่ดใๅพ ใค ใ +ๅพ ใก +ใใ ใ +ๅพ ใก +่ดใๅใใ ใ +ๅใใ +ใใ ใ +ๅใใ +่ดใ
ไธๆฎต verb ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข+่ดใ่ฆใ ใ +่ฆ +ใใ ใ +่ฆ +่ดใไผธใณใ ใ +ไผธใณ +ใใ ใ +ไผธใณ +่ดใ้ฃในใ ใ +้ฃใน +ใใ ใ +้ฃใน +่ดใ
For the irregular verb ใใโ the humble version is (necessarily) ่ดใโ sincethis simply is the humble counterpart. Howeverโ in addition toใใโ there are sev-eral other verbs for which an established humble counterpart existsโ typically beingpreferable to theใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ/่ดใ construction:
verb meaning humble counterpart
ๆฅใ
ใ come ๅใพใ
ใ
่กใ
ใ go ใ
ใใ be/exist (for animate objects) ใใ
่จใ
ใ say/be called ็ณใใ
ใ
ใใ do ่ดใใ
ใ
็ฅใ
ใ know ๅญใใ
ใใ
่ฆใฟ
ใ see ๆ่ฆใฏใใใ
ใใ
้ฃใ
ในใ eat ใใใ ใ
้ฃฒใฎ
ใ drink ใ
่ฒฐใใ
ใ receive ใ
่ใ
ใ ask ไผบใใใ
ใ
่ใ
ใ listen ๆฟใใใใพใ
ใ
ไธใใ
ใ give ๅทฎใ
ใไธใ
ใใ
ไผใ
ใ meet ใ็ฎใ
ใซๆใ
ใใ
่ฆใฟ
ใใ show ใ่ฆงใใ
ใซๅ ฅใ
ใใ
For verbs consisting of a noun +ใใโ the noun gets prefixed with the honorific
140 More grammar โ ยง 3.3 Formal speech pa erns
ๅพกโ pronouncedใโ and ใใ is either left as isโ or replaced with ่ดใ for a morehumble pa ern:
verb meaning humble counterpart
ๆณจๆใกใ ใใ
ใใ pay a ention to ใๆณจๆใใ orใๆณจๆ่ดใ
ๆกๅ ใใใชใ
ใใ guide (someone) ใๆกๅ ใใ orใๆกๅ ่ดใ
้ฃ็ตกใใใใ
ใใ contact (someone) ใ้ฃ็ตกใใ orใ้ฃ็ตก่ดใ
One confusing result of using these humble pa erns and humble counter-parts is that humble speech still means exactly the same thing as the normal verbform. The following seven sentences illustrate this idea: they all mean exactly thesame thingโ but express this meaning with an increasing degree of humility and po-liteness:
ๆญใใจใ
ใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ weโ they) refuse(s).โForm: plain.
ๆญใใพใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ weโ they) refuse(s).โForm: polite.
ๆญใใใพใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ weโ they) refuse(s).โForm: politeโ but only marginally humbleโ using noun form +ใใ.
ใๆญใใใใโI refuse.โForm: humbleโ but plain form. As this is humble formโ the only person thiscan apply to is first personโ so โIโ has become explicit.
ใๆญใใใพใใโI refuse.โForm: humble polite.
More grammar โ ยง 3.3 Formal speech pa erns 141
ใๆญใ่ดใใ
ใใโI refuse.โForm: more humbleโ but plain. This sounds a tad oddโ as using ่ดใtypically implies a need to be politeโ too.
ใๆญใ่ดใใพใใโI refuse.โForm: more humbleโ polite.
While the copulae haveโ strictly speakingโ no humble counterpartโ there is amore polite copula that tends to be used in se ing where humility is required: ใงใใใโ used in the formใงใใใใพใ. This copula does exactly the same thing asใ โใงใ andใงใใโ except its high level of politeness makes it particularly suited foruse in humble speech pa erns:
ๆฑไบฌๅคงๅญฆใจใใใใใ ใใใ
ใฎไบๅนด็ใซใญใใใ
ใฎๆจๆใใใ
ใงใใใใพใใโKimuraโ second year student at the university of Tokyo.โ
Careful observation reveals that this sentence is actually not humbleโ merelyvery politeโ and as such it could have been spoken by the student in questionโ or bysomeone doing a formal introduction to someone elseโ whose social position requiresa humbleโ or at the very least properly politeโ form of speech.
3.3.2 Honorific verb pa ernsWhile speech pertaining to oneself is humbledโ things pertaining to the person ofhigher social status are elevated by using honorific pa erns. Similar to how verbscan be made humble by using theใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ/่ดใ pa ernโ nearly all verbscan be made honorific by using a similar pa ern involving eitherใซ +ใชใ orใชใใโ similar to the humble choice betweenใใ and่ดใ:
ไบๆฎต verb ใ+้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใซ+ใชใ ใ+้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใชใใไผใ ใ +ไผใ +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +ไผใ +ใชใใๆญฉใ ใ +ๆญฉใ +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +ๆญฉใ +ใชใใๆฅใ ใ +ๆฅใ +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +ๆฅใ +ใชใใ่ฉฑใ ใ +่ฉฑใ +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +่ฉฑใ +ใชใใๆญปใฌ ใ +ๆญปใซ +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +ๆญปใซ +ใชใใๅญฆใถ ใ +ๅญฆใณ +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +ๅญฆใณ +ใชใใ่ชญใ ใ +่ชญใฟ +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +่ชญใฟ +ใชใใ
142 More grammar โ ยง 3.3 Formal speech pa erns
ไบๆฎต verb ใ+้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใซ+ใชใ ใ+้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใชใใๅพ ใค ใ +ๅพ ใก +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +ๅพ ใก +ใชใใๅใใ ใ +ๅใใ +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +ๅใใ +ใชใใ
ไธๆฎต verb ใ+้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใซ+ใชใ ใ+้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใชใใ่ฆใ ใ +่ฆ +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +่ฆ +ใชใใไผธใณใ ใ +ไผธใณ +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +ไผธใณ +ใชใใ้ฃในใ ใ +้ฃใน +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +้ฃใน +ใชใใ
Againโ there are several verbs for which this pa ern is essentially inferior tousing an appropriate honorific counterpart instead:
verb meaning honorific counterpart
ๆฅใ
ใ come ใใใฃใใใ
ใๅบใ
ใงใซใชใใๅบใงใชใใ
่กใ
ใ go ใใใฃใใใ
ใๅบใ
ใงใซใชใใๅบใงใชใใ
ใใ be/exist (for animate objects) ใใใฃใใใใๅบใงใชใใ
่จใ
ใ say/be called ใใฃใใใใใ do ใชใใ
็ฅใ
ใ know ใๅญ็ฅใใใ
ใใๅญ็ฅใงใใใฃใใใ
่ฆใฟ
ใ see ใ่ฆงใใ
ใซใชใ
ใ่ฆงใใ
ใชใใ
้ฃใ
ในใ eat ๅฌใ
ใไธใ
ใใ (ๅฌใ
ใ means โsummonโ here)
้ฃฒใฎ
ใ drink ๅฌใไธใใ
ๅฏใญ
ใ sleep ใไผใใ
ใฟใซใชใใไผใฟใชใใ
ๆใใ
ใ think ๆใใผ
ใๅฌใ
ใ (normal honorific pa ern also possible)
็ใ
ใ wear (on the body) ใๅฌใใซใชใ (ๅฌใ
ใ means โclothingโ here)
For compound verbs consisting of a noun paired with ใใโ the noun gets
More grammar โ ยง 3.3 Formal speech pa erns 143
prefixed with the honorificๅพกโ pronouncedใโ andใใ is either replaced byใซใชใorใชใใ:
verb meaning honorific counterpart
ๆณจๆใกใ ใใ
ใใ pay a ention to ใๆณจๆใซใชใ orใๆณจๆใชใใ
ๆกๅ ใใใชใ
ใใ guide (someone) ใๆกๅ ใซใชใ orใๆกๅ ใชใใ
้ฃ็ตกใใใใ
ใใ contact (someone) ใ้ฃ็ตกใซใชใ orใ้ฃ็ตกใชใใ
When using a copula while being honorificโ rather than using the politeใงใใใโ the properly honorificใงใใใฃใใใ copulaโ in the formใงใใใฃใใใใพใโis used instead:
ใๅญๆงใใใพ
ใฏใใใใคใงใใใฃใใใใพใใใโHow old is your child(/son/daughter)?โ
In this sentenceโใๅญๆง is an honorific for the nounๅญโ โchildโโ andใงใใใฃใใใใพใ acts as honorific form ofใงใ. The wordใใใคโ meaning โhow oldโ inthis sentenceโ can only be used for children that are (or seem) younger than ten (thereason for this being that it is a question word used for counting statements usingthe counter ใคโ which can only count up to and including nine. Anything higher
uses the counterๆญณใใ
โ also wri enๆโ with corresponding question wordไฝๆญณใชใใใ
). Giventhis informationโ we see that the sentence is actually identical (in meaning) to thefollowingโ plain formโ sentence:
ใใใคใงใใใโHow old is (your son/daughter)โ
In the plain form sentenceโ we can drop the fact that weโre asking this in re-lation to some childโ because the use ofใใใค should be enough information for thelistener to figure this out. Being much shorter than the honorific formโ we once moresee a confirmation of the general rule for politeness when it comes to Japanese: thelonger a statement isโ the more formal polite it will be.
As with the humble pa ernโ there is no change in actual meaning when goingfrom plain form to honorificโ other than ruling out single person as implied actor orsubject (since one cannot honour oneself).
ๆญใใจใ
ใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ weโ they) refuse(s).โForm: informal.
144 More grammar โ ยง 3.4 Classical adjectives
ๆญใใพใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ weโ they) refuse(s).โForm: formal polite.
ๆญใใใพใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ weโ they) refuse(s). โForm: more formal than formal politeโ using noun form +ใใ.
ใๆญใใซใชใใโ(youโ heโ sheโ they) refuse(s).โForm: plain honorific. As this is honorific formโ this can no longer apply tofirst person single or plural.
ใๆญใใซใชใใพใใโ(youโ heโ sheโ they) refuse(s).โForm: polite honorific.
ใๆญใใชใใใโ(youโ heโ sheโ they) refuse(s).โForm: plainโ but more honorific than when usingใซ+ใชใ.
ใๆญใใชใใใพใใโ(youโ heโ sheโ they) refuse(s).โForm: polite honorific.
ใๆญใใชใใฃใฆใใพใใโ(youโ heโ sheโ they) refuse(s).โForm: (present progressive) polite honorific.
3.4 Classical adjectivesThis final section is not about how classical adjectives inflectโ but is actually aboutwhat happens when we pair modern verbal adjectives with certain special verbsโsuch asใใใ and ๅบ
ใ
ใงใ. While these very rarely get used on their ownโ thereare certain set uses for themโ where they pair up with specific adverbsโ derived fromverbal adjectives. In these casesโ the adverbial form of the verbal adjective actuallyundergoes a sound changeโ the้ฃ็จๅฝขใ becoming aใ insteadโ and leading to fourpossible classical pronunciation changes (meaning they will potentially change the
More grammar โ ยง 3.4 Classical adjectives 145
pronunciation of the adjective with blatant disregard of their kanji):
If the syllable preceding the้ฃ็จๅฝขใ is anใ row syllableโ the adverb gets anโใใ sound instead:
ๆฉใฏใ
ใ becomesใฏใ[ใโใ]โ which contracts toๆฉใฏใ
ใ.
ๆใใ
้ฃใใ
ใ becomesใใใใ[ใโใ]โ which contracts toๆใใ
้ฃใใจ
ใ.
If the syllable preceding the้ฃ็จๅฝขใ is anใ row syllableโ the adverb gets anใ-glide instead:
ๅคงใใ
ใใ becomesๅคงใ[ใโใ]โ which contracts toๅคงใใ ใ
็พๅณใใ
ใใ becomes็พๅณใ[ใโใ]โ which contacts to็พๅณใใ ใ
If the syllable preceding the้ฃ็จๅฝขใ is anใ row syllableโ the adverb gets alongใ:
ๅฎใใ
ใ becomesๅฎ[ใโใ]โ which does not contract and so staysๅฎใ
If the syllable preceding the้ฃ็จๅฝขใ is anใ row syllableโ the adverb gets alongใ by virtue of theใโrow syllable +ใ already being a longใ sound:
้ข็ฝใใใใ
ใ becomes้ข็ฝ[ใโใ]โ which does not contract and so stays้ข็ฝใ
And hopefully you noticed the first two entriesโ which are precisely the ones
you may know from the phrasesใๆฉใใ
ใใใใใพใโ translating to โgood morningโโandใใใใจใใใใใพใโ translating to โthank you very muchโ.
Chapter 4
Particles
Particlesโ calledๅฉ่ฉใใใ
โ or more affectionately referred to asใฆใซใใฏ (after the verbใฆform and the three quintessential particlesใซโใ andใฏ)โ are the fundamental gluethat holds Japanese sentences togetherโ indicating how words (or blocks of words)relate to each other. There is no overstating how important particles are in usingJapanese: without themโ there is no Japanese language.
Most particles are suffixesโ meaning that they follow whatever it is they aremarkingโ but there are a small number of prefixes. In this chapterโ we will firstlook at some common prefixesโ then look at what is generally considered the bulkof Japanese particlesโ followed by an entire chapter dedicated to a rather special setof particles: counters.
4.1 Prefixes
4.1.1 The honorific prefixOne of the most used prefixes is probablyๅพกโ pronounced either asใโใโใฟโใใโ orใใโ depending on what it is being used withโ and for:
The readingใ is used to make words with a Japanese reading (่จ่ชญใใใ
ใฟ) hon-orific.
The readingใ is used to make words with a Chinese reading (้ณ่ชญใใใ
ใฟ) hon-orific.
The readingใฟ is used for imperial and Shinto terminology. In additionโ it canbe used as a stylistic reading to make words sound more poetic.
The readingใใ is a rare reading used mainly as a classical honorific prefix.It can be considered a very formal version of theใ reading.
147
148 Particles โ ยง 4.1 Prefixes
The readingใใ is also rarely usedโ and is used exclusively for imperial terms.
This prefix is essential in various honorific and humble constructionsโ as wesaw in the sections on humble and honorific verb constructions. It should be notedthat some wordsโ when used in daily speechโ always get this prefix. A by no meansexhaustive list of such words includes:
ใ่ถใกใ
(green) tea
ใ้ใใญ
money
ใๆนฏใ
warm/hot water (but not boiling waterโ which is called็ฑๆนฏใญใฃใจใ
)
ใๅทใฒใ
cold water
ใ่ นใชใ
bellyโ stomach
ใ็ฎธใฏใ
chopsticks
ใ้ฆณ่ตฐใกใใ
feast (used inใ้ฆณ่ตฐๆงใกใใใใพ
ใงใใโ said when one is done eating)
ใ้ฃฏใฏใ
foodโ dinner
4.1.2 Negating prefixes
There are also various common prefixes that negateโvoid or otherwise create a counter-
concept word when used: ๆชใฟ
โไธใต
โ็กใ
and้ใฒ
.
We knowๆชใฟ
from the verbal imperfect baseโ theๆช็ถๅฝข. This prefix indicatesa โnot yetโ or โhas yet to be realisedโ aspectโ which explains what itโs doing in a wordlikeๆช็ถๅฝขโ but there are many other words in which we find this prefix:
word meaning composition
ๆชๆฅใฟใใ
future โnot yet arrivedโ
ๆชๅฎใฟใใ
incomplete โnot yet finishedโ
ๆชๅฉใฟใใ
unmarried โnot yet marriedโ
ๆชๆด็ใฟใใใ
pending โnot yet arrangedโ
ๆช็บใฟใฏใค
prior โnot yet begunโ
Whenไธใต
is usedโ it expresses a noun negativeโ similar to the English prefixesโun-โโ โim-โโ โa-โ or โde-โ. Examples of this prefix are:
Particles โ ยง 4.1 Prefixes 149
word meaning composition
ไธๅฏ่ฝใตใใฎใ
impossible โno possibilityโ
ไธๆฏๆฐใตใใใ
(economic) depression โno businessโ
ไธๅพ้ ใตใใ ใใใ ใ
disobedience โno obedienceโ
ไธ็ฅใตใก
ignorance โno knowledgeโ
When็กใ
is usedโ it expresses a non-existentialโ similar to โnon-โโ โnot โฆโ orthe terms โwithoutโ or โdevoid ofโ in English. Examples of this prefix are:
word meaning composition
็ก่จๅใใใใ
unsigned โwithout signatureโ
็กๅนใใใ
invalid โwithout validityโ
็ก็ฅ่ซใใใใใ
atheism โwithout deityโ
็กๆญใใ ใ
unauthorized โwithout permissionโ
Finallyโ้ใฒ
is used to indicate the equivalent of the English โnon-โ. Examplesof this prefix are:
word meaning composition
้ๅถๅฉ็ใฒใใใใฆใ
non-profit โnot commercialโ
้็พๅฎ็ใฒใใใใคใฆใ
unrealistic โnot realisticโ
้ๅธธใฒใใใ
emergency โnot usualโ
้ๅฏพๅฟใฒใใใใ
incompatible โnot compatibleโ
4.1.3 Assorted prefixesAside from these four negating prefixesโ there are also a few other common prefixesthat you will encounter frequently enough to deserve at least mention hereโ even ifwe donโt look at example words for each of them:
prefix meaning
ๅ จใใ
๏ฝ โall โฆโโ โevery โฆโ
ๆฏใพใ
๏ฝ โevery โฆโ
ๆฐใใ
๏ฝ โnew โฆโ
150 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
prefix meaning
ๅคงใ ใใปใใ
๏ฝ โbigโ (two possible common pronunciations)
ๅฐใใปใใใ
๏ฝ โsmallโ (two possible common pronunciations)
ๅใใ
๏ฝ โre-โ
ๆใใ
๏ฝ โmost โฆโ
่ถ ใกใใ
๏ฝ โsuper-โ
ๅฏพใใ
๏ฝ โanti-โโ โcounter-โ
ๅใฏใ
๏ฝ โsemi-โโ โdemi-โโ โincompleteโ
ไปฅใ
๏ฝ indicates a boundary or limit
็ใพ
ใฃ๏ฝ an intensifying prefix
(Note that the consonant doubleใฃ in็ใฃ becomes anใ when this prefixis paired with words starting with a ใชโcolumn or ใพโcolumn syllableโ such as
็ใพ
ใไธญใชใ
)There are moreโ mainly due to the fact that many nouns in Japanese are com-
pound nouns. Thusโ any part of a compound noun that gets used by several wordsin roughly the same meaning can be considered a prefix of sorts.
4.2 ParticlesWhat most people consider proper particles actually cover a number of subcategoriesof particles. There are the grammatical particlesโ which map to grammatical inter-pretations such as direct objectsโ verb phrase subjectsโ disambiguationโ etc. They lackany form of translation to languages that leave grammar impliedโ and as such can bea bit tricky to learn initiallyโ as they require actively learning grammar in order toproperly understand what they do (something which most people have not reallybeen exposed to in their general education). Aside from these grammatical particlesโthere is the set of particles which perform roles similar to what prepositions do inโfor instanceโ English. Howeverโ because of the way the Japanese language describesthings happening or being in the worldโ a single Japanese particle in this categorymight map to a number of prepositions when translatedโ depending on the contextin which it is used. Then there are the various particles for emphasis in all its formsโso it should be clear that we have quite a bit of ground to cover.
The list of particles covered in this chapter is not an exhaustive list of all par-ticles used in the Japanese languageโ but does represent the bulk of particles that youmight encounter. They have been ordered in three sectionsโ the first covering the ab-solutely essential particlesโ the second and third covering less frequently used andeven several โrareโ particles and particle combinations.
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 151
4.2.1 Essential particles
The essential particles list consists of the particlesใโใโใจโใงโใซโใฎโใฏโใ andใ (aswell asใธโ which is not essential but belongs in this list because of the way it contrastswith a particular use ofใซ). Traditionallyโใฆ would be considered part of this listโbut we already extensively coveredใฆ in the verb section on theใฆ form.
The particles in this section are considered โessentialโโ because they cover theabsolute minimum of grammatical roles that you need to understand before youunderstand Japanese at a basic conversational level. While the list seems shortโ amere 10 particlesโ most of these particles โ in terms of what you might be used tofrom English โ do many different things. While there is typically some unifying ideafor that describes what the particle does โin conceptโโ in practice this means havingto remember several roles per particleโ and being able to identify which one is usedwhen.
ใโQuestioning particle
This particle is sometimes called the Japanese equivalent of the question markโ butthis is not entirely true. While it acts as the question mark when used at the end ofsentencesโ it actually acts as a general questioning particle. It usually ends a sentenceโbecause most of the time the entire sentence is the questionโ but you can find it usedinside sentences as wellโ where it turns only part of the sentence into a questioningphrase. The โquestion markโ role is fairly easily demonstrated:
่กใ
ใใพใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ weโ they)โll go.โ
่กใใพใใใโWill/shall (Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ weโ they) go?โ
The more interesting functions ofใ are found when it is used in subphrasesinsteadโ such as in the following example:
ใใใใใจๆใใ
ใฃใใโ(I) thought (about) whether I should do (it).โ
Letโs take this sentence apart and look at why it means what the translationsays it means. Firstโ this sentence consists of two parts: ใใใใ and [โฆ]ใจๆใฃใ. The first is the dubitative form ofใใโ with the questioning particleใโ so thatโletโs doโ becomes โwill/shall (Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ weโ they) do?โ. This is then combined
152 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
with the past tense for [โฆ]ใจๆใโ โthink [โฆ]โ or โthink about [โฆ]โ to form โthinkabout [will shall โฆ do?]โ. This isnโt natural Englishโ so we need to rewrite it usingappropriate words: a dubitative question in English uses the word โwhetherโโ sogoing from Japanese to literal English to natural Englishโ we arrive at โthink aboutwhether (or not) to do (something)โ. And since this is a past tense we arrive at thetranslation that was initially given.
The more complete version of โwhether (to) [โฆ]โ is the pa ern โwhether ornot (to) [โฆ]โโ and Japanese has an equivalent to this: [โฆ]ใใฉใใ:
ๅฝผใใ
ใๆฅใ
ใใใฉใใใๅใ
ใใใพใใใโ(I) have no idea whether heโll come over or not.โ
We can even form more elaborate yes-or-noโ be-or-notโ do-or-notโ etc. ques-tionsโ by using two separate questions. This might be a bit confusing at firstโ as inEnglish we always put our choices in a single sentenceโ but in Japanese a doublequestion pa ern is in fact quite common:
ใณใผใใผใซใใพใใใใ่ถใกใ
ใซใใพใใใโWill (you) have coffeeโ or tea?โ
While the English translation shows that this is just a normal โorโ questionโthe Japanese sentence joins up the otherwise separate questionsใณใผใใผใซใใพใใโโwill you have coffee?โ andใ่ถใซใใพใใโ โwill you have tea?โโ into a single choicequestion. Answers can range fromใณใผใใผใใใ ใใ (โcoffeeโ pleaseโ) toใฉใใงใ
ใใ (โeither is fineโ) to things like ใใใใ็ตๆงใใฃใใ
ใงใ (โnoโ thatโs okay (I shall havenothing)โ).
Howeverโใ can also be used as a direct translation for โorโโ but a very specificone: the logical connective โorโ. There is a rather big difference between the naturallanguage โorโ and the logical โorโโ in that the la er doesnโt ask about which choice togo withโ but whether at least one of the choices listed is correct:
A: โWould you like coffeeโ or tea?โBโ interpreting โorโ naturally: โCoffeeโ please.โ
A: โWould you like coffee or tea?โBโ interpreting โorโ logically: โYesโ please.โ
What happened in this second conversation? Rather than interpreting โorโ asthe natural versionโ B decided to interpret it as the logical connectiveโ meaning heanswered the question โwould you like [coffee or tea]โ โ the logical โorโ doesnโt give
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 153
you a choiceโ it connects the choices into a single optionโ which is picked if any oneof the otherwise individual choices is pickedโ or isnโt picked if none of them work.In Japaneseโ using ใ to list choices in this way means offering people this kind oflogical โorโ choice:
A:ใณใผใใผใซใใพใใใใ่ถใซใใพใใใB:ใณใผใใผใใใ ใใใ
A: โWill (you) have coffeeโ or tea?โB: โCoffeeโ please.โ
A:ใณใผใใผใใ่ถใซใใพใใใB:ใใใใไปใฏๅทใใใ้ฃฒใฟ็ฉใใใใจๆใใพใใใญใ
A: โWill (you) have coffee or tea?โB: โNoโ (I) think right now something cold (literallyโ โa cold drinkโ) wouldbe nicer.โ
This can potentially lead to confusionโ or seemingly incomplete answers:
A:้ป่ปใงใใใ
ใง่กใใพใใใใในใง่กใ
ใใพใใใB:้ป่ปใงใ
A: โWill you go by trainโ or by bus?โB: โBy train.โ
A:้ป่ปใใในใง่กใใพใใใB:ใฏใใ
A: โWill you go by train or bus?โB: โYes.โ
The key here is that the answer is actually not incomplete given the questionasked. An โ[X]ใ[Y]โ question is a yes or no questionโ and so there is no obligationto give any more information than what is being asked for. Beginning students ofJapanese often forget that usingใ in this fashion only applies to the logical connec-tive โorโโ and start mistakenly using it wherever in English the word โorโ is used. Itdeserves extra warning: avoid usingใ to mean โorโ until youโve developed a goodgrasp of the Japanese language.
154 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
In addition to all thisโใ can be used to indicate a kind of rhetorical questionusually associated with mild scorn:
ใใใชไบใใจ
็ฅใ
ใใใโHow would (I) know?โ
This kind of expression is often derisiveโ made even stronger by addingใ atthe end:
ๅใ
ใใใใใโHow the hell would you know [this]?โ
This use ofใ is actually one of the few times when it is possible to stick anexclamation mark in the translationโ as it is virtually always accompanied by a raisedvoice. Howeverโ since โใใ invariably concerns a questionโ and the combination ofa question mark followed by an exclamation mark is considered bad form by moststyle guidesโ special consideration should go into deciding on whether or not to addan exclamation mark in the translation.
Usingใ with interrogatives
There is one more thing we need to look at when looking atใโ and that concerns itscombination with interrogatives. When paired with an interrogative (words such asโhowโโ โwhyโโ โwhenโโ โwhereโโ etc.) the particleใ creates a vaguely specific answer tothat interrogative. The easiest way to understand what that means is to just look atwhat happens:
interrogative meaning withใ meaningใชใซ what ใชใซใ somethingใ ใ who ใ ใใ someoneใฉใ where ใฉใใ somewhereใใค when ใใคใ sometimeโ eventuallyใชใ why ใชใใ for some reasonใฉใ how ใฉใใ in some way or another
These words act as nounsโ and can be used like any other noun in sentences:
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 155
ใใคใไธๆใใใใ
ใซใชใใพใใโ(I)โll become good (at it) eventually.โ
ใโ Subjectโ actorโweak emphasisโ contrast
We already saw ใ in chapter 2โ in the section on verb particlesโ where it was ex-plained that it could mark verb actors and subjects. In addition to thisโ ใ can beused for weak emphasisโ usually translating to the English weakly emphatic โbutโโsuch as in the question โExcuse meโ but do you know the time?โโ where its role ismostly to โease inโ the main statement. Similarlyโ ใ eases in the main statementโalthough rather than ge ing a comma in front of it like โbutโ doesโ it gets a commaafter:
ใใฟใพใใใใไปใใพ
ไฝๆใชใใ
ใงใใใโExcuse me (but)โ what time is it?โ
Again like the English โbutโโใ can be used as a more proper contrastive:
ใใใใใใ ใใๅ้กใใใ ใ
ใฏใใใ ใใใใชใใโThat is trueโ but (the) problem consists of more than just that (issue).โ
This sentence consists of the sections ใใใใใใ โ โthat is (also) trueโ andๅ้กใฏใใใ ใใใใชใโ โthe problem is not just that (issue)โโ joined with ใ forcontrast. These sentences use the particlesใ andใ ใโ since itโs hard to illustrate aproper contrastive without using a moderately complex sentence:ใ marks similar-ityโ andใ ใ (roughly) translates to โjust/onlyโ. We will look atใ in more detail laterin this particle sectionโ and weโll examineใ ใ in the next particle section.
On a final noteโ in classical Japaneseโใ has the same role asใฎ does today.As suchโ you may encounter โsetโ phrases that useใ in a genitive meaning.
ใจโUnifier
This particle is a nicely complex one. The grand unifying role that it plays isโ actuallyโunificationโ but the way in which it does it is usually experienced as doing completelydifferent things. We already sawใจ being used to create an exhaustive noun list inchapter 2 in the section on noun particlesโ but this role extends not just to thingsโ butto people as well. In the same way that [X]ใจ[Y]ใจ[Z] is an exhaustive noun list (i.e.โthe unity of all these things)โ if we use people instead of Xs and Ysโ we end up with aunified group:
156 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ๆฌ็ฐใปใใ
ใใใจๆฆใใใ
ใใใๆ ็ปใใใ
ใ่ฆใฟ
ใซ่กใ
ใใโHonda and Sakaki are going to go see a film.โ
In this sentenceโ the โnoun listโ ๆฌ็ฐใใใจๆฆใใ exhaustively lists all themembers of the group of people that will go see a film.
An interesting feature is thatใจ can unify a group of peopleโ or a group ofthings in generalโ leaving the centralโ contextually obvious noun implied. For in-stanceโ examine the following sentence:
ๆจๆใใใ
ใใใจๆฑไบฌใจใใใใ
ใซ่กใ
ใใพใใใ
In this sentenceโๆฑไบฌใซ่กใใพใใ means โ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ weโ they) wentto Tokyoโโ andๆจๆใใใจ looks like an incomplete noun list. Howeverโ this is one ofthose aspects of Japanese where context is important: we can leave off a contextuallyobvious โthingโ in a noun listโ and expect people who understand Japanese to fillthis in themselves: in this caseโ the most obvious interpretation is that โIโ or โweโ wentto Tokyo with Kimura. Howeverโ just because it is the most obviousโ that does notmean itโs the only interpretation possible. Ifโ sayโ weโre discussing what a mutualfriend of ours has been doing over the holidayโ without that friend presentโ and oneof us u ers the phrase ๆจๆใใใจๆฑไบฌใซ่กใใพใใ then the contextually omi edperson would be our mutual friendโ rather than either of us.
There are several ways to make the omi ed โthingโ explicit. One of these is touse the disambiguation particleโใฏ:
็ณ็ฐใใใ
ใใใฏๆจๆใใใจๆฑไบฌใซ่กใใพใใใโIshida (rather than someone else) went to Tokyo with Kimura.โ
Howeverโ this only makes sense if the sentence would otherwise be ambigu-ous. If instead we only want to reiterate the personโs identityโ we would useใ:
็ณ็ฐใใใๆจๆใใใจๆฑไบฌใซ่กใใพใใใโIshida went to Tokyo with Kimura.โ
In this sentenceโ ็ณ็ฐ has been explicitly mentioned as primary verb actorโand because heโs already been mentionedโ can be left implied in theใจ listing thatfollows.
Finallyโ we can do the most unnatural thing possibleโ and form a โproperโ ex-haustive list without any implied nouns or people:
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 157
็ณ็ฐใใใจๆจๆใใใๆฑไบฌใซ่กใใพใใใโIshida and Kimura went to Tokyo.โ
I say unnaturalโ because if someone has already been established as contex-tual subject or actorโ you either leave them impliedโ or you mention them as actualsubject or actor. If this was an opening sentence in a conversationโ howeverโ thissentence would be fineโ as no context will have been established yet.
Being able to tell whether a noun listing has any implied items is rather sim-ple: if it ends onใจโ instead of on a nounโ it has an implied item. It doesnโt ma erhow long the noun list is for this; if it ends onใจโ something has been left off:
็ณ็ฐใใใจๆจๆใใใๆฑไบฌใซ่กใใพใใใโIshida and Kimura went to Tokyo.โ
็ณ็ฐใใใจๆจๆใใใจๆฑไบฌใซ่กใใพใใใโIshidaโ Kimura and (Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ usโ they) went to Tokyo.โ
Of course this explanation so far has focussed on peopleโ but the same goesfor plain old object nouns:
ใชใฌใณใธใจ่ฒทใ
ใฃใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ weโ they) bought (it) along with (the) oranges.โ
So it doesnโt really ma er what category the nouns are; as long as youโre usingใจ for exhaustive listingโ a full list is always of the form:
[X]ใจ[Y](ใจ[Z]ใจ[โฆ])
And a list with an implied item is always of the form:
[X]ใจ([Y]ใจ[โฆ]ใจ)
With this list explicitly ending onใจ.Howeverโ there are more things thatใจ doesโ and some of these involve a
[noun]ใจ constructionโ so try to remember that just because an exhaustive listing withan implied item has the form [X]ใจโ not everything that fits the pa ern [X]ใจ has tobe such an exhaustive listing with implied item. In factโ looking at further roles ofใจthis becomes immediately obvious.
In addition to noun listingโใจ can be used in combination with sound or state
wordsโ properly calledๆฌ้ณ่ชใใใใ
โ onomatopoeiaโ andๆฌๆ ่ชใใใใ
โ mimeses respectivelyโ to
158 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
form adverbial constructions. For instanceโ if it was a starlit night and we wanted tosay that all the lights were causing the lake to sparkleโ we would say something likethe following:
ๆฑ ใใ
ใใใใใใจใใใโThe lake sparkled.โ
In this sentenceโ the wordใใใใ is a state description word (called โmime-sisโ in English)โ which paired withใจ becomes an adverb to the verbใใ. Literallyโthenโ this construction would say that the lake is โdoingโใใใใ. Sound descriptionwords (called โonomatopoeiaโ in English) are treated in the same way:
้จใใ
ใใถใผใจ้ใต
ใฃใฆใใใโThe rain came pouring down.โ
Hereโ the onomatopoeic wordใถใผ is not found in the translationโ because inEnglish โ as in most Western languages โ we do not use such words to any seriousdegree. In Japaneseโ howeverโ these words are an essential part of natural sound-ing language: the translation states that rain came โpouring downโโ becauseใถใผ isthe sound that rain pouring down makes. Before you now go thinking up all kindsof onomatopoeia yourselfโ Japanese has been in use for centuriesโ and virtually anyonomatopoeia you might come up with already existsโ in a very specific form. Thereare in fact ๆฌ้ณ่ชใปๆฌๆ ่ช dictionaries which will list all of them by category andmeaning (you may find one online on www.nihongoresources.comโ for instance)โ soyouโre not free to come up with your own; there are several hundred well establishedonomatopoeia and mimesesโ each typically with at least a handful of interpretationsdepending on what they relate toโ leading to well over a thousand different uses. Itis not surpriseโ thenโ that a mastery of onomatopoeia and mimeses is typically seenas having mastered conversational Japanese.
In factโ this adverbial marking of things usingใจ extends beyond just theๆฌ้ณ่ช and ๆฌๆ ่ชโ and through this extending becomes a bit more complex too: apopular way to explain this is to callใจ the quoting particleโ and give an examplesuch as the following to illustrate this:
ใไปใใพ
่กใ
ใใใจ่จใ
ใใพใใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ weโ they) said (Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ weโ they)โll be comingover right now.โ
This clearly demonstrates a quote being recitedโ but things are not quite thatsimple;ใจ will work with a much wider variety of things than just quotesโ as the
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 159
following examples should illustrate:
่ปใใใพ
ใ่ฒทใ
ใใใจๆใใ
ใใพใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ weโ they)โre thinking about buying a car.โ
ๅผฑ็นใใใใฆใ
ใๅใกใใ
ใจ่ใใใ
ใใพใใใใโLetโs think of (myโ yourโ hisโ herโ itsโ ourโ their) weakness(es) as (one of myโyourโ hisโ herโ itsโ ourโ their) strength(s) (instead).โ
่ถฃๅณใใ ใฟ
ใฏไปไบใใใจ
ใจใใฆใใพใใโ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ weโ they) consider (myโ yourโ hisโ herโ itsโ ourโ their)hobby (myโ yourโ hisโ herโ itsโ ourโ their) work.โ
Whatใจ is actually doing is marking all these things โ the quoteใไป่กใใโthe volitional act ่ปใ่ฒทใใโ the concept ๅโ and the activity ไปไบ โ as somehowbeing adverbial to the verbs in question; ่จใโ ๆใโ ่ใใโ and ใใ. The actualinterpretation of whatใจ is doing depends entirely on the interpretation of whatโsbeing marked as adverbialโ and the interpretation of the verbs used. For instanceโ่จใ means โto sayโโ but it can also mean โto callโ. As suchโ we can actually translate ourfirst sentence in two radically different ways:
ใไป่กใใใจ่จใใพใใใโHe said heโd be right over.โโHe was called Imaiku.โ
The second translation sounds quite unlikelyโ but if we replaceไป่กใ with่ฐทๆใใโ we get exactly the same possible translations:
ใ่ฐทๆใใซใใ
ใใใใจ่จใใพใใใโHe said โTanimurasanโ.โโHe was called Tanimura.โ
Suddenly the first translation sounds quite unlikelyโ although nothing reallychanged.
So how doesใจ differ fromใโ the direct object marker? Actuallyโ sometimeswe can use eitherโ but for some verbs the meaning changes radically when we useใจโ as opposed to when we useใ. A good example of this is the verbใชใโ whichwe looked at in chapter 2โ in the section on important verbs. This verb changes itsmeaning from โto becomeโ to โto beโ when we useใจ rather thanใโ so there is an
160 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
important choice to be made about which particle suits our need best. Another ex-ample is the verb่ใใโ which means โto thinkโ when used withใโ but โto thinkaboutโ when used withใจ.
Hopefully you spo ed what happens here: rather than the verb and the directobject being distinct thingsโ usingใจ unifies the verb and thing it works with intosomething that means something different from the sum of the parts. For instanceโyou cannot split up โto be [X]โ into โto beโ and โXโ without changing the meaning ofthe verb. The same goes for โto think about [X]โโ or โto consider [X] somethingโโ orโto dream about [X]โ. While it is easier to explainใจ as a series of separate things forall these different verbsโ itโs really doing the exact same thing for all of themโ eventhough there is no simple rule in Western grammar that we can map it to so that itmakes sense given what we know from our own every day language use.
To make ma ers even worseโ weโre not there yet. One more thing thatใจdoes is act as a logical consequence. We already saw ใ acting as logical โorโโ andใจ is basically the logical โandโ equivalent. If we want to express that two things aresimultaneously the caseโ we would useใจ:
้ฃ่กๆฉใฒใใใ
ใฏ้ ใใ
ใใใจไนใฎ
ใใพใใใโWith aeroplanesโ the idea is that if youโre lateโ you canโt board.โliterally: โfor aeroplanes (rather than something else): if youโre lateโ youcanโt board.โ
It is easy to mistake what happens in this sentence for just an โif Aโ then Bโโ soletโs look at what this sentence is doing before illustrating this use ofใจ with a moredrastic example. Aeroplanesโ with their strict schedulesโ have a very simple ruleโbeing that if you are late for the flightโ then too bad for you. The plane doesnโt wait forpeople. As suchโ โbeing lateโ and โnot being allowed on the planeโ are simultaneouslytrue. The moment you are lateโ immediately and irrevocably you are also unable toboard. We can make this more obvious with the promised more drastic example:
ๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใ้ฆใใณ
ใซใชใใจ่พ่ทใใใใ
ใใพใใโIf my friend gets firedโ I quit.โ
Hereโ it is crucially important to notice theใจโ and realise that weโre talkingabout simultaneous actions. This sentence does not say โif my friend gets firedโ Ishall put in my resignationโโ it says that right there and thenโ the moment he getsfiredโ youโre qui ing. It also doesnโt leave any ambiguityโ because youโre asserting afact. Sinceใจ is acting as a logical โandโโ statements involvingใจ donโt concern opinionโhearsayโ or guessworkโ they state plain and simple true factโ so the following is correctuse ofใจ:
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 161
้จใใ
ใ้ใต
ใใไปใใพ
่กใ
ใใฐๅใใ
ใใชใใจๆฟกใฌ
ใใใโItโs raining at the moment. If you go out nowโ youโll get wet without anumbrella.โ
But this next sentence is simply wrong:
้จใ้ใต
ใใจใฌใใใโIf it rainsโ weโll get wet.โ
The reason this second sentence is wrong is becauseใจ expresses a universallytrue fact. Howeverโ if you have an umbrellaโ or youโre indoorsโ or you might be inany one of a number of situations in which it is raining but you donโt get wetโ thissentence is simply falseโ and as such stating it as a universal fact is plain wrong.Usually students will mistakenly useใจ in this way when what they really want tosay is something pertaining to a particularโ specific situation. For instanceโ if youโrelooking out the windowโ and you know you have no umbrella with youโ you mightwant to say โif it starts raining nowโ Iโll get wetโโ with the implication that this willhappen if you go outsideโ not that youโll magically get wet inside if it starts to rainoutside. Instead of usingใจโ these kind of musings require the use of ใฐ or ใใconditionals:
ใใ: ้จใ้ใฃใใใใฃใจใฌใใพใใใญใใใฐ: ้จใ้ใใฐใใฌใใใใชใใโI guess if it starts raining Iโll get wetโ
with theใชใ/ใญใ endings signalling that youโre saying something rhetori-calโ but youโd like whoever is listening to acknowledge you anyway.
This factual consequence is also found in unfinished sentences such as thefollowing:
ไปใใพ
่กใ
ใใชใใจใliterally: โNot leaving now (meansโฆ)โmeaning: โ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ weโ they) have to go.โ
ใใใใชใใจใliterally: โNot doing so (means โฆ)โmeaning: โ(Iโ youโ heโ sheโ itโ weโ they) have to do so.โ
These sentences are unfinished in the sense that they omit the โ contextually
162 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
obvious โ generally negative consequences of the โnot doingโ of something.
ใงโ Instrumentalโ event location
The role ofใง is technically two-foldโ although some people consider theใฆ form ofใงใโ which is also wri enใงโ a particleโ in which case there would be three roles.
The first role is that of instrumentalis. In Englishโ this is things like โbyโโ โwithโor โusingโ in relation to some instrumentโ in sentences like โThis was wri en with ared penโ or โWe came to the U.S. by aeroplaneโ. In Japaneseโ the role these wordsplay is performed byใง:
่ตคใใ
ใใณใงๆธใ
ใใฆใใใโ(It)โs wri en with a red pen.โ
้ฃ่กๆฉใฒใใใ
ใงใขใกใชใซใซๆฅใ
ใพใใใโ(We) came to America by aeroplane.โ
A second important role thatใง plays is that it signifies the location of a verbactionโ or event. For instanceโ in English the sentences โWe played in the parkโ andโThe knives are in the cupboardโ use the same preposition โinโ. In Japaneseโ theseare two very different things: the first sentence focuses on an eventโ while the secondfocuses on a location. Consequentiallyโ the first sentence requiresใงโwhile the secondsentence uses another particleโใซ.
ๅ ฌๅใใใใ
ใง้ใใ
ใณใพใใใโ(We) played in the park.โ
This use ofใง is quite nice when one says something that in English wouldbe ambiguous such as โWe stayed at a hotel.โ In Englishโ it is not possible to tellwhether this would be an answer to โwhat did you do?โ or โwhere did you stay?โโwithout more information available to us. In Japaneseโ this distinction is immediatelyobvious:
ใใใซใงๆณใจ
ใพใฃใใDecomposes as: โAt the hotelโ we did: staying.โ
ใใใซใซๆณใพใฃใใDecomposes as: โwe did: staying a a hotel.โ
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 163
As mentionedโใง can also be said to have a third roleโ namely as the continu-ative form of the copulaใงใโ which isใงโ although this is somewhat mixing differentthings because they sound the same. In the following example sentenceโ for instanceโใง is not a particleโ but the continuative form ofใงใ:
ๅฝผๅฅณใใฎใใ
ใใใใใงในใฟใคใซใใใไบบใฒใจ
ใงใใญใโSheโs pre yโ and has good style tooโ donโt you agree?โ
It should most definitely not be read as ifใง was an instrumentalisโ wherebythe sentence would read something akin to โSheโs got good style thanks to beingpre yโ.
ใซโPoint or interval in time or spaceโ destinationโ purposeโ relation
This particle is a very versatile particle because of the way the Japanese interpretprocesses and states in and of the universe. The principal function of this particleis to describe points or frames in time space. This sounds complicatedโ so runningthrough examples for all the combinations might help clarify things:
ไธๆใใใ
ใซๅบใง
ใพใใโ(I) will head out at 3.โ
This example indicates a point in timeโ namely the specific moment 3 oโ clock.In contrast to thisโ a time frame rather than a point in time can also be indicated withใซ:
ไธ้ฑใใฃใใ ใ
ใซ้ๅใใใฉใ
ใไบๅใซใใ
ใใพใใโ(I) exercise twice a week.โ
Hereโ instead of an exact momentโ a time frame is specified in which some-thing happens. Howeverโใซ is not restricted to just time:
็ซใญใ
ใใฝใใกใซๅฏใญ
ใฆใใใโThe catโs napping on the couch.โ
Hereใซ is used to indicate a point in spaceโ namely a spot on the couch (re-member from the section onใง that if we wanted to focus on the act of napping itselfโใง would have had to be used instead). Just as for timeโใซ can also indicate an inde-terminate location:
164 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ๆตทใใฟ
ใฎๅใ
ใใใซๅฅในใค
ใฎไธ็ใใใ
ใใใใโThereโs a different world on the other side of the ocean.โ
The โother sideโ of the ocean isnโt really one locationโ itโs very much indeter-minate. Howeverโ it is a locationโ and thatโs why we can useใซ for it.
A second role that ใซ plays is to indicate a purpose of some action. Whenused in this fashion it typically follows a verb in้ฃ็จๅฝข:
็ฑณใใ
ใ่ฒทใ
ใใซ่กใ
ใฃใฆใใพใใโ(I)โm going out to buy rice.โ
Here the โgoingโ is done for the purpose of่ฒทใโ โbuyingโ.
ๆ ็ปใใใ
ใ่ฆใฟ
ใซ่กใใชใ๏ผโWonโt (you) go watch a film (with me)?โ
Here the โgoingโ is done for the purpose of่ฆใโ โseeingโ.A more general pa ern for this โdoing something for a purposeโ is the pa ern
[โฆ](ใฎ)็บใใ
+ใซโ which explicitly states purpose through the noun็บโ and can be usedwith a wider variety of verbs and statements. This construction will be explained inthe nominalisers section in the chapter on language pa erns.
The last role thatใซ plays we have already seen extensively used in chapters2 and 3โ when dealing with verb details that translate to adverbial and prepositionalphrasesโ so we shall consider this aspect thoroughly explained by now.
ใธโDirection
Before we look at the role this particle playsโ it should be emphasised that the particleใธ is always pronouncedใ.
Sometimes confusion arises about when to useใซ and when to useใธwhen itcomes to directions and destinations. The answer is surprisingly simple: when youwant to indicate a directionโ useใธ. When you want to indicate a destinationโ useใซ.The real problem isnโt which to useโ but when it doesnโt ma er which you use. Forinstanceโ take the following two sentences:
ๆฑไบฌใจใใใใ
ใซ่กใ
ใใพใใโ(I) will go to Tokyo.โ
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 165
ๆฑไบฌใธ่กใใพใใโ(I) will go to Tokyo.โ
While in English the sentence โI will go to Tokyoโ can both mean that Tokyois the destinationโ or that Tokyo is just the most identifiable point in indicating adirection of travelโ in Japanese there is a subtle difference:
ๆฑไบฌใซ่กใใพใใโ(I) will go to Tokyo. This is my destination (for it is marked as a location).โ
ๆฑไบฌใธ่กใใพใใโ(I) will go in the direction of Tokyo (this is not necessarily my destinationโfor it is not marked as a location).โ
Sometimes it doesnโt ma er in a conversation whether you say something isa destination or just a general direction of travelโ and even Japanese will use theminterchangeably under those circumstancesโ but there are also examples in which itโsimpossible to use one instead of the other. For instanceโ if you want to say whereyouโve been during your vacationโ you can only useใซโ because youโre talking aboutlocations youโve visitedโ not directions you travelled in. Similarlyโ when youโre nav-igating your way through a forest and want to go westโ thereโs no specific or evengeneral location you want to go toโ you only want to head in a particular directionโso you can only useใธ to describe this.
In questionsโ itโs typically customary to answer with the particle that was usedin the question. Thusโ if someone asks you a question withใซโ you answer withใซโand if you get a question withใธโ you answer withใธโ of course observing that youโreusing the right words to match the particle.
ใฎโGenitive
We already coveredใฎ in chapter 2 when we talked about noun particlesโ but thereis one more thing that it does that requires a bit more explanationโ and thatโs nomi-nalisation. This is a very powerful โfeatureโโ because it lets us talk about phrases as ifthey were nouns. It lets us say things like โI didnโt like walking around town todayโโwhere โwalking around town todayโ is technically treated as a nominalised clauseโand thus acts as a noun.
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฎ็บใพใก
ใๆญฉใใ
ใใฎใใใใชใซๆฅฝใใฎ
ใใใใใพใใใงใใใโ(I) didnโt particularly enjoy todayโs walk about the city.โ
166 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
In this sentenceโ the clause็บใๆญฉใโ โto walk the cityโโ has been turned intoa gerund (a gerund is the noun form of a verb: โto walkโโ โ(the) walkingโ) byใฎ: ็บใๆญฉใใฎ meaning โthe specific โwalking of the cityโ that was doneโโ as a noun. Withthis noun form we can then make all sorts of comments in relation to it.
Howeverโ this nominalisation is restricted to events that are in-topic. If someactivity or event is a context to a conversationโ thenใฎ can be used to nominalise itโbut if we want to talk about events or activities in generalโ we have to useไบ
ใใจ
. We canactually use eitherใฎไบโ orไบwithout theใฎโ to say two different things. Comparingall three with a series of examplesโ we see the following:
ๆ็ดใฆใใฟ
ใๅบใ
ใใฎใๅฟใใ
ใใพใใใmeaning: โI forgot to post the le er.โbecause: ๆ็ดใๅบใใฎโ โposting a le erโ as a specific activityโ was forgo en.
ๆ็ดใๅบใใฎไบใๅฟใใพใใใmeaning: โI forgot that I had to post a le er.โbecause: ๆ็ดใๅบใใฎไบโ โposting a le erโ as the idea of performing aspecific activityโ was forgo en.
ๆ็ดใๅบใไบใๅฟใใพใใใmeaning: โI forgot how to post a le er.โbecause: ๆ็ดใๅบใไบโ โposting a le erโ as the concept in generalโ wasforgo en.
As is evident from the example sentencesโ usingใฎ (as a back referral) lets ustalk about a specific instance of an activityโใฎไบ lets us talk about the same specificinstanceโ but as an abstract concept rather than the activityโ and just ไบ talks aboutthe general activityโ rather than some specific instance.
In addition to its roles as a noun lister and referral particleโใฎ can be used asa question softener. Used on its own this is considered reserved speechโ borderingon effeminateโ and men tend to useใฎใ instead.
ใฉใใใใฎ๏ผใฉใใใใฎใ๏ผโWhat happened?โ
For answers to questions that ask for a reason to some situationโ ใฎ softensthis reason:
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 167
A:ใฉใใใฆใพใ ไผ็คพใใใใ
ใซใใพใใ๏ผ
B:ใพใ ไปไบใใใจ
ใ็ตใ
ใใฃใฆใชใใฎใ
A: โWhy are (you) still at work?โB: โ(it is because) (I)โm not done with (my) work yet.โ
Againโ this use is considered borderline effeminateโ so men tend to use thisconstruction in conjunction with the plain copulaใ โ with or without contracting theใฎ to anใ to form ใฎใ orใใ . The polite versionโ ใฎใงใโ will be treated in thesection on more particles later in this chapter.
Pairingใฎ with the copulaใ
When pairingใฎ with phrasesโ we are basically using those phrases a ributively tothe noun thatใฎ refers back to. While a simple descriptionโ this has some repercus-sions when those phrases end onใ โ because of its base forms.
As already highlighted in the section on a ributives in the previous chapterโใ still has a็ตๆญขๅฝข formโ signifying a finalised sentenceโ as well as a้ฃไฝๅฝข formโsignifying it is being used a ributively. Soโ if we pairใฎwith a phrase ending onใ โ itmust be changed from finalised form to a ributive formโ and so is used asใช instead.This is whyโ when a plain copula statement is paired withใฎ as a back referralโ youwill never hearใ followed byใฎโ but alwaysใช followed byใฎ.
ใฏโDisambiguation
As already explained in chapter 2โ in the verb particle sectionโ ใฏ (pronounced ใ)is used to disambiguate statements. Letโs look at what this means in terms of whatใฏ doesโ compared toใ orใ. Imagine that weโre having a conversation and weโretalking about watching films in the cinemaโ DVD rentalsโ and TV showsโ and thefollowing sentence is used:
ใใฌใ(โฆ)ใใ่ฆใฟ
ใพใใ
Where for (โฆ) we either findใโใ orใฏ. While all three would translate toโ(I) watch TV a lotโโ their connotations are very different.
1)ใใฌใใใใ่ฆใพใ
168 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
When we useใโ the sentence is fairly plain information. Whoever of us saysit wants to convey that they watch TV a lotโ and nothing more.
2)ใใฌใใใใ่ฆใพใ
When we use ใโ the sentence is still plain informationโ although using ใrather than ใ emphasises that whoever is talking about TVโ is talking about TV.This usingใ as an emphasis marker is a fairly common practiceโ although you needto know why youโre emphasisingโ of course.
3)ใใฌใใฏใใ่ฆใพใ
By usingใฏโ everything has changed. The speaker has indicated that the in-formation in the sentence requires disambiguation in terms of what it applies to. Inthis caseโ the โwatching a lotโ only applies to TV. Whileใ andใ told us only onethingโ namely the plain information that TV was being watched a lotโใฏ tells us twothings. Firstโ the basic informationโ that someone watched TV a lot. Howeverโ be-cause the speaker felt they needed to make sure that we know it only applies to TVโit also tells us that it explicitly does not apply to films or DVD rentals.
This makesใฏ very powerfulโ and also makes it very easy to misuse: If youonly want to state some informationโ you should not be usingใฏ. Howeverโ if youwant to make sure that the context for some information is unmistakableโใฏ is exactlythe particle you want to use.
One very common use of this is in the form of social commentaryโ by pairing itwith verbalใฆ formsโ followed by something that represents a negative commentary
such as the wordใใใพใใโ indicating that something โwonโt doโโ or the word้ง็ฎใ ใ
โindicating something is bad:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏใๆฅใ
ใชใใฆใฏใใใพใใใliterally: โ(you) not coming over today will not doโ.โ(You) have to drop by today.โ
้ฃใ
ในใฆใฏ้ง็ฎใ ใ
ใงใใliterally: โEating it is no good.โโ(You) may not eat this.โ
In these sentencesโ the negative repercussion is explicitly said to apply onlyin the situations marked by ใฏ. Alsoโ because ใฏ is usedโ we know that they donโtapply if whateverใฏ is suffixed to doesnโt apply.
Of courseโ sometimes it will feel likeใฏ isnโt doing this strict disambiguationโ
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 169
such as in simple sentences like the following:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏใใๅคฉๆฐใฆใใ
ใงใใญใโNice weather todayโ isnโt it?โ
ๅฎใใค
ใฏใๆฅๆฌ่ชใซใปใใ
ใซไธๆใธใ
ใงใใโActuallyโ Iโm horrible at Japanese.โ
In both sentencesโ theใฏ looks perfectly innocentโ but itโs actually still doingthe exact same thing. In the first sentenceโ the fact that ไปๆฅ has to be mentionedmeans that the situation of good weather is implicitly being contrasted to some pre-viousโ poor weather. Similarlyโ in the second sentence it seems like ๅฎโ โtruthfullyโor โactuallyโโ is fairly innocentโ but the fact that it has been explicitly mentioned andmarked withใฏ means that the information that follows only applies in the contextof โtrue informationโ. Even when ใฏ sounds like itโs just si ing in a sentence as acommon courtesyโ it never loses its additional connotation.
So in summaryโ we can characterise ใฏ as: [X]ใฏ[Y] โ in the context of [X]โ[Y] appliesโ and outside the context of [X]โ [Y] does not apply. Put conciselyโใฏ notonly tells us the applicable contextโ but also the inapplicable context.
Because of thisโ you will typically findใฏ referred to as the โcontextโ particle(or โtopicโ particle) in literatureโ but this is dangerous terminologyโ as it makes it reallyeasy to forget that in addition to indicate context/topicโ it also indicates the inverseat the same time. ใฏ never just marks applicable contextโ it always โ always โ alsogives the inapplicable context simply by virtue of being used. If you donโt want toalso imply inapplicable contextโ useใโ orใโ instead.
(Almost) needless to sayโ this also means you never useใฏ for things youโreasking questions about. For instanceโ in the following example sentencesโ the firstsentence is fineโ and the second is veryโ very wrong:
่ชฐใ ใ
ใๆฅใ
ใพใใใใโWho came (over)?โ
่ชฐใฏๆฅใพใใใใโWhoโ as opposed to someone elseโ came (over)?โ
This second sentence makes absolutely no senseโ and you should never evermark subjects of questions withใฏ. Ever.
That saidโ you can useใฏ in a question to disambiguate just fineโ as long as itdoes not get used for the actual question subject:
170 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ๆ่ฟใใใใ
ใฏ่ชฐใใใๆฅใพใใใใโWhoโs recently been coming (over)?โliterally: โLately [rather than during some other time frame]โ who has come(over)?โ
ใโ Similarity
This particle plays two important roles in Japanese. The first is that it acts as a sim-ilarity markerโ and in this use it replaces the subject ใ or disambiguation markerใฏ:
A: ็งใใใ
ใๆฌใปใ
ใๅฅฝใ
ใใงใใB:็งใๆฌใๅฅฝใใงใใ
A: โI like books.โB: โI also like books.โ
Likeใจ orใโ it can also be used to form lists:
A:ๆฌใๅฅฝใใงใใใ้ณๆฅฝใใใใ
ใๅฅฝใใงใใใB:ๆฌใ้ณๆฅฝใๅฅฝใใงใใ
A: โDo (you) like booksโ or do (you) like music?โB: โ(I) like both books and music.โ
Howeverโใ marks a similarity to something previously mentionedโ so youcannot use the particleใ out of the blue. It requires a prompt either by someone elseโor by something you yourself just said. Interestinglyโ this can even be something inthe same sentence:
่ฅใใ
ใ่ ใใฎ
ใใๅนดไธใจใใใ
่ ใใฎ
ใใใใใใใโYoung and oldโ welcome.โ
Here the fact thatใ is used twice (and it can be used more times) means thatthe similarity is between all the marked parts of phrase.
Because normallyใ is reserved for responding to some kind of promptโ itโsusually a good idea to considerใ the Japanese counterpart to the English โtooโโ inthe sense of โalsoโโ without considering it a valid counterpart to the word โalsoโโ since
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 171
that can be used without any real prompting.A second use ofใ is as an emphatic contrasting particleโ meaning something
like the English โeven [if/by] โฆโ. In this useโ it typically followsใฆ forms:
ไปใใพ
่กใ
ใฃใฆใ้ใพ
ใซๅใ
ใใชใใงใใใใโEven (by) leaving nowโ (you) probably wonโt make it.โ
A specialใฆ form +ใ is theใฆ+ใ+ใใ (ใใ) constructionโ which asks andgrants permission:
ใณใณใใฅใผใฟใไฝฟใคใ
ใฃใฆใใใใงใใใโFeel free to use (the) computer.โ
Or as part of a (short) conversation:
A:ๅบงใฃใฆใใใใงใใใB:ใฏใใใใใงใใใ
A: โMay I sit down?โB: โYou may.โ
Usingใwith theใฆ form also means we can use it withใฆ form for the copulaโwhich isใงโ formingใงใ:
ๅ ็ใใใใ
ใงใใใ่จใ
ใฃใฆใพใใโEven the teacher says so.โ
In addition to these thingsโใ can โ like ใ โ be combined with interrog-atives to form a specific kind of answer to these interrogatives. While ใ creates avaguely specific answerโใ creates an all-encompassing answer:
interrogative meaning withใ meaningใชใซ what ใชใซใ anythingใ ใ who ใ ใใ anyoneใฉใ where ใฉใใ anywhereใใค when ใใคใ anytimeใฉใ how ใฉใใ in any possible way
Unlike forใโ howeverโ when these interrogatives are followed byใ they can
172 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
lead to some confusion when translated: they may be translated differently depend-ing on whether they are followed up by an affirmativeโ or negative verb form. InJapaneseโ words likeใใคใ orใฉใใ donโt carry any affirmative or negative aspectโrelying on the verb theyโre being used with to impart this meaning instead. Soโ whilethe same word is used in the following Japanese sentencesโ the English translationuses two seemingly different words:
ไฝใชใซ
ใใใพใใโ(I) will do anything.โ
ไฝใใใพใใใliterallyโ โ(I) wonโt do anythingโโ(I) will do nothing.โ
Likewise:
ใฉใใใใใโ(It) exists anywhere.โ
ใฉใใใชใใliterallyโ โ(It) doesnโt exist anywhere.โโ(It) exists nowhere.โ
This is a good example of how translations may create wrong impressions:even though in English these words are answers to the interrogativeโ coming in dif-ferent versions while the verb stays the same formโ in Japanese it is the exact oppositeโwith the answer words to the interrogative staying the sameโ and the verb coming indifferent versions depending on which polarity (affirmative or negative) is needed.
On an equally important noteโ when used with interrogatives this wayโ manyadditional particles come between the interrogative andใ:
interrogative + particle combinationใฉใใ ใซ ใฉใใซใ
ไฝใชใซ
ใ ใง ไฝใชใ
ใงใ
่ชฐใ ใ
ใ ใ ่ชฐใใ
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 173
ใโDirect verb object
The last particle in the listโ but also the simplest to explain. In modern Japaneseโ thisparticle does nothing more than mark a direct verb object. Weโre already discussedthis in chapter 2 in the section on verb particlesโ itโs pronounced asใโ and there isreally nothing else to say about this particle.
4.2.2 Emphatic particles
There are a number of particles which should be known in order to be able to com-municate more than rudimentary ideasโ in addition to the previous essential particlesโ that is not to say we cannot create complex constructions with the previous 10 par-ticlesโ but to properly express ourselves we need a few more. The following list isdivided into two sections; the first focussing mostly on sentence ending emphaticparticlesโ and the second focussing on more general grammatical particles.
ใโ Informativeโ emphatic
This particle is most often found at the end of statementsโ where it marks informationas being either new informationโ or contrary to the listenerโs belief. While temptingโthis particle should not be translated with an exclamation markโ asใ isnโt actuallyan exclamationโ but only emphasises the โnew informationโ/โcontrary informationโaspect. For instance:
ๅใใ
ใ้ข็ฝใใใใ
ใใฃใใโ(It) was very fun.โ
ๅใ้ข็ฝใใฃใใใโ(It) was very fun (you didnโt know or expect thisโ so Iโm telling you it was).โ
Whenใ is used to emphasise contrasting informationโ the situation is usuallysome kind of misunderstanding:
้ใกใ
ใใใๆฐใใใ
ใใใฎใฏใใใๅคใตใ
ใใฎใฏใใใใ ใใโNo (emphatic). The new ones (go) hereโ the old ones (go) over there(emphatic).โ
While it would be temping in this use to translateใ with an exclamationmark anywayโ care should be taken not to overdo things. A stern lecture from a
174 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
bossโ for instanceโ might never involve any yelling or even exclamationsโ but mightbe interspersed lavishly withใ.
ใญโRhetoric
This particle is placed at the end of a sentenceโ when the speaker wants to provokethe listener into agreeing with them. This is a rhetorical agreement thoughโ and us-ingใญ means you already expect the response to be something that sounds like anaffirmative mu ering:
ๆฆใใใ
ใใใฏๆฌๅฝใปใใจใ
ใซ็พไบบใณใใ
ใงใใญใโSakaki is really beautifulโ isnโt she?โ
The unlikely event of hearing โnoโ as a response to this type of rhetoricalconfirmation seeking is typically met with much surprise and disbeliefโ sparking newdepths of conversation since you responded differently than what was expected ofyou.
This particle can be drawn out to formใญใ (also found wri enใญใผ orใญใ)โin which case it does the same thingโ but expecting less of a response:
ไผใใ
ใฟใฃใฆใใใญใใโHolidayโs nice isnโt itโฆโ
A response to this is typically just something simple like โใใโ (a colloquialโyesโ)โ or โใใใญใโ (in meaning similar to โindeedโ) without the response havingbeen given much thought.
A secondary use is mid-sentenceโ to draw the a ention of the listener(s). Thisuse isโ sadlyโ completely and u erly untranslatableโ so the translation in the followingsentence hasใญ mapped to a commentary instead:
ๆฆใใใฏใญใๆฌๅฝใซๅคง้ชไบบใใใใใใ
ใงใใใโSakaki (are you still listening to me?) is actually from Oosaka.โ
This use can be overdoneโ tooโ similar to how the ungrammatical use of โlikeโis common in spoken Englishโ but sticking it in every other word makes you posi-tively obnoxious:
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 175
ใงใญใใใใใญใๆฅใ
ใใใญใๆพ็ฐใพใคใ
ใใใใญใใใๅๆ้ใฏใใใใ
ๅพ ใพ
ใฃใใใใ ใใโSo likeโ thenโ likeโ once I got there likeโ Matsuda had been likeโ waiting forover half an hourโ apparently.โ
ใชโ Strong rhetoric
Usingใช instead ofใญ is a more assertive way to do the exact same thingโ somewhatrhetorically asking for confirmation. Because this is a more assertive particleโ it ex-pects more of a response more thanใญ does. Howeverโ this particle has a problem assentence enderโ because (as was explained in chapter 3 in the section on imperatives)ใช after a้ฃไฝๅฝข can also mean a prohibiting commandโ such as in:
้ใ
ใใใชใโDonโt open (that).โ
The way to tell whetherใช is a prohibiting command or a confirmation-seekingparticle is by intonation. Ifใช is accentedโ itโs the confirmation seeking version. If itโsunaccentedโ itโs a prohibiting command. We can also findใช at the end of a sentencewhen itโs following a้ฃ็จๅฝขโ in which case it can be considered a short version of the้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ commanding form:
ใใฃใใจ่ตทใ
ใใชใโWill you get up already?โ
Luckilyโ this type of command is typically issued in a very stern voiceโ so itโsvery hard to mistake it for the other two roles that the sentence endingใช can have.
Like ใญโ ใช can have its vowel sound drawn outโ to form ใชใ (also wri enใชใผ orใชใ)โ and just likeใญ it can be used mid-sentence as an a ention grabber.
ใโ Informativeโ emphatic
As a sentence enderโใ is a more emphatic version ofใโ purely being informative.Whereใ is used either to present new information or contrary informationโใ isonly used for new information:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใๆๆฅญใใ ใใใ
ใซๅบใง
ใชใใฃใใใใใใใใฆใ็ ๆฐใณใใใ
๏ผโ(He) didnโt come to class today either. (Do you think) maybe (heโs) sick?โ
176 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
Likeใญ andใชโใ can be used mid-sentence as an a ention grabber. Howeverโit is considered a more explicit a ention grabber thanใญ orใช.
ใโใโ Emphatic
These particles are highly informal โ to the point of familiar โ versions ofใ. Youmight use them around the houseโ or with your good friendsโ or when trying to soundcool when picking up girlsโ when angry at someone for doing something completelystupidโ or in any other situation in which informal familiar speech is used.
The difference between the two is the perceived objectivity. ใ comes off asmore subjective thanใ:
ใคใพใใชใ่ถฃๅณใใ ใฟ
ใ ใใโWellโ thatโs a boring hobby.โ
ใคใพใใชใ่ถฃๅณใใ ใฟ
ใ ใใโ[In case you didnโt knowโ] itโs [just] a boring hobby.โ
ใโ Stative
This particle is used when listing one or more arguments that back up some (possiblymerely implied) statement:
้ข็ฝใใใใ
ใใชใใฃใใใ่กใ
ใใใใชใใจ่จใ
ใฃใใ ใใใๅฏใใ
ใใฃใใใใใ่ใ
ใใใชใใฃใฆโฆโ(Well) it wasnโt fun. (I) told (you) (I) didnโt want to goโ didnโt (I)? It wascoldโ (I) couldnโt really hear it all that wellโฆโ
An example of where the conclusion is already implied requires more of aconversation:
A:ใใใใ่ฒทใ
ใใชใใฃใ๏ผ
B:ใพใใ้ซใใ
ใใฃใใใๅฅในใค
ใซ้่ฆใใ ใใใ
ใชใใฎใใชใใโฆA:ใใใใฃใใ
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 177
A: โSoโ (you) didnโt buy it?โ (the speaker here is only guessing)B: โWellโ it was expensiveโ (and) not something that (I) particularlyneededโฆโA: โAhโฆ(is that how things are)โ
We see here thatโ while left impliedโ speaker B clearly did not buy whateverthe conversation was about.
While it will often suit the translation to combine multiple -ใ reasons withโandโโ as this is the word used for compounding in Englishโ a be er translation wouldbe โnot just โฆ but also โฆโ or โwhatโs moreโโฆโ. Be careful not to take this word โmoreโtoo literallyโ asใ can occur without the actual statement such as in the previousexample.
ใฃใฆโReiterating
This particle is an excessively contracted form of the constructionsใจ่จใ
ใฃใฆ(ใ) andใจใใฆ(ใ)โ and it can be used in a fashion similar to the quoting particleใจ:
ไฝใชใ
ใงใใฃใฆ๏ผโWhat did (you) say?โ
Somewhat confusinglyโ itโs sometimes also used as a replacement forใจ in itsquoting role:
ๆฅใ
ใใฃใฆ่จใ
ใฃใใฎใซใใฉใใใฆๆฅใ
ใชใใฃใใฎใโEven though (you) said (you) would come overโ why didnโt (you)?โ
ใฃใโDubitative
This is a particle that is used when asking oneself a question such as when trying torecall somethingโ as well as when asking someone to give an answer that you knowthey already have:
้ป่ฉฑ็ชๅทใงใใใฐใใใ
ใฏไฝใชใ
ใ ใฃใใโNow what was the phone number againโฆโโWhat was the phone number again?โ
178 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ใใชโDubitative
This is a combination of the questioning particleใ and the strong confirmation seek-ingใช. Combined they mean something like โI wonderโ/โI guessโ:
ๆคๆพใใใพใค
ใใใๆฅใ
ใชใใใช(ใ)ใโ(I) guess Uematsu wonโt be coming eitherโ huh?โ
ๆจๆๆฅใใใใใณ
ใซๆใฒใพ
ใใช(ใ)ใโ(I) wonder if (I)โm free Thursdayโฆโ
ใใใโDubitative
ใใใ is the effeminate version ofใใชโ reserved for women (as well as effeminatehomosexuals and transvestitesโ in all fairness). While most particles can be used byeither gender but may make someone sound effeminateโ using this particle as a manmakes you sound gay. Quite literallyโ in factโ as it means you are le ing people knowthat you consider yourself effeminate and wish others to know this. Of courseโ usingthis particle as a woman is perfectly fine.
ใใชโHopefulness
This combination of the particles ใ and ใช is used to indicate a hopeโ or wishfulthinkingโ such as in for instance:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใใใๅคฉๆฐใฆใใ
ใ ใจใใใใช(ใ)ใโItโd be nice if today had good weather too.โ
ไปๆฅใฏ้ป่ฉฑใงใใ
ใใใใฆใใใจๆใใ
ใใใชใใโ(She)โll call todayโ (I) think (I hope)โฆโ
ใโOpen noun listโ resignation
There are two roles thatใ plays. The first is as openโ or non-exhaustiveโ noun listerโused similarly toใจ:
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 179
ใ้ ใใ
ใฏใใฆใคในใญใผใใฉใ ใ่ฒทใ
ใฃใใโAs for drinksโ I got (us) (amongst other thingsโ) whiskey and rum.โ
Unlikeใจโ which presents an inclusive listโ ใ leaves this list openโ typicallyin a way that allows us to interpret it as meaning โthese thingsโ and other things likethemโ.
In addition to being the non-exhaustive noun listerโ we can also useใ as asentence ending particleโ where it signifies a resignation to oneโs fate in the face ofhardship:
ไปๆนใใใ
ใใชใใใโ(I) guess thereโs nothing (I) can do about it..โ
Finallyโใ at the end of a sentence is in many regions in Japan considered acopulaโ replacingใ . In these regionsโ you may also find it inflected as negativeโ asใใชใ. Howeverโ in this use (both affirmative and negative inflections) it is simplya copulaโ not indicating resignation of any kind.
ใโ Informative
As sentence enderโ this particle leads two lives. In standard Japaneseโใ is used asan emphatic sentence enderโ similar toใโ but is considered an effeminate particleand as such is used a lot by womenโ but avoided by men. In the more rural parts ofJapanโ and most readily recognisably in the Kansai areaโใ is also used asใโ but isnot considered effeminate in any way and is prolifically used by everyone.
In addition to acting as a sentence ending particleโใ can also be used in a rolesimilar to the noun particleใโ in which case it is an emphatic open listing particle.
4.2.3 Further particles
ใฎใงใโใใงใโใฎใ โใใ โReasoning
A combination of the genitiveใฎ (permissibly contracted toใ) and the copulaโ thisโparticleโ โ or ratherโ set of particles โ can be used as a way to give a reason forsomething without explicitly stating so. This means you present a normal statementand finish it with a form ofใฎใงใโ turning it into something close to a factoidโ whichcan be interpreted by the listener(s) as a reason for a situationโ or an explanation of aprior statement. Thatโs perhaps a li le abstractโ so an example:
180 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
A:็ ใญใ
ใใใญใ
B:ใใใ้ป่ปใงใใใ
ใง็ ใฃใฆใใพใฃใใใ ใA:ใใใงใใใ
A: โYou look sleepy.โB: โYeahโ (it is due to the fact that) I fell asleep on the train.โA: โAhโ I see.โ
The โit is due to the fact thatโ part in the translation for line B is the concep-tual translation for ใฎใงใโ and is usually best simply left outโ or if really neededtranslated with โasโ (meaning something similar to โbecauseโโ but subtly differentby leaving out the explicit causal link described by โbecauseโ). While itโs tempting totranslateใฎใงใ or its other formsใใงใโใฎใ andใใ as โbecauseโโ this is not whatit means. There is nothing inใฎใงใ that actually translates to an explicit โbecauseโโso whenever possible do not use this word when translating.
ใฎใงใ can also be used to ask for a reasonโ paired with a question that wouldotherwise warrant a yes/no answer. Firstโ withoutใฎใงใ:
A:ใใใงใใใงใใใB:ใฏใใ
A: โIs it okay this way?โB: โYes.โ
And then withใฎใงใ:
A:ใใใงใใใใงใใใB:ๆฎ
ใฎใ
ใใฏๆๆฅใใใ
ใใใใ ใใใไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏใใใใใจๆใใ
ใใใ
A: โIs it okay this way?โB: โ(We)โll do the rest tomorrowโ so (yesโ) I think we can call it a day.โ
We see here that a normal โใงใใ question is a simple โis it?โ yes/no ques-tionโ but that usingใฎใงใใ not only asks for a yes/no answer but also the motivationfor the yes/no answer (the mixed politeness form between the two lines here may in-dicate a subordinate talking to their boss).
Be careful not to start over-usingใฎใงใโ ending up using it in situations inwhich it doesnโt actually make any sense such as in the following example:
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 181
A:ไฝใชใซ
ใใใใงใใใB:ใขใคในใใใใใงใใ
A: โWhat will you have?โB: โAs I want ice cream.โ
In this caseโ using ใใงใ is plain and simply wrong. Rather than statingthat you want ice creamโใขใคในใใใโ the addition ofใใงใ suddenly forces thelistener to interpret this phrase as a reason for somethingโ leading to what is basicallya nonsense phraseโ so be careful: only useใฎใงใ or a variant when there is somethingto reason aboutโ or you need more information than a simple yes/no answer to aquestion.
ใฎใงโCause
This is essentially the continuative form for ใฎใงใโ and means โit is that โฆโ in anunfinished sentenceโ which is in English typically translated as โdue toโ. There isan important distinction between โdue toโ and โbecauseโ that deserves some speciala ention: โdue toโ typically cannot be used to indicate things such as explainingvolitional action (I am doing this becauseโฆ)โ reasons for requests (I would like โฆbecause)โ personal opinions (I think โฆ because)โ commands (do โฆ because)โ andinvitations/suggestion (should โฆ because). The same holds for ใฎใง: it cannot beused for any of these.
Youโd almost forget there are other things beside these categoriesโ but themost fundamental oneโ stating factโ is still there and is exactly what this particle isused for:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏไผใใ
ใฟใชใฎใงใใๅบใฟใ
ใ้ใ
ใใฆใใใพใใโDue to it being a holiday todayโ the shop is closed.โ
ๆ ้ใใใใ
ใใฆใใใฎใงใไปใปใ
ใฎใไฝฟใคใ
ใใใงใใโDue to it being brokenโ (you) will (have to) use another one.โ
Because of the fact that this particle can only be used for factoidsโ and can-not be used to express oneโs own opinionโ volition or suggestionsโ it is consideredmore polite than the next particleโ ใใโ which acts as a general โbecauseโ. ใฎใง isused frequently in official documents and formal se ingsโ where stating somethingas something other than a factoid might lay responsibility for the statement withsomeone.
182 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ใใโTemporalโ spacial or reasoning origin
The broadest definition that can be given for ใใ is that it signifies the origin ofanythingโ be it space related (starting from some point)โ time (starting at some time)โevents (starting from the moment after you undertake a particular action)โ or evenreasoning (making an argument that is grounded in a particular perspective). Be-cause of thisโ itโs a very versatile particle. To see this versatilityโ letโs look at severalexamples to illustrate the different uses of this particleโ in translation:
ไบฌ้ฝใใใใจ
ใใๅฅ่ฏใชใ
ใธ่กใ
ใใโ(We)โre heading from Kyoto in the direction of Nara.โ
ๅ ญๆใใใ
ใใไปไบใใใจ
ใใฆใใใ ใโ(I) workโ starting at 6 oโ clock.โ
ๆฅๆใใใใค
ใใๅคงๅญฆ็ใ ใใใใใ
ใงใใโ(I)โll be a university student as of next month.โ
ๆดๆฟฏใใใใ
ใใใฆใใใดใใๆจใ
ใฆใฆๆฅใ
ใพใใโAfter (I) have done the laundry (I)โll go throw out the garbage.โ
้ ใใ
ใใใใ่ฉฆ้จใใใ
ใๅใ
ใๅใจ
ใใใชใใฃใใโBecause (I) was lateโ (I) couldnโt take the exam.โ
้ป้ใใใใญ
ใใใฏๅ ็ใใใใ
ใ ใใไธๆใใใใ
ใซ่ชฌๆใใคใใ
ใใใใจใๅบๆฅใงใ
ใพใใโBecause Mr. Kurogane is a teacherโ he can also explain (things) well.โ
You may have noticed the difference between the ใฆ-form + ใใ in exam-ple sentence fourโ and the past tense ใ + ใใ in example sentence five. The firstconstruction uses an open statement (an unfinished event if we remember whatใฆstands for) that acts as point of origin for a new eventโ while the second uses a closedstatement as a point of origin for a reasoning. The easy way to remember this is thataใฆ form isnโt a finished verb actionโ so no conclusions can be drawn from itโ while a้ฃไฝๅฝข is for all intents and purposes doneโ and can be used for drawing conclusionsand commenting on.
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 183
ใพใงโTemporalโ spacial or reasoning extent (inclusive)
The counterpart toใใ is the particleใพใงโ which signifies the extent and thus endof somethingโ rather than the origin. To be more specificโใพใง signifies an โup to andincludingโ extent:
ๅฅ่ฏใชใ
ใพใง่กใ
ใใโ(We)โre going up to Nara.โ
ๅ ญๆใใใ
ใพใงไปไบใใใจ
ใใฆใใพใใโ(I) work till 6 oโ clock.โ
ๆฅๆใใใใค
ใพใงๅคงๅญฆ็ใ ใใใใใ
ใงใใโ(I)โll be a university student until next month.โ
ๆดๆฟฏใใใใ
ใใใใพใงใดใใๆจใ
ใฆใพใใโ(I)โll be throwing out garbage until (I) start doing the laundry.โ
ใใใพใง่จใ
ใใใงใใใโ(You)โve gone too farโฆโliterally: โ(How can you) say (something) (to that extent)?โ
This last sentence is incredibly sparse in terms of actual translationโ havingmuch more implied translation than literalโ but illustrates the conceptual โextentโโwhere you cannot physically measure saying somethingโ but can only conceptuallysay someone is saying something that is either insignificant or grave in consequence.
Of courseโใใ andใพใง can be used together in the typical โfrom โฆ to โฆโpa ern:
ไบฌ้ฝใใใใจ
ใใๅฅ่ฏใชใ
ใพใง่กใ
ใใโ(We)โre going from Kyoto up to Nara.โ
ๅ ญๆใใใ
ใใไธๆใใกใ
ใพใง้ๅใใใฉใ
ใใพใใโ(I) will exercise from 6 to 7 oโ clock.โ
1999ๅนดใญใ
ใใ2004ๅนดใพใงๅคงๅญฆ็ใงใใใโ(I) was a student from 1999 to 2004.โ
184 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
But donโt let the following sentence trip you up:
ๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใๅฏใ
ใฃใฆใใใใใๅฝผใใ
ใๅธฐใใ
ใใพใงๅฎฟ้กใใ ใใ ใ
ใใใพใใใ
This sentence does not mean โI will not do homework from the moment myfriend arrives until he leavesโโ but actually means:
โBecause my friend has dropped byโ I will not do homework until he leaves.โ
This sentence is not a โfrom โฆ up till โฆโ sentenceโ but a reason marked withใใโ where the conclusion happens to containใพใง. Be carefulโ and pay a ention towhether something is -ใฆใใ or -ใใใ!
ใพใงใซโTemporalโ spacial or reasoning extent (exclusive)
The combination ofใพใง +ใซ is a subtle restriction of the normal particleใพใง:
ไนๆใใ
ใพใง้ใใค
ใพใใใงใใโ(We)โll assemble until 9 oโ clock.โ
ไนๆใพใงใซ้ใพใใใงใใliterally: โ(We)โll assemble up until 9 oโ clock.โmeaning: โ(We)โll assemble before 9 oโ clock.โ
Whileใพใง indicates โup to and includingโโใพใงใซ indicates only โup toโโ orโup untilโ. This difference between including the last moment and excluding the lastmoment can be criticalโ as for instance in the previous example phrases. If we imaginea situation where a group of people are assembling in order to set off on a journey bybus at 9โ forge ing the innocent lookingใซ will make the difference between peopleenjoying a nice holidayโ or standing stranded at the bus stop because they missed thedeadline and the bus already left.
ใใโComparative (classical origin)
Before explaining the modern useโ it might be useful to explain thatใใ used to playthe role that ใใ plays today. In factโ in legal documentsใใ is still used insteadofใใ. Nowโ this may not have been a very lengthy explanationโ but it does make
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 185
understanding whyใใ does what it does in modern Japanese easier: in modernJapaneseโใใ is used to label something as a reference point for a comparison:
ใขใณใใณใฏ้ฃใใใ
ใใณใใ็ใใพ
ใใงใใ
Literally this line reads โAnpan (ใขใณใใณ)โ with respect to dinner bread (้ฃใใณใใ)โ is sweeter (็ใ).โ which makes the somewhat abstract explanation earlierclearer.
Typicallyโใใ gets translated with โrather thanโโ but this can be confusingbecauseใใ usually does not link the two things being comparedโ as in Englishโ butlinks the reference point and the quality. In the previous sentenceโ for instanceโ้ฃใใณใใ is the reference pointโ and the quality is็ใโ sweet. We could even leave thecompared item out entirelyโ relying on context to make it clear what it was supposedto be:
้ฃใใณใใ็ใใงใใโ(it) is sweeter than dinner bread.โ
The reason we can do this is because qualitiesโ as you hopefully rememberfrom the section on a ributive and comparative use of adjectivesโ can be either at-tributive (a ributing their quality) or comparative (being used to indicate they applymore to one thing than another). As suchโ็ใใงใ doesnโt just mean โit is sweetโโbut can mean โit is sweeterโ just as easily. When paired withใใโ considering theadjective a comparative is the be er interpretation.
ใชใใโ Performing two acts at the same time
This particleโ which follows a verbs in้ฃ็จๅฝขโ or verbal adjectives and nouns directlyโsignifies that two actions are taking place at the same timeโ for the same duration oftime. This particle is sometimes translated with โwhileโโ but this is typically moreconfusing than helpful because of the way Japanese clauses are ordered (the mostimportant clause coming last):
ใใฌใใ่ฆใฟ
ใชใใใ้ฃฏใฏใ
ใ้ฃใ
ในใพใใใโ(I) ate dinner while watching the TV.โ
The second partโใ้ฃฏใ้ฃในใพใใโ is the dominant action hereโwhich is why itcomes last. In Englishโ howeverโ we tend to list the dominant action firstโ mentioningthe other thing weโre doing almost as an afterthought.
On a timing noteโ ใชใใ implies that the two actions are roughly of equal
186 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
durationโ and we cannot use it for something like โI did some shopping while vis-iting Tokyo todayโ. Insteadโ the particleใใฆใ is used for this kind of momentarysimultaneous actionโ if a particle is used at all. Ratherโ usually a continuative is usedinsteadโ such as:
ๆฑไบฌใจใใใใ
ใซ่กใ
ใฃใฆ่ฒทใ
ใ็ฉใใฎ
ใใใพใใใโI went to Tokyo (and) did (some) shopping (while there).โ
In addition to the obvious interpretationโ ใชใใ can also be used to mean
โbutโ or โeven thoughโโ especially when paired with the nounๆฎๅฟตใใใญใ
โ โunfortunateโ:
ๆฎๅฟตใชใใใใใ็ฐกๅใใใใ
ใชไบใใจ
ใใใใใพใใใโIโm sorryโ but ma ers are not that simple.โ
ใใฆใโ Performing one act during another
Likeใชใใโใใฆใ comes after verbs in้ฃ็จๅฝข or directly after verbal adjectives andnounsโ but unlikeใชใใโ it does not claim two actions to be perfectly synchronous.Insteadโ the verb in้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใฆใ indicates the longer verb actionโwith the sentencefinalising verb indicating the shorter one. This might seem oddโ since it might seemto contradict the practice of pu ing the most important part lastโ but actually theshort action is dominant: since the long verb action is going on anywayโ the shorteraction represents more specificโ and thus more importantโ information:
ๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใ้ง ใใ
ใพใง้ใใ
ใใใฆใ่ฒทใ
ใ็ฉใใฎ
ใใใโWhile bringing (my) friend to the stationโ (we also) did (some) shopping.โ
ใใฆใ can also be wri enใใฆใใซโ explicitly using the particleใซ to markthe act as a time frame in which the more specific act takes place.
As mentioned in the section onใชใใโ often a continuative verb form is usedrather thanใใฆใโ but this does come at a price: using theใฆ form means we alsoindicate a sequence of eventsโ so that we cannot rephrase the previous sentence asfollowsโ without changing its meaning:
ๅ้ใ้ง ใพใง้ใฃใฆ่ฒทใ็ฉใใใโI escorted my friend to the stationโ (and then) did (some) shopping.โ
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 187
ใคใคโ Performing an act while some situation is the case
As the last particle for indicating โdoing something while something else is the caseโโwe find the particleใคใค. This particle is more general thanใชใใ orใใฆใ in thatthere are no time constraints of any sort (this particle follows verbs in้ฃ็จๅฝข):
่ชๅใใถใ
ใฎๆ็บใใ
ใง็ฅใ
ใใคใคใๅฆๅฎใฒใฆใ
ใใใคใใใงใใใโDo you intend to deny (it)โ while knowing full well it was (your) ownfault?โ
Note that because this particle has no time aspect to itโ we can also use it forthings such as:
ใๅบใฟใ
ใฏ้ง ใใ
ใๅทฆใฒใ ใ
ใซ่ฆใฟ
ใคใคใ็ใพ
ใฃ็ดใ
ใใงใใโThe shop is straight onโ with the station to your left.โ
ใใใฉใโContrastive: โhoweverโ
While the English โhoweverโ comes at the start of a sentence and is followed bya commaโ the Japanese ใใฉ comes mid-sentence (and may also be followed by acomma). Strangely enoughโ they both mean the same thingโ but the way they do it isjust syntactically different.
English: โThis is true. Howeverโ there are more things at play.โJapanese: ใใใ ใใฉใไป
ใปใ
ใฎ่ฆ็ด ใใใ
ใใใใ
In this sentenceโ the pause is after ใใฉโ which is simply a contracted formof ใใใฉใ. In factโ ใใใฉใ has four variants: ใใใฉใโ ใใใฉโ ใใฉใ and ใใฉ. In classical Japanese these all had subtly different meaningsโ ใใใฉใ being acombination of the verb formใใ (theๅทฒ็ถๅฝข forใใ) and the classical compoundparticleใฉใโ but in modern Japanese they can be used essentially interchangeablyโas long as the โthe longerโ the more politeโ rule is observed. That saidโ bothใใใฉใandใใฉใ contain the emphaticใโ whileใใใฉ andใใฉ do notโ which makesใใใฉใ andใใฉใ more contrastive thanใใใฉ andใใฉ.
All of theseโ howeverโ follow้ฃไฝๅฝข phrases.
188 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
็จใปใฉ
โ Extent
This particle is not so hard to useโ but it has a particular pa ern of use that sometimesconfuses people when they first learn it. For this reasonโ itโs probably easiest to saythat็จ stands for โextentโ of actionsโ consequencesโ or even of properties. For instanceโใใใปใฉ would translate to โthe extent of doingโ. Similarlyโ้ซ
ใใ
ใใปใฉ would be โtheextent of the heightโโ etc.
This marking of extent is quite useful when comparing items: where the con-struction [X]ใ[Y]ใ gives a similarityโ and the construction [X]ใใ[Y] makes Y moreโsomethingโ than [X]โ the construction [X]ใปใฉ[Y] marks the extent of Y the beingsame as for X. For instance:
้ซใใ
ใใปใฉ็พๅณใใ
ใใใliterally: โTo the extent that it is priceyโ it is tasty.โmeaning: โAs tasty as it is pricey.โ
In effectโ this [X]ใปใฉ[Y] sets up a proportional relation between the conceptsX and Y. Another example to illustrate this:
ใใใปใฉไธๆใใใใ
ใซใชใใliterally: โTo the extent of doing itโ one gets be er (at it).โmeaning: โGe ing be er the more (you) do it.โ
Hopefully this makes the following sentence understandable:
็พ่กใณใใ ใค
ใฏ่ฆใฟ
ใใฐใ่ฆใใปใฉ็พใใคใ
ใใใ
Before offering the translationโ Iโll give you the translation for the individualwordsโ in the hope that what I end up offering is a translation that seems obvious: ็พ่ก means artโ่ฆใ means โto watch/to look atโ and็พใใ means beautiful. Literallythis sentence would come down to โArtโ should one look at itโ to the extent of lookingat itโ itโs beautifulโ. The trick is now of course to turn this literal translation intosomething that actually makes sense in English:
โAs far as Art is concernedโ the more (often) (you) look at itโ the morebeautiful it is.โ
Hopefully at this point youโll go โyesโ thatโs obviousโ. If soโ then good. If notโthen thatโs in line with what many people experience when they first come acrossใป
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 189
ใฉ used in this particular sense. The pa ern used here is quite particular: with [X] averb and [Y] some statementโ โ([X] inๅทฒ็ถๅฝข+ใฐ) [X]ใปใฉ [Y]โ translates to โThe moreone [X]โ the more [Y]โ.
Another example using this pa ern is:
่ใ
ใใฐ่ใใปใฉๅใ
ใใฃใฆใใใใโThe more (you) hear itโ the be er (you)โll understand it.โ
The reason it means this is that the extents of the initial verb action่ใ andthe conclusionๅใใฃใฆใใ are linked byใปใฉ.
Negative extent
Just asใปใฉ can be used for a โthe more [X]โ the more [Y]โโ it can be used to constructa negative โThe more Xโ the less Yโ sentence:
่ปใใใพ
ใฏๅฎใใ
ใใปใฉ่ตฐใฏใ
ใใใชใใใฎใ ใโThe cheaper cars areโ the less (well) they run.โ
One of the things that tends to trip up people a lot withใปใฉ is the fact thateven though the Japanese pa ern has three verbsโ the English translation has onlytwo. The thing to remember is that [ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข๏ผใฐ +้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใปใฉ] is a single semanticblock meaning โto the extend of doing Xโโ so the Japanese may have the verb twiceโbut the translation only needs it once.
ใใโ Saveโ except
This particle is sometimes translated with โonlyโโ but when it isโ it typically needs avery strange and contrived explanation. Insteadโ remember thatใใ does not meanโonlyโโ but means โsaveโ or โexceptโโ as used in for instance โI didnโt do a dang thingtodayโ save/except eatโ:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏ้ฃใ
ในใใใจใใไฝใชใซ
ใใใชใใฃใใโToday (I) did nothing except eat.โ
Thatโs really all there is to it. The only additional rule is thatใใ followsverbs in้ฃไฝๅฝขโ or nouns directly:
190 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ๅ ็ใใใใ
ใใใใชใใโ(There) is no one but (the) teacher.โ
ใ ใโOnly
Unlikeใใโ ใ ใ does mean โonlyโโ and is typically followed by the instrumentalparticleใง to indicate something is done in some restricted way:
ไธไบบใฒใจใ
ใ ใใงใใพใใใโ(I) did it just by myself.โ
The same idea can be expressed withใใโ but then the phrasing needs to bedrastically altered:
็งใใใ
ใใใใชใใฃใใโNo one did it except for me.โ
Notice that these two phrases connote very different thingsโ even though theyshare the same basic idea. Both claim that one person performed a taskโ but thesentence with ใ ใ sounds far more positive than the one withใใ. The secondsentence sounds almost accusativeโ which is a direct consequence of the fact thatใใ means saveโ and thus needs to be used with a negative verbโ as well as with anunnamed party in this case.
ใ ใ can also be used with verbs in้ฃไฝๅฝข form:
ไธ่จใฒใจใใจ
่จใ
ใใ ใใงๅใ
ใใใพใใใโ(He) understood (it) with just one word.โ
Howeverโ whileใ ใ is used to indicate a particular instanceโ for the habitualor repetitive version of just/onlyโ such as in for instance โwhy do you always only eatcaramel flavoured ice cream?โโ the particleใฐใใ (or its variantsใฐใฃใใโใฐใใโใฐใฃใใ orใฐใฃใ) is used.
Special use
The verbๅบๆฅใงใ
ใโ โto be able to doโ in combination withใ ใ creates a special word:ๅบๆฅใใ ใ. This word is special because itโs part of a pair that expresses almost the
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 191
same thingโ but not quite: ๅบๆฅใใ ใ andใชใในใ. Both express โas โฆ as possibleโbut thereโs a subtle difference:
ๅบๆฅใใ ใๆฉใฏใ
ใๆฅใ
ใฆไธใใ
ใใใโPlease come as quickly as possible.โ
ใชใในใๆฉใๆฅใฆไธใใใโPlease come as quickly as possible.โ
The difference between the two is that ๅบๆฅใใ ใ expresses โdo whateveryou can to โฆโโ whereas ใชใในใ expresses โat your earliest convenienceโ or evenjust โif possibleโ. The first essentially works as a commandโ saying to drop everythingand do whatever the sentence says to doโ provided this is at all possible (hence theๅบๆฅใ)โ while the second doesnโt demand quite this muchโ due to the words thatitโs made up of: a combination of ใชใโ to becomeโ and the ้ฃ็จๅฝข of the classicalโvery oddโ verb ในใ (which defies modern word classes)โ used to indicate a socialexpectation.
Inverting usingใงใชใ
The meaning forใ ใ can also be inverted by addingใงใชใโ the continuative ofใงใ followed by the้ฃ็จๅฝข ofใชใโ to form a construction meaning โnot justโ or โaswell asโ:
้่ปขใใใฆใ
ใ ใใงใชใใใกใซใใใฏในใซใไธๆใใใใ
ใช้่ปขๆใใใฆใใใ
ใงใใliterally: โNot just (at) drivingโ but also at (the) mechanicsโ heโs a reallycompetent driver.โmeaning: โ(He)โs a driver whoโs not just good at the wheelโ but also knowshis way around the mechanics of a car.โ
ใฐใใโ Justโ only
As mentioned in the explanation ofใ ใโใฐใใ is used for things that are repetitiveor drown out everything elseโ such as in the following sentence for instance:
ใใใฐใใไปใค
ใใไบบใฒใจ
ใๅซใใ
ใใงใใโ(I) hate people who only tell lies.โ
192 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
In this sentenceโใฐใใ has to be used if we want to indicate not just telling alie once or twiceโ but always telling liesโ i.e. only telling lies rather than truths.
Another use is with verbs in plain past tenseโ to indicate that the verb actionhas been completed onlyโ or justโ moments ago:
ไฝใคใ
ใฃใใฐใใใฎใฏใใญใผโcookies that have just been madeโ
ใฐใใ can also be wri en ใฐใฃใใโ in which case it carries just a bit moreemphasis. It may also be used asใฐใใ orใฐใฃใใ without any serious differenceโother than thatใฐใใ sounds a bit more effeminate thanใฐใใ. Finallyโใฐใฃใใโ orใฐใฃใใ can be further contracted to the highly informalใฐใฃใโ not to be confusedwith the popular termใใซโ used when someone messes something up.
Likeใ ใ
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 193
ใ ใใงใ +ใฎ can become eitherใ ใใฎใงใ orใ ใใงใใฎใใคใงใ +ใ can become eitherใใคใใงใ orใใคใงใใใฉใใงใ +ใง can become eitherใฉใใงใงใ orใฉใใงใใงใฉใใงใ +ใซ can become eitherใฉใใซใงใ orใฉใใงใใซ
Howeverโ for most of these combinations there tends to be a preference forone or the otherโ soใฉใใซใงใ tends to be preferred overใฉใใงใใซโ whileใ ใใงใใฎ tends to be preferred overใ ใใฎใงใ.
ใฎใซโDespite
This particle should not be confused with a loose combination ofใฎ andใซโ such asin the following sentences:
็ณๅทใใใใ
ใใใฎใซไฝใชใซ
ใใๆธใ
ใใฆใใใใใงใใโIt seems like thereโs something wri en on Ishikawaโs (something).โ
ใใฎ็พๅณใใ
ใใใใชใฎใซใใพใใใใโLetโs have that tasty looking one.โ
Howeverโ as a โfixedโ combination particle ใฎใซโ the interpretation is ratherdifferent:
ใพใ ๅๆญณใใฃใใ
ใชใฎใซใใใขใใๅใใ
ใไธๆใใใใ
ใงใใโDespite being only 10 years oldโ (she)โs incredibly proficient at playing thepiano.โ
(note thatโ in this sentenceโ theใช precedingใฎใซ is the้ฃไฝๅฝข form of thecopulaใ )
What happens here is that ใฎ sets up a factโ about which a commentary ismadeโ with the fact marked as details to the commentary by usingใซ. In this useโ thecommentary is always something constrasting or unexpected/unlikely.
ใจใโRepresentative
This particle is used in the same way asใจ orใโ acting as a noun lister. When usedโit sets up a representative listโ and because itโs representative onlyโ it can be used foreither a single termโ or for multiple terms:
194 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ๅบ่บซใใใฟ
ใจใๅซใใ
ใใ ใโ(I) hate things like sashimi.โ
้ฃฒใฎ
ใฟ็ฉใใฎ
ใจใ้ฃใ
ใน็ฉใใฎ
ใจใ่ฒทใ
ใฃใฆใใใโ(I) went to buy stuff like food and drinks.โ
ใชใฉโ (Vaguely) representative
This is a rough listing particleโ similar toใจใ in use. This particle has come from
ไฝใชใซ
ใจ throughไฝใชใ
ใฉ to the currentใชใฉ. Likeใจใโ it can be used either for listingโ orfor single representative statements.
The colloquial version of this particle isโ somewhat surprisinglyโใชใใ. Thiscolloquial version is not used for the listing version ofใชใฉโ but only for its single use:
ๅฎ็ฉใใใใฎ
ใชใใใซ่ๅณใใใใฟ
ใใชใใใโ(I) donโt care for (things like) cheap stuff.โ
ใใโUncertainty
This particle indicates an element of uncertainty in the speakerโ such as for instance:
ใฉใใใ้ใพ
ใซๅใ
ใฃใใใใงใใญใโIt looks like (we) somehow made it in timeโ doesnโt it?โ
It acts similar toใโ used after interrogatives to create a vaguely specific an-swer to the interrogative:
ไฝใชใซ
ใใ็ฝใใ
ใ็ฉใใฎ
ใๆตฎใ
ใใฆใใใโThere seems to be something white floating (there).โ
This has the same meaning as ไฝใ็ฝใ็ฉใๆตฎใใฆใใโ but is consideredmore formal literary. Other thanใฉใโ formingใฉใใใโ there are essentially nointerrogatives that are used withใใ in spoken Japanese.
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 195
ใใใโใใใโ Estimated extent
This particle is used to estimate an extent of quantityโ durationโ frequency or evenreasoning:
A:ใจใใใใใ๏ผ๏ผใใผใธใใใ่ชญใ
ใพใชใใใฐใชใใพใใใA: โ(I) need to read about 50 pages for now.โ
B:ไธๅๅใใใใฃใทใ
ใใใ่ชญใฟใพใใใใใB: โLet (me) read for about 30 minutes.โ
C:ไธๆฅใใกใซใก
ใซ๏ผๆ้ใใใ
ใใใ่ชญใฟใพใใC: โ(I) read about 3 hours a day.โ
D:ใใใใใๅใ
ใใฃใฆใใใD: โ(I) understand that much (now explain the parts I donโt understandyet).โ
The difference between the normal unvoiced versionโใใใโ and the voicedversionโใใใโ is that the second is a more colloquialโ relaxed version of the first.This means that the context in which theyโre used is subtly different. The best wayto get a feel for which to use when is to hear them used often enough.
ใใโใใโ Loose time frame
Whileใใใ is used for estimation of extentโใใ is used for estimation of a momentin time. For instance โI need to be at work around 9โ would be an instance whereใใ rather thanใใใ would be usedโ since this does not concern some measurableextentโ but a clock time.
ๆฏใใ
ใใใไธๆใใใ
ใใ่ฟใใ
ใใซๆฅใ
ใใฃใฆใโMom said sheโd come to pick (us) up around 3.โ
Similar toใใใโ the use ofใใ vs. ใใ is mostly dictated by whether ornot itโs okay to use a colloquially relaxed version. Againโ the best way to learn whenthis is is to hear it used often enough to get a feel for it.
196 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ใใโใใโใฃใใโOnlyโmerely
ใใโ and its voiced and stopped versionsใใ andใฃใใ are used to โsingle things
outโ. Theyโve come fromๅใ
ใโ to cutโ and this is an indication of how theyโre used.Added to a clauseโ it indicates that a โthis and only thisโ clause is in effect. To makethis a bit more clearโ a few examples:
ๆฅๆฌใซใปใ
ใซใฏใใ ไธๅบฆใใกใฉ
่กใ
ใฃใใใใงใใโ(I) have been to Japan (only) once.โ
Here the act of โgoing to Japanโ has been performed onceโ andใใ is used toindicate that this once is understood as โonce and only onceโโ rather than the โonceโas used in for instance โIโve been there once when it was hotโ and โฆโ which actuallydoesnโt preclude having gone to a place multiple times.
ใใฎไปไบใใใจ
ใไธไบบใฒใจใ
ใใใงใใใใ ใโ(I) did that job all (alone) by (myself).โ
Hereโใใ is used to make it explicit that there was no one else to even do thejob other than โmyselfโ. If we compare this sentence to a similar sentence that usesใ ใ instead we see:
ใใฎไปไบใไธไบบใ ใใงใใใใ ใโ(I) did that job alone.โ
We see that this sentence doesnโt actually rule out the possibility that othersmay have been available to help outโ and that in this case we did it ourselves forwhatever reason. In contrastโ the line withใใ says that at the time of doing this jobโthere was just meโ and no one else.
ใใฎไบบใฒใจ
ใซใฏไธๅบฆไผใ
ใฃใใใใงใใใฎๅพใ
ใฏไปใค
ใๅใ
ใฃใฆใพใใใงใใใโ(I)โve only met that person onceโ (I) havenโt been with them since.โ
Hereใใ is used to indicate that the event of meeting this person was a sin-gular event.
The difference between usingใใโใใ andใฃใใ is mainly a colloquial oneโrelated to โwhat sounds goodโ. In colloquially relaxed speechโใใ will work be erthanใใโ and if one wants to put extra emphasis on the โsingling outโโใฃใใ worksbe er thanใใ. It is mostly a question of hearing it often enough to develop a feelfor which is best in which se ing.
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 197
ใใคโ Equal distribution
This particle is used to indicate some equal distribution of somethingโ over somethingelse. For instance โThese oranges are 80 yen a pieceโ or โEvery pair will share 1 bookโ.In the first lineโ thereโs an equal distribution of price over every orange:
ใชใฌใณใธใไธใฒใจใคใใคใงๅ ซๅๅใฏใกใใ ใใใ
ใ ใโOranges are 80 yen a piece.โliterally: โOranges are per one (being the same for each)โ 80 yen.โ
In the second lineโ there is an equal distribution of how many items are dis-tributed over a certain number of peopleโ using โฆใซโฆใใค:
ๆฌใปใ
ใฏไบไบบใตใใ
ใซไธๅใใฃใใค
ใใคๅใ
ใๅใ
ใใใ ใโEach pair will (have to) share one book.โliterally: โAs for the booksโ to two peopleโ one book (to each group of two)will be sharedโ
ใใโ Emphaticโ appropriating
This particle can be considered similar in function toใโ except instead of just likeningtwo things to each otherโใใ can also โshiftโ the properties of the original to theinstance it is suffixed to instead. This may sound a bit strangeโ so an example willhopefully make it clearer:
A:ใใใใฉใใใใฟใพใใใใใผใจใใฆใฆๆใใ
ใใใถใคใใฃใฆโฆ
B: ใใใใใใใใใใกใใใใใฟใพใใใ็งใใใ
ใใใฃใจใใฃใใใใฆใใโฆ
A: โAhโ Iโm sorryโ Not looking at where I was going and just walking intoyou like thatโฆโB: โNoโ noโ it should be me who should be apologising. If I had paid morea ention to what was going onโฆโ
Aside from an embarrassing momentโ speaker B usesใใwithใใกใ (whichis used to refer to himself in this case) to make the act of apologising apply to himmore than to speaker Aโ thus โshiftingโ the need to apologise from A to B instead.ใใ can also be used on its ownโ in which case it is perceived as contrasting the statedto everything elseโ typically being translatable with โexactlyโ or โpreciselyโ:
198 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ใ ใใใใๆฅใ
ใใใ ใใโBut thatโs precisely why (I) came over.โ
ใใฎโ Experienceโ social customโ because
ใใฎ is used to conceptualise something as realโ be it tangible or intangible. Because ofthisโ it can fulfil a few rolesโ such as listing an experience:
็งใใใ
ใใกใฏๅญไพใใฉใ
ใฎๆใจใ
ใซๆญฃใใ
ใใ่ฒใใ
ใฃใใใฎใโWe were raised properly when we were children.โ
Hereใใฎ indicates that ๆญฃใใ่ฒใฃใ is a realโ albeit intangibleโ thing. Be-cause it is past tenseโ the only real thing it can be is the speakerโs own experience.When used with present tenseโ the only way intangible things can be real is if theyare somehow common placeโ or social customs:
ไบบใฒใจ
ใซ่ฟทๆใใใใ
ใใใใชใใใฎใงใใliterally: โIt is a thing to โnot be a bother to peopleโ.โโOne should not cause problems for others.โ
Colloquiallyโใใฎ can be shortened toใใโ but this typically makes the speakersound โchildishโ:
A:ใชใใงใๅใพใ
ใขใณใใณใฐใใ้ฃใ
ใใฎใใใ
B:ใ ใฃใฆใๅฅฝใ
ใใ ใใ๏ฝใ
A: โWhy the heck do you always eat anpan?โB: โBecause I like it.โ
ใใโ Possibility
The particle ใใ is actually the expression ใใ็ฅใ
ใใพใใ with the verb left off.This construction is used to indicate something โmight beโ the caseโ and is used quitefrequently in every day language:
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 199
A:ใใฃ๏ผ่ฒทใ
ใใฎใ๏ผ้ซใใ
ใใงใใใ๏ผB:ใใใใใใญใใ ใใใดใฃใใใใใชใใงใใ๏ผ
A: โEh? Youโre going to buy it? Donโt you think itโs (a li le) expensive?โB: โMaybeโฆ But then againโ isnโt it exactly (what we want)?โ
There is no functional difference between usingใใ and usingใใ็ฅใใพใใโ although again the โthe longer it isโ the more formal polite your speechโ ruleappliesโ soใใ is less formal thanใใ็ฅใใ which is less formal thanใใ็ฅใใชใโ which in turn is less formal thanใใ็ฅใใพใใ. Typicallyโ youโll either useใใ็ฅใใพใใ orใใ.
4.2.4 Enrichment
The following set of particles conists mostly of โinterestingโ particlesโ and rare orliterary particles that you may encounter every now and then. Howeverโ they go wellbeyond basic Japanese and you can safely ignore them if you wish. They have beenincluded mostly for completenessโ given that you will invariably run across themevery now and then while reading Japanese books or mangaโ or watching Japanesefilms or TV.
ใใโ Evenโmerely
Typically used preceded byใงโใใ is yet another โevenโโ being similar toใงใโ orใ ใ. Howeverโ whereใ ใmeans โonlyโ in the โjustโ wayโใใmeans โonlyโ in the โatleastโ/โas long as onlyโ way:
ๅญไพใใฉใ
ใงใใ็ฅใ
ใฃใฆใใใโEven children know this.โ
ๅญๅญใใใ
ใงใใๆฌ ็นใใฃใฆใ
ใใใๅ ใพใฌใ
ใใชใใฃใใโEven Confucius was not free of flaws.โ
ใ้ใใญ
ใใใใใฐใใฎใใณใใใฆใฆใใใใโAs long as (you) (just) have moneyโ (you) can take it easy.โ
200 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ใใโNot even
This particle is related toใใ in a way similar to howใใ andใ ใ are relatedโ andis followed by a negative to express a โnot evenโ construction:
ๆ็ดใฆใใฟ
ใใๆบ่ถณใพใใใ
ใซๆธใ
ใใชใใโ(I) cannot even write a le er to (my) satisfaction.โ
This particle is considered rather literary.
ใจใโ Emphasis
This particleโwhile a combination ofใจ +ใโ doesnโt actually act as a similarity markeras you might expectโ but instead is actually used to stress the preceding noun or nounphrase in a sentence:
ๅใใฟ
ใฎ่จใ
ใ้ใจใ
ใใ ใจใใโItโs (exactly) as you say.โ
This particle comes after้ฃไฝๅฝข constructions.
ใชใโ Either/orโ as soon as
This particle can mean two thingsโ depending on whether itโs used on its own or asa two-item โlistโ:
ๅฐใใพ
ใฃใใจใใซใฏใ็ถใกใก
ใชใๆฏใฏใฏ
ใชใใซ็ธ่ซใใใ ใ
ใใใใจใงใใโWhen (you)โre troubledโ (you) should talk to either (your) mother orfather.โliterally: โWhen troubledโ the concept is to consult (your) father or mother.โ
This list use is very different from the singular use:
็ฒใคใ
ใใฆใใใใใๅธฐใใ
ใใชใๆฉใฐใ
ใ้ฃฏใฏใ
ใ้ฃใ
ในใใซๅฏใญ
ใฆใใพใฃใใโBecause (she) was tiredโ (she) went to bed the moment (she) got homeโwithout having dinner.โ
Here the literal translation would be โBecause (she) was tiredโ the moment(she) got homeโ (she) went to bed without eating dinner.โ
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 201
ใใฎใฎโ Even though
This combination particle is quite interesting; the combination of ใใฎ with ใฎ isfunctionally equivalent to the particlesใ(ใ)ใฉ(ใ) andใฎใซ:
ใMacBookใใ่ฒทใ
ใฃใใใฎใฎใไฝฟใคใ
ใๆนใใ
ใๅ จ็ถใใใใ
ๅใ
ใใใชใใโEven though (I) bought a MacBookโ (I) actually donโt know how to use itat all.โ
This sentence isnโt significantly different from the same sentence usingใฎใซorใใฉ:
ใMacBookใใ่ฒทใฃใใฎใซใไฝฟใๆนใๅ จ็ถๅใใใชใใโEven though (I) bought a MacBookโ (I) actually donโt know how to use itat all.โ
ใMacBookใใ่ฒทใฃใใใฉใไฝฟใๆนใๅ จ็ถๅใใใชใใโ(I) bought a MacBook. Howeverโ (I) actually donโt know how to use it atall.โ
The similarity will typically be closer toใ(ใ)ใฉ(ใ) than toใฎใซโ as the useofใใฎ creates a factoidโ and theใฎ is used to relate the concluding remark to thisfactoidโ in a manner that could be described as genitive:
(ใMacBookใใ่ฒทใฃใใใฎ)ใฎ (ไฝฟใๆนใๅ จ็ถๅใใใชใใ)(โI bought a MacBookโ)โs (โI do not know how to use it at allโ)
ใใฎใโ Emphatic negative
This is simply the sentence endingใใฎโ used to indicate a custom or social expecta-tion of sortsโ followed by the question particleใ in its โLike I โฆโ meaning:
ใใใชใใจ็ฅใ
ใใใฎใใโLike (I) would (be expected to) know something like that!โ
As mentioned in the explanation ofใโ this is one of the rare instances whereyou will nearly always be able to translate the construction with an exclamationmarkโ due to the use of this particularly expressive ใ. Notice that this sentence isalmost the same as:
202 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ใใใชใใจ็ฅใใใโLike (I) would know something like that!โ
The only difference is that the use ofใใฎ makes the statement question theexpectationโ rather than the act:
ใใใชใใจ็ฅใใใโLike (I) know something like that!โ
ใใใชใใจ็ฅใใใฎใใโLike (I) (should) know something like that!โ
ใใฎใงโReasoning
This is just the particleใใฎโ used to indicate a custom or social expectationโ pairedwith the continuative form of the copulaโใงโ to create an implicit reason:
ๅฎขใใใ
ใจใใฆ่ฟทๆใใใใ
ใใใใชใใใใซใใใใฎใงใๅคงไบบใใจใช
ใใ้ใใ
ใใซๅบงใใ
ใฃใฆใฆใชใใใโBecause being guests means not causing (unnecessary) problems (for thehost)โ (just) sit (here) quietly โin a grown up wayโ.โ
ใฎใฟโNothing but
The particleใฎใฟ is a literary particle comparable in meaning toใ ใ orใฐใใโ andis used in essentially the same wayโ marking something as an โonly thingโ or โonlyoptionโ:
ๅๆฅญใใคใใใ
ใฎใฟใง่ใใใ
ใใฆ่ฉฆ้จใใใ
ใใพใ ใใใฎใๅฟใใ
ใใชใใใฎใโIf (you)โre only thinking about graduatingโ donโt forget that there are stillexams to be taken.โ
ไปใใพ
ใฎใฏใใ ๅพ ใพ
ใคใฎใฟใงใใโ(And) now all we (can) do (is) wait.โ
Unlike ใ ใ or ใฐใใโ which are followed by ใงใชใโ the particle ใฎใฟ isfollowed byใชใใ when the opposite of its meaning is required:
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 203
็ ็ฉถ่ ใใใใ ใใใ
ใฎใฟใชใใใไธญๅญฆ็ใกใ ใใใใใ
ใๅใ
ใใใใใซ่ชฌๆใใคใใ
ใใฆใใ ใใใโPlease explain things in such a way that middle schoolersโ not just re-searchersโ can understand it.โ
This particle is considered literary.
ใฉใใ + Negative โ Extentโ impossibility
This particle is typically used in the pa ern [โฆ]ใฉใใใงใฏใชใโ to indicate an im-possibility:
ใใๅฟใใใ
ใใใฆใฏๆ ่กใใใใ
ใใใฉใใใงใฏใชใใโBeing this busyโ itโs impossible (for me) to go on a trip.โ
It can also be used in a way similar toใปใฉ to indicate an extent:
ๅฐใใพ
ใใฉใใใฎ้จใใ
ใใใใชใใโNo need to cause a fuss over this problem.โ
This sentence is somewhat hard to properly translate due toใฉใใโ and amore literal translation would be โthis isnโt [something that should be] caused a fuss[over] to the extent that [you are] troubledโ.
This is technically a voiced version of ๆใจใใ
โ which will be treated in the sectionon nominalisers in the chapter on language pa erns.
ใฉใใใโ Emphatic
This particle is somewhat akin toใใโ except it only applies to events or circum-stancesโ and is much stronger thanใใ. It creates a construction that can be trans-lated with โInstead of โฆโ [something which implies the total opposite]โ by followingthe้ฃไฝๅฝข:
ๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใจ้ใใ
ใถใฉใใใใไธๆฉใฒใจใฐใ
ใซๅฎฟ้กใใ ใใ ใ
ใใใใใ ใโInstead of going out with (my) friendsโ (I) spent the entire night workingon (my) homework.โ
204 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ใ ใฎโRepresentative
This particle hangs somewhere betweenใจ andใwhen making a list. It creates a listof itemsโ but also implies that this list is representative of something. For instance:
็ฌใใฌ
ใ ใฎ็ซใญใ
ใ ใฎใ่ฒใใ
ใใชใใฎใ้ฃผใ
ใฃใฆใใใโDogsโ catsโ we keep all sorts of pets.โ
While the list doesnโt actually imply that there may be more than just dogsand catsโ unlikeใโ the list alone is already considered something representative ofโin this caseโ โall sorts ofโ. And unlikeใจโ this list doesnโt have to be inclusive. It couldbe that whoever says this may also have birds and rabbitsโ but then againโ they mayjust as well not.
ใซใฆโ Formalใง
This is the literary equivalent to the instrumental and location of an event markingparticleใง (but not the้ฃ็จๅฝข forใงใ).
ใซใฏโContrastive
This is a reasonably simple combination of the particle ใซ and the disambiguatingparticleใฏโ but it deserves special mention because a lot of people new to Japaneseabuse it a lotโ using ใซใฏ instead of just ใซ. A good example of this would be forinstance:
ใใผใใซใซๆฌใปใ
ใใใใโThere is a book on the table.โ
There will be people who after a while start to ignore that this is a propersentenceโ and instead say things like:
ใใผใใซใซใฏๆฌใใใใโThere is a book on the table (as opposed to the floorโ or the couchโ or theshelfโ or whatever context it might be contrasted to).โ
It should always be remembered thatใซใฏ disambiguates. It doesnโt just spec-ify a location or point/frame in timeโ but also adds a contrast between this location ortime and every other. This is a very important distinction that you should try not to
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 205
forget. If youโre tempted to useใซใฏโ first ask yourself if you actually need to disam-biguate anything. If notโ just useใซ. Donโt use the additionalใฏ because you think itโsounds goodโโ because it adds a lot of extra meaning that you probably donโt intendto add. That saidโ a proper use would for instance be:
ใใใซใฏใใใช็ฉใใฎ
ใฏใชใใใโ(We) donโt have those kind of things here.โ
In this sentenceโ the ใฏ makes senseโ because no doubt there will be otherplaces where โthose kind of thingsโ can in fact be found. Just not โhereโ.
ใๅฆใใช
ใโ Simultaneous action
This particle is similar toใชใ in that it is used to talk about two actions taking placein succession. It can be translated as โthe minute [X]โ [Y]โ or โno sooner than [X]โ [Y]โ.Itโs a relatively rare particleโ but then thatโs what enrichment is all about. It follows้ฃไฝๅฝข constructions:
ๅคงๅญฆใ ใใใ
ใๅบใง
ใใๅฆใ็ตๅฉใใฃใใ
ใใพใใใโNo sooner than they had graduatedโ they got married.โ
This is considered a fairly literary particleโ and is found more in writing thanin speech.
ใ ใฃใฆโGeneralisation
While considered a colloquial emphatic version of ใงใโ this particle is actually acontraction of the copulaใ and the classical particleใจใฆโ which has functionallybeen replaced in modern Japanese byใใฃใฆ/ใฃใฆ.
ใใใกใใใ ใฃใฆใใใใใใๅใ
ใใใใโEven grandpa knows that.โ
In this roleโ itโs not really different fromใงใ.ใ ใฃใฆ can also be used in a listing fashionโ in which case it stands for a pa ern
similar to โwhether โฆโ or โฆ [or โฆ]โ itโs all the sameโ:
206 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
ๅใใฟ
ใ ใฃใฆใๅใผใ
ใ ใฃใฆใใฟใใชไปฒ้ใชใใพ
ใ ใโYouโ meโ weโre all friends.โ
(the translation ofไปฒ้ is actually more nuanced than โfriendโโ referring tobeing part of the in-group)
As can be seen from this sentenceโ the final clause applies to all the โitemsโlisted usingใ ใฃใฆ in this fashion.
A final role played byใ ใฃใฆ is as sentence ending particleโ in which case itacts as a quotation that the speaker is surprised about:
ๅๆๆฅใฉใใใณ
ใๅฝผใใ
ใจใใผใใ ใใใ ใฃใฆใใใฎไบไบบใตใใ
ใๅฅใ
ใใใชใใฃใใ๏ผโ(She) said it was because (she) had a date with him on Saturday. Hadnโtthose two broken up?โ
In this sentence the speaker expresses a surprise over hearing what is beingquotedโ and explains this surprise with the following sentence. Notice that these aretwo separate sentences; the full stop is very much required afterใ ใฃใฆ in this use.
ใใฃใฆโGeneralisation
Similar to howใ ใฃใฆ is considered a variant ofใงใโใใฃใฆ is considered a variantof the verbal โใฆใ. Just like theใฆ formโ this โparticleโ contracts with verbs whose
โใ/โใฆ forms have contractionsโ so for instance้ใใ
ใถโ โplayโโ becomes้ใใ ใฃใฆ.
ไปๆดใใพใใ
่จใ
ใฃใใฃใฆใใใ้ ใใ
ใใใใโEven if (you) say so nowโ itโs too late (now).โ
Alsoโ when wri en as ใฃใใฃใฆ this particle stands for the contraction of
ใจ่จใ
ใฃใฆใ. Used in this wayโ its meaning is similar toใจ่จใฃใฆใ orใจใใฆใ:
ไปใใพ
ใใใ็ดใชใ
ใใใฃใใฃใฆ็ก้งใใ
ใ ใโItโs pointless to try to fix it now.โ
Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles 207
ใ ใใซโReasoning
A combination ofใ ใ +ใซโ this compound particle expresses โsince โฆโโ โbecause โฆโsimilar toใฎใง.
ๆๅพ ใใใ
ใใฆใใชใใฃใใ ใใซใๅใใใ
ใณใฏๅคงใใ
ใใใโBecause (I) I hadnโt been expecting itโ (I) was most delighted.โ
Literallyโ this sentence uses the noun form for โbeing delightedโ.
ใฃใใโCalling a ention
This particle is a contraction ofใจ่จใ
ใฃใใโ and like the next particleโ is used to catchsomeoneโs a ention if youโve been talking to them and theyโre being unresponsive.This is a very informal way to grab someoneโs a ention as well as to point out thatthey should listen to you:
ใญใใญ๏ผใญใฃใใ๏ผโHey. Hey! I said hey!โ
ใฃใฆใฐโCalling a ention
This particle is a contraction ofใจ่จใ
ใใฐ (โwhen talking about โฆโ) and is often usedto grab someoneโs a entionโ similar toใฃใใ:
ใใใ่ใ
ใใฆใใใใใ๏ฝใใใใใฃใฆใฐ๏ผโHeyโ are (you) listening or what? Helloooo? I saidโ hello!?โ
ใชใใจโ Extreme emphatic
This particle is essentially the question wordไฝใชใซ
paired with the quoting particleใจโto create an emphatic โwhatโ such as in โwhat a pre y birdโ or โyou did what??โ:
ใชใใจใใใใชๆ็ฉบใปใใใ
ใ ใชใใโWhat a pre y starry sky.โ
208 Particles โ ยง 4.2 Particles
A special word involves this particle paired with -ใชใโ the้ฃ็จๅฝข forใชใโforming the wordใชใใจใชใโ meaning โfor no reasonโ:
A:ใฉใใใฆๆฎดใชใ
ใฃใใฎใB:ใใใใชใใจใชใใ
A: โWhy did (you) hit (him)?โB: โEhโ (I) just felt like it.โ
(This is a semantic translationโ literally B says โFor no (good) reasonโโ as anopen sentence)
The colloquial versionโใชใใฆโ can also be used to meanไฝใจ่จใ
ใโ and is typ-ically used in an exclamatory fashion:
ใชใใฆไบใใจ
ใใใใใ ๏ผโWhat (on earth) did (you) do?โ
ใพใงใโ Impossibility
This is justใพใง combined with the emphaticใโ to create a construction signifyingextreme extentโ similar toใซใใฆใ:
ใใใพใงใใใใใงใใใliterally: โUp to the extent of (some specific thing)โ (you) would do so?โmeaning: โ(You) would go that far?โ
ใพใงใ can be used with the question words ใใค (when) andใฉใ (where)to create the wordsใใคใพใงใโ meaning โup to any moment in timeโ (โuntil whenโ)andใฉใใพใงใโ meaning โup to any placeโ (โup till any placeโ):
ใใคใพใงใใใฌใใ่ฆใฟ
ใใคใใ๏ผliterally: โUp to which moment in time do you intend to watch TV?โmeaning: โJust how long do (you) plan on watching TV?โ
Note that whenใพใงใ is paired up with a verb inใฆ formโใพใงใ is split up:
Particles โ ยง 4.3 Translating prepositions 209
ใฉใใพใง่ฆใฟ
ใฆใใ้็ฉบใใใใ
ใงใใliterally: โUp till any point you can hypothetically look atโ itโs blue sky.โmeaning: โNo ma er where (you) lookโ itโs blue skies.โ
ใปใ + Negative โ Only option
Similar toใใโใปใ indicates only one course of action or only one option:
ใใใพใงใใฆใฆใ้ฒใใ
ใใปใใใใใใชใใliterally: โHaving come this farโ there is nothing to be done other thancontinue.โmeaning: โHaving come this farโ we can only press on.โ
For this roleโใปใ is often found in the pa ernใปใใชใใชใโ meaning โnoth-ing other than โฆโโ used adjectivally (remember that the้ฃไฝๅฝข is a ributive as wellas sentence ending in modern Japanese):
ใปใใชใใชใๅฝผใใ
ใฎๅบๆฅใงใ
ใใฎใ ใโThis is something only he can do.โ
4.3 Translating prepositionsJapanese doesnโt really have prepositions like a lot of western languages do. Youโvealready seen that quite a few particles fulfil the role that prepositions play in otherlanguagesโ but this still leaves the question of how to say something in Japanese thatin western languages uses prepositions that are not covered just by particles. For thisreasonโ this final โparticlesโ section will cover translating prepositions.
There are two categories that preposition translations fall under. The first isthe list of prepositions that have particle or verb construction counterpartsโ thoughsince you have already encountered these in the previous sectionsโ these will notbe treated in detail. The other category is those prepositions that have temporal orlocation nouns as their Japanese counterparts. I say conceptual because some con-cepts that are multiple words in western languages are the same conceptual tempo-ral/location noun in Japanese. These nouns will be treated in more detail and willโwhere neededโ be accompanied by examples.
210 Particles โ ยง 4.3 Translating prepositions
4.3.1 Prepositions already covered
English preposition Translated into Japanese usingโฆas ใซ in its role as indirect objectat ใซ orใงโ depending on whether it concerns a thing or
an event.by ใซ orใงโ depending on whether it concerns location or
instrumentalisdespite ใฎใซduring ้ฃ็จๅฝข particlesใชใใ orใใฆใ for strict or loose simultaneous
actionโใคใค for atemporalโ or verb continuative (ใฆ form)except/save ใใโใปใ orใใfor Either the indirect objectใซ or the nominalisingใฎใใใซfrom Either the indirect objectใซ orใใof ใฎoff A resultant state form of verbs that denote โto go off ofโsince ใใโใใthrough ใงto ใซ as indirect objectโใซ as destinationโ orใธ as directionwith ใจwithout This is done with either a verb inๆช็ถๅฝข+ใโ or using
(ๆช็ถๅฝข)ใชใใฆ/ใชใใง
4.3.2 Prepositions translating to conceptual temporal orlocation nouns
The conceptual nouns used to stand for what in western languages is done usingprepositionsโ are all used in the following pa ern:
[X](ใฎ)[Y]ใซ/ใง[Z]
where [X] can be any noun or verb clauseโ [Y] is a conceptual nounโ and [Z]a verb activity or a state. Theใฎ in this pa ern is enclosed in parenthesesโ becauseit can be omi ed in some casesโ but has to be used in others. Typicallyโ when [X]is a noun phraseโ ใฎ is usedโ and when it is a verb phraseโ ใฎ is omi edโ but thereare exceptions to this; each conceptual noun entry in the list below will show thepa ern(s) it can be used in.
To illustrate this pa ern before we move on to the list itselfโ let us replace [X]
with้ง ใใ
โ stationโ [Y] withๅใพใ
โ beforeโ and [Z] withๅบใฟใ
ใใใโ โthere is a storeโ. Doingsoโ we get the following sentence:
Particles โ ยง 4.3 Translating prepositions 211
้ง ใฎๅใซๅบใใใใโstationโ [genitive] โbeforeโ [location] โthere is a storeโ
The natural translationโ โThere is a store in front of the stationโโ follows readilyfrom this pa ern.
As a noteโ the choice of whether to useใซ orใง is dependent on whether alocation or an event is focused on. In the previous example a location was focused onโbut if we were to use the same sentence with [Z] being replaced withๅ้
ใจใใ ใก
ใจๅบไผใงใ
ใฃใโ โ(I) met (my) friendโโ then we get a sentence that can focus on the event โmeetingโโand this focus can be made explicit by usingใง instead ofใซ:
้ง ใฎๅใงๅ้ใจๅบไผใฃใใโ(I) met (my) friend in front of the station.โ
4.3.3 The conceptual nouns list
ไธใใ
โAboveโ upโ uponโ on
The kanji for this word already hints at the fact that this noun signifies a conceptuallocation โaboveโ something. It does not literally mean any of the words โaboveโโ โonโโโupโโ โoverโ or the likesโ but simply implies them allโ given a specific context. Forinstance:
ใใผใใซใฎไธใซ็พใใคใ
ใใ็ใ
ใ่ฑใฐใช
ใใใใพใใโThere is a beautiful flower arrangement on the table.โ
Since flower arrangements typically rest on a surfaceโ ไธ in this case meansโonโ. Howeverโ if we look at the following sentenceโ we see a different contextโ and adifferent meaning:
ใใผใใซใฎไธใซ็ชใพใฉ
ใใใใพใใโThereโs a window above the table.โ
Since windows donโt typically rest on surfaces but are part of wallsโ ไธ canonly be interpreted as meaning โaboveโ in this context.
212 Particles โ ยง 4.3 Translating prepositions
ไธใใ
โ Belowโ beneathโ underโ underneath
In the same way thatไธ means the conceptual location above somethingโไธ meansa conceptual location below something. Againโ context dictates what preposition isbest used in the translation:
ใใผใใซใฎไธใซ็ซใญใ
ใใใพใใโThereโs a cat underneath the table.โ
ใใผใใซใฎไธใซๅผใฒ
ใๅบใ
ใใใใใพใใโThere are drawers under the table.โ
In the first sentenceโไธ refers to well under the tableโ on the floorโ while in thesecond sentenceไธ means on the underside of the table itself.
ๅณใฟใ
โRight
Having covered above and belowโ the two orientation directions left and right. Firstupโ right:
้ตไพฟๅฑใใใณใใใใ
ใฏ้ง ใใ
ใฎๅณใซใใใพใใโThe post office is to the right of the station.โ
ๅทฆใฒใ ใ
โ Left
And thenโ of courseโ left:
้ตไพฟๅฑใใใณใใใใ
ใฏ้ง ใใ
ใฎๅทฆใซใใใพใใโThe post office is to the left of the station.โ
ๅใพใ
โ Beforeโ in front ofโ prior
When referring to something beforeโ or precedingโ something elseโ the conceptualnounๅ is used. This can be used for both time and space:
Particles โ ยง 4.3 Translating prepositions 213
้ง ใใ
ใฎๅใงๅพ ใพ
ใฃใฆใพใใใโ(I) waited in front of the station.โ
This exampleโ similar to the one given in this sectionโs pa ern explanationโstates something being in front of some location. If instead we want to indicate some-thing as happening or being the case before some verb activityโ thenๅ follows the้ฃไฝๅฝข:
ๅบใง
ใใใๅใซๆ้คใใใ
ใใใใโ(I) cleaned up before going out (on errands).โ
In this sentenceโ the event โgoing out [on errands]โโๅบใใใโ indicates a par-ticular timeโ even if itโs not sharply defined like clock times.
่กจใใใฆ
โ Frontโ facing
Thereโs one more โfrontโ that has a special word for it in Japanese: the facing side ofsomething. For instanceโ the title side of a bookโs cover is the่กจโ the โstore frontโ sideof a store is the่กจโ and the front side of a T-shirt is the่กจ.
ไธญใกใ ใ
โDuring
The conceptual nounไธญmeans several different things depending on its useโ and hasdifferent pronunciations for each different use. When used directly after nouns thatdenote some activityโ it is pronouncedใกใ ใโ and is used to indicate that the verbaction or verb state that follows it applies during the period that the activity noundescribes. This may sound a bit abstractโ so an example:
้ ้ไธญใฏใใใคใกใ ใ
ใงใใโ(I) am in the middle of a delivery.โ
Clearly a delivery takes time to performโ and theไธญ indicates that somethingis the caseโ or takes placeโ during this time.
ไธญใใ ใ
โCross-โฆโ throughout
When used with location nounsโ the meaning for ไธญ changes to โcross-โฆโ such asโcross-countryโ or โnation-wideโโ and the reading changes toใใ ใโ such as in for
214 Particles โ ยง 4.3 Translating prepositions
instance:
ไธ็ไธญใใใใใ ใ
ใงไบบใฒใจ
ใ็ใ
ใพใใฆๆญปใ
ใฌใโThe world overโ people are born and people die.โ
ไธญใชใ
โAmidโ amongโ amongstโ inโ insideโwithin
And finallyโwhen used in the pa ern that does not haveใฎ omi edโไธญ is pronouncedใชใโ and can mean a wide variety of things that are associated with being locatedinside something. When focusing on locationsโใซ is used as the follow up particleโbut when ไธญ refers to abstract concepts such as โamidst [a collection]โ or โamong[things]โโ it is followed byใง insteadโ such as in for instance:
้ฃใ
ใน็ฉใใฎ
ใฎไธญใงใๅ้ฃใใใใ
ใไธ็ชใใกใฐใ
ๅฅฝใ
ใใงใใโFrom (amongst) foodโ (I) like Japanese food best.โ
Hereไธญ refers to something being located inside a category. Since this is anabstract locationโ the particleใง is used. Howeverโ when there is no abstract locationbut a real locationโ like the hollow of a treeโ or the inside of a boxโใซ is used:
็ฎฑใฏใ
ใฎไธญใซ่ ๆ่จใใงใฉใใ
ใใใฃใใliterally: โThere was a watch in the boxโmeaning: โThe box contained a watch.โ
The pa ern [X]ใฎไธญใง[Y] will be explained further in the constructions sec-tionโ when dealing with open choices - something that quite obviously requires beingable to indicate something as existing within a greater (abstract) collection.
ๅพใใ
ใโBehind
The nounๅพใ is used to indicate that something is located behind something else.Be careful though: unlikeๅโ which corresponded to โbeforeโ both in the location andtime senseโๅพใ only means โbehindโโ and stands for a location; it cannot be used tomean โafterโ in the context of time. To indicate the concept of โafterโโ a different noun(ๅพ) is usedโ which can be pronounced in three different waysโ meaning three slightlydifferent things.
An example of the use ofๅพใ would be:
Particles โ ยง 4.3 Translating prepositions 215
ใญใใฟใๅท่ตใใใใ
ใฎๅพใใซ้ ใใ
ใใฆใใพใฃใใโThe mice hid behind the refrigerator.โ
่ฃใใ
โ Backโ opposite side
Much like how่กจ is a special kind ofๅโ ่ฃ is a special kind ofๅพใโ meaning โthenon-facing sideโ of something. For instanceโ the side of a bookโs cover that doesnโtcarry the title is the่ฃโ the back of a store is the่ฃโ and the back side of a T-shirt isthe่ฃ.
ๅพใใจ
โๅพใ
โๅพใฎใก
โAfter
When indicating something happens after a certain time or eventโๅพ is used. How-everโ depending on whether this โafterโ refers to โoccurring at some time afterโโ orโoccurring from then onโ a different pronunciation is used; when one only wishes toindicate something will happen after some specific time or eventโ the reading for thisnoun isใใจ:
ๅฎฟ้กใใ ใใ ใ
ใฏๅพใใจ
ใงใใพใใโ(I)โll do (my) homework afterwards.โ
In this sentence the act of โdoing homeworkโ will be done at some point af-ter some contextually implied eventโ typically whatever the speaker is doing at themoment of saying a sentence like this. On the other handโ when indicating that some-thing will stay in effect after some specific time or eventโ the reading for this kanji isใ:
ไปไบใใใจ
ใฏ8ๆใ
ใซ็ตใ
ใใใใฎๅพใ
ใฏๆใฒใพ
ใ ใโ(My) job ends at 8โ after that (I)โll be available.โliterally: โโฆโ after that is leisure.โ
Because the reading for the nounๅพ isใ in this sentenceโ it clearly states thatthis person wonโt be free for just a while after 8 oโ clockโ but will be free from 8 oโclock onwards until some indeterminate time (being probably when they go to bed).
There is a third reading forๅพโ beingใฎใกโ but this is a literary reading usedas a replacement forใใจโ with as extra feature that it can be used to stand for โtheafterlifeโ; the ultimate concept of โafterwardsโ. Howeverโ this reading is also usedin the common formal time indicatorใฎใกใปใฉ (ๅพ็จ) meaning โlaterโโ โat some latertimeโโ โafterwardsโ or even โeventuallyโ.
216 Particles โ ยง 4.3 Translating prepositions
ๅคใใจ
โOutโ outside
The opposite ofไธญโๅค stands for the broad and undefined location that is the worldoutside:
ใใกใฎ็ซใญใ
ใๅฎถใใ
ใฎๅคใซ้ใใ
ใใงใใโOur catโs playing outside.โliterally: โโฆ outside the house.โ
้ใใใ
โ Between
Literallyโ this noun stands for the concept of โin an intervalโโ where this interval canbe either temporal or spatial:
้่กใใใใ
ใจ้ตไพฟๅฑใใใณใใใใ
ใฎ้ใซๅ ฌ่ก้ป่ฉฑใใใใ ใใงใใ
ใใใใพใใโThere are public phones located between the bank and the post office.โliterally: โโฆ in the interval (bank - post office).โ
As can be seen from the exampleโ the list of locations between which someverb action occursโ or some verb state is the caseโ is created using the standard inclu-sive noun listing particleใจ.
For timeโ on the other handโ the [X]ใใ[X]ใพใง pa ern is usedโ because thislets us specify an interval with an explicit beginning and end:
็ฏไบบใฏใใซใ
ใฏไบๆใซใ
ใใไธๆใใใ
ใพใงใฎ้ใซ้ใซ
ใใใใใโThe culprit (managed to) escape between the hours of 2 and 3.โ
่ฟใกใ
ใโNear
This is actually the noun form of the verbal adjective ่ฟใกใ
ใโ โnearโโ and is used forlocations only. This noun is (fairly intuitively) used to indicate something is close tosome location or object:
ๆ ็ป้คจใใใใใ
ใฎ่ฟใใซใใใพใใโItโs close to the cinema.โ
Particles โ ยง 4.3 Translating prepositions 217
ๅใ
ใใโ Facingโ acrossโ oppositeโ beyond
In Japanese the idea of โacrossโโ โopposite fromโ and โbeyondโ are all variations onthe same theme of something facing something else: something opposite to us clearlyfaces usโ something that is for instance across the street faces us from across the streetand something that lies beyond the darkest night is something that faces us from thistheoretical location:
้ใฟใก
ใฎๅใใใซๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใๅพ ใพ
ใฃใฆใใฏใใงใใliterally: โI expect my friends to be waiting โฆโโ(My) friends should be waiting for [me] across the street.โ
ๆตทใใฟ
ใฎๅใใใซๅฅในใค
ใฎไธ็ใใใ
ใใใใจ่ใ
ใใใโ(I) heard that across the ocean lies a different world.โ
่พบใธใ
โNearbyโ around
The noun่พบ literally means โvicinityโโ and when used as a conceptual location nounโmeans โnearโโ โclose toโโ and the like:
ใ้ญๅฑใใใชใ
ใฎ่พบใซ่ฒกๅธใใใต
ใ็กใช
ใใใฆใใพใฃใใโ(I) lost (my) wallet somewhere near the fish shop.โ
ๆจชใใ
and ้ฃใจใชใ
โBesidesโ next to
While in most western languages when two objects are placed side by sideโ they aresaid to be โbesideโ or โnext toโ each otherโ Japanese requires you to pick the rightword for this spatial relation depending on whether or not these two objects are ofa similar category. For instanceโ placing two apples or two bikes next to each other
means you can use the noun ้ฃใจใชใ
to indicate that one is next to the other:
ไฟบใใ
ใฎ่ช่ปข่ปใใฆใใใ
ใฏ ๅผใใจใใจ
ใฎใฎ้ฃใซ็ซใ
ใฃใฆใใใพใใใโI left my bike standing next to my (younger) brotherโs.โ
This is perfectly valid use of้ฃ (not to mention valid use ofใฎ for back referralโimmediately followed byใฎ[location noun])โ as the two objects in question are clearlyof the same category.
218 Particles โ ยง 4.3 Translating prepositions
Howeverโ for the following example we need to useๆจชใใ
instead of้ฃ:
ใฟใใชใๆฑ ใใ
ใฎๆจชใซ้ใใ
ใใ ใใใใโEveryone was playing games and stuff next to the pond.โ
(note that usingใซ stresses the location rather than the act in this sentence)
Hereโ since ใฟใใช are of a category โpeopleโโ and ๆฑ is of category โpondโโthere is no way ้ฃ can be usedโ since these two things arenโt even remotely alike.In effectโ ้ฃ can be thought of as not just meaning โnext toโ but having the addedmeaning โnext to the other [object category]โโ whileๆจช only means โbesideโ or โnexttoโ.
Compass directions
In addition to the obvious locationsโ there are four more that are usually overlooked:the compass directions.
direction noun
East ๆฑใฒใใ
South ๅใฟใชใฟ
West ่ฅฟใซใ
North ๅใใ
And of course their permutations:
ๅๆฑใปใใจใ
NE
ๅ่ฅฟใปใใใ
NW
ๅๆฑใชใใจใ
SE
ๅ่ฅฟใชใใใ
SW
๏ฝๅดใใ
โโฆside
This is not so much a conceptual noun as a suffix for several of the nouns listed sofar. Suffixed to various of these wordsโๅด signifies โsideโโ so thatไธ means โaboveโโbutไธๅด means โthe top sideโ (although it is then pronouncedใใใใ);ๅณ means
Particles โ ยง 4.4 In Summary 219
โrightโโ butๅณๅดmeans โthe right (hand) sideโ. The list of nouns modified in this wayis:
noun side meaning
ไธใใ
ไธๅดใใใใ
the top
ไธใใ
ไธๅดใใใใ
the underside
่กจใใใฆ
่กจๅดใใใฆใใ
the frontโ the facing side
่ฃใใ
่ฃๅดใใใใ
the reverseโ the other side
ๅ ใใก
ๅ ๅดใใกใใ
the interior
ๅคใใจ
ๅคๅดใใจใใ
the exterior
ๅทฆใฒใ ใ
ๅทฆๅดใฒใ ใใใ
the left side
ๅณใฟใ
ๅณๅดใฟใใใ
the right side
ๅใ
ใใ ๅใ
ใใๅดใใ
the other sideโ the opposing side
ๅใใ
ๅๅดใใใใ
the northern side
ๅใฟใชใฟ
ๅๅดใฟใชใฟใใ
the southern side
ๆฑใฒใใ
ๆฑๅดใฒใใใใ
the eastern side
่ฅฟใฟใ
่ฅฟๅดใซใใใ
the western side
4.4 In SummaryAnd so weโve reached the end of the particles chapter. This chapter covered quite anumber of particlesโ some of which are essentialโ some of which good to knowโ andsome of which are downright rareโ as well as showing you which constructions touse when particles arenโt used.
What does this leave? While weโve certainly covered enough particles to lastyou quite a while in your study of Japaneseโ thereโs one particular kind of particle thatwasnโt covered in this chapterโ the counter particle. This isnโt really just one particleโbut a category of particlesโ with a basic set that is large enough to warrant an entirechapter being dedicated to them. In order to do any kind of counting in Japaneseโ aknowledge not just of numbersโ but also of counter particles is essentialโ and we shallbe looking at this in the next chapter.
Chapter 5
Counters and counting
Counting in Japanese is everything but apparent or easy if youโre used to westerncounting. To count in Japaneseโ two things are required: a numberโ and a categor-ical marker that indicates what is actually being counted. This makes counting inJapanese not just a ma er of knowing which words stand for which numbersโ butalso which counters stand for which countable categories.
The categorical marker for items is usually not the item noun itselfโ but adifferent word acting as categorical counter particle instead. For instanceโ bo lesโpencils and legs are all counted using the categorical counter for โlong round objectโโand birds are counted using the categorical counter for โthings with wingsโ. How-everโ clock hours are counted using the specific counter for hoursโ and the number oftimes something happens is counted using the specific counter for occurrences.
The challenge is then to learn three things in order to successfully count inJapanese:
1. which numbers exist and how to construct numbers yourselfโ
2. which specific and categorical counters existโ and
3. which to use when you donโt actually know which you should use.
Just like for regular particlesโ there exist dictionaries that contain lists and listsof which word can be used as a counter for which category of itemsโ and if you wishto become a counting machineโ it is recommended that you buy one and go over thelists in it as you will not find a truly exhaustive list here. Insteadโ the following listwill only contain those counters that are considered reasonably essential to know inorder to do basic counting (and thatโs already quite a few).
5.1 CountingBefore we look at the counter particlesโ letโs briefly look at counting itself. In the out-line on Japaneseโ I mentioned three different ways to count from one to tenโ and this
221
222 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.1 Counting
comes from the fact that Japanโwhile it borrowed the Chinese kanji and readingsโ alsohad its own language prior to knowing anything about China. Not surprisingly thenโcounting was done with completely different words in pre-China Japan. Howeverโunlike this pre-China native Japanese counting systemโ the Chinese derived seriesfor one through ten is reasonably simple:
number wri en and pronounced
1 ไธใใกโๅฃฑ in formal writing.
2 ไบใซ
โๅผ in formal writing.
3 ไธใใ
โๅ in formal writing.
4 ๅใ
โ More commonly pronouncedใใโ a native Japanese reading.
5 ไบใ
6 ๅ ญใใ
7 ไธใใก
โ More commonly pronouncedใชใชโ also a native Japanese reading.
8 ๅ ซใฏใก
9 ไนใใ ใ
10 ๅใใ ใ
โๆพ in formal writing.
The reason why 1โ 2โ 3 and 10 have special formal kanji stems from the use inlegal documentsโ where changing anไธ into aๅ orไบ intoไธ was rather easyโ whileturning anๅฃฑ into aๆพ or aๅผ into aๅ was a lot harder. There are similar counter-parts for 4 through 9โ but these are rarely used: ่โไผโ้ธโๆผโๆ and็ respectively.Larger numbers in the Chinese system are wri en either using Arabic numerals (like1โ890โ298โ345)โ or โ when theyโre decently clean or small enough to write out in fullโ wri en in kanji.
Using kanji forms to create large numbers relies on a fairly simple rule ofcompositionโ as you should be able to tell from the following examples:
20 = 2 ร 10 =ไบๅ90 = 9 ร 10 =ไนๅ
100 = ็พใฒใใ
โ formally wri en asไฝฐ120 = 100 + 2 ร 10 =็พไบๅ780 = 7 ร 100 + 8 ร 10 =ไธ็พๅ ซๅ
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.1 Counting 223
1000 =ๅใใ
โ formally wri en as้ก1300 = 1000 + 3 ร 100 =ๅไธ็พ4826 = 4 ร 1000 + 8 ร 100 + 2 ร 10 + 6 =ๅๅๅ ซ็พไบๅๅ ญ
10000 =ไธใพใ
โ formally wri en as่ฌ.
The rules for composition are actually reasonably close to the western systemof writing large numbersโ except that instead of replacing the order (the โ1โ in 1โ 10โ100โ 1000โ etc.) with the factor (โ2โ in 20โ โ8โ in 800โ etc.)โ the factor is simply added infront of the orderโ effectively indicating a multiplier.
Howeverโ one significant difference is found in orders of magnitude: in west-ern systems we raise by a power of 1000 for large numbers (i.e. a million is 1000 ร1000โ a billion is 1000 ร 1000 ร 1000โ etc.)โ but in the Chinese counting system largenumbers are powers ofไธโ 10โ000:
9โ999 is ไนๅไน็พไนๅไนโ 10โ000 is ไธ. The biggest number that still usesไธ as highest order is 99โ999โ999: ไนๅไน็พไนๅไนไธไนๅไน็พไนๅไน. The
number that follows this is a number equal to ไธ ร ไธโ called ๅใใ
โ with a
value of 100โ000โ000. The next order number is ไธ ร ๅโ which is ๅ ใกใใ
. The
next order number isไธ รๅ โ which isไบฌใใ
.
There are in fact quite a few of these higher order countersโ although of coursethe higher you goโ the less likely people are to know the counter usedโ and the lessmeaningful the number becomes (because we cannot visualise such large numbers).
Aside from the numbers one through tenโ there is also the โnumberโ zeroโwhich is typically wri en in katakana as ใผใญ when used on its ownโ or using the
noun้ถใใ
when meaning โnoughtโ or โnullโ. An example of using้ถ is in things such
as โ0.0001โโ which can also be wri en as้ถใใ
็นใฆใ
้ถ้ถ้ถไธใใใใใใใใก
โ with็น meaning โdotโ.The native Japanese way of counting is a bit more complex:
number pronunciation1 ใฒ2 ใต3 ใฟ4 ใ5 ใใ(ใใฃ)6 ใ7 ใช
224 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.1 Counting
number pronunciation8 ใ9 ใ10 ใจ
While this doesnโt look very complexโ this series is also one you will likelynever use as they arenโt used for actual counting. It may be used when someoneโs try-ing to enumerate something from memory using their fingersโ mu ering โใฒโใตโใฟโใโใโฆโ while touching fingers in successionโ but thatโs about it. Insteadโ slightly dif-ferent pronunciations are used when paired with counters for actual counting state-ments. The native Japanese readings are used with only a handful of countersโ butthese are quite important counters: those used for general counting of itemsโ and forcounting days.
number counting things: ใค counting days: ๆฅ (pronouncedใ)
1 ไธใฒใจใค ไธๆฅโ special readings: ใคใใใก andใใกใซใก
2 ไบใตใ
ใค ไบๆฅใตใคใ
3 ไธใฟใฃ
ใค ไธๆฅใฟใฃใ
4 ๅใใฃ
ใค ๅๆฅใใฃใ
5 ไบใใค
ใค ไบๆฅใใคใ
6 ๅ ญใใฃ
ใค ๅ ญๆฅใใใ
7 ไธใชใช
ใค ไธๆฅใชใฎใ
8 ๅ ซใใฃ
ใค ๅ ซๆฅใใใ
9 ไนใใใฎ
ใค ไนๆฅใใใฎใ
10 ๅใจใ
ๅๆฅใจใใ
If we ignore the reading for ไธๆฅ (for which ใคใใใก means โthe first dayof the monthโ andใใกใซใก means โone day (in duration/length)โ) we see that thesetwo series donโt use the same readings for the numbersโ and that neither are quitethe same as the previous table for native readings. The readings that you see for thecounterใค can be considered the โdominantโ readingsโ used with a few other native
Japanese (่จ่ชญใใใ
ใฟ) countersโ with the readings forๆฅ being fairly unique and not usedby other counters.
Before we move on to the counters listโ we need to finish looking at whatnumbers do when paired with countersโ and this involves looking at how their read-
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.1 Counting 225
ings may change when they are paired with certain counters: they may contractโ andthe counter may become voiced. There are a few general rules that applyโ althoughof course โ as always โ there are a few exceptions to these general rules (when acounter has such an exceptionโ this will be highlighted in its section).
5.1.1 Rules forไธใใก
When followed by a counter starting with a syllable from theใโโใโ orใโcolumnโใใก becomesใใฃ:
ใใก +ใ becomesใใฃใใใก +ใใ becomesใใฃใใใใก +ใจใ becomesใใฃใจใ
When followed by a counter starting with a ใฏโcolumn syllableโ ใใก be-comesใใฃ and the counter voices to a โpโ sound:
ใใก +ใฏใ becomesใใฃใฑใ
5.1.2 Rules forไธใใ
When followed by a counter starting with aใฏโcolumn syllableโ that syllable voicesto a โbโ sound:
ใใ +ใปใ becomesใใใผใ
5.1.3 Rules forๅ ญใใ
When followed by a counter starting with aใโcolumn syllableโใใ becomesใใฃ:
ใใ +ใใ becomesใใฃใใ
When followed by a counter starting with a ใฏโcolumn syllableโ ใใ be-comesใใฃ and the counter voices to a โpโ sound:
ใใ +ใฒใใ becomesใใฃใดใใ
226 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.1 Counting
5.1.4 Rules forๅ ซใฏใก
When followed by a counter starting with aใโโใโ orใโcolumn syllableโใฏใกbecomesใฏใฃ:
ใฏใก +ใใ becomesใฏใฃใใใฏใก +ใใ becomesใฏใฃใใใฏใก +ใใ becomesใฏใฃใใ
When followed by a counter starting with a ใฏโcolumn syllableโ ใฏใก be-comesใฏใฃ and the counter voices to a โpโ sound:
ใฏใก +ใฒใ becomesใฏใฃใดใ
5.1.5 Rules for ๅใใ ใ
When followed by a counter starting with aใโโใโ orใโcolumn syllableโใใ ใ may becomeใใฃ orใใ ใฃ:
ใใ ใ +ใ can become eitherใใฃใ orใใ ใฃใใใ ใ +ใใ can become eitherใใฃใใ orใใ ใฃใใใใ ใ +ใใ can become eitherใใฃใใ orใใ ใฃใใ
When followed by a counter starting with aใฏโcolumn syllableโใใ ใ canbecome eitherใใฃ orใใ ใฃ and the counter voices to a โpโ sound:
ใใ ใ +ใปใ can become eitherใใฃใฝใ orใใ ใฃใฝใ
The choice between which of the two possible pronunciations to use is mostlyone of style. The โproperโ pronunciation isใใฃ[โฆ]โ but is also becoming more andmore dated Japaneseโ with many people using the pronunciationใใ ใฃ these days.Depending on whose company you are inโ youโll have to pick the pronunciation thatwill raise fewest eyebrows.
5.1.6 How many?In addition to counting statements such as โthree orangesโ or โseven samuraiโโ it alsohelps if we know how to ask โhow many oranges?โ or โhow many samurai?โ. Thisis done using two question words: ไฝโโ pronouncedใชใโโ andๅนพโโ pronounced
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.1 Counting 227
ใใโ. These are used in the same way that numerals are usedโ being paired witha counter to turn it into a questioning statement. Different counters use differentquestion wordsโ with the rule generally being that if native Japanese readings areused with the counterโ the question word will beๅนพโโ whereas if Chinese readingsare used with the counterโ the question word will beไฝ. Thusโ we can ask for โhowmany oranges?โ by usingๅนพใค:
ใชใฌใณใธใฏๅนพใคใใใพใใใโHow many oranges are (there)?โ
And we can ask how many samurai there are by using:
ไพใใใใ
ใฏไฝไบบใชใใซใ
ใใพใใใโHow many samurai are (there)?โ
(note the difference in verb;ใใ for orangesโใใ for samurai)
Rules forไฝใชใ
When followed by a counter starting with aใฏโcolumn syllableโ the counter voicesto a โbโ sound:
ใชใ +ใฏใ becomesใชใใฐใ
5.1.7 The rules in summaryIn summaryโ there are four different numeral readings:
numeral General reading native reading withใค withใไธ ใใก ใฒ ใฒใจใค รไบ ใซ ใต ใตใใค ใตใคใไธ ใใ ใฟ ใฟใฃใค ใฟใฃใๅ ใ orใใ ใ ใใฃใค ใใฃใไบ ใ ใ(ใฃ) ใใคใค ใใคใๅ ญ ใใ ใ ใใฃใค ใใใไธ ใใก orใชใช ใช ใชใชใค ใชใฎใๅ ซ ใฏใก ใ ใใฃใค ใใใไน ใใ ใ ใ ใใใฎใค ใใใฎใๅ ใใ ใ ใจ ใจใ ใจใใ
228 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.2 Ranges and estimations
And the table of pronunciation changes when numerals are paired with coun-ters:
numeral reading +ใฏ +ใ +ใ +ใไธ ใใก ใใฃใฑ ใใฃใ ใใฃใ ใใฃใไบ ใซไธ ใใ ใใใฐๅ ใโใใไบ ใๅ ญ ใใ ใใฃใฑ ใใฃใไธ ใใกโใชใชๅ ซ ใฏใก ใฏใฃใฑ ใฏใฃใ ใฏใฃใ ใฏใฃใไน ใใ ใๅ ใใ ใ ใใฃใฑ ใใฃใ ใใฃใ ใใฃใ
ใใ ใฃใฑ ใใ ใฃใ ใใ ใฃใ ใใ ใฃใไฝ ใชใ ใชใใฐๅนพ ใใ
5.2 Ranges and estimations
Number ranges are really easy in Japaneseโ involving nothing more than using ๏ฝbetween two numbersโ so that ๏ผ๏ฝ๏ผ indicates the range 1 through 7. Typicallyranges like these will use actual numbersโ rather than kanji formsโ purely for aesthet-ics. While ranges in English have their own pronunciation (โX through Yโ or โX toYโ)โ in Japanese there is no special word between the start and the end of a range:
ไปๅบฆใใใฉ
ใฎๆๆฅญใใ ใใใ
ใซ็ฌฌใ ใ
ๅไธใใ ใใใก
๏ฝไบๅใใ ใใซ
่ชฒใ
ใ่ชญใ
ใใงใใ ใใใPlease read chapters 11 through 20 for next class.
The construction ็ฌฌๅไธ๏ฝไบๅ่ชฒ is simply pronouncedใ ใใใ ใใใกใซใใ ใใโ and when the resulting wri en form is unambiguousโ the๏ฝ symbol mayeven be left offโ in this case forming็ฌฌๅไธไบๅ่ชฒ (of courseโ still pronouncedใ ใใใ ใใใกใซใใ ใใ).
The start and end of ranges canโ if neededโ be explicitly marked as such byusingใใ andใพใงโ but doing so carries the same difference in nuance as explicitlymarking a start and end in English carries:
็ฌฌๅไธ่ชฒใใ็ฌฌไบๅ่ชฒใพใง่ชญใใงใใ ใใใPlease read from chapter 11 up to chapter 20.
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 229
Rough rangesโ or estimationsโ are even easier. These simply consist of all thenumbers in the estimationโ in succession (similar to rough ranges in English):
ไธไบๅใใกใซใตใ
ๆญฉใใ
ใใใโI walked 1 (or) 2 minutes.โ
This can be a bit confusing when someone says something likeๅไธไบๅๆญฉใใโ which could either mean โI walked 11 (or) 2 minutesโ or โI walked 11 (or) 12 min-utesโ. Disambiguation is typically left to contextโ so that in this case it would be oddthat someone walked either 11 or 2 minutesโ when the alternative is 11 or 12. How-everโ there may be instances where more than one interpretation seems reasonableโand youโll have to apply some analytical thinking to determine which is the correctinterpretation.
5.3 Counters
When actually countingโ or just enumerating thingsโ we need to combine numberswith counters. This can be done in two different waysโ depending on whether thefocus is on the thing thatโs being countedโ or on the count itself:
Focus on item: [X]ใฎ [Y]ใ/ใ + verbFocus on count: [Y]ใ/ใ [X] + verb
For instanceโ in the statement ใตใใคใฎใชใฌใณใธใใใ ใใโ translating toโplease give me two orangesโโ the focus is on oranges (because it comes later in thesentence). If we rearrange this to form the sentenceใชใฌใณใธใใตใใคใใ ใใ thefocus is on the count: โorangesโ give me twoโ pleaseโ.
As mentionedโ counters can be split into specific and general counter cate-gories. Specific counters cover things like units of time or distanceโ and general coun-ters cover categories like โbound objectsโ or โpieces of [something]โ. Rather than justusing these two categoriesโ a list of common numerical ordersโ which act as counterstooโ is presented first. This list is followed by the other countersโ split up into four cat-egories: general article countersโ counters for living thingsโ counters for occurrencesโand time related unit counters.
In addition to countersโ a list of adverbs used for quantification is included inthis chapter. While strictly speaking these are not countersโ they are used when youneed to quantify actions without being able to rely on a counterโ such as when youโread books oftenโ.
230 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
5.3.1 Numerical counters
็พใฒใใ
โ 100 (A hundred)
As mentioned in the section on countingโ the numerical orders in Japanese are tech-nically counters tooโ with their own set of pronunciations:
็พ (ไธ็พ) ไบ็พ ไธ็พ ๅ็พ ไบ็พใฒใใ (ใใฃใดใใ) ใซใฒใใ ใใใณใใ ใใใฒใใ ใใฒใใ
ๅ ญ็พ ไธ็พ ๅ ซ็พ ไน็พ ๅ ไฝ็พใใฃใดใใ ใชใชใฒใใ ใฏใฃใดใใ ใใ ใใฒใใ ใใ ใชใใณใใ
Note thatไธ็พ isnโt used unless it needs to be stressed that itโs one hundredโrather than some other factor of a hundred. Also note that quite obviously โten hun-dredโ doesnโt exist. Instead this isๅโ 1000.
ๅใใ
โ 1000 (A thousand)
The counter for a thousand has an irregular pronunciation for 3โ and the questioncounter:
ๅ (ไธๅ) ไบๅ ไธๅ ๅๅ ไบๅใใ (ใใฃใใ) ใซใใ ใใใใ ใใใใ ใใใ
ๅ ญๅ ไธๅ ๅ ซๅ ไนๅ ไธ ไฝๅใใใใ ใชใชใใ ใฏใฃใใ ใใ ใใใ ใพใ ใชใใใ
Againโ unless the factor 1 needs to be stressedโ ๅ rather than ไธๅ is used.And againโ there is no โten thousandโโ there is the counterไธ instead.
ไธใพใ
โ 10000 (Ten thousand)
The highest โlow orderโ order counterโไธ stands for ten thousand. Because it is thehighest โlow orderโ order counterโ it is used in combination with 10โ 100 and 1000 toindicate a hundred thousandโ a million and ten million respectively. 100 million is a
new counterโๅใใ
.
ไธ (ไธไธ) ไบไธ ไธไธ ๅไธ ไบไธ ๅ ญไธ ไธไธใพใ (ใใกใพใ) ใซใพใ ใใใพใ ใใใพใ ใใพใ ใใใพใ ใชใชใพใ
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 231
ๅ ซไธ ไนไธ ๅไธ ็พไธ ๅไธ ไฝไธใฏใกใพใ ใใ ใใพใ ใใ ใใพใ ใฒใใใพใ ใใใพใ ใชใใพใ
ๅใใ
โ 100000000 (A hundred million)
The biggest โusefulโ numberโ ๅ is still a realistically large number inโ for instanceโprices for housesโ luxury yachts or fancy sports cars. The pronunciation is whollyunremarkable:
ๅ (ไธๅ) ไบๅ ไธๅ ๅๅ ไบๅ ๅ ญๅ ไธๅใใ (ใใกใใ) ใซใใ ใใใใ ใใใใ ใใใ ใใใใ ใชใชใใ
ๅ ซๅ ไนๅ ๅๅ ็พๅ ๅๅ ๅ ไฝๅใฏใกใใ ใใ ใใใ ใใ ใใใ ใฒใใใใ ใใใใ ใกใใ ใชใใใ
Other order counters
While slightly ridiculousโ there are counters for 10 to the power minus 21โ which isthe truly insignificant number 0.0000000000000000000001โ up to the incredibly hugenumber 10 to the power 68โ or 100โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000โ000. Nowโ while for normal purposes these are ofcourse ridiculous numbersโ theyโre quite useful for science. The list of all availablecountersโ plus their western abbreviated counterpartsโ is as follows:
counter value equivalent term
ๆธ ๆตใใใใใ
10 to the power -21 zeptoโ z
่็ฉบใใใ
10 to the power -20
ๅ ญๅพณใใฃใจใ
10 to the power -19
ๅน้ฃใใคใช
10 to the power -18 atoโ a
ๅผพๆใ ใใ
10 to the power -17
็ฌๆฏใใ ใใใ
10 to the power -16
้ ่พใใ ใ
10 to the power -15 femtoโ f
้กๅทกใใ ใใใ ใ
10 to the power -14
็ณข็ณใใ
10 to the power -13
ๆผ ใฐใ
10 to the power -12 picoโ p
232 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
counter value equivalent term
ๆธบใณใใ
10 to the power -11
ๅใใ
10 to the power -10
ๅกตใใ
10 to the power -9 nanoโ nโ 1/1โ000โ000โ000
ๆฒใใ
10 to the power -8
็นใใ
10 to the power -7
ๅพฎใณ
10 to the power -6 microโ ยตโ 1/1โ000โ000
ๅฟฝใใค
10 to the power -5
็ณธใ
10 to the power -4
ๆฏใใ
10 to the power -3 milliโ mโ 1/1โ000โ 0.001
ๅใใ
10 to the power -2 centiโ cโ 1/100โ 0.01
ๅใถ
10 to the power -1 deciโ dโ 1/10โ 0.1
counter value equivalent term
ๅใใ ใ
10 to the power 1 decaโ daโ 10
็พใฒใใ
10 to the power 2 hectoโ hโ 100
ๅใใ
10 to the power 3 kiloโ kโ 1000
ไธใพใ
10 to the power 4
ๅใใ
10 to the power 8
ๅ ใกใใ
10 to the power 12 teraโ T
ไบฌใใ
10 to the power 16
ๅใใ
10 to the power 20
ๆใใใปใ
10 to the power 24 yo aโ Y
็ฉฃใใใ
10 to the power 28
ๆบใใ
10 to the power 32
ๆพใใ
10 to the power 36
ๆญฃใใ
10 to the power 40
่ผใใ
10 to the power 44
ๆฅตใใ
10 to the power 48
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 233
The measures for mega (M)โ giga (G)โ peta (P) and exa (E) are missing fromthis set because these correspond to 10 to the powers 6โ 9โ 15 and 18 respectivelyโ noneof which are divisible by 4.
For orders higher than 48โ there is a curious problem where in the rigid count-ing system the order keeps going up by 4โ so that the five terms refer to 10 to the power52โ 56โ 60โ 64 and 68 respectivelyโ but can also stand for older Japanese numbersโ inwhich case they refer to 10 to the power 56โ 64โ 72โ 80 and 88 respectively. While it isunlikely you will ever hear about these numbers ever againโ these numbers have avery high trivia factor:
counter value
ๆๆฒณๆฒใใใใใ
10 to the power 52โ as well as 56
้ฟๅง็ฅใใใใ
10 to the power 56โ as well as 64
้ฃ็ฑไปใชใใ
10 to the power 60โ as well as 72
ไธๅฏๆ่ญฐใตใใใ
10 to the power 64โ as well as 80
็ก้ๅคงๆฐใใใใใ ใใใ
10 to the power 68โ as well as 88
5.3.2 General counters for articles
็ฌฌใ ใ
โOrdinal prefix
The first counter in this list isnโt actually a counterโ but an ordinal prefix. Itโs quitefrequently usedโ so itโs important youโve learned itโ and itโs relatively easy to wrapyour head around: if some counter statement says โโฆ somethingsโโ then prefixing็ฌฌ to it will create the statement โthe โฆth somethingโ or โsomething (number) โฆโ:
ใใฎๆฌใปใ
ใ๏ผ๏ผ่ชฒใ
ใใใใพใใโThis book has 17 chapters.โ
็ฌฌ๏ผ๏ฝ๏ผ๏ผ่ชฒใฏๆใใ
ใใฆโ็ฌฌ๏ผ๏ผ๏ฝ๏ผ๏ผ่ชฒใฏ้ฃใใ
ใใใงใใโChapters 1 through 10 are easyโ chapters 11 through 17 are hard.โ
ๆฌใปใ
โ Long cylindrical items
When you want to count cylindrical objects like pencilsโ bo lesโ or armsโๆฌ is used.As a noun this word means โbookโ or โoriginโโ but as a counter it obviously meanssomething completely different. The pronunciations for this counter are:
234 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
ไธๆฌ ไบๆฌ ไธๆฌ ๅๆฌ ไบๆฌ ๅ ญๆฌใใฃใฝใ ใซใปใ ใใใผใ ใใใปใ ใใปใ ใใฃใฝใ
ไธๆฌ ๅ ซๆฌ ไนๆฌ ๅๆฌ ไฝๆฌใชใชใปใ ใฏใฃใฝใ ใใ ใใปใ ใใฃใฝใ ใชใใผใ
ใใ ใฃใฝใ
An example of its use is counting bo les of cola on the table:
ไฝๆฌใใใพใใใโHow many bo les are there?โ
ใใผใใซใฎไธใใ
ใซใณใผใฉใไธๆฌใใใพใใโThere are 3 bo les of cola on the table.โ
Interestinglyโ phone calls can also be counted using this counterโ the โlogicโbehind this being that telephone horns used to also be cylindrical (think of the clas-sical phone with a rotary number dial).
ๅใใค
โ Bound volumes
This counter is used for counting bound objects like booksโ magazinesโ notebooksand the like. The pronunciations are:
ไธๅ ไบๅ ไธๅ ๅๅ ไบๅ ๅ ญๅใใฃใใค ใซใใค ใใใใค ใใใใค ใใใค ใใใใค
ไธๅ ๅ ซๅ ไนๅ ๅๅ ไฝๅใชใชใใค ใฏใฃใใค ใใ ใใใค ใใฃใใค ใชใใใค
ใใ ใฃใใค
And an example of use would be:
ๆฌๆฃใปใใ ใช
ใซไบๅใฎๆฌใปใ
ใใใใพใใโThere are 5 books on the bookshelf.โ
(In this sentenceโๆฌ is used as a normal nounโ not a counter.)
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 235
ๅทปใใ
โVolumes
This counter is used to count volumes in a series of bound volumes. For instanceโa twenty volume encyclopedia comprises ๏ผ๏ผๅทป worth of books. The differencebetweenๅทป andๅ is thatๅ only means bound volume. A stack of reading materialconsisting of a magazineโ a newspaperโ a novel and a text book on Japanese consistsofๅๅโ but since these are each completely different worksโ the stack does not consistofๅๅทป.
่ชฒใ
โ Sections
This counter is used to count sections in a (text) bookโ or lessons in a lesson pro-gramme. On its ownโ่ชฒ technically means โdivisionโโ but is understood within thecontext of something educationalโ so mostly translates to chapterโ lessonโ sectionโ oreven (educational) department.
ๆใพใ
โ Sheets
This counter is used to count sheet-like thingsโ such as sheets of paperโ platesโ planksโor even things like folded up T-shirts. The pronunciations are:
ไธๆ ไบๆ ไธๆ ๅๆ ไบๆ ๅ ญๆใใกใพใ ใซใพใ ใใใพใ ใใใพใ ใใพใ ใใใพใ
ไธๆ ๅ ซๆ ไนๆ ๅๆ ไฝๆใใกใพใ ใฏใกใพใ ใใ ใใพใ ใใ ใใพใ ใชใใพใ(ใชใชใพใ)
And an example of use would be:
ใใฎๅคงใใ
ใใชๆฌใปใ
ใฏไฝๆใงใใใโHow many pages (literally: sheets) is this big book?โ
ๆฏใฏใ
โCups
This counter is used to count cups of drinkโ such as glasses of wineโ cups of teaโ glassesof beer and the like. The pronunciations are:
236 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
ไธๆฏ ไบๆฏ ไธๆฏ ๅๆฏ ไบๆฏ ๅ ญๆฏใใฃใฑใ ใซใฏใ ใใใฐใ ใใใฏใ ใใฏใ ใใฃใฑใ
ไธๆฏ ๅ ซๆฏ ไนๆฏ ๅๆฏ ไฝๆฏใชใชใฏใ ใฏใฃใฑใ ใใ ใใฏใ ใใฃใฑใ ใชใใฐใ(ใใกใฏใ) ใใ ใฃใฑใ
An example of use would be:
่ตคใใ
ใฏใคใณใไบๆฏใจใใผใซใไธๆฏไธใใ
ใใใโ2 glasses of red wine and 1 glass of beer please.โ
Note that ไธๆฏ can mean two things: as a counter statement it means โonecup [of something]โ. Howeverโ it can also be used as a quantifierโ in which case itmeans โplentyโ or โfullโโ depending on the context. When used to mean โone cupโโthe pronunciation drops in pitch on โใฃใฑใโโ whereas when it is used to mean โfullโโthe pronunciation has a rising pitch on โใฃใฑใโ.
ๅฐใ ใ
โMachinery
This counter is used to count mechanical or electrical machinery of all sizes. Thiswould include things like carsโ televisionsโ pianosโ camerasโ sewing machinesโ andthe like.
ไธๅฐ ไบๅฐ ไธๅฐ ๅๅฐ ไบๅฐ ๅ ญๅฐใใกใ ใ ใซใ ใ ใใใ ใ ใใใ ใ ใใ ใ ใใใ ใ
ไธๅฐ ๅ ซๅฐ ไนๅฐ ๅๅฐ ไฝๅฐใชใชใ ใ ใฏใกใ ใ ใใ ใใ ใ ใใ ใใ ใ ใชใใ ใ(ใใกใ ใ)
An example of use would be:
ๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใฎใใญใทใฏไธๅฐใฎใณใณใใฅใผใฟใผใใใใใ ใฃใฆใโ(My) friend Hiroshi said he had three computers.โ
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 237
้ใใ
โ Floors in a building
This counter is used to count floors or levels of a buildingโ and has a special pronun-ciation for 3:
ไธ้ ไบ้ ไธ้ ๅ้ ไบ้ ๅ ญ้ใใฃใใ ใซใใ ใใใใ ใใใใ ใใใ ใใฃใใ
ใใใใ
ไธ้ ๅ ซ้ ไน้ ๅ้ ไฝ้ใชใชใใ ใฏใฃใใ ใใ ใใใ ใใฃใใ ใชใใใ
ใใ ใฃใใ
An example of use would be:
ๅฏๅฎคใใใใค
ใฏไบ้ใซใใใพใใโThe bedrooms are on the second floor.โ
For floors undergroundโ the prefixๅฐไธใกใ
(literally meaning โundergroundโ) isadded to this counter:
ๅฐไธไธ้ ๅฐไธไบ้ ๅฐไธไธ้ โฆใกใใใฃใใ ใกใใซใใ ใกใใใใใ โฆ
In additionโ there are also two useful words to know when it comes to floorsโbeing ๆไธ้
ใใใใใใใ
โ meaning โtop floorโ and ไธญไบ้ใกใ ใใซใใ
meaning โmezzanineโ (a โfloorโ be-tween first and second floor).
ๅใ
โ Instancesโ number of
This is a general purpose counter used to count โnumbers of [something]โโ such asthe number of eggs needed for a specific recipeโ or the number of bricks in a wall.The pronunciations are:
ไธๅ ไบๅ ไธๅ ๅๅ ไบๅ ๅ ญๅใใฃใ ใซใ ใใใ ใใใ ใใ ใใฃใ
ไธๅ ๅ ซๅ ไนๅ ๅๅ ไฝๅใชใชใ ใฏใฃใ ใใ ใใ ใใฃใ ใชใใ
ใใ ใฃใ
238 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
And example of use would be:
ๅตใใพใ
ใไฝๅๅ ฅใ
ใใฆใใใงใใใโHow many eggs should (I) add?โ
This counter is a typical fall-back counter when you do not know the propercounter for somethingโ although with the note that it only makes sense for thingsthat can be measured in unitsโ or instances. So eggs and bricks are fineโ people orthoughts are not.
ใคโ Items
This is a special general counter for counting items. Because this counter createsstatements such as โI will have four [items]โโ itโs typically omi ed in translation be-cause it doesnโt indicate what kind of items are counted at allโ merely that they arebeing counted. The pronunciations for this counterโ as mentioned in the countingsectionโ are what make this particle specialโ since it uses the native Japanese pronun-ciations for 1-9โ and has a special question word:
ไธใค ไบใค ไธใค ๅใค ไบใค ๅ ญใคใฒใจใค ใตใใค ใฟใฃใค ใใฃใค ใใคใค ใใฃใค
ไธใค ๅ ซใค ไนใค (ๅ) ๅนพใคใชใชใค ใใฃใค ใใใฎใค (ใจใ) ใใใค
Important to note is thatๅ doesnโt actually haveใค as counter at all. Alsoโthe question word for this counter can be used not just to ask โhow many itemsโโ butalso โhow many years [of age]โ someone isโ although this only applies to the age ofyoung childrenโ as the counter only really goes up to 10. For children that are olderโas well as adolescents and adultsโ the regular question wordใชใใใ (ไฝๆ /ไฝๆญณ)โwhich is the question word for the counter for years of ageโ is used instead.
An example of use would be:
ไบใคใฎใชใฌใณใธใๆฎใฎใ
ใใพใใใโThere were 2 oranges left.โ
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 239
ๅใใ
โThe Japanese currency
This counter is used for ยฅโ the Japanese currency. This counter has special pronunci-ations for 4 and 9โ and also has a special question word:
ไธๅ ไบๅ ไธๅ ๅๅ ไบๅ ๅ ญๅใใกใใ ใซใใ ใใใใ ใใใ ใใใ ใใใใ
ไธๅ ๅ ซๅ ไนๅ ๅๅ ๅนพใใใกใใ ใฏใกใใ ใใใ ใใ ใใใ ใใใ(ใชใชใใ) (ใใ ใใใ)
An example sentence would be:
ใใฎใใณใฏไบๅๅใงใใใโThis pen was 50 yen.โ
Note the different readingsใใใ instead of โใใใใโ andใใใ insteadof โใใ ใใใโ. Also note that the question word for โhow many yenโ is actually thequestion word meaning โhow muchโโ and is remarkably similar toใใใ in that itcan be used to refer to either quantityโ duration or frequency. Thusโ the questionใ
ใใ่ชญใ
ใฟใพใใโ โhow much do you read?โโ can mean three different thingsโ reflectedin the possible answers to it:
ไบ้ฑ้ใซใใ ใใใ
ใซไธๅใใฃใใค
่ชญใฟใพใใโ(I) read 1 book every 2 weeks.โ
ไธๆฅใใกใซใก
ใซไบๆ้ใซใใใ
่ชญใฟใพใใโ(I) read 2 hours a day.โ
ใใใพใ่ชญใพใใใใโOhโ (I) donโt really read that much.โ
Of courseโ in the context of currencyใใใ is always understood as meaningโhow much (money)โ.
Other major currency counters areใใซโ the (US) dollarโใฆใผใญโ the euro (โฌ)โandใใณใโ the (British) pound.
240 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
็ณใใใ
โ Floor surface
Traditional Japanese housesโ or traditional rooms in apartment buildings or flats in
Japan (called ๅ้ขจๅฎคใใตใใใค
โ literally โJapanese style roomโ)โ are never counted in terms of
square feet or metersโ but in terms of how many tatami matsโ ็ณใใใฟ
โ it will fit. Thisunit of measure is one of the โcommon knowledgeโ units of surface measureโ so itโsgenerally a good idea to know it. The size of tatami mats depends on the regionโranging from 0.955 meter by 1.91 meter in the Kyoto area to only 0.88 meter by 1.76meter in the Tokyo area. Thusโ aๅ ญ็ณ room may be bigger or smallerโ depending onwhere in Japan you find it.
The counting table is fairly simpleโ with a different reading for 9:
ไธ็ณ ไบ็ณ ไธ็ณ ๅ็ณ ไบ็ณ ๅ ญ็ณใใกใใใ ใซใใใ ใใใใใ ใใใใใ ใใใใ ใใใใใ
ไธ็ณ ๅ ซ็ณ ไน็ณ ๅ็ณ ไฝ็ณใใกใใใ ใฏใกใใใ ใใใใ ใใ ใใใใ ใชใใใใ(ใชใชใใใ) (ใใ ใใใใ)
Typicallyโ howeverโ there are only three counts for ็ณโ namely the common
room dimensions for Japanese style rooms: ๅ็ณๅใฏใ
(four and a half)โๅ ญ็ณ andๅ ซ็ณ.When indicating actual counts of individual tatami matsโ such as when purchasingreplacement mats or for outfi ing several roomsโ the counterๆ is used instead. Thereason for this is that rather than indicating surface measureโ you are now countingflatโ sheet-like objectsโ which must of course be counted using the counter for flatโsheet-like objects.
5.3.3 Counters for living things
ๅนใฒใ
โ Small animals and fish
This counter is used to count small animals. โSmallโ should not be taken too literallyโas this counter applies to catsโ squirrelsโ miceโ or fish just as it does to great Danes (aparticularly huge kind of dog) or even moderately sized alligators.
The pronunciations are:
ไธๅน ไบๅน ไธๅน ๅๅน ไบๅน ๅ ญๅนใใฃใดใ ใซใฒใ ใใใณใ ใใใฒใ ใใฒใ ใใฃใดใ
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 241
ไธๅน ๅ ซๅน ไนๅน ๅๅน ไฝๅนใใกใฒใ ใฏใฃใดใ ใใ ใใฒใ ใใฃใดใ ใชใใณใ(ใชใชใฒใ) ใใ ใใฃใดใ
An example sentence would be:
ใญใใฟไธๅนใงใๅ ฅใฏใ
ใใชใใฏใใงใใโNot even a single mouse should be able to get in (here).โ
็พฝใ
โ Birds and rabbits
This kanji means โwingsโ when pronouncedใฏใญโ and as a counter is used to countbirds. As a peculiarityโ this counter can also be used to count rabbits (although ๅนis more common these days)โ because of an interesting bit of Japanese history: fromthe 6th century until the mid-19th centuryโ Japanese people were โ by decree โ for-bidden to eat several kinds of meat between April and October. Howeverโ birds andadult fish could still be eatenโ so in order to be able to eat meat anywayโ people startedcalling certain animals by different namesโ referring to them as birds of fish. Boarsโ forinstanceโ became โland whalesโ (whales still being considered fish at the timeโ ratherthan the mammals we now know them to be)โ and rabbits became โbirdsโ on accountof their floppy earsโ so these animals were counted using the counters that appliedto these animals instead. This practice lasted until 1872โ when the Meiji restorationembraced a number of Western views and customsโ and eating meat was allowed allyear round again after a more than 1300 year period of decreed abstinence. That saidโrabbits can of course also be counted usingๅน.
The pronunciations for this counter are wholly unremarkable:
ไธ็พฝ ไบ็พฝ ไธ็พฝ ๅ็พฝ ไบ็พฝ ๅ ญ็พฝใใกใ ใซใ ใใใ ใใใ ใใ ใใใ
ไธ็พฝ ๅ ซ็พฝ ไน็พฝ ๅ็พฝ ไฝ็พฝใใกใ ใฏใกใ ใใ ใใ ใใ ใใ ใชใใ(ใชใชใ)
A fun example sentence for this counter is a classic:
ๅบญใซใฏไบ็พฝใฎ้ถใใใใโThere are 2 chickens in the garden.โ
The pronunciation for this sentence is โใซใใซใใซใใฎใซใใจใใใใโโ
242 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
which is always a good reason to use this sentence whenever appropriately possi-ble.
้ ญใจใ
โ Large animals
This kanji on its own means โheadโโ and for reasons about as inexplicable as whyๆฌis used for cylindrical objectsโ้ ญ is used to count large animals such as sheepโ cowsโhorsesโ elephantsโ giraffesโ salt water crocodiles (which are astoundingly huge)โ etc.The pronunciations are:
ไธ้ ญ ไบ้ ญ ไธ้ ญ ๅ้ ญ ไบ้ ญ ๅ ญ้ ญใใฃใจใ ใซใจใ ใใใจใ ใใใจใ ใใจใ ใใใจใ
ไธ้ ญ ๅ ซ้ ญ ไน้ ญ ๅ้ ญ ไฝ้ ญใชใชใจใ ใฏใฃใจใ ใใ ใใจใ ใใฃใจใ ใชใใจใ
ใใ ใฃใจใ
An example sentence would be:
ไธ้ ญใฎ้ฆฌใใพ
ใ่ฆใฟ
ใใพใใโ(I) can see 1 horse.โ
ไบบใซใใปใ
โ People
It should be noted that there are special pronunciations for 1 person and 2 peopleโusing the readingใโ but that 3 and up are all counted using the pronunciationใซใ:
ไธไบบ ไบไบบ ไธไบบ ๅไบบ ไบไบบ ๅ ญไบบ ไธไบบใฒใจใ ใตใใ ใใใซใ ใใซใ ใใซใ ใใใซใ ใใกใซใ
ใฟใฃใใ ใใฃใใ
ๅ ซไบบ ไนไบบ ๅไบบ ๅไธไบบ ๅไบไบบ ไฝไบบใฏใกใซใ ใใ ใใซใ ใใ ใใซใ ใใ ใใใกใซใ ใใ ใใซใซใ ใชใใซใ
An example sentence would be:
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 243
ใใฎไบไบบใฏๅคซๅฉฆใตใใต
ใงใใใโAre those two (people) over there a (married) couple?โ
The polite counter for peopleโ as used byโ for instanceโwaiters or receptionistsโisๅใใ
โ which has a very polite counterpart: ๅๆงใใใใพ
. Howeverโ donโt use these countersunless you find yourself serving patrons in a restaurant or something similar. Fornormal counting of peopleโ stick withไบบ.
5.3.4 Occurrences and ranking
ๅบฆใฉ
โNumber of timesโ degrees
As a counter for occurrencesโ this counter is principally used only for counting onceโtwice and thrice. For something that occurs more than three timesโๅ
ใใ
is used instead.Aside from being used for occurrenceโๅบฆ is also used to count degrees Celsiusโ
and geometric degrees (such as a 90 degree angleโ or GPS degrees). The pronuncia-tions are:
ไธๅบฆ ไบๅบฆ ไธๅบฆ ๅๅบฆ ไบๅบฆ ๅ ญๅบฆใใกใฉ ใซใฉ ใใใฉ ใใใฉ ใใฉ ใใใฉ
ไธๅบฆ ๅ ซๅบฆ ไนๅบฆ ๅๅบฆ ไฝๅบฆใใกใฉ ใฏใกใฉ ใใ ใใฉ ใใ ใใฉ ใชใใฉ
Example sentences would be:
ใใไธๅบฆ่จใ
ใฃใฆไธใใ
ใใใพใใใใโCould you please say that one more time?โ
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏๆใใค
ใใญใใไฝๅบฆใงใใใใโItโs hot todayโ donโt you think? I wonder what temperature (literally: howmany degrees) it is.โ
This particle is also a noun on itselfโ pronounced ใใณโ which is used as anominaliser for turning clauses into occurrencesโ which will be explained in the nextchapterโ in the nominalisers section.
While strictly speaking not genuinely related to countersโ a special note forthis counter involving the indicatorไปโ meaning โnowโ and read asใใโ should be
244 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
added: ไปๅบฆใใใฉ
can either mean โnowโโ or โnext timeโ:
ไปๅบฆใฏไฝใชใ
ใ ใโOhโ now what?โ
ใพใไปๅบฆ๏ผโ(See you) next time!โ
ๅใใ
โNumber of times
Whereๅบฆ is used for onceโ twice and thriceโๅ can be used for any number of occur-rences. The pronunciations are:
ไธๅ ไบๅ ไธๅ ๅๅ ไบๅ ๅ ญๅใใฃใใ ใซใใ ใใใใ ใใใใ ใใใ ใใฃใใ
ไธๅ ๅ ซๅ ไนๅ ๅๅ ไฝๅใใกใใ ใฏใฃใใ ใใ ใใใ ใใฃใใ ใชใใใ(ใชใชใใ) ใใ ใฃใใ
An example sentence would be:
ใใไธๅใใฆใฟใกใใฃใใใโ(I) already tried (and failed) three timesโฆโ
The same oddity forๅบฆ existsโ when pairingๅ withไปใใ
:
ไปๅใใใใ
ใฏไฝใชใ
ใ ใโOhโ now what?โ
ไปๅใซใใพใใใใโLetโs do (that) next time.โ
็ชใฐใ
โRank
This counter is used to indicate a number in a ranking. This counter has a differentpronunciation for 9โ so the pronunciations are:
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 245
ไธ็ช ไบ็ช ไธ็ช ๅ็ช ไบ็ช ๅ ญ็ชใใกใฐใ ใซใฐใ ใใใฐใ ใใใฐใ ใใฐใ ใใใฐใ
ไธ็ช ๅ ซ็ช ไน็ช ๅ็ช ไฝ็ชใชใชใฐใ ใฏใกใฐใ ใใฐใ ใใ ใใฐใ ใชใใฐใ
An example sentence would be:
็งใใใ
ใฏไธ็ชใงใใโIโm (up) third.โ
The first count in this seriesโไธ็ชโ is the sameไธ็ช that is used in the adjectivalsuperlative in Japaneseโ since it literally means โfirstโ and thus also means โmostโ.
ๅทใใ
โ Issue number
This counter is used to count issuesโ such as magazine or newspaper issuesโ or num-ber in a seriesโ such as room numbers on a floorโ or the number of a limited seriesprototype car. Like็ชโ it has a different pronunciation for 9โ so the pronunciationsare:
ไธๅท ไบๅท ไธๅท ๅๅท ไบๅท ๅ ญๅทใใกใใ ใซใใ ใใใใ ใใใใ ใใใ ใใใใ
ไธๅท ๅ ซๅท ไนๅท ๅๅท ไฝๅทใใกใใ ใฏใกใใ ใใใ ใใ ใใใ ใชใใใ
An example sentence would be:
ไธก่ฆชใใใใใ
ใฏ๏ผ๏ผๅทใซไฝใ
ใใงใใพใใโMy parents live at number seventeen.โ
The combination of ็ช and ๅทโ ็ชๅทใฐใใใ
โ is used to indicate a ranked โnumberโโsuch as a phone numberโ registration number or product serial numberโ where thenumber doesnโt particularly indicate a rank on its ownโ but does sit at a particularposition in the greater list of all numbers of its category.
It can also be used to change the number from an absolute valueโ such as โ17Thornhill Streetโ to a position in an ordered listโ such as โthe 17th house after you turnleftโ:
246 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
ไธก่ฆชใฏ๏ผ๏ผๅทใซไฝใใงใใพใใโMy parents live at number seventeen.โ
ไธก่ฆชใฏ๏ผ๏ผ็ชๅทใซไฝใใงใใพใใโMy parents are the seventeenth door.โ
In the second sentenceโ โseventeenthโ is understood to be from some kind of (contex-
tually obvious) reference pointโ like the start of the blockโ or from the floorโs staircase.
๏ฝ็ฎใ
โOrdinality
This is technically not a counterโ but can be added to rank counters to indicate or-dinality โ that isโ it indicates an itemโs position in some ordered set. Being veryspecific: adding็ฎ to a counter changes the count from a cardinal number to ordinalnumber.
For instanceโ it can be used in combination withๆฅ to create the counterๆฅ็ฎโ changing the meaning from โโฆ daysโ or โday โฆ of the monthโ to โthe โฆth day(relative to some arbitrary time)โ:
ไธๆฅใฟใฃใ
ใซใใใซใงๆณใจ
ใพใฃใใโWe stayed at the hotel for three days.โ
ไธๆฅ็ฎใฟใฃใใ
ใซใใใซใงๆณใพใฃใใโWe stayed at a hotel on the third day.โ
Itโs also frequently combined with็ช to create the counter็ช็ฎใฐใใ
โwhich changesthe meaning from a number in a rankingโ to number of appearance. For instanceโ arunner with the back number โ214โ could be the first person to start in a relayโ inwhich case the runner himself would be indicated using 214็ชใฎใฉใณใใผ (or 214ๅทใฎใฉใณใใผ) but would also be theไธ็ช็ฎใฎใฉใณใใผโ because heโs the first runner.
Another example of this difference can be shown in the context of waiting fora bus:
ใใฎๅ็ๆใฆใใใ ใใใ
ใใ๏ผ็ชใฎใในใซไนใฎ
ใฃใฆไธใใ
ใใใโPlease take the no. 5 bus at this bus stop.โ
ใใฎๅ็ๆใใ๏ผ็ช็ฎใฎใในใซไนใฃใฆไธใใใโPlease take the fifth bus at this bus stop.โ
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 247
5.3.5 Counting time related units
็งใณใใ
โ Seconds
Counting seconds in Japanese uses็งโ for which the pronunciations are:
ไธ็ง ไบ็ง ไธ็ง ๅ็ง ไบ็ง ๅ ญ็งใใกใณใใ ใซใณใใ ใใใณใใ ใใใณใใ ใใณใใ ใใใณใใ
ไธ็ง ๅ ซ็ง ไน็ง ๅ็ง ไฝ็งใชใชใณใใ ใฏใกใณใใ ใใณใใ ใใ ใใณใใ ใชใใณใใ
(ใใ ใใณใใ)
An example sentence would be:
ไฝ็งใใใใพใใใไบๅ็งใใๅๅใฏใใทใ
ใใโHow long will it take? 20 secondsโ half a minute?โ
ๅใตใ
- Minutes
Moving from seconds to minutesโ the counter for minutes has different pronuncia-tions for 3โ 4โ and the question word:
ไธๅ ไบๅ ไธๅ ๅๅ ไบๅ ๅ ญๅใใฃใทใ ใซใตใ ใใใทใ ใใใถใ ใใตใ ใใฃใทใ
ไธๅ ๅ ซๅ ไนๅ ๅๅ ไฝๅใชใชใตใ ใฏใฃใทใ ใใ ใใตใ ใใฃใทใ ใชใใทใ
ใใ ใฃใทใ
An example sentence would be:
ไปใใพ
ไธๆใใใ
ไบๅๅใพใ
ใงใใโItโs now 5 minutes to 3.โ
Alsoโ the measure โhalf minuteโ (as used in the example sentence for seconds)
isๅๅใฏใใทใ
โ using the same pronunciation as forไธ andไฝ.
248 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
ๆใ
โClock hours
Donโt confuse clock hours with durational hours. Clock hours are things like โthreeoโ clockโ and โseven in the eveningโ. Durational hours are โit took 3 hoursโ or โI wenthome after waiting an hourโ. This counter is for the first category and indicates thehours of the day:
ไธๆ ไบๆ ไธๆ ๅๆ ไบๆ ๅ ญๆ ไธๆใใกใ ใซใ ใใใ ใใ ใใ ใใใ ใใกใ
ๅ ซๆ ไนๆ ๅๆ ๅไธๆ ๅไบๆ ไฝๆใฏใกใ ใใ ใใ ใใ ใใ ใใใกใ ใใ ใใซใ ใชใใ
Note the pronunciations for 4 and 9โ both being the short pronunciations. Anexample sentence would be:
ไฝๆใงใใใโWhat time is it?โ
The indicators for a.m. and p.m. are ๅๅใใใ
and ๅๅพใใ
in Japaneseโ indicatingwhether a time is before or after the โhour of the horseโโ which corresponds to theperiod from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. according to the classical Chinese system. These areprefixed to the time:
ไปใใพ
ๅๅพไธๆใงใใโIt is 3 p.m.โ
ๅๅไนๆใซไผใ
ใใใโLet us convene at 9 a.m.โ
To make the โuseful wordsโ list completeโ midday is ๆญฃๅใใใใ
โ and midnight is
้ถๆใใใ
.
ๆ้ใใใ
โDurational hours
By adding the durational particle้ใใ
โ literally โintervalโ โ to the counterๆโ we getthe durational counter for hours. The difference between clock time and duration isstriking:
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 249
ไฝๆใงใใใโWhat time is it?โ
ไฝๆ้ใงใใใโHow long is it?โ
This difference is also very important for actual counting statements. Quiteoftenโ people starting with Japanese will mix upๆ andๆ้โ creating sentences suchas the following:
ไธๆ้ใงใใโItโs three hours long.โ
When they really mean to sayไธๆใงใโ โitโs 3 oโ clockโ. Similarlyโ they mightsay:
ไบๆใซๅๅผทในใใใใ
ใใพใใใโ(I) studied at 2 oโ clock.โ
while meaning to sayไบๆ้ใซๅๅผทใใพใใโ โI studied for two hoursโ.
ๆฅใ
/ๆฅใซใก
โDays
Moving up from hours to daysโ we reach a rather interesting counter. As explainedbeforeโ this counter is special in several ways. Firstlyโ counting 1 to 10 days usesthe counterๆฅ in its pronunciationใโ paired with native Japanese readings for thenumbers. 14 and 24โ tooโ useๆฅ pronounced asใโ but use a mixed Chinese/Japanesereading for the numberโ and โ20 daysโ has its own special word. The rest of the daysare counted usingๆฅ in its pronunciationใซใกโ with Chinese read numbers:
ไธๆฅ ไบๆฅ ไธๆฅ ๅๆฅ ไบๆฅ ๅ ญๆฅ ไธๆฅใคใใใก ใตใคใ ใฟใฃใ ใใฃใ ใใคใ ใใใ ใชใฎใ
ๅ ซๆฅ ไนๆฅ ๅๆฅ ๅไธๆฅ ๅไบๆฅ ๅไธๆฅใใใ ใใใฎใ ใจใใ ใใ ใใใกใซใก โฆใซใก โฆใซใก
ๅๅๆฅ ๅไบๆฅ ๅๅ ญๆฅ ๅไธๆฅ ๅๅ ซๆฅ ๅไนๆฅใใ ใใใฃใ โฆใซใก โฆใซใก โฆใซใก โฆใซใก โฆ.ใซใก
250 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
ไบๅๆฅ ไบๅไธๆฅ ไบๅไบๆฅ ไบๅไธๆฅ ไบๅๅๆฅ ไบๅไบๆฅใฏใคใ โฆใซใก โฆใซใก โฆใซใก ใซใใ ใใใฃใ โฆใซใก
ไบๅๅ ญๆฅ ไบๅไธๆฅ ไบๅๅ ซๆฅ ไบๅไนๆฅ ไธๅๆฅ ไธๅไธๆฅโฆใซใก โฆใซใก โฆใซใก โฆใซใก โฆใซใก โฆใซใก
The reading forไธๆฅ differs depending on what itโs used to mean: ใคใใใกrefers to the first day of the monthโ but the readingใใกใซใก is also possibleโ in whichcase it refers to a single day in duration (including โmy dayโ inโ for instanceโ โmy dayconsists of doing โฆโ). Alsoโ for every other number under 32โๆฅ refers to both dayof the month and length of duration in days. Any number above 31 automaticallyonly means โdays of durationโโ since months only go up to the 31st at best. Becauseof thisโ 34โ 44โ etc. have the pronunciation๏ฝใ(ใ)ใซใก instead of๏ฝใใฃใ.
An example sentence would be:
ไบๆฅใตใคใ
ไธๆณใใฃใฑใ
ๆณใจ
ใพใฃใใโ(We) stayed 2 days and one night.โ
In this sentence a counter that wonโt be treated separatelyโๆณใฏใ
โ is used whichmeans โnights of stayโ.
There are two question words regarding dates; we can be either use ใใคโwhich means โwhenโโ or we can use the counter question wordไฝๆฅ
ใชใใซใก
. We can also askabout the length of duration in daysโ for which we can use two question words too:ใฉใฎใใใโ for approximate durationโ andไฝๆฅโ for exact duration.
Aside from being able to count daysโ itโs also good to be able to name theimmediate past and future days:
ไธๆจๆจๆฅใใใใจใจใ
three days ago (2 days before yesterday)
ไธๆจๆฅใใจใจใ
day before yesterday
ๆจๆฅใใฎใ
yesterday
ไปๆฅใใใ
today
ๆๆฅใใใใปใใ
tomorrow
ๆๅพๆฅใใใฃใฆ
day after tomorrow
ๆใ ๅพๆฅใใใใฃใฆ
in three days (2 days after tomorrow)
You may sometimes head the wordๆฌๆฅใปใใใค
being used to mean โtodayโ (orโ less
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 251
frequentlyโ โyesterdayโ or โtomorrowโ). Howeverโ this word is only used when thereis some contextual day that is tied to a specific date. The wordๆฌๆฅ literally meansโthe day in questionโโ and can be taken to mean โtodayโ (or โyesterdayโ or โtomor-rowโ) only when the eventโs โday in questionโ coincides with โtodayโ (or โyesterdayโor โtomorrowโ).
้ฑใใ ใ
โWeeks
Increasing the scale furtherโ we reach weeksโ indicated with้ฑ. Likeๆโ้ฑ on its ownjust refers to the yearly weekโ with้ฑ้ referring to length of duration as measuredin weeks. The pronunciations are:
ไธ้ฑ ไบ้ฑ ไธ้ฑ ๅ้ฑ ไบ้ฑ ๅ ญ้ฑใใฃใใ ใ ใซใใ ใ ใใใใ ใ ใใใใ ใ ใใใ ใ ใใใใ ใ
ไธ้ฑ ๅ ซ้ฑ ไน้ฑ ๅ้ฑ ไฝ้ฑใชใชใใ ใ ใฏใคใใ ใ ใใ ใใใ ใ ใใฃใใ ใ ใชใใใ ใ
ใใ ใฃใใ ใ
An example sentence would be:
ไปๅนดใใจใ
ใฎ็ฅญใพใค
ใใฏๅๅ ซ้ฑใงใใโThis yearโs festival is in week 18.โ
The words for the immediate past and future weeks are:
ๅ ๅ ้ฑใใใใใใ ใ
the week before last
ๅ ้ฑใใใใ ใ
last week
ไป้ฑใใใใ ใ
this week
ๆฅ้ฑใใใใ ใ
next week
ๅๆฅ้ฑใใใใใ ใ
the week after next
้ฑ้ใใ ใใใ
โWeeks of duration
Likeๆโ้ฑ has to be followed by้ to turn it into a durational counter:
252 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
่ฉฆ้จใใใ
ใฏใใใไบ้ฑ้ใงใใโThe exams are in about two weeks.โ
ใใค (ๆ) โ Calendar months
Likeๆ and้ฑโๆ alone refers to month of the year. While western languages typ-ically have named monthsโ the Japanese โ not too long ago in fact โ gave up onnamed months in favour of the Chinese system of numbered monthsโ resulting in:
ไธๆ ไบๆ ไธๆ ๅๆ ไบๆ ๅ ญๆ
ไธๆใใกใใค
ไบๆใซใใค
ไธๆใใใใค
ๅๆใใใค
ไบๆใใใค
ๅ ญๆใใใใค
January February March April May June
ไธๆ ๅ ซๆ ไนๆ ๅๆ ๅไธๆ ๅไบๆ
ไธๆใใกใใค
ๅ ซๆใฏใกใใค
ไนๆใใใค
ๅๆใใ ใใใค
ๅไธๆใใ ใใใกใใค
ๅไบๆใใ ใใซใใค
July August September October November December
The names of the months have been added here to stress that these are not somuch numbered monthsโ but calendar months. Remember them as such! Also notethat there are specific readings for Aprilโ July and September. You canโt use anotherreading for the number for these words โ these โcountsโ are very much fixed in the
Japanese language as nouns. The question word for month of the year isไฝๆใชใใใค
.The words for the immediate past and future months are:
ๅ ๅ ๆใใใใใใค
the month before last
ๅ ๆใใใใค
last month
ไปๆใใใใค
this month
ๆฅๆใใใใค
next month
ๅๆฅๆใใใใใค
the month after next
And finallyโ in the interest of satisfying human curiosityโ the old names forthe months are:
ไธๆ ไบๆ ไธๆ ๅๆ ไบๆ ๅ ญๆ
็ฆๆใใคใ
ๅฆๆใใใใ
ๅผฅ็ใใใ
ๅฏๆใใฅใ
็ๆใใคใ
ๆฐด็กๆใฟใชใฅใ
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 253
ไธๆ ๅ ซๆ ไนๆ ๅๆ ๅไธๆ ๅไบๆ
ๆๆใตใฟใฅใ
่ๆใฏใฅใ
้ทๆใชใใคใ
็ฅ็กๆใใใชใฅใ
้ๆใใใคใ
ๅธซ่ตฐใใใ
ๆใคใ
โMonths of duration
When read asใคใโ and paired with the native Japanese readings for numbersโ thiscounter expresses duration in terms of lunar monthsโ and is typically only used forindicating 1 to 3 months of duration. This is a slightly poetic counterโ but is also usedin formal writing to indicate the 1-3 month durational range:
ไธๆ ไบๆ ไธๆใฒใจใคใ ใตใใคใ ใฟใคใ
ใถๆใใใค
โMonths of duration
While โ like ๆ and ้ฑ โ ๆ on its own means โmonth of the yearโโ the suffix ้cannot be used to turn ๆ into a durational counter. Insteadโ the prefixใถ is usedโbut be careful: this is not the katakanaใฑโ but actually a simplified kanji form of็ฎ.You can tell this difference by looking at the size of the kanji: ใถๆ (ใใใค) vs. ใฑๆโ the katakanaใฑ is much bigger than the simplified version of็ฎ. Why exactlythis kanji got simplified to this deceptive form is not entirely clearโ but it hasโ whichmeans youโll need to be able to recognise it as a counter. The standard contractionsoccur in the pronunciations:
ไธใถๆ ไบใถๆ ไธใถๆ ๅใถๆ ไบใถๆ ๅ ญใถๆใใฃใใใค ใซใใใค ใใใใใค ใใใใใค ใใใใค ใใฃใใใค
ไธใถๆ ๅ ซใถๆ ไนใถๆ ๅใถๆ ไฝใถๆใใกใใใค ใฏใฃใใใค ใใ ใใใใค ใใฃใใใค ใชใใใใค
ใใ ใฃใใใค
An example sentence would be:
ไธใถๆใซๅคๅฝใใใใ
ใซใใพใใโI will be abroad for three months.โ
254 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
ๅนดใญใ
โYears
Once moreโ there is the distinction between years in an eraโๅนดโ and years of durationโๅนด้. The pronunciations forๅนด are:
ไธๅนด ไบๅนด ไธๅนด ๅๅนด ไบๅนด ๅ ญๅนดใใกใญใ ใซใญใ ใใใญใ ใใญใ ใใญใ ใใใญใ
ไธๅนด ๅ ซๅนด ไนๅนด ๅๅนด ไฝๅนดใใกใญใ ใฏใกใญใ ใใญใ ใใ ใใญใ ใชใใญใ
ใใ ใใญใ
An example sentence would be:
ใใฎๆฌใปใ
ใฏๆๆฒปใใใ
ๅๅนดใฎๆฌใงใใโThis book is from 1877.โ
(The ๆๆฒป era ran from 1868 to 1912โ so with 1868 being the first yearโ the10th year of the Meiji era is 1877 โ more on this laterโ in the section on timeand dates)
The words for the immediate past and future years are:
ไธๆจๆจๅนดใใใใจใจใ
three years ago (2 years before last)
ไธๆจๅนดใใจใจใ
the year before last
ๅปๅนดใใใญใ
last year
ไปๅนดใใจใ
this year
ๆฅๅนดใใใญใ
next year
ๅๆฅๅนดใใใใญใ
the year after next
ๅนด็ใญใใใ
โ Scholar year
Listed as a separate counter only because this counter will be relevant to you as astudent of Japaneseโ ๅนด็ indicates โyear of studyโโ so that an ไธๅนด็ is a first yearstudentโ and aๅๅนด็ is a fourth year student:
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 255
ๆฑๅคงใจใใ ใ
ใฎไบๅนด็ใซใญใใใ
ใฎๆฅๆใฒใใ
ใงใใโ(I) am Himuraโ 2nd year student at Tokyo University.โ
Undergraduate students are referred to asๅญฆ้จ็ใใใถใใ
โ and graduate students as
้ข็ใใใใ
.
ๅนด้ใญใใใ
โYears of duration
Once moreโ adding้ turns the counter into a durational counter:
ไธๅนด้ใใฃใณใใชใณใฎๅบงใ
ใๅฎใพใ
ใฃใใโ(He) kept with his title (literally: โseatโ) as champion for three years.โ
ๆญณใใ
/ๆใใ
โYears of age
The one thingๅนด cannot be used for is to indicate years of age. For thisโ two specialcounters are used: ๆญณ and its simpler counterpart ๆ. While simplerโ itโs generallynot a good idea to use it in every instance where writing age is required; because it issimplerโ using it is a sign that youโre not quite good enough at kanji yet to write theโrealโ kanji form. The pronunciations are the same as for any otherใ-counter:
ไธๆญณ ไบๆญณ ไธๆญณ ๅๆญณ ไบๆญณ ๅ ญๆญณใใฃใใ ใซใใ ใใใใ ใใใใ ใใใ ใใใใ
ไธๆญณ ๅ ซๆญณ ไนๆญณ ๅๆญณ ไบๅๆญณ ไฝๆญณใชใชใใ ใฏใฃใใ ใใ ใใใ ใใฃใใ ใฏใใก ใชใใใ
ใใ ใฃใใ
The readingใใใ for ไนๆญณโ while technically possibleโ should be avoidedโsince it sounds identical to ่ญ
ใใ
ใโ meaning โsmelly/stinkyโ. Also note that there isa special word for twenty years of ageโ ใฏใใกโ just like there is a special word fortwenty daysโใฏใคใ.
An example sentence would be:
็ถใจใ
ใใใฏๆๆฅใใใ
ๅ ญๅไธๆญณใซใชใใพใใโMy father will turn 61 tomorrow.โ
256 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
There is a special counter that is used for the ages 20 through 90โ being่ทฏใ
โ and us-
ing native Japanese numbers (with ๅ pronounced ใ)โ although typically only 30through 60 are actively used:
age count reading20 ไบๅ่ทฏ ใตใใใ30 ไธๅ่ทฏ ใฟใใ40 ๅๅ่ทฏ ใใใ50 ไบๅ่ทฏ ใใใ60 ๅ ญๅ่ทฏ ใใใ70 ไธๅ่ทฏ ใชใชใใ80 ๅ ซๅ่ทฏ ใใใ90 ไนๅ่ทฏ ใใใฎใใ
In addition to these countsโ there are numerous terms and titles associatedwith virtually each ageโ but listing all of these goes well beyond the scope of thisbook.
5.3.6 Additional words for quantificationThere are also several adverbs that are used to quantify without relying on numbers.Some of these quantifiers can only be used with verbs or verbal adjectives in positiveor negative formโ and whenever this is the caseโ this will be explicitly mentioned.
ใใคใโAlways/never
As mentioned in the particle section on ใโ this word doesnโt mean two differentthings in Japaneseโ but merely gets translated with two different words dependingon whether itโs followed by a positive or negative verb.
ใใคใใใใชไบใใจ
ใฐใใ่จใ
ใฃใฆใใใliterally: โ(You)โre always saying only those kind of things.โmeaning: โ(You)โre always saying the same thing.โ
ใใคใใใชใใฎใซใใฉใใใฆๅใ
ใใใใงใใใโWhy is it (you) know (how to do it) when (you) never do it (in the firstplace)?โ
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 257
ๅคงๆตใใใฆใ
โUsuallyโmostly
When indicating something happens โmost of the timeโโ or โusuallyโโใใใฆใ is used.Thereโs not much else to say about it other than that itโs usually used in combinationwith a positive verb form:
ใใใฆใไธๆใใกใ
ใซ่ตทใ
ใใพใใโ(I) usually get up at 7.โ
ใใโOften
Weโve already covered this adverb by virtue of it being the adverbial form ofใใ. Ina quantifying roleโ it signifies a frequent occurrence of whatever verb itโs being usedwith:
ใใๆณณใใ
ใใพใใโ(I) often swim.โ
ไฝใใพ
ใโใใใพใโNot often / not much
This adverb actually comes from the theไบๆฎต verbไฝใโ meaning โto be left overโโ andis the counterpart toใใ. It is typically only be used when followed by a negativeverb or verbal adjective:
็ด ่ถใใใกใ
ใฏใใใพใๅฅฝใ
ใใใใใใพใใใโ(I) donโt like (red) tea very much.โ
There is no real difference betweenใใพใ andใใใพใโ but the la er soundsslightly more emphatic.
ใจใฆใโVery
This quantifier only works when followed by a positive verbal adjective:
ใใใฏใจใฆใๅฎใใ
ใใงใใญใโThis is very cheap isnโt it?โ
258 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
This quantifier can be emphatically intensified by sticking aใฃ inโ to formใจใฃใฆใ:
ใจใฃใฆใๆฅฝใใฎ
ใใใฃใใใโThat was reallyโ really fun.โ
ๆใ ใจใใฉใ
โ Sometimes
The kanji form should already give it awayโ but when activities are performed fromtime to timeโๆใ is used:
ๆใ ใฟใใชใงๆ ็ปใใใ
ใ่ฆใฟ
ใซ่กใ
ใใพใใโWe all go to the cinema together from time to time.โ
The constructionๆใ may frequently be found wri en asใจใใฉใ instead.The choice on whether to use a kanji or kana form depends mostly on intended style.In literary material the kanji form is preferredโ while in informal writing the kanaform is used more.
ๅ จ็ถใใใใ
โNot at all
Likeใใพใโ this quantifier is usually followed by a negative verb or verbal adjective:
ๅ จ็ถๆงใใพ
ใใพใใใใโ(I) donโt mind at all.โ
Howeverโ it derives its negative meaning only from these verbals โ there isno rule that says this word cannot be used with affirmative verbals insteadโ in whichcase it translates to โcompletelyโ. Like theใใใใฉ+(ใง)ใ wordsโ the meaning ofๅ จ็ถ itself is merely this โcompleteโ-nessโ connoting โnot at allโ only because it is pairedwith a verbal negative.
ๅฏใ
ใชใโConsiderablyโ rather
Likeใจใฆใโ this quantifier only works when followed by positive verbals:
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters 259
ใใใฏใใชใ้ซใใ
ใใใงใใญใโThis is rather expensiveโ isnโt it?โ
ใใฃใฑใโNot at all
Likeใใพใ andใใใใโ this quantifier is typically followed by a negative verb:
ใใใฏใใฃใฑใๅใ
ใใใพใใใโ(I) donโt understand this at all.โ
Howeverโ on its own ใใฃใฑใ just means โcleanโ or โneatlyโโ again high-lighting the fact that most quantifiers associated with a negative quantity only doso thanks to the negative verb form.
ๅฐใใ
ใโA li le bit
Literallyโ this quantifier means โin small partโโ and is usually followed by a positiveverb:
ๅฐใๅพ ใพ
ใฆใฐใใใใชใliterally: โWaiting for a li le while is okayโ isnโt it?โmeaning: โCould (we) wait for just a bit?โ
ๆฅๆฌ่ชใซใปใใ
ใฏๅฐใๅใ
ใใใพใใโI understand Japanese a li le (bit).โ
ใกใใฃใจโA li le
This quantifier can be followed by either a positive verb or verbal adjective in normalstatementsโ or by negative verbs and verbal adjectives when used in the form of aquestion. When used in a negative questionโ the full sentence actually connotes apositiveโ as can be seen in the following examples:
ใกใใฃใจๅฏใใ
ใใชใใงใใใโIsnโt it a li le cold?โ
260 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.3 Counters
ใกใใฃใจๆญฉใใ
ใใพใใใใโShall (we) take a li le walk?โ
Used with a positiveโ there is nothing remarkable to note:
ใใใฏใกใใฃใจ้ซใใ
ใใงใใญใโThis is a bit expensiveโ donโt you agree?โ
ไธๆฏใใฃใฑใ
โA lotโ โto the brimโ
Mentioned in the counter section forๆฏโ this quantifier can only be used with positiveverbs:
ใใใซใใๆฌๆฅใปใใใค
ใฏไบ็ดใใใ
ใงไธๆฏใงใใโ(I)โm sorryโ but today is fully booked.โ
Remember that this is only a quantifier if pronounced with theใฃใฑใ part inraised pitch. If pronounced with theใฃใฑใ part in a lower pitchโ it means โone cup(of something)โ.
ใใฃใจโ Even more
Used as the comparative for adjectivesโ as well as comparative for verb actionsโ thisquantifier can only be used with positive verbs and verbal adjectives:
ใพใ ่ถณใ
ใใชใใฟใใใญใๆๆใใใใใ
ใใใฃใจๅ ฅใ
ใใฆใโIt looks like itโs still not enough. (Please) add in (even) more (of the)ingredients.โ
ใใฃใจโVery much
This quantifier is only used with positive verbal adjectives:
ๅฝผๅฅณใใฎใใ
ใฏใฉใใชใขใใซใใใงใใใฃใจใใใใ ใโSheโs much pre ier than any model.โ
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.4 Using numbers 261
This word actually translates to a wide spectrum of wordsโ because of whatitโs composed of: the mimesisใ paired withใจ. This mimesis represents a straightโthrough and through somethingnessโ so that it can be translated as โvery muchโโโcompletelyโโ and even โforeverโโ depending on the context.
ๅ จ้จใใใถ
โAllโwholly
This quantifier means โallโ or โwhollyโ by virtue of its literal meaning โall partsโ:
ใ้ใใญ
ใใปใจใใฉๅ จ้จใใใถ
ไฝฟใคใ
ใฃใฆใใพใฃใใโ(I)โve spent almost all my money.โ
Beginning students will often mistakenly use this quantifier when meaning
ๅ จใใน
ใฆโ which means โevery(thing)โ rather than โallโโ or vice versaโ so make sure youpicked the right one.
ๅ จใใน
ใฆโ Everyโ everything
This quantifier is usually paired with positive verbs (and should not be confused
withๅ จ้จใใใถ
):
ๆฌๆฃใปใใ ใช
ใซใใๆฌใปใ
ใๅ จใฆ่ชญใ
ใใงใใพใฃใใโ(I)โve (sadly) read every book on (my) shelves.โ
5.4 Using numbersIn addition to knowing what to call numbers and which particles to use for countingstatementsโ there are two important โnumberโ subjects that deserve special mention:telling timeโ and arithmetic. In this section we shall look at these two subjects indepth.
5.4.1 Telling time and dateTimes and dates are closely related subjectsโ so weโll treat them in one go. Weโvealready looked at time for a bit in the counter sectionโ where we discovered thattime counters and duration counters are two different thingsโ leading us to guess athow to properly tell timeโ but letโs review these particles in a more specific se ing of
262 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.4 Using numbers
actually telling time. The Japanese time format can be represented either in a โbeforenoonโ/โafter noonโ system or using the 24 hour clock (but unlike the regular conceptof โ24 hoursโโ the Japanese clock can go beyond the number 24. For instanceโ a TVshow thatโs on at 1:20 in the early morningโ may air at 25:20 in Japan). The Japaneseway of forma ing times is similar to the western systemโ namely: first the hourโ thenminutesโ then seconds. As an example:
ไบๆใใ
ไบๅๅใซใใฃใทใ
ไบๅ็งใใใ ใใณใใ
5:20โฒ50โณ
As mentioned in the counters sectionโ the a.m. and p.m. indications in Japanese
areๅๅใใใ
andๅๅพใใ
โ which precede the actual time:
ๅๅพใใ
(ใฎ)ไบๆๅใซใใฏใ
ใซๆฅใ
ใพใใโ(I) will come at 2:30 p.m.โ
There are two things to note here. One is that ใฎ is optional. It can be leftoutโ in which case the statement is slightly less formal. In factโ the whole ๅๅ/ๅๅพ indication is optionalโ since typically it will be obvious whether you mean in the
morning or in the afternoon. The other thing to note is the use of the suffixๅใฏใ
whichindicates โhalfโ. In Japaneseโ adding this indicates an additional half hour (unlikein some western languagesโ where the indicator โhalfโ means removing half an hourfrom the time):
ไธๆๅใชใชใใฏใ
7:30
This is of course the same as sayingไธๆไธๅๅโ but usingๅ is shorter.Unlike some western languagesโ Japanese doesnโt have indicators for the quar-
ters before and past the hour. Insteadโ it has a โbeforeโ and โafterโ marker if the timeis anywhere from 10-ish minutes before the hour to 10-ish minutes past the hourโๅใพใ
and ้ใ
ใ respectively. Literallyโ ๅ means โbeforeโ or โin front ofโโ and ้ใ isthe noun derived from the verb ้ใใโ โto be past (some conceptual point)โ. Twoexamples of their use are:
ใใๅๆใใ
ๅๅใใฃใทใ
้ใ
ใใ ใใใพใ ๅพ ใพ
ใคใฎใใโItโs already 10 past 4โ are we still going to wait?โ
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.4 Using numbers 263
ใใฎ็ช็ตใฐใใใฟ
ใฏไธๆใใกใ
ไบๅใใตใ
ๅใพใ
ใซๅงใฏใ
ใพใใพใใโThat programme will start 5 (minutes) to 1.โ
But telling time alone isnโt everything. If you donโt want to useๅๅ orๅๅพโyou can also say whether you mean in the morningโ afternoonโ evening or nightโ by
using the nounsๆใใ
โๆผใฒใ
โๆฉใฐใ
andๅคใใ
respectively:
ๆฏๆใพใใใ
ไธๆใชใชใ
ใซๅฎถใใ
ใๅบใง
ใพใใโ(I) leave the house every morning at 7.โ
The prefixๆฏโ as you may remember from the outlineโ is a prefix used to indi-cate โevery [โฆ]โ and is used here to indicate frequent behaviour rather than just a sin-gle event. When you want to specifically refer to โthisโ morningโ afternoonโ evening
or night insteadโ the words to use are ไปๆใใ
โ [nothing]โ ไปๆฉใใใฐใ
and ไปๅคใใใ
respectively.Thereโs no real reason why there is no word for โthis afternoonโโ but there just isnโtany. Insteadโไปๆฅ
ใใใ
meaning โtodayโ is typically used. Also notice the readings for โthismorningโ and โthis nightโโ which might be different from what you would expect.
If we want to be more specificโ we might add a date to the time weโre stating.The Japanese format for this is โbiggest counter firstโโ so the format is:
eraโyearโmonthโdayโ (day by name)โhourโminutesโseconds
The era bit is important hereโ as the Japanese calendar doesnโt actually correspond
to the western calendar. While the Japanese will use the Gregorian calendar whennecessaryโ the โproperโ Japanese way to count years is to name the era to which youare referringโ and then count the number of years since its epoch. Since these arereasonably important to knowโ the list of most recent eras โ ordered most recent tooldest โ is as follows:
The ๅนณๆใธใใใ
era is the current eraโ which started in 1989 and will last as long asemperor Akihito remains emperor.
Theๆญๅใใใใ
era was the era before the current eraโ running from 1926 till 1989.
The ๅคงๆญฃใใใใใ
era is the last most recent era still covering the 1900โsโ running from1912 till 1926.
Theๆๆฒปใใใ
era is the first of the โrecentโ erasโ starting at the Meiji restoration in1868 running till 1912.
264 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.4 Using numbers
The numbering for eras is reasonably intuitive: the first year of an era is theyear the era started. Thusโ โๅคงๆญฃ 1โ corresponds to 1912โ and โๆญๅ 30โ correspondsto 1955. If we write out the full date for when this section was first wri enโ we get:
ๅนณๆๅไธๅนดไบๆไบๅๅๆฅ(ใฎ็ซๆๆฅ)ไบๆๅไนๅไบๅไบ็งHeisei 17 (= 2005)โ May 24th (Tuesday)โ 2:19โฒ55โณ
While using kanji for the numerals is a perfectly valid way to write full datesโitโs easier to read if numerals are used instead:
ๅนณๆ17ๅนด5ๆ24ๆฅ(ใฎ็ซๆๆฅ)2ๆ19ๅ55็ง
It might also be a good idea to list the days while weโre at it. The Japaneseweek is as follows:
ๆฅๆๆฅใซใกใใใณ
โsun day of the weekโ Sunday
ๆๆๆฅใใคใใใณ
โmoon day of the weekโ Monday
็ซๆๆฅใใใใณ
โfire day of the weekโ Tuesday
ๆฐดๆๆฅใใใใใณ
โwater day of the weekโ Wednesday
ๆจๆๆฅใใใใใณ
โwood day of the weekโ Thursday
้ๆๆฅใใใใใณ
โmetal day of the weekโ Friday
ๅๆๆฅใฉใใใณ
โearth day of the weekโ Saturday
While many of the western days of the week derive their name from Norsemythology (more specificallyโ the names of the Norse gods)โ the Japanese โ as wellas several other Asian countries โ use the elements for their day namingโ with thesun and the moon to complete the set of seven. These two โcome firstโโ so the Japaneseweek conceptually starts on a Sundayโ even if the first day of the work week is Mon-day.
When indicating day-series such as โmon-wed-friโ in Englishโ the Japaneseuse two syllable pronunciations for the days in question. Howeverโ days with only
a single syllable before theๆๆฅใใใณ
part will have their vowel doubled:
ๆๆฐด้ใใฃใใใใ
mon-wed-fri
็ซๆจๅใใผใใใฉใ
tue-thu-sat
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.4 Using numbers 265
Note that contractions occur when pairingๆwithๆฐดโ because of theใค in thepronunciation forๆ.
5.4.2 Basic arithmetic
One of the most useful things you can do with numbers is turn them into other num-bersโ by applying such wonderful operations as additionโ subtractionโ division andmultiplication. These four operations sum up the basic mathematical operations onecan perform on numbersโ and covers what most people consider enough when itcomes to doing maths. Whileโ of courseโ explaining all mathematical operations iswell beyond the scope of this bookโ we will also look at powers and rootsโ in additionto the four basic arithmetic operations.
Addition
Addition is the root of all things maths related. The idea of addition is a childishlysimple one: you have somethingโ you get moreโ you have more. The mathematicalpart of this concept is to determine how much more you haveโ and for this we needthree things: numbersโ something that states additionโ and something that marks anoutcome. Luckily (though not unexpectedly) Japanese has all three of these. Num-bers we have already seen plenty ofโ the outcome marker is simplyใงใโ and the verb
that we use for addition is่ถณใ
ใ.
ไธใใก่ถณใๅใใ
ใฏไบใ
ใงใใโOne plus four is five.โ
In this useโ่ถณใ acts remarkably western in that even though่ถณใ is used in้ฃไฝๅฝขโ and should thus be a ributiveโไธ่ถณใๅ does not say โa one-added fourโโ butmerely says โone plus fourโ (this is also the case for the verb used for subtraction).
We can also use่ถณใ on its ownโ for such obvious things as:
ไบๅๅใซใใ ใใใ
ใ่ถณใ
ใใฐใใกใใใฉใซใใใโIf (you) add 20 yenโ thatโll make it (a) round (number).โ
Whereใกใใใฉ is a nice li le word meaning โexactโ or โpreciseโ. In this sen-tenceโ it is interpreted as โround numberโโ because in the context of numbersโ a precisenumber corresponds to a โcleanโ numberโ which can either be a round numberโ or anumber without a decimal fraction.
266 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.4 Using numbers
Subtraction
For subtractionโๅผใฒ
ใ instead of่ถณใ is used:
ไธ็พใใใณใใ
ๅผใไบๅไธใใใ ใใใ
ใฏไบ็พๅๅไธใซใฒใใใใใใ ใใชใช
ใงใใโ300 minus 53 is 247.โ
Division
Division in Japanese is done in the same way as in western mathsโ but the phrasingis somewhat confusing if you donโt pay a ention: in western mathsโ the numberthat results from 3 ร โ is pronounced โthree fifthsโ. In Japaneseโ this โfactorโ thendenominatorโ order is the reverseโ so instead of saying โthree fifthsโโ in Japanese yousay โfiveโs threeโ:
ไบๅใใถใ
ใฎไธใใ
ใliterally: โthree five-partsโโโ โ
This uses the genitiveใฎ to linkไธโ 3โ as genitivally belonging toไบๅโ โ .One thing to note here is that in this useโๅ is pronouncedใถใโ and this is
the reason why the counter series for minutes has an oddity for threeโ where ใตใbecomesใทใ instead ofใถใ:
kanji pronunciation meaningไธๅ ใใใทใ Three minutesไธๅ ใใใถใ A third
Multiplication
A final simple operation is multiplicationโ which uses the nounๅใฐใ
. This is actuallya rather interesting wordโ because on its own it means โtwo foldโโ such as in for in-stance:
ๅ้กใใใ ใ
ใๅใซใชใฃใใโ(Our) problems doubled.โ
Interestinglyโ this noun can also be used in combination with other numbers(except of course the number 1) to indicate any random multiplication:
Counters and counting โ ยง 5.4 Using numbers 267
ไบๅใใฐใ
ใฎไธใใก
ใฏไธๅไบใใใใ ใใ
ใงใใโ7 times 5 is 35.โ
Hereโ the literal statement is โthe five-fold of seven is 35โ.This is basic multiplicationโ but thereโs also another word thatโs used for the
x-fold for one through ten involving the counter้โ which is pronounced in variousdifferent ways this role:
ไธ้ ไบ้ ไธ้ ๅ้ ไบ้ ๅ ญ้ใฒใจใ ใตใใ ใฟใ x ใใคใ xใใกใใ ใ ใซใใ ใ ใใใใ ใ ใใใ ใ ใใใ ใ ใใใใ ใ
ไธ้ ๅ ซ้ ไน้ ๅ้ ๅนพ้ใชใชใ ใใ ใใใฎใ ใจใ ใใใใใกใใ ใ ใใใ ใ
ใใ ใใกใใ
You may have noticed that this is perhaps the most bizarre counter series thelanguage has; the counter has three different possible readingsโ has a mix of possiblenative Japanese and Chinese readings for the numbersโ and the native reading usedfor 10 is very rare oneโ not to mention the question word usesๅนพ instead ofไฝ.
Needless to sayโ this counter series is โspecialโ. In factโ itโs so special that itโs amainly literary counter for โ-foldโโ where it depends on the context which reading isused. In eloquent languageโใ is more likelyโ and in technical literatureโใใ ใ willbe used more.
5.4.3 More advanced mathematics
While there are many topics that we could treat hereโ this isnโt a book on mathematicsin Japanese. Treating all mathematical topics would take up too many pagesโ andwould for the most part be rather boring. Insteadโweโll look at two more โsimpleโโ butless basicโ mathematical constructions before moving on to โrealโ language pa erns.
Squaring and cubing
There are two special words for squaring (xยฒ) and cubing (xยณ)โๅนณๆนใธใใปใ
and็ซๆนใใฃใฝใ
โ used toindicate squared and cubed units respectively. For instanceโ when indicating some-thing is 500 square kilometresโ one would say:
268 Counters and counting โ ยง 5.4 Using numbers
500ๅนณๆนใญใญ(ใกใผใใซ)ใงใใโ(It) is 500 square kilometres.โ
Orโ if one wanted to say a particular vehicle has a 12 cubic meter interiorโ onecould say:
ไธญ่บซใชใใฟ
ใฏ12็ซๆนใกใผใใซใงใใโThe interior fits 12 cubic meters.โ
Raising to a power and taking roots
Going beyond squares or cubesโ and raising numbers to an arbitrary power in Japanese
uses the counter ไนใใใ
โ and is used in the following way:
ไธใใก
ใฎไธไนใใใใใ
ใฏ ไธ็พๅๅไธใใใณใใใใใใ ใใใ
ใงใใโ7 to the power 3 is 343.โ
The inverse of this operation is taking the root of some powerโ which is done
with the โcounterโ ไนๆ นใใใใใ
โ which is just the counter for raising power paired with thenoun for โrootโ:
ๅๅไนใใใใ ใใใ ใ
ใฎไบไนๆ นใซใใใใใ
ใฏไธใใก
ใงใใโThe square root of 49 is seven.โ
And thatโs itโ thatโs all the mathematics you will probably care to know howto work withโ so letโs leave the numbers as what they are and move on to the nextchapterโ which deals with more general language pa erns.
Chapter 6
Language pa erns
So far weโve covered verbal grammarโ particlesโ and countersโ as well as a handful ofrelated โhandy wordsโ that fill in some of the gaps. Howeverโ that still leaves quite anumber of constructions that you should be familiar with if you want to use Japaneseto any serious degreeโ and so in this last chapter we will look at the rest of the usefulJapanese that we still need to cover.
In this chapterโ weโll look at how to draw comparisons between thingsโ mak-ing choicesโ indicating possibilitiesโ talking about trying things and having thingsdoneโ how to nominalise statements so that we can talk about them objectively (not anunimportant trick!) and the exceedingly important rules for the core of true Japanesesocial language pa erns: giving and receivingโ and humble and honorific speech.
6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choiceComparing and choosing are two very related subjects. Making a choice is essentiallythe same as making a subjective comparisonโ where one thing is more favourablethan the other. In Japanese we see two types of choices: the binary choiceโ and theopen choice.
6.1.1 Binary choicesThe binary choice is simply a choice between two things. Oneโs preference can swingone way or the otherโ or one can indicate that either choice is fineโ or both are to be
rejected. This binary choice concept in Japanese uses the wordๆนใปใ
โ literally โdirectionโโin the following questioning pa ern:
[X]ใจ[Y]ใจใใฉใกใ(ใฉใฃใก)ใฎๆนใ(some judgement call)ใงใใใโWhich is more (something); Xโ or Y?โ
269
270 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice
Note that this uses a two itemโ inclusive listโ with either twoใจ particlesโ or acomma after the second choice item (though typically commas are avoided). Becauseof the use ofใฉใกใใฎๆน orใฉใฃใกใฎๆน (the first being more formal than the second)this pa ern literally asks โA and B; which direction is [more] [something]?โ and canbe applied to virtually anything:
ใใผใฌใผใจใใญใณใตใณใใจใฉใกใใฎๆนใๅฅฝใ
ใใงใใใโWhich do (you) like bestโ hamburgers or chicken sandwiches?โ
้ป่ปใงใใใ
ใจใในใจใฉใกใใฎๆนใ้ใฏใ
ใใงใใใโWhich is faster? The train or the bus?โ
Remember that adjectives in Japanese act both as a ributives as well as com-parativesโ so the translation for the last line could also be โwhich one is fastโ the trainor the bus?โโ but it is far more likely that the speaker means โwhich one is faster?โbecause of the fact that a choice is being used in the question.
There is always the possibility that the answer to this question is โbothโ orโneitherโโ which use the same words in Japanese: ใฉใกใใโ or the more colloquialใฉใฃใกใ followed by a positive or negative evaluation (recall this from the section
on interrogatives paired withใ)โ or alternatively the noun ไธกๆนใใใใปใ
meaning โeither[option]โ suffixed withใ:
A:้ณๆฅฝใใใใ
ใฎใธใฃใบใจใฏใฉใทใใฏใจใฉใกใใฎๆนใๅฅฝใใงใใใB:ใฉใกใใๅฅฝใใงใใC:ใฉใฃใกใๅฅ
ในใค
ใซๅฅฝใใใใชใใใ
D: ไธกๆนใใใใปใ
ใๅใ
ใใใพใใใ
A: โWhich music do you like bestโ jazz or classical?โB: โI like either.โC: โI donโt particularly like either.โD: โI donโt (really) know either of the two.โ
6.1.2 Open choicesIf you want to have a larger collection of items to choose fromโ or you want to aska categorical choiceโ thenๆน cannot be used. Insteadโ a choice pa ern involving โฆ
ใฎไธญใชใ
ใงโ meaning โfrom amongst โฆโ must be used. This pa ern can be used for any-thingโ such as specific lists of itemsโ or just categorical nouns asking the person who
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice 271
is offered the choice to pick something that falls into the category. For instance:
A:้ณๆฅฝใใใใ
ใฎไธญใงไฝใชใซ
ใๅฅฝใ
ใใงใใใB:ใใใงใใญใใธใฃใบใๅฅฝใใงใใ
A: โMusic-wiseโ what do you like?โ (literally: โfrom musicโ what do youlike?โ)B: โHmm. I like jazz.โ
This is an example of a categorical choice where the respondent actually givesa specific answer. Questions like โWhat food do you like?โ and โWhich cars are fast?โfit this pa ern.
There is an exception to using this pa ern which involves open choices for lo-cationsโ such as โWhich cities in Europe have you been to?โ: asใง is already a markerfor locationโ theใฎไธญ part is dropped when asking location questions:
ใจใผใญใใใงใฉใใช้ฝๅธใจใ
ใซ่กใ
ใฃใไบใใจ
ใใใใพใใใโWhich cities in Europe have you been to?โ
Againโ it might be that none of the choices are goodโ or that theyโre all equally
fine. Instead of usingใฉใกใใโใฉใฃใกใ or ไธกๆนใใใใปใ
ใโไฝใ orไฝใงใ are used for thisparticular pa ernโ to indicate โeverythingโ or โnothingโโ depending on the verb formthat follows being positive or negative:
A:้ฃใ
ใน็ฉใใฎ
ใฎไธญใงไฝใชใซ
ใ็พๅณใใ
ใใใจๆใใ
ใใพใใใ
B:็นใจใ
ใซไฝใ็พๅณใใใชใใจๆใใ
ใใ
C:ไฝใชใ
ใงใ็พๅณใใใใ
A: โWhich foods are tasty?โB: โI donโt think thereโs anything particularly tasty about food.โC: โEverythingโs tasty!โ
6.1.3 Comparison through likenessโ and impressionsClosely related to choices is the concept of comparing things. After allโ if you cannotmake comparisonsโ you cannot determine preference. There are quite a number ofways in which to compare things in Japaneseโ with varying degree of strength in the
272 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice
comparisonโ and varying nuance in the exact way the likeness (or contrast) works.
You have already seen some ways in which to do thisโ such asใใ andๆงใใ
in the verband particles sectionsโ but there are quite a few moreโ which we will now look at.
ใใโWeak impression (้ฃ็จๅฝขโ่ชๅนน)โ second hand information (้ฃไฝๅฝข)
The noun adjectiveใใ (aใใใใฉ word) paired with a verb in้ฃ็จๅฝข or a verbaladjectiveโs stemโ is used to create the construction of โappearing to be (at the pointof) โฆโ or โseems to be โฆ (to the speaker)โ. And example of this using a verb is:
ไปไบใใใจ
ใๅบๆฅใงใ
ใใใงใใญใโIt looks like (you)โll be able to perform this job.โ
And examples of using verbal adjectives are:
ๆธฉใใใ
ใใใใงใใโIt seems warm.โ
้ใฏใ
ใใใช่ปใใใพ
ใโA fast looking car.โ
Forใใ andใชใโ this construction is slightly different. Rather thanใใใ(remember that ใใ is just the alternative ้ฃไฝๅฝข forใใ) and ใชใใโ these twoadjectives becomeใใใใ andใชใใใ respectively.
Note that this โใใ as likenessโ only works with verbs in้ฃ็จๅฝขโ and verbaladjective stems. ใใ can also be used in combination with verbal้ฃไฝๅฝขโ but thenit means something quite different: rather than indicating impressionโ this combina-tion indicates second hand information:
ไปไบใใใจ
ใๅบๆฅใงใ
ใใใใงใใโI heard youโd be able to perform this job.โ
ๆธฉใใใ
ใใใใใงใใโThey say itโs warm.โ
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice 273
้ใฏใ
ใใใใช่ปใใใพ
ใโThey say thatโs a fast car.โ
This kind of second hand information is also called โhearsayโโ although thisterm should not be taken too literally; it equally applies to second hand informationfrom reading a book or watching a documentary on televisionโ not just having beentold something. As long as itโs strictly speaking unverified informationโ it counts ashearsay.
For nounsโ a fully qualified statement involving the plain copula is used:
ๅ ็ใ ใใใงใใโI heard heโs a teacher.โ
ๆงใใ
โ Strong impressionโmannerโ having the appearance of
To explain this wordโ we must briefly look at classical Japaneseโ in which the nounๆงโ pronouncedใใพโ was used to indicate a โseemingnessโโ which we still see in ex-
pressions such asใ่ฆๅดใใใ
ๆงใใพ
orใ้ฆณ่ตฐใกใใ
ๆงใใพ
. These meanโ respectivelyโ โhaving the ap-pearance of being a hardshipโ and โhaving the appearance of being a feastโ. Thismeaning is preserved in modern Japanese through the use ofๆง stillโ but read asใใ.
This noun adjective combines with ้ฃไฝๅฝข to create a conceptual likenessโrelating two manners or behaviours to each other:
่ใ
ใใชใใใใซใใฆไธใใ
ใใใconnotes: โPlease go about your business in a manner that makes it appearas if you didnโt hear that.โmeaning: โPlease act like you didnโt hear that.โ
A special use of this likeness adverb is with theใใใใฉ seriesใใฎโใใฎโใใฎ andใฉใฎโ with which it sets up an explicit โmannerโ indicator:
ใใฎใใใซ - in this mannerใใฎใใใซ - in that mannerใใฎใใใซ - in that manner like soใฉใฎใใใซ - in which manner
Very similar in meaning to theใใโใใโใใ andใฉใ seriesโ the decision
274 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice
of whether to useใใ orใใฎใใ (orใ-โใ- andใฉ- equivalents) is mostly decidedby what oneโs intention is. When you need to be instructiveโ or want to highlight aspecific act and the performing of itโใใ is used. If one instead wants to illustrateor describeโใใฎใใใซ (etc.) is used. As suchโ both of the following sentences arepossible:
ใ็ฎธใฏใ
ใฏใใไฝฟใคใ
ใใพใใโThis is how (you) use chopsticks.โ
ใ็ฎธใฏใ
ใฏใใฎใใใซไฝฟใคใ
ใใพใใโThis is how (you) use chopsticks.โ
Howeverโ the first sentence is instructive (telling us what to do)โ whereas thesecond sentence is illustrative of a processโ not so much telling us what to doโ buttelling us how things are. To highlight the differenceโ imagine that some instructorsaysใ็ฎธใฏใใไฝฟใใพใโ and then picks up a pair of chopsticks to demonstrate howto hold themโ and how to pick things up. For the second sentenceโ the instructor hasalready demonstrated how to hold themโ and is in the middle of showing how to pickthings up with them when he saysใ็ฎธใฏใใฎใใใซไฝฟใใพใ. In the first se ingโthe sentence acts as a set-up for the actual processโ whereas in the second se ingโ thesentence summarises whatโs already going on.
This also means thatใใฎใใใซ (etc.) can be used in certain situations whereใใ (etc.) do not make senseโ such as in purely illustrative se ings.
ๆงใใ
+ใซ +ใใ/ใชใ
ใใ can also be used in the special combination้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใซ +ใใ. This construc-tion literally translates to โDoingโ in a way that is akin to โฆโโ which is a bit crypticโso an example to demonstrate the use:
้ป่ฉฑใงใใ
ใใใใใใใซใใใliterally: โ(I) will do (something)โ in a way that is akin to telephoningโ.meaning: โ(I) will try to call (you)โ
Howeverโ do not confuse this โใใใซ+ใใ with โใใใซ+ใชใโ which indi-cates something ending up like something elseโ rather than trying to do something:
้ป่ฉฑใใใใใใใซใใใโ(I) tried to (make sure to) call (you)โ
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice 275
้ป่ฉฑใใใใใใใซใชใฃใใโ(I) ended up calling (you)โ
้ขจใตใ
โMannerโ style
The noun adjective ้ขจโ like ๆงโ likens something to a particular manner. It closely
translates to โwayโโ or โstyleโโ and this meaning is evident in words likeๅฝไธ้ขจใจใใใใตใ
meaning
โmodernโ (โthe now-a-day styleโ) or ่ฏ้ขจใใใใตใ
โ โgood customsโ (โgood styleโ). A special setof words with this likeness adverb is its combination with theใใใใฉ seriesใใใช(etc.):
ใใใช้ขจใซ - in this way/styleใใใช้ขจใซ - in that way/styleใใใช้ขจใซ - in that way/style like thatใฉใใช้ขจใซ - in which way/style
This combination is used when one wants to focus specifically on a way some-thing is (or has been) done. It isโ effectivelyโ a rhetorical adverbโ qualifying a verbaction with itself. That may sound a bit crypticโ so an example:
ใใใช้ขจใซ่จใ
ใใใฆใใๅบๆฅใงใ
ใชใใใฎใฏๅบๆฅใชใใ ใใใliterally: โEven by talking (to me) in that fashionโ things that cannot bedoneโ cannot be done.โmeaning: โAsk (me) any way (you) wantโ (I) cannot do what (I) cannot do.โ
In this sentenceโ the ใใใช้ขจใซ่จใใใฆใ highlights the way somethingwas saidโ without saying what this way isโ instead relying on the listener to know โinwhich wayโ the verb action occurred.
ใใใโ Strong impression based on secondary information
Similar to likening something to something elseโ impressions are oneโs own projec-tions of likeness onto something. For instanceโ if we have the impression somethingis tallโ then we can also describe it as โbeing like something that is tallโ. As suchโimpression words are also quite important to know.
When we have an impression of something based on secondary informationโor indirect observationโ we can use the verbal adjectiveใใใ to indicate thisโ byusing it in combination with verbal้ฃไฝๅฝขโ or following a noun phrase:
276 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice
ใใฎๆฌใปใ
ใฏๅฑฑ็ฐใใพใ
ๅใใ
ใฎใใใ(ใงใ)ใIt seems that this book is Yamadaโs.
In addition to thisโใใใ can be used to indicate that something generates acertain impression:
ใใฎ่จใ
ใๆนใใ
ใฏใๆจๆใใใ
ใใใใใใงใใญใliterally: โThat way of speaking (plus what was said)โ is just like (what)Kimura (would use).โmeaning: โThatโs so like Kimura.โ
There are two possible situations here. If we are dealing with someone otherthan Kimura saying somethingโ then the commenterโs use ofใใใ indicates thatthey are reminded of how Kimura would talk or behave in that situation. Of courseโif Kimura herself was the one talkingโ then the use ofใใใ indicates that this fitsKimuraโs expected behavioural pa ern.
ใฟใใโ Strong impression based on direct observation
When commenting on an impression based on direct observationโ the noun adjectiveใฟใใ is used after้ฃไฝๅฝข clausesโ as well as noun phrases:
็ฒใคใ
ใใฆใใฟใใใงใใญใโ(He) looks likes (he)โs tiredโ doesnโt (he).โ
Because ใฟใใ is a noun adjectiveโ it can also be used to form (complex)a ributive phrases:
็กฌใใ
ใๅ ็ใงใใโ(He is a) strict teacher.โ
็กฌใใฟใใใชๅ ็ใงใใโ(He is a) teacher who looks like (he)โs strict.โ
ใฟใใ is very similar toใใใ andๆงใใ
.
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice 277
๏ฝ็ใฆใ
โ Likeness adverbs
This is a noun adjective that is used primarily as a noun suffixโ to create โ-lyโโ โ-alโโ orโ-iveโ nouns for comparisonsโ such as:
adjective meaning from noun meaning
ๅบๆฌ็ใใปใใฆใ
โbasicallyโ ๅบๆฌ โbasisโ.
ๅฎ้็ใใฃใใใฆใ
โpracticalโ ๅฎ้ โthe way things are nowโ.
ไธปไฝ็ใใ ใใใฆใ
โsubjectiveโ ไธปไฝ โsubjectโโ โconstituentโ.
These comparative nouns are used like normal noun adjectives for compar-isons:
ๅบๆฌ็ใซใคใพใใชใใงใใใใโIt would basically be uninteresting.โ
ใฃใฝใโTraitsโ general likeness
This noun suffix is comparable to the English suffix โ-ishโ:
ๅๅญใใฟใ
ใใใฃใฆใ็ทใใจใ
ใฃใฝใใงใใใญใโKimikoโs kind of a tomboyโ isnโt she?โ
This sentence literally reads โKimikoโs mannishโ donโt you think?โThis suffix also works to indicate traits in something:
ใใฎๆ็ใใใใ
ใใใฉใณในใฃใฝใใจๆใใ
ใใชใ๏ผโDonโt you think this food tastes kind of French?โ
This sentence literally reads โDonโt you think this food is French(ish)?โ
ๅใใช
ใโ Identical (in some way)
The adjective ๅใ is actually an odd wordโ a remnant of the classical Japanese ๅใใโ not quite fi ing in the modern verbal adjective classโ nor quite fi ing in thenoun adjective class. Using the construction [X]ใจๅใใงใ is the strongest possiblecomparison that can be madeโ as it doesnโt so much liken two (or more) things to eachotherโ but explicitly claims they are identical in some way.
278 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice
ใใฎ้จๅฑใธใ
ใฏ้ฃใจใชใ
ใฎใจๅใใงใใโThis room is the same as the neighbouring one.โ
While this is a noun adjectiveโ rather than usingๅใ +ใซ when we want touse it adverbiallyโ we use the verbal adjective adverbial form: ๅใใ:
A:ๅคงๅญฆใ ใใใ
ใฎไบๅนด็ใซใญใใใ
ใฎ็ณ็ฐใใใ
ใงใใ
B:ๅใใใๆคๆพใใใพใค
ใงใใ
A: โI am Ishidaโ 2nd year university student.โB: โI am Uematsuโ also a 2nd year university student.โ
Of courseโ B literally says โI am Uematsuโ the sameโโ but unlike in for instanceEnglishโ it is not impolite in Japanese to omit this contextually already present infor-mationโ since Japanese is a language in which context is presumed to remain knownthroughout a conversation.
Basically all you have to remember is that for all intents and purposesโๅใis the noun andๅใใ the adverb. If you can remember thatโ you should be fine.
ๅใ
ใกโ Prone
Closely related to likenessโ the noun adjectiveใใก is used to compare something inthe โprone toโ way. While a noun adjectiveโ there are some instances whereใใก canbe used withใฎโ rather than with the้ฃไฝๅฝข forใ โใชโ as well:
ๅฆนใใใใจ
ใ็ ๆฐใณใใใ
ใใกใฎไบบใฒใจ
ใงใใโMy (younger) sister is someone whoโs prone to illness.โ
Howeverโ there are no clear rules on when one can useใฎโ so typically itโs bestto stick with usingใใก as a normal noun adjectiveโ usingใช.
For verbs and verbal adjectivesโ this suffix is added to the้ฃ็จๅฝข:
ใใฎๆ่จใจใใ
ใฏ้ฒใใ
ใฟใใกใงใใโThis clock tends to run fast.โ
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice 279
ไผผใซ
ใโResemblance
A final way to indicate likeness is by using the verbไผผใ meaning โto resembleโ orโto be similarโ. Typically used in -ใฆใใ formโ this verb is used in combination withthe particlesใจ orใซโ where the choice of particle determines the nuance of likeness.Usingใจ makes the statement describe near-exact likeness:
ใใฎ่ใใใ
ใใฏ็งใใใ
ใฎใจไผผใฆใใพใใโThose ideas are like the ones I had.โ
้ใใ
ใฏ่ฒใใ
ใ็้ฎใใใกใ ใ
ใจไผผใฆใใใโThe colour of gold is (sort of) the same as brass.โ
Usingใซโ on the other handโ makes the statement describe general likenessโor a likeness in a particular (but unspecific) way:
ๆฏ่ฆชใฏใฏใใ
ใซ่ฏใ
ใไผผใฆใใใโ(She) really takes after (her) mother.โ
ใใฎๅฑฑใใพ
ใฏใขใใซใซไผผใฆใใใชใใโThat mountain (kind of) resembles a duckโ doesnโt it?โ
6.1.4 Discussing possibilitiesRelated to choicesโ comparisons and likenessโ there is the subject of possibilities. InEnglishโ we can indicate possibility in a variety of ways; things โmayโ or โmightโ beโโcanโ or โcouldโ beโ theyโre possibleโ likelyโ unlikelyโ or even โstand a chance to beโ.In Japaneseโ tooโ there are a number of useful ways to describe possibilitiesโ whichwe shall look at in this section.
ใใ็ฅใ
ใใชใโMay or may not
The firstโ and probably most usedโ is the constructionใใ็ฅใ
ใใชใ. This construc-tion technically consists of the particles ใ andใโ followed by the negative shortpotential of ็ฅใโ to knowโ or be informed; ็ฅใใชใ. This construction translatesto โit could be that โฆโโ implying that the speaker doesnโt actually knowโ but is notruling out that something could be the case.
280 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice
A:่กใ
ใใชใใจ่จใ
ใฃใใ ใใใB:ใพใใใใ่จใฃใใใใใใพใใใ
A: โDidnโt he say he wasnโt coming?โB: โHe might have said something like that.โ
As can be seen from the previous exampleโใใใใใชใ can also be used asใใใใใพใใโ theyโre just different politeness levels. Further alternatives are thehighly colloquialใใ็ฅใใโ and just the particlesโใใ:
A:็ณ็ฐใใใ
ใใใใใใญใ่ฝใ
ใจใใใใ
B:ๆจใ
ใฆใใใใใชใ
A: โDid Ishida lose his glasses?โB: โMaybe he (actually) threw them away.โ
ๅคๅใใถใ
โ Probably
When a speaker suspects something to be the caseโ but theyโre not 100% certainโ theywill useๅคๅ to indicate this. Looking at just the kanjiโ the word literally reads โgreatpartโโ and thatโs pre y much what it meansโ too.
ใพใ ๆฑบใ
ใใฆใชใใใ ใใๅคไผใชใคใใ
ใฟใฏๅคๅใๅคง้ชใใใใ
ใซใชใใโWeโve not quite decided yetโ but weโll probably head off to Osaka for thesummer.โ
ๅฏ่ฝๆงใใฎใใใ
โ Possibility of
You canโ of courseโ also be more literal when talking about the possibility of some-
thingโ by using the actual noun for โpossibilityโโ ๅฏ่ฝๆงใใฎใใใ
(often also used to refer toan available โoptionโ). Usually this is paired with the verbใใโ to indicate that thespeaker believes there is the possibility of somethingโ in a way that is more literalthan usingใใ็ฅใใชใ.
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.1 Comparisonsโ preferences and choice 281
่ช็ใใฐใ
ใใๅฏ่ฝๆงใใใใใใๆฐใ
ใใคใใฆใโNowโ this thing might self-detonateโ so be careful.โ
Of courseโๅฏ่ฝๆง can also be used with negative statementsโ usually involv-ingใชใ:
ๅคฑๆใใฃใฑใ
ใใๅฏ่ฝๆงใงใใใใพใใใโThereโs not even the possibility of failing.โ
6.1.5 Discussing certaintyIn addition to objective possibilitiesโ thereโs also the more subjective idea of certainty.There are a number of words that express this more subjective kind of โpossibilityโโwhich deserve just as much mention as the previous set of words.
ใใฃใจโ Surely
When a speaker is hopeful that something is the caseโใใฃใจ can be used. Associatedwith a positive kind of wishful thinkingโ it is typically translated as โsurelyโ:
ใใฃใจๆฅใ
ใใใ ใใโI am sure (they)โll show up!โ
In this sentenceโ the speaker can either be confidentโ or can be hoping stronglyfor the outcome they are talking aboutโ even if thereโs the possibility that this will notbe the case.
ๅฟ ใใชใ
ใโCertainly
When a speaker is positively certain of somethingโ then ๅฟ ใ can be usedโ whichtranslates to โnecessarilyโ orโ more in keeping with theใ negative it really isโ โwith-out failโ:
ๅฟ ใๆฅใ
ใใใ ใโ(They)โre certain to show up.โ
In this sentenceโ the speaker is highly confident in the outcomeโ even if theircertainty is based purely on subjective information.
282 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising
Uncertainty โ [X]ใใฉใใ[Y]
Finallyโ there will be times when you are not so much certainโ but actually uncertainabout whether or not something is the caseโ or will happen. For thisโ we can use a
construction we already saw in the particle section onใโ namely [X]ใใฉใใๅใ
ใใใพใใ:
ไปๅนดใใจใ
ใฏ่ฝใ
ใจใใใฉใใๅใ
ใใใพใใใโI donโt know whether or not Iโll make this yearโs grade.โ
The way this is formed is very simple. The clause about which uncertaintyis to be expressed is followed by ใใฉใใโ which is basically the double questionmentioned in the particle section for ใโ creating (essentially literally) โ[clause] orwhat?โ The final verb then comments on the fact that itโs not clear which of the twochoices are actually to be picked.
ไปๅนดใฏ่ฝใจใใโ(I) will fail this year.โ
ไปๅนดใฏ่ฝใจใใใฉใใใโWill (you) fail this year orโฆ?โ
ไปๅนดใฏ่ฝใจใใใฉใใๅใใใพใใใโ(I) donโt know whether (I) will fail this year or not.โ
6.2 Nominalising
Nominalisers are those words that turn words that arenโt nounsโ or entire phrasesโspecifically into noun phrasesโ so that they can be used in larger sentences as topicsโsubjectsโ direct objects or what have you. We have already seen some nominalisersin the particle section (such asใฎโใใฎ andใใจ)โ and these will be further explainedin their roles as nominalisers in this section. It should be noted that most nominalis-ers require specific particles to follow them in order to work the way they doโ sowhen studying nominalisersโ donโt just study the wordsโ but also remember whichnominalisers take which particles.
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising 283
6.2.1 Back referralโ usingใฎThe simplest nominaliser is just the nominalisingใฎ. This turns any clause that pre-cedes it into a back referral to something either previously mentionedโ or previouslyestablished as the topic somehow. Say we have the following sentence:
็พ่ก้คจใณใใ ใคใใ
ใ่ฆใฟ
ใซ่กใ
ใใโGoing to an art gallery.โ
We can nominalise this sentence into a back referral usingใฎ by appendingit to this sentence:
็พ่ก้คจใ่ฆใซ่กใใฎ
This has no direct translation on its ownโ but requires a bigger context to op-erate in; on its own it can mean anything that can be approximated with โthe [goingto the art gallery]โ. Only when used in a bigger sentence will this noun clause reallymake sense:
็พ่ก้คจใ่ฆใซ่กใใฎใๆฅฝใใฎ
ใใใฃใใโGoing to (the) art gallery (today) was fun.โ
Hereโ the noun phrase has been turned into a back referral to something thathappened.
6.2.2 Abstract conceptualisationโ usingไบใใจ
The nounใใจ is used to turn clauses into an abstract thoughtโ rather than the actualthing. For instance:
ๅๅผทในใใใใ
ใใซใขใกใชใซใซ่กใ
ใไบใใจ
ใใพใ ใใ่ใใใ
ใใฆใใพใใใโ(I) have not yet seriously considered whether or not to go to America tostudy.โ
Hereโ the clause ๅๅผทใใซใขใกใชใซใซ่กใโ โto go to America to studyโโ hasbeen turned into an abstract ideaโ about which the comment โI have not yet reallythought about itโ is made.
Another example of the use ofใใจ can be seen in the following example:
284 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising
็งใใใ
ใฎ่จใ
ใฃใไบใซไฝใชใซ
ใไปใค
ใๅ ใใ
ใใไบใฏใใใพใใใใโWould (you) like to add anything to what (I)โve said?โ
In this sentenceโ there are two abstractions going on: one is the abstraction of่จใฃใโ โsaidโโ to่จใฃใไบ โ โthe thing that was saidโโ and the second fromไปใๅ ใใโ โto addโ (a compound verb coming fromไปใใโ โto a achโโ andๅ ใใโ โto addโ)โtoไปใๅ ใใไบโ โ(a) thing to addโ.
It should be noted that these are genuine abstractions; ่จใฃใใใจ does notonly refer to the actually spoken wordsโ but also the thoughts that they stood forโ andไปใๅ ใใ likewise stands not just for wordsโ but for thoughts that can be added tothe already existent thoughts on whatever was being discussed.
This plain past tense + ไบ is also used to ask whether or not someone hasexperience with somethingโ in the pa ern [plain past tense] +ไบใใใ:
ใใฉใณในใซ่กใฃใไบใใใใพใใใโHave (you) ever been to France?โ
This sentence differs significantly from the direct question:
ใฉใณในใซ่กใใพใใใใโDid you go to France?โ
This direct question implies a context in which someone has gone somewhereโand youโre asking them where they went. Insteadโ by usingไบโ the concept of โhavingbeen to Franceโ is turned into a generalised abstract concept. Rather than the specificโhaving been to France (when you went on your trip)โโ the question is now aboutโhaving been to Franceโโ in general.
6.2.3 Real conceptualisationโ using็ฉใใฎ
As mentioned in the outlineโ ็ฉโ often wri en asใใฎโ conceptualises realโ but notnecessarily tangibleโ things. For instanceโ the following sentence is about a very in-tangibleโ but very real thing:
ใใคใพใงใใใฎ็งๅฏใฒใฟใค
ใ้ ใใ
ใใฆใใใใใฎใใใชใใใโ(You) canโt keep that secret hidden forever.โ
Hereโ็งๅฏใ้ ใใฆใใใโ โto be able to keep a secret a secretโ is conceptu-alised usingใใฎ to form็งๅฏใ้ ใใฆใใใใใฎโ which translates to โthat which is
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising 285
โbeing able to keep a secret a secretโโ. This is different from an abstraction usingใใจ(ไบ):
็งๅฏใ้ ใใฆใใใใใจThe concept โbeing able to keep a secret a secretโ
ใใคใพใงใ็งๅฏใ้ ใใฆใใใใใจThe concept โbeing able to keep a secret a secret foreverโ
This concept can be talked about asโ for instanceโ โbeing hardโ or โbeing im-possibleโโ or even โis unnaturalโ. Howeverโ usingใใฎ such as in:
็งๅฏใ้ ใใฆใใใใใฎThat which is โbeing able to keep a secret a secretโ
or
ใใคใพใงใ็งๅฏใ้ ใใฆใใใใใฎThat which is โbeing able to keep a secret a secret foreverโ
only lets use say that it exists or notโ and thatโs roughly all it allows us tosay; the concept of being able to keep a secret hidden from the rest of the world issomething abstractโ while the actual act of being able to keep some secret hidden isconcrete. For the abstract ideaโใใจ is used. For the concrete eventโใใฎ is used.
6.2.4 Illustrating a circumstanceโ case or occasionโ usingๅ ดๅใฐใใ
When you want to illustrate an occasionโ circumstance or situationโ you use the nom-inaliserใฐใใโ which is typically followed by the particleใซ to indicate point in time.Used as a noun on its ownโๅ ดๅ has these same meanings:
ๅ ดๅใซใใฃใฆ้ใกใ
ใใพใใliterally: โIt is different depending on circumstancesโmeaning: โIt depends on the circumstances.โ
Used as a nominaliserโ it turns the preceding part into a circumstanceโ whichcan be commented onโ by connecting it to either a noun phrase usingใฎโ or directlyto verbal้ฃไฝๅฝข:
286 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising
ๅใใฟ
ใฎๅ ดๅใซใฏไพๅคใใใใ
ใจใใใโ(We)โll consider your case an exception.โ
In this sentenceโ the clauseๅโ a personal pronoun meaning โyouโโ has beenpaired withๅ ดๅ to create โyour circumstanceโโ about which a comment is made. ๅ ดๅ can of course also be used for verb phrasesโ in which case it follows the้ฃไฝๅฝข:
ใ้ใใญ
ใ่ถณใ
ใใชใๅ ดๅใฐใใ
ใซใฏๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใใๅใ
ใใพใใโIn case (I) donโt have enough moneyโ (I)โll borrow it off (my) friends.โ
In this sentenceโ the clauseใ้ใ่ถณใใชใโ โ(I) do not have enough (suffi-cient) moneyโโ has been turned into a circumstanceโ with a comment concerning thatcircumstanceโ should it arise.
6.2.5 Indicating a moment of opportunityโ usingๆฌก็ฌฌใใ ใ
If we look at the kanji form of this nominaliser we see ๆฌกใคใ
โ meaning โnextโโ and ็ฌฌใ ใ
meaning โnumberโ or โinstanceโ. The combinationๆฌก็ฌฌ means โwhen [some event]โ[something else]โ. For instance:
่ฆใฟ
ใคใๆฌก็ฌฌ็ฅใ
ใใใฆไธใใ
ใใใโPlease let (me) know the moment (you) find outโ
This sentence turns the clause่ฆใคใโ the้ฃ็จๅฝขใใใใใใ
for่ฆใคใใโ โto discover/find outโโ into a moment of opportunity should it occurโ where the action to then takeis to let someone know of this discovery.
In this useโๆฌก็ฌฌ follows verbs in้ฃ็จๅฝข. It can also come after้ฃไฝๅฝขใใใใใใ
formsโbut when used this wayโ the meaning ofๆฌก็ฌฌ is the same as that ofใใ (่จณ)โ treatedlater on.
When paired with nounsๆฌก็ฌฌโ often also found wri en asใใ ใโ tends to betranslated as a โdependence onโ:
ๅคๆฎตใญใ ใ
ใใ ใใง่ฒทใ
ใใพใใโIโll buy itโ depending on the price.โ
Howeverโ in this use there is no ใฎ between the noun andใใ ใ. In factโadding one will radically change the meaning of the phraseโ as the nounๆฌก็ฌฌmeans
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising 287
โagendaโ or โprogrammeโ :
ๅคๆฎตใญใ ใ
ใฎใใ ใใง่ฒทใ
ใใพใใโDue to the pricing programme (being the way it is)โ Iโll buy it.โ
6.2.6 Describing an occurrenceโ usingๅบฆใใณ
If you want to describe something that occurs or can occur at timesโ thenๅบฆโ also oftenwri en asใใณโ lets you say something general about these occurrences. This is inpart obvious because of the meaning of the kanjiๅบฆโ which is typically pronouncedใฉ and meaning โโฆ timeโโ such asไธๅบฆโ โone timeโ orไธๅบฆโ โthree timesโ.
ๆ็ฉบใปใใใ
ใ่ฆใฟ
ใใใณใซใใใฎๅคใใ
ใฎใใจใๆใใ
ใๅบใ
ใใโWhenever (I) look up at a starry skyโ (I) remember that (special) night.โ
Hereโ the clauseๆ็ฉบใ่ฆใโ โlooking up at a starry skyโ is presented as some-thing that occurs with some frequencyโ and a comment on what is associated to thisoccurrence is then given. ๅบฆ nominalises sentences in้ฃไฝๅฝขโ and is followed byใซโas it marks a time.
6.2.7 Indicating a specific time or eventโ usingๆใจใ
ๆโ also often wri en as justใจใโ means โtimeโ on its ownโ which explains why itdoes what it does. This nominaliser can be used either by itself or followed byใซ orใฏโ and follows sentences in้ฃไฝๅฝข:
ๅใฏใ
ใใฆๆฅๆฌใซใปใ
ใซๆฅใ
ใใจใใซใพใ ๅๅ ซๆญณใใ ใใฏใฃใใ
ใ ใฃใใโWhen (I) first came to Japanโ (I) was only 18.โ
Here the clauseๆฅๆฌใซๆฅใโ โcame to Japanโ is modified withๅใใฆโ โfor thefirst timeโโ and turned into a specific time/event usingใจใโ after which a commentabout this specific time/event is made.
Be careful when usingๆ with present tense้ฃไฝๅฝขโ because this will be in-terpreted as a general โevery time โฆโ statement.
ๆฅๆฌใซๆฅใ
ใๆใฏใฉใใฉใใใพใใโEvery time I come to Japanโ I get excited.โ
288 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising
The reason for this is that ๆ needs to refer to some eventโ but there cannotbe a specific event when using present tenseโ as this describes either the present (inwhich case you would not refer back to it)โ or the immediate future (in which caseโthe event wouldnโt have even occurred yet). The only eventโ thenโ thatๆ can referto is the general event of whatever youโre describing. In the case of ๆฅๆฌใซๆฅใโthis means the general event โcoming to Japanโโ rather than some specific instance ofhaving come to Japan.
6.2.8 Stating an expectationโ using็ญใฏใ
In Englishโ which is the language this book is wri en inโ there are two interpretationspossible for โshouldโ: it can mean โmustโโ such as in โyou should clean up your roomโโand it can mean โexpectโโ such as in โshe should be showing up any minute nowโ.In Japanese these are very different conceptsโ and for the second kind of โshouldโโthe nominaliser็ญ is used (often also wri en as justใฏใ)โ marking expectation. Itfollows้ฃไฝๅฝข and noun phrases:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏใฟใใชใๆฅใ
ใใฏใใชใใ ใliterally: โIt should be that everyone will come today.โmeaning: โEveryone should be coming today.โ
Hereโ the clause ใฟใใชใๆฅใโ โeveryone will comeโโ is turned into the ex-pectancy that everyone will comeโ usingใฏใ.
6.2.9 Stating a social expectation or customโ usingในใ
Where ใฏใ is used to indicate the expecting โshouldโโ ในใ is used to indicate thesomewhat imperative โshouldโ. Nowโ this is a genuinely strange wordโ unclassifiableusing the modern Japanese word classes.
It comes from ในใ (with a ้ฃไฝๅฝข form ในใ)โ an overloaded classical verbwith โtwoโ sets of conjugational bases; one forในใโ and one for the derived โverbโในใใโ which is itself a contracted version ofในใใใโ in which theในใ part comesfromในใโฆ Basicallyโ none of this is important to know in the slightest (unless youโrealso taking classical Japanese)โ as long as you can remember its modern bases:
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising 289
classicalในใ classicalในใใ modernๆช็ถๅฝข ในใใ ในใใ ในใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ในใ ในใใ ในใ็ตๆญขๅฝข ในใ ร ในใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ในใ ในใใ ในใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ในใใ ร not used
In modern Japaneseโ this word is so curious that thereโs no real way to de-scribe it. ในใ is used as a nounโ with its inflections being constructions using thecopulae (ใ โใงใโ etc.)โ but its negative adverbial form can still be formed in the tra-ditionalๆช็ถๅฝข+ใwayโ giving usในใใใ. This wordโ thenโ is actually a remnant ofclassical Japanese that defies modern word classesโ so weโre kind of left with explor-ing it as the need arises. In this caseโ as the nominaliserในใโ where it turns phrasesin้ฃไฝๅฝข into a social expectation:
ๅใใฟ
ใ่ฒฌไปปใใใซใ
ใๅใจ
ใในใใ ใฃใใฎใ ใโYou should have taken responsibility.โ
Here the clause ่ฒฌไปปใๅใโ โto take responsibilityโโ is illustrated as beingsomething that is socially expected from someone in whichever context this phrasewas said in. Sometimes this social expectation is a givenโ or common senseโ but some-times the expectation is very context dependentโ such as:
็้ข็ฎใพใใ
ใซ่ฑ่ชใใใ
ใๅๅผทในใใใใ
ใในใใงใใโ(You) should study English seriously.โ
Here the clause ็้ข็ฎใซ่ฑ่ชใๅๅผทใใโ โto study English seriouslyโโ isturned into a social expectation because of the behaviour of whoever it is said to rightnow. Probablyโ they are goofing offโ while a โproperโ person would be studying hardin order to meet the social standards.
This sentence also shows a special contraction when usingในใ withใใโ inthat it turns intoใในใ instead ofใใในใ as expected.
Likeใ โในใ has both a็ตๆญขๅฝข and a้ฃไฝๅฝขโ and this should make it reason-ably obvious when to use which: if youโre ending your sentence on itโในใ must beused. Ifโ on the other handโ youโre using it as an a ributiveโ thenในใ must be used.
Trulyโ there is nothing simpleโ or ordinaryโ about this word.
290 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising
6.2.10 Indicating a moment in timeโ using ๆใจใใ
This word takes a clause and turns it into a nominalisation representing a point inspace time. For instance:
ใใใใๅผใใ
ใๅงใฏใ
ใพใใจใใใ ใโThe ceremony will start soon.โ
This sentence literally says โWe will soon be at the point where the ceremonystartsโ.
ๅฝผๆฐใใใ
ใจใใใจใใใซใๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใซๆฅใ
ใใใใโJust as (I) was (together) with my boyfriendโ (I) was imposed upon by afriend.โ
This sentence literally says โat the point of being with my boyfriendโ I wasโฆโ. Whileใจใใ on its own means โplaceโโ and can be followed by several particlesโas a nominaliser it is typically followed by eitherใซ orใงโ depending on whether thefocus of the sentence has to do with the place or timeโ or with the event that occurs.
Also note the use of ๆฅใ
ใใใโ which should be interpreted as a โpassive form ofbotherโ here.
6.2.11 Stating an intentionโ using็ฉใค
ใใ
Derived from the verb ็ฉใใโ โto intendโโ the nominaliser ใคใใ turns a ้ฃไฝๅฝขclause into an intention:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ๅๆญๅฑฑใใใใพ
ใพใง่กใ
ใใคใใใ ใโ(We) intend to go up to Wakayama today.โ
In this sentenceโ the clause ๅๆญๅฑฑใพใง่กใโ which translates to โgoing upto Wakayamaโโ is turned into an intention. Notice that this nominaliser really only
states intention. Planningโ rather than intendingโ is indicated using the noun ไบๅฎใใฆใ
โโplanโโ instead. To indicate a negative intentionโ generally the statement โ(I) donโthave the intention to โฆโ is used:
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising 291
ใใๅฝผใใ
ใไธ็ๆธๅฝใใฃใใใใใใใ
ๅใฏใใ
ใใคใใใใชใใชใใใใณใ ใโIf he has no intention of giving it his allโ he will be fired.โ
Literallyโ this sentence reads โShould he have no intention to work hardโ itโllbe his headโ. Aside from this nice reference to how being fired was handled in theold daysโ it also shows how a negative intention is used.
6.2.12 Stating a situational explanationโ using่จณใใ
This nominaliser is somewhat interesting in that it is next to impossible (or ofteneven necessary) to translateโ because it denotes situational commentary. In Englishโwe leave the situation outside our conversationsโ but in Japanese you can use thisword to indicate you are directly commenting on the situation at handโ commentingon it in an explanatory or reasoning manner.
Typically a translation works just fine with่จณ (also often wri en as justใใ)left untranslatedโ but its presence in a Japanese sentence makes quite a difference interms of nuance:
A:ใพใ ๆ็ฝชใใใใ
ใซใชใใชใใฃใใB:ใพใ ๆ็ฝชใซใชใฃใ่จณใงใฏใชใใ
A: โ(He) has not been proven guilty yet.โB: โ(itโs not as if he)โs been proven guilty yet.โ
The first sentence states that some โheโ hasnโt been proven guilty yetโ as afactoid. The second sentenceโ howeverโ states the same but does so in order to countersomething that was said or was concluded that might imply the opposite. A goodway to further illustrate this is by looking at a proper conversation:
A:็ณ็ฐใใใ
ใใใ้ฆใใณ
ใซใชใฃใใใใงใใB:ใใใ้ฆใซใชใฃใใA:ใใฃใจไธ็ๆธๅฝ
ใใฃใใใใใใใ
ใซๅใฏใใ
ใใใโฆ
B:ใใใใใใ่จใ
ใใใใใใชใใใฉใA:ใชใใฉใใใฆ๏ผB:ไผ็คพ
ใใใใ
ใ็็ฃใใใใ
่ชฟๆดใกใใใใ
ใใใใๆฐไบบใใใซใ
ใ่งฃ้ใใใ
ใใใใ
292 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising
A: โI heard Ishida got fired.โB: โYeahโ he did.โA: โIf only heโd worked harderโฆโB: โNoโ thatโs not the reason why.โA: โThen why?โB: โThe company has cut back on production so several people were laidoff.โ
In the fourth lineโ B literally says โnoโ the just-said (ใใ่จใ) is not the reason[for the situation we are talking about]โ. If we were to omit the construction with่จณโinstead using the negative form of่จใ to formใใ่จใใชใใใฉโ B would insteadbe saying โHoweverโ (I) am not saying (that)โโ something rather different.
In factโ this use of่จใ paired with่จณ is fairly standardโ and indicates a de-scription of the situational comment. Imagine a situation where someone is beingheld accountable for low grades on their language coursesโ and they are asked toexplain why:
ๅฅในใค
ใซ่ชๅญฆใใใ
ใซ่ฝๅใฎใใใใ
ใใชใใจ่จใ่จณใงใฏใชใใโฆโฆใพใใๅบๆฌๆตใใปใใฆใ
ใซใคใพใใชใ
ใ ใจๆใใ
ใใใใๅๅผทในใใใใ
ใใพใใใโ(Wellโ) Itโs not particularly because (I) donโt have the brains to learnlanguagesโ but โฆwellโ I just think itโs boringโ so I donโt study.โ
Hereโ the situational comment is made in regards to a misunderstanding con-cerning the situation. The situational aspect that is being commented on is describedbyใจ่จใ as being่ชๅญฆใซ่ฝๅใใชใโ and is commented on by what follows่จณโ inthis case a simple negationโ followed by an explicit correction of the assumed reasonfor failing a language course.
6.2.13 Describing a wayโ usingๆงใใ
We already dealt withใใ in the section on comparison and likenessโ in which wealso touched on the subject that it can be used to indicate ways in which things needto be done. We can nominalise sentences in้ฃไฝๅฝข for use as subphrase:
ๆ็งๆธใใใใใใ
ใๆใ
ใฃใฆใใใใใซ่จใ
ใฃใฆไธใใ
ใใใโPlease tell (her) to bring (her) textbook.โ
Literallyโใใ in this sentence turns ๆ็งๆธใๆใฃใฆใใโ โto bring (along)(oneโs) textbookโโ into a way some action may be performedโ and then qualifies the
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising 293
act of โsayingโ as this particular wayโ thus creating the (now somewhat elaboratelytranslated) statement โplease tell her in such a way as to effect her bringing along hertextbookโ.
We also saw thatใใ can be used adverbially in combination withใใ tocreate a construction similar to โtry to โฆโ:
ๆๆฅญใใ ใใใ
ใซๅบใง
ใใใใซใใใโTo try to make it class.โ
In this sentenceโ the act ofใใโ doingโ is likened to the act ofๆๆฅญใซๅบใโ toa end class. This in effect creates the phrase โTo do in a manner that is like going toclassโ which is interpreted as โtrying to go to classโ.
Aside from nominalising verb phrasesโใใ is also used as manner-conceptualiserwhen paired withใฎโ in the pa ern [โฆ]ใฎใใ:
ไผ่จใงใใใ
ใฏๆฌกใคใ
ใฎใใใซๆธใ
ใใฆใใใโThe message reads as follows.โ
Literallyโ this sentence turns the very short noun phrase ๆฌกโ meaning โnextโor โfollowingโโ into the mannerๆฌกใฎใใโ meaning โas followsโ or โlike what followsโโand qualifiesๆธใใฆใใโ โbeing wri en (by someone)โ as being done in this โfollow-ingโ manner.
6.2.14 Indicating an exact mannerโ usingใพใพUnlikeใใโใพใพ actually specifies an exact manner. It takes a clause and specifiesthat what follows occurs in the exact same fashion. It follows nounsโ linked withใฎโor verbal้ฃไฝๅฝข:
ใใฎใพใพ็ถใคใฅ
ใใฆไธใใ
ใใใโPlease continue like that.โ
่กใ
ใใ็ใจใฉ
ใพใใๅฝผใใ
ใฎๆฑบใ
ใใใพใพใซใใใใใโ(We)โll let him go or stay as he decides to.โ
In this second sentenceโ ๆฑบใใโ โto decideโโ is turned into an exact way ofdecisionโ and linked to โhimโโ (ๅฝผ)โ to create โthe way he decides (on something)โโๅฝผใฎๆฑบใใใพใพ. Note that whileๆฑบใใ is a verbโๆฑบใใใพใพ isโ by the very role ofใพใพ as nominaliserโ a noun phraseโ and thus can be used in a genitiveใฎ linking.
294 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising
Another exampleโ this time with a Japanese past tense that maps to an Englishpresent progressiveโ is:
ๅธฝๅญใผใใ
ใใใถใฃใใพใพใงๆๅฎคใใใใใค
ใซๅ ฅใฏใ
ใในใใใใชใใโ(One) shouldnโt enter the classroom while wearing (their) hat/cap.โ
The literal (though rather ungrammatical) translation of this sentence wouldbe โin the manner of wearing oneโs capโ it is not the social thing to enter a classroomโ.
6.2.15 Stating purposeโ using็บใใ
When stating the purpose of a particular actionโใใ is used. This nominaliser takesa clause and links it up to a verb in the pa ern [clause](ใฎ)ใใใซ[verb]โ whereใฎ isused if the clause is a noun phraseโ and is omi ed when itโs a verb phrase in้ฃไฝๅฝข:
ๅๆฅญใใคใใใ
ใใใใใซไธ็ๆธๅฝใใฃใใใใใใใ
ๅๅผทในใใใใ
ใใพใใโ(I) give studying (my) all so that (I) will graduate.โ
In this sentenceโ the purpose ofๅๅผทใใ (to study) isๅๆฅญใใ (to graduate).Another translation would be โin order to graduateโ I give my all at studyingโโ butthe concept of purpose is the same in both translations. In pairings between a nounandใใโ the noun is typically a general concept nounโ such as in:
ๆใใ
ใฎใใใซไฝใชใ
ใงใใใใโ(I) will do anything for love.โ
In this sentenceโ the purpose ofใใ is the nounๆโ giving rise to the obvioustranslation.
6.2.16 Indicating apparent behaviourโ using็ไผผใพใญ
The nounใพใญ literally means imitationโ and it is typically used to indicate apparent(and insincere) behaviour. When an observer knows that certain behaviour is nottypicalโ or is uncertain about whether it is genuineโใพใญ can be used to show theyare not sure that what they are observing is sincere. This usually comes down toใพใญ being used in qualitatively negative (meaning itโs the opposite of โpositiveโโ ratherthan of โaffirmativeโ) statementsโ implications or questions:
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.2 Nominalising 295
ๅคงไบบใใจใช
ใฎ็ไผผใพใญ
ใฏใใใใใโStop acting like an adult.โ
ๅฝผๅฅณใใฎใใ
ใฏใใคใใใคใๆณฃใช
ใใพใญใใใฆใใใใใใ ใใโItโs just weird (how) she always pretends to be upset (at the smallestthings).โ
Of courseโ it can also be used for blanket questions such asไฝใฎใพใญใ โ whichliterally asks someone to explain their behaviourโwith the implication that the actionsare perceived as not being sincere or genuine. Translations for this can vary wildlyโdue to the fact that it refers to behaviourโ but typical translations are โWhat do youthink you are doing?โ or โWhatโs going on here?โ.
6.2.17 Talking about a โsomethingโโ usingใจ่จใ
ใ
There is one last nominalising statement we need to look atโ and thatโs the nominaliserthat lets us make comments regarding โsomethingsโ. In Englishโ a sentence such asโThe beach is a crowded placeโ can be interpreted in two different ways - the firstas a specific statement pertaining to a particular beachโ the second as a commentaryon beaches in general. In Japaneseโ these two different interpretations use differentgrammatical pa ernsโ with the first being a simple [X]ใฏ[Y]ใงใ statementโ and thesecond usingใจ่จใ:
ๆตทใใฟ
ใฏ่ณใซใ
ใใใงใใโThe beach is (so) busy.โ
ๆตทใใฟ
ใจ่จใใ่ณใซใ
ใใใชใใฎใงใใโThe beach (in generalโ) is (a) busy (place).โ
The difference in interpretation comes from whatใจ่จใ literally means: [X]ใจ่จใ translates to โthat which we call Xโ. ใจ่จใ can be suffixed withใฎโใฎใฏโใใฎandใใจ to do the expected thingsโ and usually is:
็ฐ่ใใชใ
ใใๆฅใ
ใๅฝผใใ
ใใๆตทใใฟ
ใจ่จใใใฎใ่ฆใใใจใใชใไบบใฒใจ
ใ ใฃใใโHeโ having come from a rural areaโ had never (even) seen anything like(what we call) the beach.โ
296 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.3 Social language pa erns
To demonstrate the contrastโ the sentence withoutใจ่จใใใฎ means some-thing subtly different:
็ฐ่ใใๆฅใๅฝผใใๆตทใ่ฆใใใจใใชใไบบใ ใฃใใโHeโ having come from a rural areaโ had never (even) seen the sea.โ
In the sentence withoutใจ่จใใใฎโ the crucial โwhat we callโ is missingโchanging the meaning ofๆตท from what we generally understand as being called โthebeachโโ to its literal meaning of โseaโ.
This construction is also quite convenient when you want to ask questions:
A:ๆฅๆฌ่ชใซใปใใ
ใงไผ่ฉฑใใใ
ใใใพใใใใใB:ใฉใใใใฟใพใใใใใใใใใใจ่จใใฎใฏใไฝใงใใ๏ผ
A: โShall we have a Japanese kaiwa?โB: โIโm terribly sorryโ but what is a โkaiwaโ?โ
This โusingใจ่จใ in order to turn a specific thing into a general statementโ isa very common practice in Japaneseโ and youโll be hearing it a lotโ which makes thisboth an important construction to knowโ as well as not that important to learn; sinceyouโre going to be continuously exposed to it anywayโ youโre most likely to learn itthrough pure conditioning.
6.3 Social language pa ernsIn addition to language constructionsโ it is also important to know how to talk toother people. Social status and respectfulness are important facets of the Japanesecultureโ and thus are reflected in the Japanese language. In factโ the Japanese lan-guage is so interwoven with social levels that the rest of this chapter is devoted to itโfoucssing on such ma ers as giving and demanding face (a concept akin to showingand demanding social respect)โ addressing othersโ giving and receivingโ and steeringpeopleโs behaviour through suggestions and recommendations.
6.3.1 Showing and demanding faceIn Japanโ and thus when using Japaneseโ you must constantly be aware of what yourrelation is to speakers and listeners with respect to social position. You do not speakto your boss in the same way that you speak to your friendsโ but you will not speakto the visiting boss of a different company as you will speak to your own boss. Whileyou might speak informally with your friendsโ if one of your friends shows up as part
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.3 Social language pa erns 297
of an ambassadorial delegationโ you will be required to speak to him as part of theambassadorial delegationโ not as your friend โ the style of Japanese used heavilydepends on which group you are inโ and whether others are in the same group ornot.
The in- and out- groups
Whether youโre at homeโ at schoolโ at work or at play in your own timeโ there isalways the concept of the in-groupโ orใใกโ and the out-groupโ orใใจ. These wordsalso literally mean โinโ and โoutโโ respectivelyโ and are highly relevant to decidingwhat levels of politeness and humble or honorific speech are required in your speech.
Familiar speech can only be used with people in your familiar in-group. Thisgroup may include familyโ or good friends. Speech pa erns such as highly contractedspeechโ plain form and same-level giving or receiving may be usedโ and you mayrefer to people in this group by a nickname or by their name either without anytitle suffix or with an affectionate suffix such asใกใใ orใใ. Howeverโ for olderin-group membersโ simply by virtue of them being older and thus deserving morerespectโ it is customary to show face by using someoneโs title (such as for parents orolder siblings) or their family name suffixed withใใ (for friends that have earned a
measure of respect). This means that a younger sibling might call her brotherใๅ ใซใ
ใใโ using his titleโ but he might in turn refer to her by her given nameโ or given namesuffixed withใกใใโ instead.
The formal in-group constitutes people who you are associated with throughyour daily activitiesโ workโ hobbies or through some other means of direct associa-tion. With these peopleโ and in the se ing of that associationโ politeness is the key. Ifyou work with several peopleโ two of which are good friends of yoursโ then you mayuse informal speech when talking only to themโ but when the discussion involvesother co-workersโ the se ing changes to formal in-groupโ and formal polite speechis required. Just as you cannot mix โproper speechโ with โbanter styleโ speech inmost western countriesโ you should not mix speech pa erns when using Japanese.
Speech pa erns in the formal in-group involveไธๅฏง่ชใฆใใญใใ
โ polite speechโ characterisedby the use ofใงใ/ใพใ formโ making sureใใใใจใ is always followed byใใใใพใโ and by using the appropriate name and title suffixes. People are referred toโdirectly and indirectlyโ by their family name suffixed withใใโ and people in spe-cial positions are referred either by their titleโ or by using their family name suffixedwith their title.
The informal out-group consists of people that you have no special relation-ship with. People that ask you a question in the streetโ the bus conductorโ the fastfood employee - all of these belong to the informal out-groupโ and when talking tothem you are expected to useไธๅฏง่ชโ and address them if you must by using theirfamily name suffixed withใใโ or a title if it is apparent that their role deserves one.
298 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.3 Social language pa erns
The formal out-group is a complex groupโ because in this se ing the socialdifferences come into play. Anyone not in your in-group in a particular se ingโ whois of identifiable higher social status than youโ is part of the formal out-groupโ anddeserves to be spoken to respectfully. This does not just mean usingไธๅฏง่ชโ but also
ๅฐๆฌ่ชใใใใใ
and่ฌ้่ชใใใใใ
โ the honorific and humble speech pa erns. For instanceโwhile youmay work at a companyโ the companyโs vice president will typically not be part ofyour work in-groupโ and certainly doesnโt fall in the informal out-group. He shouldbe spoken to using polite honorific formsโ and when speaking about your own ac-tionsโ you should humble yourself by using humble speech pa erns.
Finallyโ there is one last group that needs mentioning: the โnot relevant interms of social se ing (yet)โ groupโ associated for instance with small childrenโ ornewcomers to a schoolโ job or club. People in this group may be referred to usingaffectionate terms such asใกใใ orใใโ but interpreting these as an indication thatthey are part of the speakerโs familiar in-group would be a huge mistake to make.Insteadโ these terms indicate the they have no social value yet.
Moving between groups
While these group definitions sound relatively straightforwardโ transitions from out-group to in-groupโ or from formal to familiar in-groupโ are much harder to charac-teriseโ and can lead to considerable problems if one party believes a transition fromout- to in-group or from formal to familiar has occurredโ when the other party doesnot.
Imagine you have just accepted a job at a Japanese company. You are as-signed a mentorโ and at first the division is clear. You know nothingโ are nothingโand your mentor is responsible for shaping you into a proper employee. To yourmentorโ you will rank as โnot on the social ladder yetโโ and to youโ your mentor willsit in the formal out-group. This means that you may be addressed usingใกใใ
orใใโ and you will address him or her with their titleโ ๅ ่ผฉใใใฑใ
โ while you are beingmentored.
Now we move the clock forward by half a year. You have been acceptedinto the workforce formal in-groupโ and have even made some good friends fromwithin that groupโ going drinking on the weekends with them. You are still workingwith your mentorโ but no longer under a mentor/trainee relationโ but as a co-workerrelationโ and you decide that it is time you start to use their name suffixed withใใโ rather than keep calling themๅ ่ผฉโ and in doing so you have made a critical andrelationship-breaking mistake.
Moving people from a group to a more intimate group always requires ex-plicit permission from the person youโre moving โ if your mentor never indicatedthat he or she believed you were now well integrated into the workforceโ then youcould sing high or lowโ work there for six months or six yearsโ but until they give no-
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.3 Social language pa erns 299
tice that they consider you worth giving more faceโ they will stay aๅ ่ผฉโ and unilater-ally deciding that you no longer consider them one means that you are not showingthem the right amount of face.
The same goes for making friends in school. You address people as if theyโrepart of the informal out-group until they indicate that you may refer to them in away consistent with the formal or familiar in-group. When the relation is betweensomeone of higher social status and someone of lower social statusโ the permissionhas to come from the person of higher social statusโ but in situations where the socialstatus is on equal footingโ such as with classmates or co-workersโ it typically involvesa period of feeling around for the boundaries of your personal relationshipโ and atsome point at least indicating that you do not mind if they refer to you in a way thatcorresponds to a closer group.
Demanding face
If things go wrongโ it would be wonderful if someone would just say that it didโ buttypically this will not happen. Insteadโ rather than explaining that they are uncom-fortable with you addressing them using the speech pa erns belonging to a moreintimate group than they expect to be inโ their own speech pa ern will become moredistal. What was natural Japanese one day may suddenly be changed to formal anddistant Japanese after your mistakeโ and thatโs usually the only clue youโll get thatsomething went wrong. Rather than demand faceโ you will be confronted with thefact that you acted inappropriately by a change in speech pa ernโ and you would dowell to notice it - making someone lose faceโ or not giving enough faceโ can only becompensated by observing the right levels of formality again until the incident hasbeen forgo enโ or at least left in the past.
This also means that you are responsible for demanding face yourself. Notdemanding face because youโre just that nice a person doesnโt fly. You are responsiblefor behaving properly according to Japanese customโ and that means you must takeresponsibility when it comes to maintaining the social balance. If someone gets toofamiliar with youโ a change from formal polite to distal polite language is the clearestsignal you can give that certain boundaries have been crossed.
6.3.2 Addressing peopleCertainly one of the things that is more important in Japanese than in a lot of westernculturesโ in terms of social language useโ is picking the right pronouns and nameswhen addressing people. Not because the terms are particularly difficultโ but justbecause there are actually a great number to choose from. Personal pronouns andname suffixes play an important role in being able to navigate your way throughinterpersonal dealingsโ so a brief moment to examine which words can be usedโ andwhenโ will go a long way to helping you stay on top of every day Japanese.
300 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.3 Social language pa erns
Personal pronouns
Some people may tell you that Japanese has no word for โyouโโ based on the fact thatthe standard way to address someone in Japanese is to use their nameโ paired witha suffix to indicate their titleโ rankโ or social relation to you. Howeverโ this would bedrawing the wrong conclusion: one avoids using direct personal pronouns as muchas possible in Japaneseโ but there are in fact a great number of direct personal pro-nouns that can be used when the need arises. The important thing to note is thatbecause of the way in which people are normally addressedโ using personal pro-nouns carries โextra weightโ โ all of them mean more than just โIโ or โyouโ. Specificpronouns connote differences in social levelsโ as well as different politeness levels.
As mentioned all the way at the beginning of this bookโ Japanese is a sparselanguageโ and personal pronouns fall in the category of words that are omi ed onceestablished in a conversation. While in Englishโ for instanceโ one would constantlyuse the personal pronoun โyouโ to indicate a listener or readerโ in Japanese this isconsidered poor language skills and would be experienced as highly annoying tohave to listen to. This goes for all personal pronouns; after they have been usedโand while the conversation is focused on the person(s) they indicateโ they are left outof the conversation. Explicitly keeping them in is not just considered bad formโ itcan even be considered an insultโ as it amounts to indicating that you believe yourconversational partner is unable to understand what you mean if you leave them out.
That saidโ sometimes you simply need personal pronounsโ and for those oc-casions it serves to know which can be used in which se ing.
First person pronoun - โIโ
็งใใใใ
โ an overly formal version of โIโ. This personal pronoun is typically tooformal for any situation you will be in.
็งใใใ
โ the gender-neutralโ formality-neutral personal pronoun for โIโ or โmeโ.
็งใใใ
โ a female-only version of the formality-neutral person pronoun
็งใใ
โ the formality-neutral personal pronoun for โIโ or โmeโ used predomi-nantly by elders.
ๅใผใ
โ literallyโ this noun means servant. Used predominantly by menโ this per-sonal pronouns means you humble yourself in respect to the listener. Whilepredominantly used by menโ it can be used by women tooโ and due to its mean-ing as nounโ may actually also be used to mean โyouโ when addressing servants(although this does make the speaker look down upon whomever ๅ is usedfor).
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.3 Social language pa erns 301
ไฟบใใ
โ a boastful first person personal pronounโ which is used when you areconfident that sounding boastful is accepted. Predominantly used by menโ thiscan also be used by go-ge ing women.
ๆ่ ใใฃใใ
โ a classical personal pronoun meaning โIโ. You are most likely to hearthis pronoun used in samurai dramaโ rather than in every day Japanese.
Second person pronoun - โyouโ
ๅใใฟ
โ a version of โyouโ that contains a slight element of looking down on some-one. You are technically placing yourself higher on the social ladder when youuse it.
ใๅใพใ
โ a crass and almost rude way to say โyouโ
่ฒดๆนใใชใ
โ the distalโ deferred way to say โyouโ. Because it is very formalโ it canalso be considered impolite outside of very formal se ings. Remember fromthe ใใใใฉ section that ใใชใ can also be used as an intimately familiarpersonal pronoun.
ใใใโ the shortened version ofใใชใโ this is roughly the same as usingใๅ.
่ฒดๆงใใใพ
โ something to avoid. While่ฒดmeans โpreciousโ or โhonorโโ andๆง is anhonourable suffixโ this word has made a half turn from being used as a classicalhonorific pronoun to a modern day accusative pronounโ and is as close to a curseword as possible without actually being one.
ๅทฑใใฎใ
โ another pronoun to avoid. While classically this pronoun meant โyouโโits meaning has shifted to an accusative pronoun insteadโ similar to่ฒดๆง.
ใไธปใฌใ
โ a classical personal pronoun meaning โyouโ. You are most likely tohear this pronoun used in samurai dramaโ rather than in every day Japanese.
Third person pronoun - โhe/sheโ
ๅฝผใใ
โ while a neutral โheโโ this word should be avoided simply because it isconsidered bad practice to use personal pronouns. Because of thisโ it is slightlyderogative to the person youโre referring to if you know them by name.
302 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.3 Social language pa erns
ๅฝผๅฅณใใฎใใ
โ when used as personal pronounโ has the same connotation asๅฝผโ exceptfor girls. Howeverโ in addition to being a personal pronoun it can also mean
โgirlfriendโ as a regular noun (with the noun version of โboyfriendโ beingๅฝผๆฐใใใ
).
ๅฅดใใค
โ A derogatory gender neutral third person pronoun. This pronoun is gen-
erally associated withๆชๅฃใใใใก
โ literally โspeaking evil of someoneโโ meaning talk-ing (derisively) about someoneโ behind their back.
Japanese has no explicit pluralsโ so you might think that expressing โweโ orโthemโ might require separate words tooโ but this is not the case. There exist โgroupsuffixesโ in Japanese that can be used with personal pronouns to turn the single per-son โmeโ into the group โweโโ the single person โyouโ into the group โyou [people]โand the single persons โheโ/โsheโ into the group โthemโ. There are two in common
use in modern Japaneseโ the first of which is๏ฝ้ใใก
โ which is used to turn virtually allpersonal pronouns into personal group pronouns. The secondโ which is used with
a few specific pronounsโ is๏ฝ็ญใ
. This is an older suffixโ and can be used to turnใๅ (โyouโ) intoใๅ็ญ (plural โyouโ)โๅฝผ (โheโ) intoๅฝผ็ญ (โthemโ) and่ฒดๆง (accusativeโyouโ) into่ฒดๆง็ญ (plural accusative โyouโ).
When using group suffixes forๅฝผ orๅฝผๅฅณโ it depends entirely on the genderof the first person in the group that you refer to. If thereโs a group of mixed genderbut you were just talking about a female member of the groupโ then the entire groupcan be referred to usingๅฝผๅฅณ้. Similarlyโ if a male member of the group was talkedaboutโๅฝผ็ญ will refer to the exact same group. It should be noted that these markersare not true plural markers. ็ง้ literally means โthe group I am part ofโโ and canrefer to either a physical group gathered at some point in time at a specific locationโor can refer to someoneโs in group. Similarlyโ ็ญ is also a group markerโ where forinstanceใๅ็ญ means โthe group you are part ofโ. It is important to remember thisโas some translations for sentences that have plural personal pronouns cannot usethese้/็ญ markers:
โAs the commi ee on social affairs we have decided to โฆ.โ
This kind of sentenceโ in which someone speaks for an entire groupโ requiresthe โgroup representativeโ personal pronounๆโ pronounced either asใโ in the pat-
ternๆใ
ใ[โฆ] or asใใ in the pa ernๆใใ
ใฏ[โฆ]. To turn this pronoun into a group
pronounโ the special wordๆใ ใใใใ
is usedโ rather than adding the group suffixes้ or็ญ.
Howeverโ the most important thing to remember is that you should try touse personal pronouns as li le as possible. Insteadโ if youโre referring to someoneof whom you know the nameโ use their name suffixed withใใโ or a more specific
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.3 Social language pa erns 303
name suffix instead. If you do not know their nameโ find out what it is. The onlypolite way to refer to people is as people โ avoid referring to them as mere objectsby using pronouns.
Name suffixes
There are various name suffixes that indicate different kinds of social relationsโ andusing them out of place can have an effect anywhere from sounding like youโre jokingaround a bitโ to simply insulting someone. For this reasonโ itโs a good idea to go overthe list of common name suffixesโ and see what they do. Also important is to note thatpeople in Japan refer to each other by their family nameโ suffixed with the appropriatename suffixโ and not by first name until there is a clearly defined friendship.
โใใ
This is the standard name suffix that is used across Japan to refer toโ as well as to callthe a ention ofโ people to whom you have no particular relationship.
โๆงใใพ
An honorific suffixโ this name suffix is used when someone is of considerably higherstatusโ used to indicate a master in a master/servant relationโ or a patron in a pa-tron/proprietor relation. This suffix is also used when writing someoneโs name asrecipient on a le er or cardโ where it can be followed byใธ to indicate that this nameis to be the recipient of the communiquรฉ.
โๆฎฟใฉใฎ
A classical honorific suffixโ that is in use today principally for formal addressing in
writing. Likeๆงใใพ
โๆฎฟ can be used on le ers and cards for indicating the recipient.
โๆฐใ
This name suffix is used to indicate that someone is a representative of a specifichouse or has a particular lineageโ similar to the official English title โsirโ or โdistin-guished gentlemanโ. Historically this name suffix has only been used for menโ aswomen did not act as representatives of a houseโ and this gender specific use has notchanged to date.
304 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.3 Social language pa erns
โๅ ็ใใใใ
Commonly associated with meaning โteacherโโ someone who is referred to withๅ ็ is not necessarily a teacher by profession. For instanceโ a doctor is aๅ ็โ as is aschool teacherโ a lawyerโ or an expert on politics. When someone is called upon fortheir knowledgeโ then in this role they are addressed withๅ ็.
โใกใใ
While typically associated with li le girlsโ โใกใใ is actually an affectionate suffix.It can be used for boysโ girlsโ men and women alikeโ but only when there is a relationthat is close and/or amiable. While it can be used for anyoneโ it does deserve mentionthat it is indeed used for women more than for men.
โๅใใ
This suffix is an amicable suffixโ similar toใกใใโ but has a slightly different conno-tation. Whileใกใใ finds it origin in young children who cannot sayใใ yetโ andthus is readily associated with li le kids and other cute thingsโ ๅ doesnโt actuallycome โfromโ anythingโ but is a word on its ownโ also used to mean โjuniorโโ both inthe naming sense as well as the social hierarchy system. While still being used forthisโ it has also picked up the added meaning of being a suffix used amongst equalswho have an amicable relationship.
ๅผใ
ใณๆจใ
ใฆ
This is not so much a suffix as the complete opposite: the practice ofๅผใณๆจใฆ refersto calling someone by just their nameโ without any suffixโ and the word refers todiscarding (ๆจใฆใ) formalities when calling (ๅผใถ) each other.
Nicknames
A finalโ drastically differentโ approach is to come up with a nickname for someonebased on their nameโ a habitโ some personal featureโ or whatever random thing youcan think of that might make good material for a nickname. This practice is fairlyobviously reserved for close relationships.
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status 305
6.4 Acknowledging social statusThe most important way in which to acknowledge social statusโ and differences instatusโ is through your choice of phrasing when it comes to asking for thingsโ or doingthings for people. These are not trivial subjectsโ and the next two sections will explainthis in (perhaps excruciating) detail.
6.4.1 Giving and receivingGivingโ or doing something for someoneโ and receivingโ or taking a liberty (i.e.โ help-ing oneself to something) are concepts that seem simple if youโre used to the Englishway of expressing yourselfโ but in Japaneseโ these seemingly trivial things requirequite a bit of explanationโ as they are dependent on relative social status and the di-rection of giving or receivingโ as well as involving a careful choice in particles to use.Involving both plain verb forms andใฆ form conjunctionsโ the acts of givingโ or do-ing for someoneโ and receivingโ or taking a liberty or having someone do somethingโcover some of the more complicated verb constructions in the language.
What makes things so complicated is that the verb usedโ and its implied mean-ingโ can make the difference between respectful behaviour and rather blatant indirectinsults; confidently using the wrong verb can pre y much declare that you experi-ence your status relative to your partner very differently from what they thought itwas. In the best caseโ this can lead to short lived misunderstandingsโ but more oftenthan not it will result in a suddenly much more distal relationship.
Soโ let us look at the right wayโ as well as the wrong wayโ to handle this cul-turally grounded practice.
Givingโ or doing for someone
In Japaneseโ โgivingโ and โdoing โฆ for (someone)โ areโ at least grammaticallyโ thesame thing. Howeverโwhile in English โgivingโ involves just the one verbโ in Japanesethings are not that simple: depending on the social status of the individual partiesand who is doing the givingโ different verbs are used. This comes down to two pos-sible โdirectionsโ of giving/doing forโ the first of which is giving โawayโ:
1. first person (โIโ or โweโ) to second person (โyouโ)โ i.e. โI give to youโโ
2. second person to third person (โhimโโ โherโโ โthemโ or โitโ)โ i.e. โyou give to herโโand
3. first person to third personโ i.e. โI give to themโ.
Giving or doing forโ in this โdirectionโโ can be done using three different verbsโwith the choice depending on the social difference between the giver and the receiver:
306 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status
1. if the giving is being done to someone or something whose status is irrelevant(very good friendsโ young childrenโ petsโ etc.)โ (้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ+)ใใ is used.
2. if the giving is being done to someone of equal or higher statusโ (้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ+)
ไธใ
ใใ is used. In writingโ both kanji and kana forms may be used.
3. if the giving is being done to someone of greatly higher statusโ (้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ+)
ๅทฎใ
ใไธใ
ใใ is used. In writingโ both kanji and kana forms may be used.
Nowโ this requires a bit more explaining because when it comes to givingโvirtually any situation involves giving to โequal or higher statusโ. Unless you intendto highly offend someoneโ basically anyone capable of normal interaction willโ forthe purpose of being given toโ be of equal status at the very least. If we have nevermet beforeโ and I have something to give youโ then I will describe this giving frommeโ to youโ using either้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ+ไธใใ (for the giving of an actionโ i.e.โ doing foryou) or justไธใใ (for the giving of an object):
ใใใใ็ฅใ
ใใชใไบบใฒใจ
ใซไฝใ ใชใซใชใซ
ใไธใใพใใใโI gave something-or-other to a person I donโt know in the slightest.โ
ใใใใ็ฅใใชใไบบใซไฝใ ใใใฆไธใใพใใใโI did something-or-other for a person I donโt know in the slightest.โ
The reason that we are of equal status (at the least) is essentially one of po-liteness. Unless I despise youโ any event in which I give you something means thereis at least a modicum of respectโ and as such I will indicate this by using the verbไธใใโ which literally translates to โlift (something)โ. By using this verbโ and forthe duration of the givingโ I lower my own social statusโ and elevate yours. If youaccept my giftโ things go back to normal. Howeverโ in typical Japanese styleโ mostgifts (even the gift of doing something for someone) between non-familiar peopleโmeaning not good friends or family membersโ will at first be mock-refused. This isone of those interesting cultural pa erns where behaving like a foreigner can causeserious problems: it is customary to kindly refuse any gifts or offers for helpโ so thatthe giver can insist. Only then will a gift or offer for help be accepted. Not becausethe receiver had to be persuadedโ but because thatโs simply the only proper way to goabout the issue of givingโ in Japan. If you are offered teaโ kindly refuseโ then acceptonce offered again. Flat out accepting could easily be considered rudeโ and flat outrejecting quite possibly even more so.
So with that coveredโ a few examples of giving:
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status 307
ๅๅญใใฟใ
ใใใซใ่ฑใฏใช
ใ่ฒทใ
ใฃใฆใใใพใใใโ(I) bought flowers for Kimiko.โ
ๆฏใใ
ใใใซใดใใๆจใ
ใฆใฆใใใพใใใโI threw the garbage away for my mother.โ
ๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใซ่ช็ๆฅใใใใใใณ
ใงใใใ้ข็ฝใใใใ
ใๆฌใปใ
ใใใใพใใใโ(I) gave my friend a really interesting book for (his) birthday.โ
You may have noticed that all the parts of these sentences that translate toโfor โฆโ have been marked with the particleใซ. As mentioned in the section on verbparticles in the chapter on basic grammarโ this kind of prepositional phrase is simplytreated as a verb detail in Japaneseโ and as such is marked withใซ. You may havealso noticed that in the last sentenceโไธใใwas used on its own: when used aloneโ itstrictly means โgiveโ. When used in้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ+ไธใใ forโ it typically means โdoingโฆ for (someone)โ.
In cases of severe difference in statusโ such as a maid serving dinner for ahouseholdโ or a clerk handing a CEO a reportโไธใใ is not enough. The more formalๅทฎใไธใใmust be used. Howeverโ as you are unlikely to find yourself in a situationwarranting this verbโ ไธใใ (for actual gifts) and ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ+ไธใใ (for actions)should be all you need.
Before we move onโ the previous example sentences may have created a wrongimpression concerning who can do the giving when using this verb. As mentionedโthis concerns giving from first to secondโ second to thirdโ and first to third personโ soin fact all the following translations are correct (in the absence of some disambiguat-ing context):
ๅ้ใซ่ช็ๆฅใงใใใ้ข็ฝใๆฌใใใใพใใใโI gave my friend a really interesting book for his birthday.โโWe gave our friends really interesting books for their birthdays.โโYou gave my friend a really interesting book for his birthday.โโYou gave your friend a really interesting book for his birthday.โโI gave your friends really interesting books for their birthdays.โetc.
The variations are quite numerousโ but usually sentences such as these willbe used in a se ing where it is relatively easy to determine which of the multitudeof interpretations is the most likely intended oneโ due to contextual information.
So that leaves the verbใใ. We can be fairly brief about it: you do not useใใโ except in the rare event where the giving is done to something inherently without
308 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status
social status:
ๅญไพใใฉใ
ใใกใซใ่ๅญใใ
ใใใฃใใโ(I) gave the children some candy.โ
But even this is not without danger: if the children in this example sentencewereโ for instanceโ your bossโs childrenโ then saying you got them candy using thisphrase to your boss would in fact be quite rudeโ as you have just implied his childrenare without social value. Soโ be carefulโ and if at all possible avoid usingใใ entirely.
ใใ technically means โdoโโ similar toใใโ but while it is possible to use thisverb as alternative toใใ in a highly informal intimate se ing (with close friendsโfor instance)โ itโs all too easy to accidentally use it with someone who was not awareyou considered them part of the group for which status was irrelevant. So againโ usewith careโ and if possibleโ simply do not use it.
With so much explanationโ one would almost forget that this only covered thefirst of the two directions for giving. Howeverโ thereโs also the opposite direction:
1. third person to second personโ i.e. โhe gives to youโโ
2. second person to first personโ i.e. โyou give to meโโ
3. third person to first person orโ i.e. โshe gives to meโโ and
4. third person to (other) third personโ i.e. โthey give to themโ.
Givingโ or doing forโ in this โdirectionโ can be done using two very differentverbsโ the choice of which โ again โ depends on the social difference between thegiverโ and the receiver:
1. if the giving is being done by someone of equal or higher statusโ (้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ+)
ไธใใ
ใใ is used. In writingโ both kanji and kana forms may be used.
2. if the giving is being done by someone you are on a familiar basis withโ (้ฃ็จ
ๅฝข+ใฆ+)ๅใ
ใใ is used. In writingโ this typically uses the kana form.
This should be relatively obvious in terms of how to use it. If a teacherโ a bossโor simply someone you donโt know gives you somethingโ or does something for youโ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ+ไธ
ใใ
ใใ is used:
ๆฏ่ฆชใฏใฏใใ
ใใใฌใผใณใใใใ ใใใพใใใโ(I) received a gift from (my) motherโ
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status 309
ๅ ็ใใใใ
ใใใใใฎใ่ฆใฟ
ใใฆใใ ใใใพใใใโ(My) teacher showed (me) something quite good.โ
Rather than usingใซโ these are normal verb actor phrasesโ soๆฏใใ andๅ ็ are simply marked withใโ orใฏ if we need to disambiguate. If we wanted to useใซ (which is possible)โ then we would have to first make the sentence passiveโ so thatthe tense matches the particle:
ๅ ็ใซใใใใฎใ่ฆใใใใฆใใ ใใใพใใใโ(I) was shown something quite good by (my) teacher.โ
Nowโ againโ the sentences might create the wrong impression that it all cen-tres around third to first person. To once more show the multitude of possible inter-pretations in the absence of disambiguating contextโ a list of possible translations forthe last phrase:
ๅ ็ใใใใใฎใ่ฆใใฆใใ ใใใพใใใโMy teacher showed me something quite good.โโYour teachers showed them something quite good.โโHis teacher showed you something quite good.โโOur teacher showed us something quite good.โetc.
In a familiar se ingโ rather thanไธใใโ which literally translates as โissuing(something)โโ such as issuing orders to (lower ranked) troopsโ we can use the verb
ๅใ
ใใ. When talking toโ or aboutโ friends or even family membersโ this verb doesexactly the same asไธใใ:
ๆฅ้ฆใฏใใ
ใกใใใ็ด ๆตใใฆใ
ใช้ใใฐใ
ใใใใใโ(I) got (this) wonderful (new) bag from Haruka.โ
ๅ้ใจใใ ใก
ใใใฃใจๆฌฒใป
ใใใฃใDVDใ่ฒทใ
ใฃใฆใใใใโ(I) was bought the DVD (that I) wanted for a long time by (my) friend.โ
Regardless of whether we useไธใใ orใใใโ we can explicitly add in thereceiverโ if that information is required. In this caseโ we are forced to useใซ to markthe recipient of the actionโ but do not confuse this for whatใซ does in the presenceof a passive verb form:
310 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status
ๆฅ้ฆใใใๅๅญใใฟใ
ใใใซ็ด ๆตใช้ใไธใใฃใใโHaruka gave Kimiko a wonderful (new) bag.โ
In this sentenceโ because itโs in the active voiceโๆฅ้ฆ is the verb actorโ andๅๅญ the receiver. If we use a passive construction insteadโ we get:
ๆฅ้ฆใใใๅๅญใใใซ็ด ๆตใช้ใไธใใใใใโHaruka was given a wonderful (new) bag by Kimiko.โ
Hereโ because it is a passive voiceโ the buying was done byๅๅญโ andๆฅ้ฆ isactually the subject of โhaving been bought forโโ now being the receiver! Not onlythe verbs countโ so do the particles!
Receivingโ having done forโ or taking a liberty
Receivingโ luckilyโ only concerns one โdirectionโ and uses the two verbs ่ฒฐใใ
ใ and
้ ใใใ
ใ or ๆดใใใ
ใ (the choice of which kanji to use is mostly arbitraryโ as in this useใใใ ใ andใใใ are typically wri en in kanaโ rather than using kanji forms):
a) third person to second personโ i.e. โyou get from herโโb) second person to first personโ i.e. โI get from youโโc) third person to first personโ i.e. โI get from themโโ andd) third person to (other) third personโ i.e. โthey get from himโ
Just like the verbs for givingโใใใ and ใใใ ใ apply to different statuslevels respectively. While both apply to receiving from someone of higher or equalsocial statusโ the difference in social level determines which verb is used:
1) if the receiving is from someone of equal or higher statusโ (้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ+)ใใใ is used. The kanji form is rarely used for this verb.2) if the receiving is from someone of significantly higher statusโ (้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ+)ใใใ ใ is used. The kanji forms are rarely used for this verb.
You may recognise ใใใ ใ from its polite present tense: ใใใ ใใพใโwhich is used as a set phraseโ spoken before starting a meal. Literallyโ this phrasemeans โI (humbly) receive (this food)โ or โI will (humbly) help myself to (this food)โ.Both meanings are essentially simultaneously trueโ which highlights an interestingaspect of โreceivingโ in Japanese: just as โgivingโ and โdoing for (someone)โ are con-sidered essentially the same thingโ so too โreceivingโโ โhaving done forโ and โhelpingoneself to (something)โ are considered the same thing.
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status 311
When the verbsใใใ andใใใ ใ are used on their ownโ then the โreceiv-ingโ as well as the โhelping oneselfโ interpretation are possibleโ and when used com-bined with a ้ฃ็จๅฝข+ใฆ combinationโ the interpretation is typically โhaving (some-thing) done for (someone)โ:
ใใฐใใใซ่ฒธใ
ใใๆฌใปใ
ใ่ฟใใ
ใใฆ่ฒฐใใ
ใฃใใโ(I) got back from (my) aunt the book (I) lent (to her).โ
็ถใจใ
ใใใซๆฐใใใ
ใใ่ช่ปข่ปใใฆใใใ
ใ่ฒทใ
ใฃใฆใใใ ใใพใใใโ(I) got bought a new bicycle by my father.โ
When the activity in question involves direct contactโใซ may also be substi-tuted byใใโ which rather literally means โfromโ:
ใใฐใใใใ่ฒธใใๆฌใ่ฟใใฆ่ฒฐใฃใใโ(I) got back from (my) aunt the book (I) lent (to her).โ
The interesting fact about these statements is that they can also be interpretedas quite selfish: both่ฒฐใ andใใใ ใ have an element of prompted action to them.Rather than things being givenโ or acts being performed out of the kindness of peo-pleโs heartsโ we are in some way responsible for them being done for our benefitโwhich is why we can interpret these verbs as expressing taking a libertyโ too:
ใใฐใใใซ่ฒธใใๆฌใ่ฟใใฆ่ฒฐใฃใใโ(I) got (my) aunt to return the book that (I) lent her.โ
็ถใใใซๆฐใใ่ช่ปข่ปใ่ฒทใฃใฆใใ ใใพใใใโ(I) got my father to buy (me) a new bicycle.โ
This may sound oddโ but think of it this way: if the actions were genuinelyunpromptedโ they would have been gifts. And for gifts we use very different verbconstructions:
ใใฐใใใ่ฒธใใๆฌใ่ฟใใฆไธใใฃใใโ(My) Aunt gave me back the book (I) had lent (her).โ
็ถใใใๆฐใใ่ช่ปข่ปใ่ฒทใฃใฆไธใใฃใใโMy father bought (me) a new bicycle.โ
312 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status
Another good example of usingใใใ orใใใ ใ for taking a liberty is thefollowing short conversation:
A:่ชฐใ ใ
ใฎใชใณใดใงใใใ
B:ๆตๅญใใใ
ใใใฎใใA:ใใใงใใใ(A takes an apple)
A:ใชใใไธๅใใฃใ
ใใใใใ
Which translates to:
A: โWhose apples are these?โB: โOhโ theyโre Keikoโs.โA: โI seeโฆโA: โWell thenโ Iโll just help myself to one.โ
It should be fairly obvious whatโs happening in this exchange: much like howthe verbsใใใโใใ ใใ andใใใ can mean โgiveโโใใใ andใใใ ใ can beused to mean โtakeโ.
In summary
To summarise these rather complex pa ernsโ what follows are three images repre-senting the three different acts: giving (something)โ being given (something)โ andreceiving (something). Note that the numbers 1โ 2 and 3 in the images representโfirst personโโ โsecond personโ and โthird personโ respectively:
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status 313
Giving
A schematic representation of verbs involved in giving in Japanese
We see three โareasโ in this image:
1. When giving to someone socially much higherโ we must useๅทฎใ
ใไธใ
ใใโ
2. when giving to someone who is either socially higher or equalโ we must use
ไธใ
ใใโ and
3. when giving to someone (or something) without social statusโ we can useใใ.
314 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status
Being given
A schematic representation of verbs involved in โbeing givenโ in Japanese
We see two โareasโ in this image:
1. When being given something by someone who is socially higherโ we describe
their giving by usingไธใใ
ใใโ and
2. when being given something by someone who is socially equal or lowerโ we
describe their giving by usingๅใ
ใใ.
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status 315
Receiving
A schematic representation of verbs involved in receiving in Japanese
We see two โareasโ in this image:
1. When receiving something from someone who is socially higherโ we describe
our receiving by using ้ ใใใ
ใ or ๆดใใใ
ใ (the choice of which to use being essen-tially arbitraryโ asใใใ ใ is generally wri en in hiragana in this use)โ and
2. when receiving something from someone who is socially equal or lowerโ we
describe our receiving by using่ฒฐใใ
ใ.
6.4.2 Indirect speech
One of the important things in using Japanese is to be indirect whenever possible informal situations. This entails asking indirect questions instead of direct questionsโmaking indirect suggestions instead of telling people what they should do accordingto youโ and stating assumptions rather than stating truthsโ even if they are truths.This section will explain how to turn direct speech into indirect speechโ and for whichconstructions this is easily done.
316 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status
Expressing hearsay
One way to state something indirectly is by making explicit the fact that you onlyheard or read something somewhereโ rather than it being something that you believeor know. As mentioned in the section on comparison and likenessโ this is done usingthe noun adjectiveใใโ in combination with a clause in้ฃไฝๅฝขโ to form a hear-sayconstruction. Compare the following two statements:
ใใฎไบบๆฐใซใใ
ใชใฐใซใผใใ่งฃๆฃใใใใ
ใใใโThat popular group will disband.โ
ใใฎไบบๆฐใชใฐใซใผใใ่งฃๆฃใใใใใ ใโI hear that popular group will disband.โ
While the first sentence implies that the speaker is certain of the stated factโthe second sentence states the information more carefullyโ stating that it seems thecase that something is a factโ based on having heard or read it somewhere. Thisindirect form of stating something can only be done for second hand informationโand should never be used to soften a statement that isnโt actually hearsay.
Negative questions
Asking a negative question isโ in many languagesโ a way to politely ask someone todo something. For instanceโ โwonโt you join us for dinner?โ is an English phrase thathas the implied meaning โplease join us for dinnerโโ rather than the literal โyou willnot be joining us for dinnerโ will you?โ.
In Japanese the same applies:
ใพใ้ใใ
ใณใซๆฅใ
ใพใใใใโWonโt (you) come over (for a social visit) again some time?โ
(In this sentence ้ใถ is not used to mean โplayโ but โto spend timeleisurelyโโ hence the implied clause โfor a social visitโ)
A more polite way to ask negative questions is to use the ใฆ form with anegative form ofไธใใ:
ใ่ถใกใ
ใ้ฃฒใฎ
ใใงไธใใ
ใใใพใใใใโWonโt (you) have some tea?โ
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status 317
These negative questions can also be formed with plain negative formโ butthey become more informal that way:
ใฑใผใญใ้ฃใ
ในใชใ๏ผโWonโt you have some (literally: eat) cake?โ
Giving answers to negative questions can trip up beginning students quiteeasilyโ as the following example illustrates:
A:ไธ็ทใใฃใใ
ใซ่กใ
ใใชใ๏ผB:ใฏใใ
A: โWonโt you go (with me)?โB: โYes (I wonโt go with you).โ
The problem lies with the fact that an affirmative answer to a negative ques-tion affirms the negative. Usually it is easier to answer with what you will be doingโrather than using yes or no:
A:ไธ็ทใซ่กใใชใ๏ผB:่กใใพใใ
A: โWonโt you go (with me)?โB: โI will.โ
An even be er solution is to express your answer in the form of a motivationplus answerโ when a negative question is askedโ thus making it virtually impossiblefor your answer to be misinterpreted:
A:ไธ็ทใซ่กใใชใ๏ผB:ใพใโๆ
ใฒใพ
ใ ใใ่กใใพใใใ
A: โWonโt you go (with me)?โB: โWellโ (Iโm) free (anyway)โ (so) sureโ Iโll go (with you).โ
318 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status
Recommendingโ using past tense +ๆนใปใ
ใใใ
If we want to make a recommendationโ there are various direct and indirect ways ofdoing so. One of the most common approaches uses a verb in plain past tenseโ pairedwithๆนใใใโ which creates a construction that essentially says โIt might be be erif you [โฆ]โ.
A:้ ใ
ใใใฆใใใๅฝผๅฅณใใฎใใ
ใซๅซใใ
ใใใฆใใใฉใใใใใ
B:ใพใใ่ฌใใใพ
ใฃใๆนใใใใ ใใ๏ผ
A: โ(My) girlfriend is angry with (me) because (I) was late. What should (I)do?โB: โWellโ wouldnโt it be sensible (literally: good) to apologise (to her)?โ
This kind of recommendation is fairly directโ and thus some care must betaken in making sure that your relationship to whomever you make a recommenda-tion to allows for this level of directness.
Offering your opinion using -ใฐ
A less direct way of recommending something is by offering your own opinion. Us-ing a hypothetical conditional paired with your own opinion on how good or badthis situation would be is a less direct way to suggest a course of action to someone.For instance:
A:ใใพใฃใใ้้ใพใกใ
ใใฐใใๆธใ
ใใฆใใ
B:็ดใชใ
ใใฐใใใงใใใใ
A: โOh noโ Iโve been writing mistakes all over the place.โB: โWellโ it wonโt be that big of a deal if you just fix them?โ
While this is of course still reasonably direct in the sense that youโre imposingyour own opinion on someoneโ it is less direct than the previous past tense +ๆนใใใ.
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status 319
Asking about an option using -ใใใฉใ
A truly indirect way of making a suggestion is by offering it as an optionโ withoutactually saying whether you think itโs the right course of action or notโ effectivelyleaving the process of deciding whether itโs a good idea or not entirely up to thelistener:
A:ใฉใใปใฉๅๅผทในใใใใ
ใใฆใใใใๅใ
ใใใพใใใใ
B:ใใใงใใใใใใใๅ ็ใใใใ
ใซ่ใ
ใใใใฉใใงใใใ
A: โNo ma er how much I study I donโt seem to understand this.โB: โHmm. Wellโ what about asking the teacher?โ
This is the most polite way of making a suggestionโ because it only stays atmaking the suggestionโ without adding a personal recommendation to itโ meaningyou do not decide what the other person should do.
Pseudo-future suggesting and presuming
As you may remember from the section on the pseudo-future from chapter 3โ thepseudo-future can be used for three thingsโ namely the dubitativeโ cohortative andpresumptiveโ and it turns out that these last two are ideal for use in indirect speechโ asthey guess at the world and leave the conclusions or decisions based on these guessesup to the listenerโ instead of imposing your own opinions on them:
ไปๆฅใใใ
ใฏใๅฏฟๅธใใ
ใ้ฃใ
ในใซ่กใ
ใใใใโShall (we) go (out) for sushi today?โ
This question leaves the decision up to the listenerโ which is typically a politething to doโ unless of course youโre dealing with someone who is bad at makingdecisionsโ in which case using indirect speech is arguably not a good idea in the firstplace.
ใใฎใณใณใใฅใผใฟใๆ ้ใใใใ
ใใฆใใฎใฏใๅคใตใ
ใใใใงใใใใโThe reason this computer is broken is (probably) because itโs old (right?).โ
In this sentenceโ the speaker assumes that the computer in question is oldโ andleaves the ma er of whether this assumption is correct up to the listener to decideโthus not providing potential disinformation to the listener. Of courseโ this is an over-
320 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status
analysisโ and these forms arenโt actually so much used to prevent disinformation asjust used because indirect speech is politeโ and thatโs what you use. Howeverโ theanalysis does hold up to scrutiny for a good reason: not presuming to know be ermeans youโre never forcing anyone into anythingโ which makes you quite civilised.
Double negative statements
In addition to these reasonably obvious suggestionsโ recommendations and opinionsโwe can also let our intentions shine through by using roundabout phrasingโ thussoftening our own convictionsโ opinions and intentions. The most common way thisis done is by using double negative pa ernsโ as described in the following sections.
Regular double negative
The regular double negative construction is essentially the same as in Englishโ relyingon the presence of volitional verbs (sayโ doโ believeโ promiseโ etc.):
ใใชใใจใฏ่จใ
ใใพใใใโ(I) cannot say (I) wonโt do it.โ
้จ้ทใถใกใใ
ใซ่จใใชใใจใฏ็ดๆใใใใ
ใใพใใใใโI wonโt promise not to tell your boss.โ
Note that in this useโ the double negative is set up usingใจโ in its role as โquot-ingโ particle.
Howeverโ there is a more frequently used double negative pa ern in Japaneseโused in a more subtle way to express an affirmativeโ which deserves special a ention.
Complex double negative
Frequently usedโ but certainly confusing the first time one sees or hears itโ is the dou-ble negative hypothetical constructionๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใใฐ +ใชใใชใ/ใใใชใ. Whileit uses two negatives to do its jobโ itโs actually used to imply an affirmative action in-stead. In a wayโ this makes sense: โI will not not-drink the coffeeโ has two negativesโbut the first negates the secondโ so the sentence might as well read โI will drink thecoffeeโ. We see the same happening in the Japanese complex double negativeโ butwith an added nuance:
Language pa erns โ ยง 6.4 Acknowledging social status 321
ๅๅผทในใใใใ
ใใชใใใฐใชใใพใใใliterally: โIt should not become a fact that I am not studyingโmeaning: โI really should go study.โ
This construction requires some analysis: the construction is formed by in-flecting a verb in plain negative formโ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใโ and turning this into a hypo-thetical: ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใ +ใฐ. This negative hypothetical is then followed by eitherthe negative form ofใชใโ โbecomeโโ or the negative form ofใใใโ which is a verbthat expresses the figurative โwill doโ such as in โYesโ that will do nicelyโ. Becausethey express slightly different thingsโ the choice of which to use depends on what aspeaker wants to express.
Usingๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใใฐ +ใชใใชใ (or politeโ usingใชใใพใใ) expressesthat something โshouldโ be doneโ i.e. that the negative verb action โshould not cometo beโ. Usingๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใใฐ +ใใใชใ (or politeโ usingใใใพใใ) expressesthat something โhas toโ be doneโ i.e. that the negative verb action simply โwill notdoโ. As suchโใชใใชใ typically translates to a โneedโ to do somethingโ whereasใใใชใ typically translates to a โmustโ:
ใใขใใฎๅๅผทใใใชใใใฐใชใใพใใใโI (really) need to practise piano (now).โ
In this sentenceโ there are no additional connotations: the speaker simplynotes that they should practise piano. They might need to do so in order to improveโor because a recital is coming upโ but this is left in the middle.
ใใขใใฎๅๅผทใใใชใใใฐใใใพใใใโI must practise piano.โ
In this sentenceโ there is the additional hidden information that not merelyshould the speaker practiseโ but that not practising will have undesirable conse-quences. Rather than just needing to practiseโ this practice has to be done to avoidwhatever these undesirable consequences may be.
Colloquiallyโ there are shorter versions ofใชใใใฐโ namelyใชใใใ andใชใใ. Because of the colloquial nature of the shorter formsโ these are typically pairedwith the plain negatives ใชใใชใ and ใใใชใโ as well as even more colloquialใชใใ and depending on who you talk toโ ใใใ or ใใใ. The first is strictlyspeaking the short negative form of ใใโ rather than ใใใ; the second is a wordoften associated with the dialects spoken in the Kansai regionโ although it is also usedin other parts of Japan.
322 Language pa erns โ ยง 6.5 More advanced grammar
6.5 More advanced grammarWhile there are a lot more topics available in the discussion of Japanese grammarโ aselection had to be made for a book titled an โintroductionโ to Japanese. This book al-ready covers more than what you would traditionally find in an introductory readeron the languageโ and sticking in even more topics would make it a far more com-plete workโ but also tremendously more voluminous. As suchโ this is the end ofthis introduction to Japanese syntaxโ grammar and language. For further grammarโI can recommend picking up copies of the Dictionaries of Basicโ Intermediary andAdvanced Japanese Grammar by Seichi Makino and Michio Tsutsuiโ and referringto them whenever you run across interesting grammar use in Japanese materialโ orgoing on in search of more specialised dictionaries and reference works โ there areplenty available!
I hope you enjoyed this bookโ and I wish you all the best in your studies!
Appendix A
Conjugation Schemes
This appendix focuses entirely on the conjugation schemes that have been treated inthis bookโ organised in two sections. The first lists all the base forms for the variousverbals treated in this bookโ the second lists the actual conjugation tables for all theseverbals.
A.1 Bases
There are two sets of basesโ one associated withๆ่ชใถใใ
โ classical (or literary) Japaneseโand one associated withๅฃ่ช
ใใใ
โ modern (or colloquial) Japanese. These are:
base ๆ่ช ๅฃ่ช
imperfect ๆช็ถๅฝขใฟใใใใ
ๆช็ถๅฝข
continuative ้ฃ็จๅฝขใใใใใใ
้ฃ็จๅฝข
sentence ending ็ตๆญขๅฝขใใ ใใใใ
้ฃไฝๅฝข
a ributive ้ฃไฝๅฝขใใใใใใ
้ฃไฝๅฝข
perfect ๅทฒ็ถๅฝขใใใใใ
ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข
commanding ๅฝไปคๅฝขใใใใใใ
ๅฝไปคๅฝข
In addition to these basesโ all verbal words have a stemโ called the่ชๅนนใใใ
โ whichis that part of the verbal that does not change during inflection.
On a functional noteโ the term โdictionary formโ used in this chapter (andpreceding chapters) refers the modern ้ฃไฝๅฝขโ which is the form used for listingverbal words in dictionaries. While synonymousโ the term โdictionary formโ will
325
326 Conjugation Schemes
only be used to explain how to form bases. For everything elseโ the proper term้ฃไฝๅฝข is used.
A.1.1 Regular verbs: ไบๆฎตใใ ใ
verbs
base how to form่ชๅนน remove finalใโrow syllable from dictionary formๆช็ถๅฝข finalใโrow syllable is replaced with the correspondingใโrow syllable้ฃ็จๅฝข finalใโrow syllable is replaced with the correspondingใโrow syllable้ฃไฝๅฝข dictionary form ending on theใ-row syllableๅทฒ็ถๅฝข finalใโrow syllable is replaced with the correspondingใโrow syllableๅฝไปคๅฝข finalใโrow syllable is replaced with the correspondingใโrow syllable
A.1.2 Regular verbs: ไธๆฎตใใกใ ใ
verbs
base how to form่ชๅนน remove finalใๆช็ถๅฝข remove finalใ้ฃ็จๅฝข remove finalใ้ฃไฝๅฝข dictionary form ending onใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข replace finalใ withใๅฝไปคๅฝข remove finalใ
A.1.3 Irregular verbs: ใใ (ใใ/ใใ)
base ใใ ใใ ใใๆช็ถๅฝข ใโใโใ ใโใโใ ใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใ ใ ใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใ ใใ ใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใ ใใ ใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใ(ใ)โใ(ใ)โใใ ใ(ใ)โใ(ใ)โใใ ใ(ใโใ)
Theๆช็ถๅฝข for these verbs follows special rulesโ because not allๆช็ถๅฝข formsare used for all inflections that require this base.
For the classical negation:
ใใ uses theใโๆช็ถๅฝข
ใใ uses theใโๆช็ถๅฝข
Conjugation Schemes 327
For the (modern) passive and causative:
ใใ acts as either anไธๆฎต or aไบๆฎต verb for these forms;ใโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใ orใโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใ to form the passiveโใโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใ to form the causative.
ใใ acts as a normalไธๆฎต verbโ using just theใโๆช็ถๅฝขโ formingใใใใ forthe passive andใใใใ for the causative.
ใใ also acts as a normalไธๆฎต verbโ formingใใใใ for the passive andใใใใ for the causative.
For the potential formโ all three useๅบๆฅใงใ
ใ instead.
A.1.4 Irregular verbs: ๆฅใ
ใ
base kanji form pronunciationๆช็ถๅฝข ๆฅ ใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ๆฅ ใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆฅใ ใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ๆฅใ ใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ๆฅใ ใใ
A.1.5 Special verbs:ใใ
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใใ
A.1.6 Special verbs: ใ
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใ ใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใง (ใ ใค)็ตๆญขๅฝข ใ ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใชๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใชใ
328 Conjugation Schemes
A.1.7 Special verbs:ใงใ
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใงใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใงใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใงใ
A.1.8 Special verbs:ใพใ
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใพใ (ใพใใ)้ฃ็จๅฝข ใพใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใพใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใพใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใพใ (ใพใ)
A.1.9 Verbal adjectives
base how to form่ชๅนน Remove theใ from the dictionary form.ๆช็ถๅฝข ่ชๅนน +ใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ่ชๅนน +ใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ่ชๅนน +ใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ่ชๅนน +ใใ(ๅฝไปคๅฝข ่ชๅนน +ใใ)
A.1.10 Special bases forๅพกๅบงใใ
ใ
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใใใ
Conjugation Schemes 329
A.1.11 Special bases forใใใฃใใใ
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใใใฃใใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใใใฃใใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใใฃใใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใใฃใใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใใใฃใใใ
A.1.12 Special bases forใใฃใใใ
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใใฃใใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใใฃใใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใใฃใใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใใฃใใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใใฃใใใ
A.1.13 Special bases forไธใใ
ใใ
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ไธใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ไธใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ไธใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ไธใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ไธใใ
A.1.14 Special bases forใชใใ
base formๆช็ถๅฝข ใชใใ้ฃ็จๅฝข ใชใใ้ฃไฝๅฝข ใชใใๅทฒ็ถๅฝข ใชใใๅฝไปคๅฝข ใชใใ
330 Conjugation Schemes
A.2 Conjugation schemes
A.2.1 Regular verbs: ไบๆฎตใใ ใ
verbsContractions in the inflections are indicated with (c)
inflection formality affirmative negativepresent informal ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใ
ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใformal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ
past informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใformal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใ
ใฆ form informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฆ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใฆ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงpast conditional informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใrepresentative informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใpseudo-future informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใ (c) ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใพใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใพใpast pseudo-future informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใใpresumptive plain ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใ ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใ ใใ
polite ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใงใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงใใใpast presumptive plain ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ใใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ ใใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใงใใใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใงใใใhypothetical neutral ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข +ใฐ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใใฐ
emphatic ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใชใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใชใformal(1) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใฐ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใชใformal(2) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใฐ
commanding informal ๅฝไปคๅฝข ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใช้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใช ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใง้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ (้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใใช)ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +
ใใใชใใใชใใงvery formal ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข + ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +
ใใใชใใใพใ ใใใชใใใพใใช
requesting neutral ้ฃ็จๅฝข + ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงไธใใ
ใใ
ใใใฆไธใใ
ใใ (c)formal ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข + ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +
Conjugation Schemes 331
inflection formality affirmative negative
ใใใชใใฃใฆไธใใ
ใใ ใใใชใใใชใใงไธใใ
ใใpassiveโ honorificโ informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใชใpotential formal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใพใใ
short potential informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ๅพใ
ใ (c) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใชใ (c)formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใพใ (c) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใพใใ (c)
causative informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใชใformal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใพใใ
causative passive informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใชใformal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใพใใ
humble I ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใชใใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใพใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใพใใ
II ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +่ดใใ
ใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +่ดใใ
ใใชใ
ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +่ดใใ
ใใพใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +่ดใใ
ใใพใใhonorific I ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใซ +
ใใใชใใชใใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใซ + ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใซ +ใใใชใใพใ ใใใชใใพใใ
II ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใใชใใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข + ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใใพใใใใใชใใใพใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใใพใใ
A.2.2 Regular verbs: ไธๆฎตใใกใ ใ
verbs
inflection formality affirmative negativepresent informal (ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใฌ)
้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใformal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ
past informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใformal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใ
ใฆ form informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฆ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใฆ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงpast conditional informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใrepresentative informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใpseudo-future informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใพใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใพใ
332 Conjugation Schemes
inflection formality affirmative negativepast pseudo-future informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใใpresumptive plain ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใ ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใ ใใ
polite ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใงใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงใใใpast presumptive plain ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ ใใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใงใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใงใใใhypothetical neutral ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข +ใฐ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใใฐ
emphatic ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใชใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใชใvery formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใฐ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใชใ
้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใฐcommanding informal ๅฝไปคๅฝข +ใ
ๅฝไปคๅฝข +ใ ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใช้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใช ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใง้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ (้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใใช)
formal ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใชใใใชใใง
very formal ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข + ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใชใใใพใ ใใใชใใใพใใช
requesting neutral ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆไธใใ
ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงไธใใ
ใใformal ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข + ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +
ใใใชใใฃใฆไธใใ
ใใ ใใใชใใใชใใงไธใใ
ใใpassiveโ honorificโ informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใชใpotential formal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใพใใcausative informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใชใ
formal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใพใใcausative passive informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใใชใ
formal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใใพใใhumble I ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใชใ
ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใพใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใพใใ
II ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +่ดใใ
ใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +่ดใใ
ใใชใ
ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +่ดใใ
ใใพใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +่ดใใ
ใใพใใhonorific I ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใซ +ใชใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใซ +
ใใใชใใชใใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใซ + ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใซ +ใใใชใใพใ ใใใชใใพใใ
II ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใใชใใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข + ใ +้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใชใใใพใ ใใใชใใใพใใ
Conjugation Schemes 333
A.2.3 Irregular verbs: ใใ (ใใ/ใใ)
inflection formality affirmative negativepresent informal ใโๆช็ถๅฝข +ใ
้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใformal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ
past informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใformal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใ
ใฆ form informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฆ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใฆ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงpast conditional informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใrepresentative informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใpseudo-future informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใ ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใพใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใพใpast pseudo-future informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใใpresumptive plain ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใ ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใ ใใ
polite ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใงใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงใใใpast presumptive plain ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ ใใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใงใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใงใใใhypothetical neutral ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข +ใฐ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใใฐ
emphatic ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใชใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใชใformal (1) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใฐ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใชใformal (2) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใฐ
commanding informal ใ-ๅฝไปคๅฝข +ใใ-ๅฝไปคๅฝข +ใ ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใช้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใช ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใง
formal ใชใใ ใชใใใชใใง(ใชใใใช)
formal (2) ใชใใใพใ ใชใใใพใใช
requesting neutral ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆไธใใ
ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงไธใใformal ใชใใฃใฆไธใใ ใชใใใชใใงไธใใ
passiveโ honorific informal see note ๏ฝใใชใformal ๏ฝใใพใ ๏ฝใใพใใ
causative informal see note ๏ฝใใชใformal ๏ฝใใพใ ๏ฝใใพใใ
causative passive informal see note ๏ฝใใใใชใformal ๏ฝใใใใพใ ๏ฝใใใใพใใ
334 Conjugation Schemes
inflection replacement verb
humble ่ดใใ
ใhonorific ใชใใ
potential ๅบๆฅใงใ
ใ
A.2.4 Irregular verbs:ใใ (ๆฅใ)
inflection formality affirmative negativepresent informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใ (ใฌ)
้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใformal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ
past informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใformal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใ
ใฆ form informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฆ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใฆ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงpast conditional informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใrepresentative informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใpseudo-future informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใพใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใพใpast pseudo-future informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใใpresumptive plain ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใ ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใ ใใ
polite ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใงใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงใใใpast presumptive plain ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ ใใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใงใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใงใใใhypothetical neutral ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข +ใฐ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใใฐ
emphatic ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใชใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใชใformal (1) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใฐ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใชใformal (2) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใฐ
commanding informal ๅฝไปคๅฝข ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใช้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใช ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใง้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ (้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใใช)
formal ใ +ๅบใ
ใง +ใชใใ
very formal ใ +ๅบใ
ใง +ใชใใใพใ ใ +ๅบใ
ใง +ใชใใใพใใช
requesting ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆไธใใ
ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงไธใใ
ใใpassiveโ honorific informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใชใpotential formal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใพใใ
Conjugation Schemes 335
inflection formality affirmative negativecausative informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใชใ
formal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใพใใcausative passive informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใใชใ
formal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใใพใใ
inflection replacement verb
humble ๅใพใ
ใhonorific ใใใฃใใใ
A.2.5 Special verbs:ใใContractions in the inflections are indicated with (c)
inflection formality affirmative negativepresent informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใpast informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ (c) ใชใใฃใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใฆ form informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆ (c) ใชใใฆ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใฆ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงpast conditional informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ (c) ใชใใฃใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใrepresentative informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ (c) ใชใใฃใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใpseudo-future informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใ (c) ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใพใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใพใpast pseudo-future informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใ (c) ใชใใฃใใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใงใใใใpresumptive plain ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใ ใใ ใชใใใใชใใ ใใ
polite ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใงใใใ ใชใใงใใใpast presumptive plain ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ใใ (c) ใชใใฃใใ ใใ
polite ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใงใใใ (c) ใชใใฃใใงใใใhypothetical neutral ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข +ใฐ ใชใใใฐ
emphatic ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใชใ ใชใใชใformal (1) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใฐ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใชใformal (2) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใใใฐ
commanding informal ๅฝไปคๅฝขpassiveโ honorific informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใชใpotential formal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใพใใ
336 Conjugation Schemes
inflection formality affirmative negative
short potential informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ๅพใ
ใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใชใformal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใพใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใพใใ
causative informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใชใformal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใพใใ
causative passive informal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใชใformal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใพใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใใใพใใ
inflection replacement verbpolite ใใใ
A.2.6 Special verbs: ใ /ใงใ
inflection politeness affirmative negativepresent plain ใ ใใใชใ
ใงใฏใชใpolite ใงใ ใใใใใพใใ
ใงใฏใใใพใใpast plain ใ ใฃใ ใใใชใใฃใ
ใงใฏใชใใฃใpolite ใงใใ ใใใใใพใใใงใใ
ใงใฏใใใพใใใงใใใฆ form plain ใ ใฃใฆ ใใใชใใฆ
ใงใฏใชใใฆpolite ใงใใฆ ใใใใใพใใใงใใฆ
ใงใฏใใใพใใใงใใฆpast conditional plain ใ ใฃใใ ใใใชใใฃใใ
ใงใฏใชใใฃใใpolite ใงใใใ ใใใใใพใใใชใ
ใงใฏใใใพใใใชใrepresentative plain ใ ใฃใใ ใใใชใใฃใใ
ใงใฏใชใใฃใใpolite ใงใใใ ใใใใใพใใใงใใใ
ใงใฏใใใพใใใงใใใpseudo-future plain ใ ใใ ใใใชใใใ
ใงใฏใชใใใใใใชใใ ใใใงใฏใชใใ ใใ
polite ใงใใใ ใใใใใพใใใงใใใใงใฏใใใพใใใงใใใ
Conjugation Schemes 337
inflection politeness affirmative negativepast pseudo-future plain ใ ใฃใใใ ใใใชใใฃใใใ
ใงใฏใชใใฃใใใpolite ใงใใใ ใใใใใพใใใงใใใ
ใงใฏใใใพใใใงใใใhypothetical I ใชใ ใใใชใใใฐ
II ใชใใฐ ใงใฏใชใใใฐ
A.2.7 Special verbs:ใพใ
inflection affirmative negativepresent ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใpast ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใงใใใฆ form ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใงpast conditional ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใงใใใrepresentative ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใงใใใpseudo-future ใพใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใงใใใpast pseudo-future ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใงใใใใhypothetical ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใฐ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใใชใ
ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข +ใฐcommanding ๅฝไปคๅฝข
A.2.8 Verbal adjectivesContractions in the inflections are indicated with (c)
inflection formality affirmative negativepresent informal ้ฃไฝๅฝข ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใ
formal ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใงใ ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใพใใpast informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใฃใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใพใใใงใใใฆ form informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใฆ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใง
formal ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฆpast conditional informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใฃใใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใพใใใงใใใpseudo-future informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใ (c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใใ
ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใ ใใformal ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใงใใใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใงใใใ
้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใพใใใงใใใpast pseudo- informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใฃใใใ(c) ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใใ
338 Conjugation Schemes
inflection formality affirmative negativefuture ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใ ใใ
formal ้ฃ็จๅฝข + ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใฃใใงใใใใใใใฃใใงใใใ (c) ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใใพใใใงใใใใ
hypothetical neutral ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข +ใฐ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใใฐemphatic ้ฃไฝๅฝข +ใชใ ๆช็ถๅฝข +ใชใใชใ
commanding informal ้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ (c)
Classical adverb form
The following table shows the rules for using verbal adjectives as adverbs to classical
verbs such asใใใ andๅบใ
ใงใ.
adjective wri en as โฆ becomes โฆ่ชๅนน ending in anใ-row syllable +ใ ่ชๅนน ending in anใ-row syllable +ใ่ชๅนน ending in anใ-row syllable +ใ ่ชๅนน ending in anใ-row โใโ glide่ชๅนน ending in anใ-row syllable +ใ the same่ชๅนน +ใ่ชๅนน ending in anใ-row syllable +ใ the same่ชๅนน +ใ
Appendix B
Set phrases
Every language has its set phrases for things like thanking peopleโ or excusing your-selfโ or phrases that are used idiomaticallyโ meaning something other than what thewords would literally implyโ such as telling someone to โtake a chairโ or โmake them-selves at homeโ. This appendix lists several common Japanese phrasesโ and perphrase gives the grammatical decomposition that can be made given all the mate-rial that has been presented in this bookโ with the phrases being ordered accordingto Japanese custom (starting atใ throughใโ and ending atใ).
ไธใ
ใใฃใฆไธใใ
ใใโ โPlease come inโComing from the verbไธใใ (ใใใ)โ this sentence literally says โplease be raisedโ.Its non-literal meaning comes from the fact that the traditional Japanese house hasa raised floor at the entranceโ where one takes off oneโs shoes and steps up into thehouse itself.
ๆใใ
้ฃใใจ
ใๅพกใ
ๅบงใ
ใใพใโ โThank youโAs mentioned in the adjective sectionโ this is an example of classical adjective pro-nunciationโ and is actually a long chain of conjugations:
ใใ in้ฃ็จๅฝข +้ฃใใ
ใ in classical pronunciation +ใใใ in้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใโใใ +ใใจใ +ใใใ +ใพใโใใใใจใใใใใพใ
339
340 Set Phrases
This literally means โthis is a difficult thing to acceptโโ stemming from theconcept of becoming indebted to someone who helps you. As becoming (further)indebted to someone is always a hard thing to acceptโ this phrase is used instead ofa separate word for thanking.
There are various ways to use this sentenceโ the most indebting beingใฉใใใใใใจใใใใใพใโ which adds the wordใฉใใ to the phraseโ meaning โin allpossible waysโโ coming from the question pronounใฉใ (howโ in what way) and thegeneralising pronoun suffixใ.
Still formal indebting isใใใใจใใใใใพใ. Justใใใใจใโ howeverโ isnot polite. It comes down to saying โthanksโโ and pays improper respect to peoplewho do something for you and are of higher social status. Never just sayใใใใจใto your teacher for instance. Always useใใใใจใใใใใพใ.
This expression can either be used in presentโ or futureโ tense (ใใใใจใใใใใพใ) or it can be used in past tense (ใใใใจใใใใใพใใ)โ with the differencelying in when the thanking is being done: if it is after the factโใใใใจใใใใใพใใ will be usedโ and if itโs either prior toโ or during whatever weโre being thankfulforโใใใใจใใใใใพใ is used.
ใใใโDisagreement
The Japanese version of โnoโ. Alternatives toใใใ are the more colloquialใใใโand the more emphaticใใ.
ใใใชใโ โOh noโโ โthis wonโt doโ
This word is often used to express that something will not doโ is about to be donewrongโ or is at this very moment going wrong. Itโs technically the short potentialform of ่กใโ ่กใใโ and literally means โthis cannot goโ. Used in this wayโ it istypically wri en in hiragana only.
ใใใ ใใพใโ Said when one is about to eat
This statement literally means โI will accept [this]โโ in the receiving meaning of acceptโand is used when one is about to eat in the company of others. This is similar toโ forinstanceโ the Christian practice of giving thanks for the food about to be receivedโ butwithout the religious aspect. When one is done eatingโ one usesใใกใใใใพใงใใto indicate that one is done.
Set Phrases 341
่กใ
ใฃใฆๆฅใ
ใพใโ โI will go and come backโThis is said when one leaves a place that one expects to come back to. The mostobvious example is when one goes off for oneโs job or school in the morningโ whenit is used to say goodbye to whoever is still in the house. The standard replyโ ifwarrantedโ isใใฃใฆใใฃใใใ.
ใใฃใฆ(ใ)ใใฃใใใโ Said when someone who will re-turnโ leaves.
Literally this is the honorific version of the command่กใ
ใฃใฆๆฅใ
ใฆโ โgo and come backโโwhere the speaker tells the listener to go on their business and come back afterwards.This phrase is said to people who are leaving a place where they are expected toreturnโ such as their houseโ typically in response to่กใฃใฆใใพใ. The firstใ in theใใใฃใใใ part ofใใฃใฆใใฃใใใ is typically omi ed after aใฆ formโ similar tohow theใ inใใ is typically omi ed when used with theใฆ form.
ใใใฃใใใใพใโ โBe welcomeโThis is literally the commanding form of the honorific verb ใใใฃใใใโ and isused by tenants to welcome their customers into their place of business. It doesnโttechnically mean โbe welcomeโโ but thatโs what it has come to be considered to mean.
ใๅธฐใใ
ใใชใใโ โWelcome backโThis phrase is the typical response toใใ ใใพโ and welcomes someone back homeโ orback to a place that can be considered a base of departureโ such as your officeโ whenyou went out for a power meeting with management and have returned unscathed.
This phrase is technically the honorific commanding form ofๅธฐใโ โto return[to some base]โ:
ใ +ๅธฐใ in้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ inๅฝไปคๅฝขโใ +ๅธฐใ +ใชใใโใๅธฐใใชใใ
342 Set Phrases
ใ่ญๆงใใใใพ
ใงโ โThanks to youโ
This phrase is a typical reply to the questionใๅ ๆฐใงใใ (โhow do you do?โ)โ inwhich case it is usually preceded by an affirmative such asใฏใ. It is also used fre-quently in situations where someone receives praise from someone who contributedto whatever the praise is for. Traditionallyโ a ้ฐ โ meaning โshadowโ or โshadowfigureโ โ is used to mean someone who acts as the unseen driving force behind otherpeople. Literallyโ sayingใ่ญๆงใง means โdue to your being like a shadow for meโโand can be interpreted as โbecause of [your] contributing actionsโ [I am where I amnowโ at this moment]โ.
ใๅ ๆฐใใใ
ใงโ โGet be erโโ โstay wellโ
This phrase can be considered the statementใๅ ๆฐใงใใฆโ โbe wellโโ with theใใฆleft off. It is used as a general parting phrase with people who you will not be seeingthe very next dayโ such as when seeing an incidental friend offโ as well as a partingphrase for people who can use well-wishingโ such as friends who seem a bit down.
ใๅ ๆฐใใใ
ใงใใโ โHow are you?โ
This is a terribly misused phrase by people who start to take an interest in Japaneseโwho mistaken it for โhelloโ.
ใๅ ๆฐใงใใ literally asks โare youๅ ๆฐโโ which means that it asks whethersomeone is feeling good about things in general. This is something you do not asksomeone every dayโ but only when you havenโt seen someone in a whileโ or whenthere is a reason to ask themโ such as when someone has just recovered from anillness. In this last caseโ the question may also be of the formใใๅ ๆฐใงใใโmeaningโare youๅ ๆฐ again (already)?โ.
ๅ ๆฐใฎใชใไบบโ people who are not ๅ ๆฐโ are typically depressedโ gloomyโglumโ down and outโ and for all intents and purposes a mood killer for everyonearound them. Asking these people whether they areๅ ๆฐ is a bit like driving homethe point that they arenโt happy with a big pointy stickโ so instead the phraseๅ ๆฐใชใใฟใใใงใใญ is typically usedโ carefully remarking that they โdo not seem veryๅ ๆฐโ.
Set Phrases 343
ใๅ ใใ
ใซโ Said when leaving early
Said when leaving earlier than you normally would (namely when everyone else
leaves)โใๅ ใซ literally says โbefore [you/everyone else]โ and is short forใๅ ใซ่กใ
ใฃใฆใใพใ. This can be met with two responsesโ namely either a set phrase such as
ใ็ฒใคใ
ใๆงใใพ
ใงใใ orใ่ฆๅดๆงใใใใพ
ใงใใโ or with surprise at the act of leaving early for noclear reason.
ใ้ช้ญใใใพ
ใใพใโ Entering someoneโs houseThe noun้ช้ญ means obstruction or interferenceโ and this sentence is a particularlygood example of Japanese formality: this phrase is used when one is invited into ahouse. Courtesy demands that you indicate that even though you have been invitedโyou will intrude upon their home life by accepting this invitation and entering theirhouse.
Because this phrase literally means โIโll be intrudingโโ it can also be used whenone really is intrudingโ such as breaking up an intimate conversation because youneed to talk to one of the conversationalistsโ or when barging in on people.
ใไธ่ฉฑใใ
ใใพใโTreating someone
ไธ่ฉฑ means caringโ in the giveable caring kind of way. Paired with ใใโ the com-
binationไธ่ฉฑ(ใ)ใใ means โto give care to someoneโ in the positive senseโ and isgenerally understood as meaning you will be treating someone to something. Thisphrase is usedโ for instanceโ when picking up the tab for someone (this will naturallybe paired with some refusal by the treateeโ and insistence on the part of the treaterโbut this is part of the Japanese process of doing things for people).
ใไธ่ฉฑใใ
ใซใชใใพใโTo be taken care of
Pairing ไธ่ฉฑ with the verb ใชใโ โbecomeโโ the combination ไธ่ฉฑใซใชใ means โtobe taken care of by someoneโ in the positive sense. For instanceโ when someone isoffering to do something for you like pay the bill after dinnerโ or take care of youwhen youโre sick and you wish to oblige themโ you use the phraseใไธ่ฉฑใซใชใใพใto indicate that you will be taken care of in some way by them.
344 Set Phrases
ใๅคงไบใ ใใ
ใซ(ใใฆ) โ โTake careโๅคงไบ is a โvaluable thingโโ in the figurative sense. When someone is toldใๅคงไบใซใ
ใฆไธใใ
ใใโ they are told to โplease act in a way so that they are treating themselves assomething valuableโ. This full sentence is often shortened to justใๅคงไบใซ.
For instanceโ when saying goodbye to someone who you will not see in awhileโ you typically wish themใๅคงไบใซ so that you may meet them again in goodhealth at some point in the future.
ใ็ฒใคใ
ใๆงใใพ
(ใงใ/ใงใใ) โ โYouโve worked hardโใ็ฒใๆง literally means โthe appearance of tirednessโโ and comes from the nounform of the verb ็ฒใใโ โto tireโโ prefixed with the honorific ใ and suffixed with
the more classical likeness suffixๆงใใพ
. This statement is used when someone has per-formed a tiring jobโ or when one goes home after a day of working.
ใ่ นใชใ
ใ็ฉบใ
ใใพใใโBeing hungry
One states that one is hungry by saying their stomach has become empty. Variationson this theme are the plain past tense instead of formal past tenseใ่ นใ็ฉบใใ or
with the subject marker omi edโ ใ่ นใใใ. Colloquial versions are ่ นใฏใ
ใๆธใธ
ใฃใ(note the different pronunciation for่ น) or simply่ นๆธใฃใ.
ใ้กใญใ
ใใใพใโ โPleaseโLiterally this phrase reads โ(I) wish itโโ but is commonly interpreted as meaningโpleaseโ in the context of prompting someone to do something for you. It comesfrom the verb้กใโ to wish:
ใ +้กใ in้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใใ in้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใโใ +้กใ +ใใพใโใ้กใใใพใ
Set Phrases 345
ใๆฉใฏใ
ใใใใใพใโ โGood morningโThis phrase doesnโt actually contain the word โmorningโ in any wayโ which explainswhy itโs possible to use this phrase at later points in the day. Literallyโ this is thestatementๆฉใใงใโ only in humble classical form:
ๆฉใ in classical form +้ฃ็จๅฝข ofใใใ +ใพใโใใฏใใ +ใใใ +ใพใโใๆฉใใใใใพใ
This statement basically affirms that some meeting is reasonably early forwhen it occurs. For school goersโ 8:30 am could be early; for bookmakersโ 1 p.m.could be early. It all depends on when your daily routine day starts.
ใไน ใฒใ
ใๆฏใถ
ใใงใโ โItโs been a long timeโThis phrase is actually grammatically quite interesting as it consists of a noun com-pound formed of the verbal adjective ไน ใใโ โlong (timed)โ and the verb ๆฏใโ โtoend/give upโโ which as compound is turned into a noun and prefixed with the hon-orific particleใโ covering all the major word groups (verbโ adjectiveโ noun and par-ticle) in a single term:
ใ +ไน ใใ as่ชๅนน +ๆฏใ in้ฃ็จๅฝข (suffering from a voiced pronunciationas compound) +ใงใโใ +ไน ใ +ใถใ +ใงใโใไน ใๆฏใใงใ
This phrase is used when a silence between two people is broken after sometimeโ be this in writingโ by virtue of a phone callโ or by actually seeing someone inperson again.
ใใใงใจใใใใใพใโCongratulationsLiterally this phrase is a combination ofใใงใใ (meaning auspicious) in classicalform paired withใใใ:
346 Set Phrases
ใ +ใใงใใ in classical form +ใใใ in้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใพใโใ +ใใงใจใ +ใใใใพใโใใใงใจใใใใใพใ
This phrase can be used with a million and one words to congratulate on anynumber of thingsโ usually following theใฆ form of descriptions of what the congrat-ulations are offered for:
็ตๅฉใใฃใใ
ใใฆใใใงใจใใใใใพใใโCongratulations on ge ing married.โ
่ช็ๆฅใใใใใใณ
ใใใงใจใใใใใพใใโCongratulations on your birthday.โ
ๅๆฅญใใคใใใ
ใใฆใใใงใจใใใใใพใใโCongratulations on graduating.โ
et ceteraโ et cetera.
ใไผใใ
ใฟใชใใโ โGood nightโThis phrase is said when one goes to bedโ and is repeated by those who wish you agood night. It is technically the honorific commanding form ofไผใโ to restโ and isused to wish everyone else a good night too.
ใ +ไผใ in้ฃ็จๅฝข +ใชใใ inๅฝไปคๅฝขโใ +ไผใฟ +ใชใใโใไผใฟใชใใ
ๆฐใ
ใไปใค
ใใฆ(ไธใใ
ใใ) โ โTake careโโ โBe carefulโLiterallyโ this phrase instructs someone to apply ๆฐโ in this case best translated asโvigilanceโโ to whatever it is they areโ or will beโ doing. It is used when you wish
Set Phrases 347
someone to be carefulโ such as when they are about to do something potentially dan-gerous โ whether itโs rewiring a wall socketโ or heading out in a storm at midnightwithout a torch โ or when theyโre going to be in an environment that may be haz-ardous in some way โ be it starting a school term at a new schoolโ or going off to doyour job as a fireman.
ใ่ฆๅดๆงใใใใใพ
(ใงใ/ใงใใ) โ โJob well doneโ
Literallyโ this phrase doesnโt say โwell doneโ at allโ but actually translates to โit wouldappear that you have exerted considerable effortโโ ่ฆๅด (ใใใ)โ with the fact thatthis was actually โgoodโ effort only being implied by the fact that youโre not beingtold youโve done a bad job instead. This phrase can be used whenever someone hasfinished doing a tough jobโ or has had a rough day.
This phrase is also used as a reply toใๅ ใใ
ใซโwhen used by someone for whomitโs okay to leave work before others do (even if only by a few minutes). Colloquiallytheๆง inใ่ฆๅดๆง can be replaced withใใโ to create the more relaxed soundingใ่ฆๅดใใ.
ใ้ฆณ่ตฐๆงใกใใใใพ
(ใงใใ) โ Said when one is done eating
This expression has no usable translation because itโs a customary saying. Literally
this phrase means โit was a feastโโ stemming from the noun้ฆณ่ตฐใกใใ
which means ban-quet and all the things a banquet entails such as good food and decent entertainmentโand the likeness suffixๆง
ใใพ
.This phrase is the counterpart to the customary saying ใใใ ใใพใโ said
prior to consuming anything in the company of others.
ใๅ ใใ
ไธใใ
ใใโ โPlease excuse meโ
This phrase is used in two common se ings. The first is when hanging up on a phoneconversation when you are the one hanging upโ and the second is when youโre en-tering a place which you know is someone elseโsโ but you donโt see anyone around.Literallyโๅ means dismissalโ and this phrase asks for the listener to please dismissyour behaviour as it is intrinsically rude.
348 Set Phrases
ใๅ ใใ
ใชใใโ โPlease forgive meโ
This construction is more oriented towards asking for forgiveness rather than justbeing excused. When you have done something wrongโ and you know you didโ apol-ogise withใใใใชใใ.
This phrase is also used to turn down important offersโ where the act of turn-ing down the offer may lead to problems for the other party (such as when someoneis depending on youโ or when someone confesses their love for you).
When being specific about what you are asking forgiveness forโใใใใชใใ follows the description inใฆ form:
ใฑใผใญใ้ฃใ
ในใฆใใใใใชใใใโIโm sorry for eating (your) cake.โ
ไปๆฅใใใซใก
ใฏโ โGood dayโ
This is the particleใฏ (pronouncedใ)โ added to the nounไปๆฅ meaning โdayโ (pro-nouncedใใใซใก instead ofใใใ). Itโs technically an unfinished phrase just raisingthe topic of โtodayโ and then saying absolutely nothing in regards to itโ but this hasbecome the standard way to say โgood dayโ in Japanese.
ไปๆฉใใใฐใ
ใฏโ โGood eveningโ
Likeใใใซใกใฏโ this is justใฏ added toไปๆฉโ โthis eveningโ.
ใใใใชใโ โFarewellโ
Realise the full meaning of this word before you use it:ใใใใชใ is short forๅทฆๆงใใใ
ใช
ใใฐใๆใใจใพ
ใ็ณใใ
ใใพใโwhich is old Japanese for โThings being as they areโ I shall speakmy farewellsโ. The modern versionโ tooโ really does mean โfarewellโ and not just aplain โgood byeโ. There is a very explicit connotation that it will be a considerabletime until the speaker will see again the person theyโre seeing offโ if ever.
Set Phrases 349
ไปๆนใใใ
ใใชใโ โThere is nothing (โฆ) can do about itโThis phrase is quite often (and to the horror of many a translator) translated literallyas โthere is no helping itโ. Nowโ the number of times you will hear that phrase usedin English is probably a very small number indeedโ and as such this phrase is muchbe er translated with โthereโs nothing [I/he/she/we] can do about itโ.
ไปๆน is a conceptual noun for a โsomething that can be doneโโ and is an ex-ample of kanji being applied to a reading instead of the other way around: this isactually the โway of doingโ construction forใใโใๆนโ whereใ has been given thekanjiไปโ meaning doing/service. Variations on this theme involve omi ingใโไปๆนใชใโ or replacingใๆน with the more humble่ด
ใใ
ใๆนโ andใชใ with the more politeใใใพใใโ leading to statements such as่ดใๆนใใใใพใใ.
ๅคฑ็คผใใคใใ
ใใพใใโ โI have commi ed a rudenessโThis is used as an excuse after the factsโ when admi ing that one has commi ed arudeness.
ๅคฑ็คผใใคใใ
ใใพใโ โExcuse meโๅคฑ็คผ literally means โa rudenessโโ andๅคฑ็คผใใ means to commit a rudeness. Whenone has to excuse oneself from somewhereโ for instanceโ when one is talking to asuperior and is called away for some reasonโ or one has to go before the conversationis truly overโ this expression is used (in combination with the appropriate level ofbowing) to indicate that one is aware that oneโs actions will be somewhat rude.
ใใใใใพใโ โSee you again (later)โThis phrase is an unfinished phrase that literally means โwell thenโ again [some othertime]โโ and is used as an informal goodbye when you expect to see each other againsoon. Theใใใ comes fromใงใฏโ which in turn is short forใใใงใฏmeaning โwiththisโ or โby thisโ as context. ใพใ (ๅ) means โagainโโ and so the whole sentence canbe unwrapped to ใใใงใฏใใพใ[โฆ]โ where the final part of the sentence can be
things likeๆๆฅใใใ
โ โtomorrowโโๅพใใจ
ใงโ โlaterโโ and so forth. Because of all this droppingof termsโ there are several statements that can be used which all mean the same thingโbut varying in level of formality:
350 Set Phrases
ใใใงใฏใใพใๅพใงใ formal politeใงใฏใใพใๅพใงใ formal politeใงใฏใใพใใ casual politeใใใใใพใใ informalใใใใพใใ informalใพใใญใ very informal
ๆธใ
ใฟใพใใโ โThank youโโ โExcuse meโA prime example that Japanese conceptualises certain things differentlyโใใฟใพใใcan actually mean โthank youโ and โexcuse meโ at the same time when used. Whilemeaning a simple โexcuse meโ if used when (for instance) bumping into someone inthe streetโ it is also used when someone does something for you that will indebt youto themโ such as catching your hat and handing it back if the wind catches itโ or fixingsome typos in an email you had wri en. Usingใใฟใพใใ in these instances meansboth โthank you for doing this for meโ as well as โIโm sorry to have caused you to dothis for meโ at the same time.
This is technically the polite negative ofๆธใ
ใโ โto endโโ indicating that the debtbetween the two parties involved remains unse led. Variations on the theme includethe more colloquialใใใพใใ and very informalใใพใชใ andใใพใ.
When being specific about what you are thanking apologetically forโใใฟใพใใ follows the description inใฆ form.
ๆไผใฆใคใ
ใฃใฆใใฟใพใใใโThank you for helping outโ and sorry for somehow having made you doso.โ
ใใใงใใโ โIs that so?โโ โReallyโโ โI seeโโ โAhaโThis is a typical phrase that doesnโt mean what it seems to meanโ even if half the timeit does. Much like how half the time when a Japanese person saysใฏใโ they wonโtmean โyesโ but are only indicating theyโre listeningโใใใงใใ is used to acknowl-edge that the speaker is still being listened to just as much as itโs used to genuinelyask โis that so?โ.
Only the context of the conversation is an indicator whether itโs just a politeway to show that someone is still being listened toโ or whether the listener is gen-uinely wondering about something said.
Set Phrases 351
ใใใงใใญโ Showing agreement
This phrase is often used when someone wants to emphatically agree in a conversa-tion. It may also be used to indicate that the speaker has heard what has just beensaid and will respond to itโ similar toใฏใ. Misinterpreting it can lead to quite a bitof confusion:
A:ใใ็ตใ
ใใฃใฆใพใใใB:ใใใงใใญใใพใ ็ตใใฃใฆใพใใใ
A: โHave you finished yet?โB: โAhโ yesโฆ not yet.โ
Hereโ B is first merely acknowledging that they heard the questionโ possiblyeven indicating that they think itโs a good questionโ and the real answer comes afterใใใงใใญ.
ใใ ใใพโ โIโm backโโ โRight awayโThere are three meanings to this phraseโ although typically you will only be familiarwith the first: when returning from something that one had to leave for (at whichpoint anใใฃใฆใใพใwould have been used)โ this phrase is used to signal the return.
It is usually met withใๅธฐใใ
ใใชใใโ an idiomatic expression translating to โwelcomebackโ.
The second meaning is quite different. When given an order to perform sometaskโ usingใใ ใใพ as response idiomatically translates to โright awayโ. This useis typical in se ings where someone is commanded to do somethingโ such as in amaster/servant relationship.
Lastlyโ ใใ ใใพ can also be used as a formal version of just ไปใใพ
โ meaningโnowโ. In this meaningโ you may also find it used a lot in the expressionใใ ใใพใใ[โฆ]โ in whichใใ is used in its classical (literary) meaningโ being the same as themodern particleใใโ with the expression translating to โstarting nowโโ โas of nowโor โfrom this moment onโ.
้ ผใใฎ
ใโ โPleaseโThis is just the verb้ ผใโ โto leave in someoneโs careโโ but is frequently used as an ex-pression both when offloading something to someone else (which can be considered
352 Set Phrases
quite rude)โ to mean โplease do this for meโโ or when someone offers to do some-thing for you and is giving off all the signals that theyโre being serious instead ofbeing politeโ as an implicit โthank youโ.
ใฉใ่ดใใ
ใใพใใฆ - โDonโt mention itโโ โyouโre welcomeโThis phrase is used in response to an expression of gratitude. Similar to how inEnglish one might be polite by responding to โThank you very muchโ with โyouโrewelcomeโ or โit was my pleasureโโ this phrase acts as both an acknowledgement ofthe gratitudeโ as well as an indicator that the gratitude should not be experienced tothe degree that the person doing the thanking is expressing (similar to how in Englishone might go โnoโ noโ it was nothingโ).
Grammatically speaking this construction is the humble version ofใฉใใใฆโbut idiomatically these two expressions mean wildly different thingsโ withใฉใใใใใพใใฆ being used to acknowledge or waive gratitudeโ andใฉใใใฆ being used toenquire the โwhyโ of something.
ใฉใใใโ โWhat happened?โBeing a combination of the pronounใฉใโ โhowโ or โin what wayโโ and the past tenseofใใโ this literally asks โby what way did [โฆ] happen?โ. Howeverโ it is interpretedto mean โwhat happened?โโ instead. ใฉใใใ is a short question to enquire whathappened when someone seems upsetโ taken abackโ or give off the impression thatsomething happened that is unusual. A more formal way to ask thisโ though alsomore effeminateโ isใฉใใใใพใใใ.
ใฉใใใฆ(ใงใใ) โ โWhy?โโ โHow come?โThis is the combination ofใฉใโ โhowโโ and the verbใใ inใฆ form. Using justใฉใใใฆ is technically an incomplete sentenceโ and implies that it should be finished withwhatever verb best describes the situation that is being questioned. For instanceโ if
someone refuses to helpโ the full sentence could beใฉใใใฆๆไผใฆใคใ
ใใชใใใงใใโโwhy wonโt you help?โโ but just sayingใฉใใใฆ is enough to act as question.
ใฉใใโUrging someoneโ โIf it pleases youโโฆโOne of the power words in Japanese social languageโใฉใใ is used whenever youwish to politely urge someone to do something. For instanceโ if one has just servedtea to guests and wishes to urge the guests to start drinkingโ aใฉใใ combined with
Set Phrases 353
a sweeping hand gesture at the cups will convey the message that they should startdrinking.
This word can frequently be heard in combination with urging requestsโ form-
ing a more polite version of the request. For instanceโ the earlier entryไธใ
ใใฃใฆ(ใใ ใใ) could be made more polite by turning it intoใฉใใไธใใฃใฆ(ใใ ใใ).
ใฉใใใๅ ใใ
ใซโ โAfter youโA common form of politeness in Japan (although arguably in any culture) is to re-press your own feelings and desires so that others might benefit. Of the many ways inwhich this can be expressedโ probably the most common way is le ing other peopledo something before you get a chance to do themโ such as opening a door for some-one else to pass through firstโ or le ing someone else queue up before you queueup.
The phrase combinesใฉใใ with ๅ ใซ (โbeforeโ) in honorary formโ trans-lating to -- if weโre translating the intention of the expression rather than the literalwords -- โIf it pleases [you]โ [allow me to let you do whatever I wanted to do] before[I do soโ too]โ.
ใฉใใใใใใโ โPleased to meet youโโPleased to meet youโ is actually the โbest cultural approximationโ translation. TheJapanese statement doesnโt actually mean โpleased to meet youโ at allโ but relieson knowing whatใใใใ means. Being a noun derived fromใใใใโ โagree-able/acceptableโโ this statement literally says that the speaker hopes that everythingthat is the result of this meeting is of a good nature. Itโs only used onceโ when youfirst meet someone in a se ing where you will work together in some capacityโ andis more accurately described as saying โplease treat me well in our future dealingsโ.
The more formal version isใฉใใใใใใใ้กใญใ
ใใใพใโ which adds the verbfor โwishingโ to the statementโ thus expressing a sincere wish to be treated favourablyin the future.
The short formโ justใใใใโ can be used in a broader se ing to indicate youwill leave something to someone under the assumption that all will be wellโ and is
similar to้ ผใใฎ
ใ in this use.
ใชใ(ใงใใ) โ โWhy?โThis is the most direct version of โwhyโโ and is a pure interrogative; itโs shortโ andliterally means โwhat reasonโ. Being the most directโ itโs also quite rudeโ and there is
354 Set Phrases
no polite way to use this wordโ so itโs best to try and avoid using it at all. Because itis technically a nounโ it can be used in a softer form usingใงใโ but even then this isstill considered more direct than asking the other two versions of โwhyโ withใงใ:
ไฝใชใ
ใงใงใใ orใฉใใใฆใงใใ.
ไฝใชใ
ใง(ใงใใ) โ โWhy?โ
This particular version of โwhyโ is considered more direct thanใฉใใใฆโ but lessdirect thanใชใ. It is indirect in that it literally asks โby which means [do you reasonthis way]?โ or โby which means [did this situation arise]?โโ but is more direct becauseitโs shorter thanใฉใใใฆ and thus sounds more curt.
ๅใฎใฉ
ใๆธใใ
ใใฆใใพใโ Being thirsty
When one is thirsty in Japanโ one doesnโt say โI am thirstyโ but instead uses the lessdirect statement โmy throat is dryโโ similar to how one could say โI am a bit parchedโin English rather than saying โIโm a bit thirstyโ.
ใฏใโAcknowledgement
While generally understood to mean โyesโโใฏใ actually signifies acknowledgementin general โ it can be used as an acknowledging response to questionsโ in which caseit means the same as โyesโโ but it can also be used to indicate that some speaker isstill being listened to. Likeใใใงใใญโ this may lead to situations whereใฏใ can beinterpreted as either:
A:ใใใใๅใ
ใใฃใฆใพใใญใB:ใฏใใๅใใใพใใใ
A: โSoโ (you) know (what this means)โ (donโt you).โB: [acknowledges the question] โNo.โ
Alternatives toใฏใ are the more colloquialใใ and the more explicitly ac-knowledgingใใ.
Set Phrases 355
ๅงใฏใ
ใใพใใฆโAformal greetingusedwhenmeeting some-one for the first timeLikeใฉใใใฆโ this is technically an unfinished sentenceโ being the politeใฆ form ofๅงใใโ โto start (something)โ. Literallyโ this sentence reads โ[through our meetingโsomething] starts โฆโโ which is why it is only used once in your life per person thatyou meet. In a se ing where there will be a lasting cooperation between you andwhoever you say this toโ the conversation will typically steer towardsใฉใใใใใใ
orใใใใใ้กใญใ
ใใใพใโ depending on the whether you will be potentially relyingon the other person a lot.
่ นใฏใ
ใ็ซใ
ใคโGe ing upsetThis phrase literally means โto raise [my] stomachโโ and is used to indicate somethingcauses genuine upset or upset anger. Like being hungry or thirstyโ being upsetโ tooโis typically indicated by describing the physical feeling.
็ณใใ
ใ่จณใใ
ใใใพใใโ Extreme apologyLiterally this phrase reads โ[this is] not [a situation in which] saying [something] [isappropriate]โ. Effectively it means โI have no excuse [for what I have done]โ andmakes it clear that the speaker is genuinely at fault for something. Grammaticallydecomposing the phraseโ we see:
็ณใ in ้ฃ็จๅฝข + meaning/reason nominaliser ่จณ + formal polite negationofใใ็ณใ +่จณ +ใใใพใใ
Variations on this theme involve moreโ or lessโ formal versions of the verbsโto sayโ and โbeโโ such as็ณใ่จณใชใโ่จ
ใ
ใ่จณใชใโ็ณใ่จณใใใใพใใโ etc.
ใใใใโ Said when picking up the phoneThe story goes that this word was used because demons cannot pronounce itโ andit would allow people to tell whether a real person had picked up the phone on the
other end. Regardless of whether itโs true (itโs notโใใใใ comes from ็ณใใ
ใ็ณใใ
ใโfrom the humble verb ็ณ
ใใ
ใ)โ it makes for a nice story to tell people when they get
356 Set Phrases
curious about the phrase that the Japanese use when they pick up the phoneโ or whenit appears the signal has dropped during a conversation.
This phrase is also used to call someoneโs a ention when they seem to be loststaring into the distanceโ similar to how one might yell โhelloooo?โ to someone whoseems to have started day dreamingโ in English.
Glossary
Abstraction A generalisationโ either through simplification(s) or by omission(s) ofsome (or more) part(s). For instanceโ the concept of โfriendshipโ is an abstrac-tion from all the individual instances of people being friends (an abstraction bygeneralisation). Similarlyโ the concept of โwalkingโ is an abstraction of the con-certed effort of all the muscles moving in the human body to effect that bodywalking on two legs (an abstraction by omissionโ because for โwalkingโโ all theunrelated information of muscles workingโ the brain balancing the bodyโ theeyes determining the direction of travelโ etc. is irrelevant)โ and the Japanesekana are abstractions of Chinese characters (either by simplification in the caseof hiraganaโ or omission in the case of katakana).
Accent Accent in speech is that part of a word that seems to jump out at the listenerโplacing more focus on one or more syllables than on the rest of the word. Forinstanceโ the word โa entionโ has its accent on โtenโ in Englishโ while the accentlies on โonโ in French. Accents are typically in the form of a noticeably differentpitch level or gradient for the syllable(s) in question than for the rest of theword.
Accusative In this bookโ โaccusativeโ is used in the natural language meaningโ notthe grammatical meaningโ representing a construction that accuses someoneof something. The grammatical โaccusativeโ form refers to the role of a directobject to a word that can take such direct objects (which typically means verbs).
Active The verb form that describes actions taking place in the worldโ as performedby someone or something. For instance โI throw the ballโ describes an activityperformed by me. Contrast to โpassiveโ.
Adverb Words that are used to describe the way in which a verb action or state is ineffect. For instanceโ โTo walk quicklyโ has the adverb โquicklyโ describing theway in which โwalkingโ is performed.
Affirmative A word or part of phrase that states (โassertsโ) something is the case.Contrast to โnegativeโ.
357
358 Glossary
Animate The quality of things that allows us to say they are aliveโ or seem lifelike.This covers not just things like people or animalsโ but also things that seem tomove on their ownโ or even things which possess a โlivelyโ qualityโ such as ananimate conversation. Contrast to โinanimateโ.
Article A particular kind of word that references particular objects. In Englishโ theseare the indefinite articles โaโ and โanโ and the definite article โtheโ.
Assertive Boldโ confidentโ or even aggressively self-assured.
Auxiliary verb A verb that is used to give additional meaning to another verb. Forinstanceโ in the English phrase โI can do thisโโ the verb โcanโ is an auxiliary verbโcombining with โdoโ to form a potential formโ rather than a plain predicativeform. These may also be referred to as โhelper verbsโ.
Binary Anything in which only two choices can be madeโ such as binary signals(high and low)โ binary numbers (zero or one) or any arbitrary choice (โone orthe otherโ). Notice that no choice is ever truly binaryโ since there is always thechoice to not pick eitherโ and sometimes even allowing both to be pickedโ thusmaking binary choices secretly ternary choicesโ and sometimes even quaternarychoices.
Cardinal A cardinal number differs from a normal number in that it refers to a num-ber belonging to a particular set. Contrast this to ordinal numbersโ which in-dicate a number is part of some sequence. For exampleโ if we have a collectionof 10 marbles marked 1 through 10โ then the marble with number 6 wri en onit has cardinal number 6. Howeverโ if we look at in which order we can takethe marbles out of some container and the marble marked with the number 6is the first marble we pull outโ then its ordinal number is 1 (because itโs the firstin the series of โdrawn marblesโ)โ but its cardinal number is still 6 (because itโsstill marble 6 in the collection of marbles).
Clause A group of words that contain a subject and a predicateโ but do not form afull sentence.
Cohortative A word form or construction that suggests performing some action. InEnglishโ cohortatives are typically statements such as โshall we ...?โ or โletโs ...โ.
Colloquial Spoken conversationโ usually used to mean the informal spoken versionof a languageโ as contrasted to formal language.
Commanding A word form or construction that commands the listener or reader toperform some action. Contrast to โprohibitingโ.
Comparative A word form or form of phrase that compares one or more things toeach other in some way.
Glossary 359
Compound A word that has been formed by combining two or more words.
Conditional A word form or construction that indicates something is dependent onsomething else happeningโ or being a particular way. The general descriptionis in the form โIf Aโ then Bโโ with A representing a conditionโ and B representingthe consequence should the condition be met.
Conjugation A derived form of a verbโ adjective or noun through inflectionโ eitherby modificationโ additionsโ or both.
Conjugational bases A conjugational base is the most basic verbal โbuilding blockโin Japanese grammarโ upon which all verbal inflections are built. These are: 1)theๆช็ถๅฝข(ใฟใใใใ)โ imperfect baseโ 2) the้ฃ็จๅฝข(ใใใใใ)โ continuativebaseโ 3) the็ตๆญขๅฝข(ใใ ใใใใ)โ finalising baseโ 4) the้ฃไฝๅฝข(ใใใใใใ)โa ributive baseโ 5) theๅทฒ็ถๅฝข(ใใใใใ)โ perfective baseโ and 6) theๅฝไปคๅฝข(ใใใใใใ)โ commanding base.Of theseโ the็ตๆญขๅฝข is no longer usedโ and theๅทฒ็ถๅฝข is also referred to as theไปฎๅฎๅฝข(ใใฆใใใ) (potential base) in modern Japaneseโ as it is only used forhypothetical constructions.
Connotation The commonly understood meaning of a word or phraseโ rather thanits literal meaning. For instanceโ โtake a chairโ connotes si ing downโ ratherthan the literal taking of a chair. Contrast to โdenotationโ.
Context All informationโ both explicit and impliedโ that indicates how to interpretpronouns and referential information in one or more sentences.
Continuative An inflection indicating that the action represented by the inflectedword is still in effectโ either โas isโโ or as part of a more complex inflection.
Contraction The phenomenon in which certain parts of speech get shortened by ei-ther dropping (series of) syllables or replacing series of syllables with shorterโdifferent syllables. An example of this in English is the word โcannotโ beingturned into โcanโtโ through omission. An example in Japanese isใชใใใฐ be-ing turned intoใชใใ through a combination of omission and replacement.
Contrasting Showing two things as being different in one or more respects. Thebiggest possible contrast is called polar contrastโ where two things are pre-sented as opposites (โlying on opposite polesโ)โ rather than merely differing.
Copula A word or part of phrase used to defineโ or coupleโ things. In Englishโ thisis the verb โto beโโ which is used in definitionsโ such as โthe sky is blueโ. InJapaneseโ these are a large number of copulaeโ with the two wordsใ andใงใbeing the most usedโ for informal and formal coupling respectively.
Counter A word used to indicate that a numerical statement should be consideredas representing a count of some thing(s)โ rather than a plain number.
360 Glossary
Decomposition Reducing compound constructions to their individual parts.
Deferred Indirect.
Derogative A word or phrase that suggests someone or something is worth less thanthey really are. Beli lingโ detractingโ expressing low opinion of.
Desirative A word or phrase that expresses desires.
Diacritic A mark or symbol added or a ached to a le er or character to distinguishit from another of similar form.
Direct Not hiding oneโs true intentions behind suggestive phrasing or formality pat-ternsโ โspeaking oneโs mindโ.
Direct object That part of phrase that receives the action of a transitive verb. Forinstanceโ in โI throw a ballโ the word โballโ as direct object receives its actionfrom the verb โthrowโ. Contrast to โindirect objectโโ compare to โsubjectโ.
Distal Impersonal.
Dominant That which is most important. Contrast to โsubordinateโ.
Dubitative A word or part of phrase that expresses doubt about some ma er.
Effeminate A word or part of phrase that is associated with being used predomi-nantly by women. Contrast to โmasculineโ.
Emphatic A word or part of phrase that places emphasis on a ma er.
Existential Referring to โbeingโโ either as a concrete or abstract thing.
Familiar speech A speech pa ern used when talking to people whom you are inti-mately acquainted with.
Formal speech A speech pa ern used when talking to people who you are not inti-mately acquainted with. Contrast to โinformal speechโ.
Formality A particular behavioural pa ern used for the sake of procedure or deco-rum.
Future tense A verb tense that indicates that something will occur in the future. InEnglishโ this uses the auxiliary verb โwillโ. In Japaneseโ this tense does not ex-plicitly exist.
Genitive Expressing a word or part of phrase belongs toโ or is specified byโ anotherword or part of phrase. From the Latin โgenitusโโ meaning โbego enโ.
Glossary 361
Gerund Using a verb in a way that acts as a noun. For instanceโ in the sentence โIlike whistlingโโ the verb โwhistlingโ acts as gerundโ as it can be replaced withany other nounโ while remaining a valid sentence.
Glo al stop A stop consonantโ formed by briefly closing the glo is while a emptingto speak anywayโ followed by opening the vocal cords to release the built uppressure.
Habitual An act that is performed regularlyโ or some state that is regularly the case.
Honorific A form of language in which one raises the perceived status of subjects.
Imperfect A verb form expressing that some action has not (yet) been performedโ orsome state is not (yet) the case.
Implication A statement that suggests that something is the case without explicitlysaying this.
In-group The group of people that in a particular se ing are considered part of thesame group that you are part of. The in-group is a dynamic conceptโ and peoplewho are part of oneโs in-group in one se ing need not automatically be part ofoneโs in-group in another se ing. Contrast to โout-groupโ.
Inanimate Anything that is not animate.
Indirect Hiding oneโs true intentions by using suggestive phrasing and formalitypa erns. Contrast to โdirectโ.
Inflection Modifying a verbal word to indicate its grammatical role.
Informal speech A speech pa ern used when talking to people whom you are eitherfamiliar or intimately acquainted with. Contrast to โformal speechโ.
Instrumentalis A part of phrase that is used to indicate actions are performed bysome indicated means. For instanceโ โWe went to school by carโ has the wordโbyโ acting as instrumentalis.
Intangible Not being perceivable by any of the physical senses. Contrast to โtangi-bleโ.
Interpunction The use of punctuation marks in wri en language to indicate its struc-ture.
Interrogative A word used to question something. In English these are words suchas โwhoโโ โwhatโโ โwhereโโ โwhyโโ โwhenโโ โhowโโ etc.
Intimate Close or personal association or acquaintanceship.
362 Glossary
Intransitive A verb category that indicates that a verb is used to describe states of(part of) the worldโ rather than actions that take place in it. Contrast to โtransi-tiveโ.
Irregular verb A verb that conjugates in a manner that does not follow the usualrules of conjugation.
Kana The collective term for the hiragana and katakana scripts. Also used to referto syllables from these scripts.
Kanji The Japanese version of Chinese characters. Note that not all kanji exist inthe Chinese character setโ and not all Chinese characters exist in the Japanesecharacter set.
Masculine A word or part of phrase that is associated with being used predomi-nantly by men. Contrast to โeffeminateโ.
Mimesis Words that illustrate an aspect of the world. An example is the Japaneseโkira kiraโ which represents a sparkling or intermi ently shining state. Com-pare to โonomatopoeiaโ.
Modifier A word or part of phrase that modifies or narrows down the definition ofanother word or part of phrase.
Mood For verbsโ mood is that aspect of a verb that indicates how the verbโs sub-phrase relates to the rest of the sentence. In Englishโ common moods are โim-perativeโโ โsubjectiveโโ and โindicativeโ.
Negative A word or part of phrase that states (โassertsโ) that something is โnotโ.
Nominaliser A word or part of phrase that changes the grammatical role of otherwords or parts of phrase into the one played by nominals (nouns).
Nominalising Turning a word or part of phrase into a nominal.
Noun A word class that is used to name a personโ placeโ thingโ qualityโ or action.
Onomatopoeia A word that illustrates a sound made by somethingโ such as theword โthunkโ in the phrase โThe rock went โthunkโ as it hit the floorโ. Com-pare to โmimesisโ.
Operative A word that is the focus of some effectโ state or action.
Ordinal A number representing some place in an ordered sequence or list.
Out-group Everyone who is not part of your in-group.
Glossary 363
Particles A class of words that are used to characterise words or parts of phrase ashaving a particular grammatical role.
Passive The verb form that describes some state of (part of) the worldโ rather thansome action taking place in it. For instanceโ the sentence โthe cake was eatenby the childrenโ is in passive voiceโ as it describes the state of the cake (eaten)rather than the action taken to effect this state. Contrast to โactiveโ.
Past tense The verb tense that indicates some state was the caseโ or some action tookplaceโ in the past.
Perfect A verb tense that indicates the action described by the verb has been com-pleted.
Personal zone Refers to the conceptual locations available for referencing to. InEnglishโ there are two personal zonesโ namely โnear meโ and โnot near meโโleading to the pronouns โhereโ and โthereโ or โthisโ and โthatโ respectively. InJapaneseโ there are three personal zonesโ namely โnear meโโ โnear my conver-sational partner(s)โ and โnot near either of these twoโโ leading to the kosoadowords โkokoโโ โsokoโ and โasokoโ or โkoreโโ โsoreโ and โareโ respectively.
Pitch The perceived frequency (for speech usually described in terms of โheightโrather than physical waveform period length) of sounds.
Plural The word form used to indicate multiple instances.
Polarity It indicates what a verb asserts. In Englishโ as in Japaneseโ โaffirmativeโ andโnegativeโ.
Potential Indicating that some state or action is possible.
Prefix Something that is added to the front of a word to change its meaning in someway. Contrast to โsuffixโ.
Preposition A word that is added before another word or part of phrase to indicateits relation to the rest of the phrase.
Present tense The verb tense that indicates some state is the caseโ or some action istaking placeโ at this moment.
Presumptive Expressing a belief about some ma er without evidence to support thebelief.
Progressive Some action that is taking placeโ or โprogressingโโ in the worldโ leadingup to some resultant state. For instanceโ โthe window is openingโ is a progres-sive actionโ which will result in the window being in an opened state.
Prohibiting Forbidding something. Contrast to โimperativeโ and โcommandingโ.
364 Glossary
Pronoun A word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence and refers to this re-placed noun instead.
Pronunciation The way language sounds when spoken.
Pseudo-future A verb form that is not a true future formโ but has certain aspectsof it. In Japaneseโ the pseudo-future does not indicate a future tenseโ but isonly used when some verb may turn out to describe a state in the world oran action taking place in it at a later timeโ such as a cohortativeโ dubitative orpresumptive.
Punctuation Symbols added to wri en text for visual separationโ such as full stopsโcommasโ quotation marksโ etc.
Quantification Expressing something as a quantityโ either in numerical values orconceptual quantities such as โa li leโ or โa lotโ.
Radical A kanji that can be used to index and look up other kanji with. There are214 of these radicalsโ called the โclassical radicalsโโ but many of these have oneor more variations when used as graphemes in larger kanjiโ leading to roughly400 graphemes being used as radical.
Reserved speech A form of speech where one exercises self-restraintโ trying to keeponeโs thoughts and ideas to oneselfโ by stating ma ers as impersonal possibilityor as fact.
Resultant state A state describing (part of) the worldโ that comes from a certain ac-tion having been performed. For instanceโ the act of opening the window leadsto the resultant state of an open window. See โprogressiveโ.
Stem The part of a word that does not change when that word is inflected.
Subject The principal actor or performer in a verb phrase.
Subordinate That which is less important. Contrast to โdominantโ.
Subphrase A section of a phrase that can act as a phrase on its own.
Suffix Something that is added to the end of a word to change its meaning in someway. Contrast to โprefixโ.
Superlative The word that expresses the highest level of some quality. English su-perlatives are โbestโโ โmostโโ โhighestโโ โlargestโโ โquickestโโ etc.
Syllabaries The set of wri en characters of a language of which each character standsfor a syllable.
Glossary 365
Syllable A unit of spoken languageโ typically of uniform duration.
Syntax The compositional rules of a languageโ typically consisting of the rules forhow to write sounds and interpunctionโ and how to combine entities in thelanguage in grammatically sound ways.
Tangible Being perceivable by any of the five major physical senses (sightโ hearingโsmellโ taste or touch)โ especially the sense of touch. Contrast to โintangibleโ.
Tense Indicating the time frame in which the verb action takes place. For instanceโpastโ present or future.
Topic At the sentence levelโ topic refers to the word(s) that describe(s) informationthat the rest of the sentence bears relation to. At the discourse (โfull textโ) levelโthe topic describes the concepts that the whole text is about.
Transitive A verb category that indicates verbs describing actions that are being per-formed by some actorโ taking place in the world. Contrast to โintransitiveโ.
Transliteration The act of writing out a language in a script different from the oneused in that languageโ without translating.
Verbal Relating to verbs.
Verbal adjectives Words that act as adjectivesโ a ributing some quality to nounsโwhich can be inflected to show tenseโ moodโ and polarity in the same way verbscan.
Verbs Words that describe a particular state of (part of) the worldโ or actions takingplace in it.
Volitional Making a conscious choice or decision yourselfโ as opposed to being forcedto make oneโ or having it made for you.
English index
[X](ใฎ)[Y]ใซ/ใง[Z], 210[X]โ the construction [X]ใปใฉ[Y], 188[X]ใใ[X]ใพใง, 216[X]ใฎ[Y], 66[X]ใฎไธญใง[Y], 214[X]ใปใฉ[Y], 188[X]ใ[Y]ใ, 188[X]ใใ[Y], 188100โ000โ000, 22310โ000, 223
A.m., 262Accent, 39Active voice, 130Addressing people, 299Adjective types
i-adjectives, 48na-adjectives, 32, 48
Adjectives, 64Advanced mathematics, 267Advanced maths
cubing, 267raising to a power, 268squaring, 267taking roots, 268
Adverb, 52Adverbial constructions, 158Adverbs, 84Afternoon, 263And, 93, 177Arithmetic, 265Arithmetics
addition, 265division, 266multiplication, 266subtraction, 266
Articles, 28
As well as โฆ, 191As โฆ as possible, 191Asking for confirmation, 175Asking yourself a question, 177Aspiration, 6At some later time, 215At the point of, 115At your earliest convenience, 191A ributive, 64
Base forms, 47Basic inflection, 51Basic Japanese, 51Because, 207Becomes, 76Becoming, 76
particular state, 76particular thing, 76
Being, 77Binary choice, 269Block style, 26Bold, 14Bushu, 23
Can, 134Cantonese, 39Categorical choice, 271Certainly, 281Certainty, 281Change rules
summary, 228Chinese characters, 8, 15Chinese reading, 147Choice, 269Classical
Chinese, 15continuative, 98
367
368 English index
Japanese, 18, 47, 49, 116Classical continuative, 98Classical potential, 135Classilcal
adjectives, 144Cohortative, 319Colloquial style, 47Comparative, 64Comparison, 269Conjoin, 92Conjunctions
common conjunctions, 95verb/adjective, 96verb/noun, 97verb/verb, 94
Consonant, 6Context, 41Context sensitive, 41Contextual disambiguation, 18Contextual simplification, 42Contextualising, 65Continuative
noun, 100verbal adjective, 99ใง, 100
Copula, 67, 77, 81Counters, 229ใใ (ๅ), 239ใใ (ๅ), 231ใ (ๆฅ), 224, 249ใ (่ชฒ), 235ใใ (ๅ), 244ใใ (้), 237ใใใค (ใถๆ), 253ใใ (ๅทป), 235ใใค (ๆ), 252ใ (ๅ), 237ใใ (ๅท), 245ใใ (ๆ), 255ใใ (ๆญณ), 255ใใค (ๅ), 234ใใ ใ (้ฑ), 251ใใ ใใใ (้ฑ้), 251
ใ (ๆ), 248ใใใ (ๆ้), 248ใใใ (็ณ), 240ใใ (ๅ), 230ใ ใ (ๅฐ), 236ใ ใ (็ฌฌ), 233ใค, 224, 238ใคใ (ๆ), 253ใจใ (้ ญ), 242ใฉ (ๅบฆ), 243ใซใก (ๆฅ), 249ใซใโใ (ไบบ), 242ใญใ (ๅนด), 254ใญใใใ (ๅนด้), 255ใญใใใ (ๅนด็), 254ใฏใ (ๆฏ), 235ใฏใ (ๆณ), 250ใฐใ (็ช), 244ใฐใใใ (็ชๅท), 245ใฐใใ (็ช็ฎ), 246ใฒใ (ๅน), 240ใฒใใ (็พ), 230ใณใใ (็ง), 247ใตใ (ๅ), 247ใปใ (ๆฌ), 233ใพใ (ๆ), 235ใพใ (ไธ), 230ใ (็พฝ), 241๏ฝใ (๏ฝ็ฎ), 246
Counters for articlesbound volumes, 234cups, 235floor surface, 240floors in a building, 237instances, 237items, 238Japanese currency, 239long cylindrical items, 233maChinery, 236number of, 237ordinal prefix, 233sections, 235sheets, 235
English index 369
volumes, 235Counters for living things
birds and rabbits, 241large animals, 242people, 242small animals and fish, 240
Counters for occurrencedegrees, 243issue number, 245number of times, 243, 244rank, 244
Counting, 221Counting pronunciation rulesใใก (ไธ), 225ใใ (ไธ), 225ใใ ใ (ๅ), 226ใชใ (ไฝ), 227ใฏใก (ๅ ซ), 226ใใ (ๅ ญ), 225
Curt negative, 88
Day after tomorrow, 250Day before yesterday, 250Days of the week, 264Degrees Celsius, 243Demanding face, 296, 299Derisive, 154Description, 65Desire
first person, 111second and third person, 113states, 115
Diacritic, 2, 3Diaphragm, 6Direct object, 52Disambiguate, 53Disambiguator, 53Distal, 75Do whatever you can to โฆ, 191Doing, 78Doing and coming back, 105Doing for someone, 305Dollar ($), 239
Double consonant, 10, 12Double negative, 320
complex, 320regular, 320
Drum beat, 6, 10, 11Due to โฆ, 181
East, 218Easy to โฆ, 96Edo period, 16Edojidai, 16Emoji, 18Emphasis, 38Emphatic, 94Emphatic particles, 173
dubitative, 177, 178emphatic, 173, 175, 176hopefulness, 178informative, 173, 175, 179open noun list, 178reiterating, 177resignation, 178rhetoric, 174stative, 176strong rhetoric, 175
Enrichment particlesas soon as โฆ, 200calling a ention, 207contrastive, 204either, 200emphasis, 200emphatic, 203emphatic negative, 201even, 199even though, 201extent, 203extreme emphatic, 207formalใง, 204generalisation, 205, 206impossibility, 203, 208merely, 199not even, 200nothing but, 202
370 English index
only option, 209or, 200reasoning, 202, 207representative, 204simultaneous action, 205
Essential particlesactor, 155contrast, 155destination, 163direct verb object, 173direction, 164disambiguation, 167event location, 162exhaustive noun list, 155genitive, 165grouping, 156instrumental, 162logical consequence, 160point or interval in time or space, 163purpose, 163questioning particle, 151quoting, 158relation, 163similarity, 170subject, 155unifier, 155weak emphasis, 155
Euro (โฌ), 239Evening, 263Eventually, 215Every time โฆ, 287Except, 189Exclamation mark, 173Exhaustive list, 67Existential verb, 77Extent, 183Extremes, 192
Fact, 160Factor, 223For no reason, 208Forming numbers, 222From โฆ to โฆ, 183
Furigana, 21Further particles
appropriating, 197because, 198cause, 181classical origin, 184comparative, 184contrastive, 187despite, 193emphatic, 197equal distribution, 197estimated extent, 195except, 189experience, 198extent, 188just, 191loose time frame, 195merely, 196only, 190, 191, 196possibility, 198reasoning, 179reasoning extent, 183, 184reasoning origin, 182representative, 193save, 189simultaneous action, 187social custom, 198spacial extent, 183, 184spacial origin, 182strong emphatic, 192temporal extent (exclusive), 184temporal extent (inclusive), 183temporal origin, 182uncertainty, 194
Gender roles, 40General counter, 238General likeness, 277Genitive, 65Geometric degrees, 243Giongo, 34Gitaigo, 34Giving, 305
English index 371
ใใใ (ไธใใ), 306ใใ ใใ (ไธใใ), 308ใใใ (ๅใใ), 308, 309ใใใใใ (ๅทฎใไธใใ), 306ใใ, 306, 307
Giving permission, 133Glide, 10, 11Glo al stop, 12Gokan, 45Gradual process, 104Graduate student, 255
Habitual, 103Hard to โฆ, 96Having done for, 310Having the appearance of, 273Hearsay, 114, 273, 316Helper adjective of negation, 54Helping oneself to โฆ, 311Here, 74Homophonic, 17Honorific, 33Hope, 178How, 74However, 187Hybrid writing style, 15Hypothetical future past, 110
I guess, 178I wonder, 178Identical, 277Ideograph, 15If possible, 191If โฆโ then โฆ, 110, 160Illegal syllables, 12Imperial terms, 148Impossibility, 203Impression, 271In three days, 250In-group, 297, 298Indeterminate location, 163Indirect object, 52Indirect speech, 315
Inflection, 45aspect, 45base forms, 46mood, 45tense, 45
Inflection bases, 47a ributive, 47conjunctive, 47continuative, 47finalising, 47imperative, 47imperfect, 47perfect, 47ใใใใใ (ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข), 47ใใฆใใใ (ไปฎๅฎๅฝข), 47ใใ ใใใใ (็ตๆญขๅฝข), 47ใฟใใใใ (ๆช็ถๅฝข), 47ใใใใใใ (ๅฝไปคๅฝข), 47ใใใใใใ (้ฃไฝๅฝข), 47ใใใใใใ (้ฃ็จๅฝข), 47
Inflectionsa ributive, 83causative, 131causative passive, 133classical past tense, 58, 59cohortative, 116commands, 123conditional, 109conjunctive, 92continuative, 97desire, 111dubitative, 116future tense, 53hypothetical, 121imperative commands, 123imperative request, 128long potential, 134modern past tense, 58, 59negative, 54, 69, 88negative pseudo-future, 119nominalised potential, 137noun inflection, 65passive, 129
372 English index
passive form of bother, 131past negative, 61, 70past tense, 58, 69politeness, 81potential, 134present tense, 53, 68presumptive, 118prohibitive commands, 126prohibitive request, 128pseudo-future, 116representative listing, 108requesting, 128short potential, 135ใฆ form, 97
Intangible, 198Interpunction, 13
comma, 14do ing, 14double quote, 14drawn sound, 14ellipsis, 14exclamation, 14full stop, 14hiragana repeater, 14idem dito, 14kanji repeater, 14katakana repeater, 14lining, 14parentheses, 14question mark, 14sentence finaliser, 14separator, 14single quote, 14
Interrogatives, 72ใ, 154ใงใ, 192ใ, 171ใใ, 194
Intransitive, 28Iroha poem, 24Irregular verbs, 55
Japanese eras
Heisei (ๅนณๆ), 263Meiji (ๆๆฒป), 263Shouwa (ๆญๅ), 263Taishou (ๅคงๆญฃ), 263
Japanese months, 252Japanese reading, 147Jouyou, 18
Kaiimoji, 19Kana
hiragana, 1, 8katakana, 1, 8, 12
Kanji, 15Kanji classes
derivatives, 19phonetic loans, 19
Kanji readingsChinese derived readings, 17goโon, 16han readings, 16kanโon, 16native Japanese derived readings, 17sลโon, 16tลโon, 16wu readings, 16ใใใใ (ๆผข้ณ), 16ใใใ (ๅ้ณ), 16ใใใใ (ๅฎ้ณ), 16ใจใใใ (ๅ้ณ), 16
Kanji typesform/reading combination, 19ideographs, 18pictographs, 18
Kansaiben, 61ใใใธใ, 61ใธใ, 61
Kashamoji, 19Keiseimoji, 19Kunโyomi, 17
Last month, 252Last week, 251Last year, 254
English index 373
Later, 215Let someone do, 133Likeness, 271, 277Listing arguments, 176Literary style, 47Loan words, 13Logical and, 160Logical or, 152Long vowel, 10
Mandarin, 39Manner, 273, 275May or may not, 279Meiji restoration, 241Mezzanine, 237Midday, 248Midnight, 248Mimeses, 157Ming Dynasty, 16Minimal sentence, 36Ministry of education, 18Modern continuative, 98Modern Japanese, 47Month after next, 252Month before last, 252Mora, 6Morning, 263
Name suffixes, 303standard name suffix, 303ใใ (ๅ), 304ใใพ (ๆง), 303ใใ, 303ใ (ๆฐ), 303ใใใใ (ๅ ็), 304ใกใใ, 304ใฉใฎ (ๆฎฟ), 303ใใณใใฆ (ๅผใณๆจใฆ), 304
Natural or, 152Negation, 33Negative presence, 79Negative questions, 316New information, 173
Next month, 252Next week, 251Next year, 254Night, 263No sooner than [X]โ [Y], 205Nominalisers
real conceptualisation, 284ใใจ (ไบ), 283ใใ ใ (ๆฌก็ฌฌ), 286ใใณ (ๅบฆ), 287ใใ (็บ), 294ใคใใ (็ฉใใ), 290ใจใใ (ใจ่จใ), 295ใจใใใใ (ใจ่จใ่จณ), 292ใจใ (ๆ), 287ใจใใ (ๆ), 290ใฎ, 283ใฏใ (็ญ), 288ใฐใใ (ๅ ดๅ), 285ในใ, 288ใพใญ (็ไผผ), 294ใพใพ, 293ใใฎ (็ฉ), 284ใใ (ๆง), 292ใใ (่จณ), 291
Nominalising, 282abstract conceptualisation, 283back referral, 283describing a way, 292describing an occurrence, 287illustrating a case, 285illustrating a circumstance, 285illustrating an occasion, 285indicating a moment in time, 290indicating a moment of opportunity,
286indicating a specific event, 287indicating a specific time, 287indicating an exact manner, 293indicating apparent behaviour, 294stating a custom, 288stating a situational explanation, 291stating a social expectation, 288
374 English index
stating an expectation, 288stating an intention, 290stating purpose, 294talking about a โsomethingโ, 295
North, 218Not just โฆ but also โฆ, 177Not just โฆ., 191Noun adjectives, 84Noun forms, 86, 87
adjectives as nouns, 86impression, 87qualified noun, 87quantified noun, 86way of doing, 87ใใ (ๆน), 87ใโใโใ (ๆฐ), 87ใ, 86ใฟ, 86
Noun list, 94Noun particlesใจ, 67ใฎ, 65ใ, 67
Numbersnative numbers, 223ใใ (ๅ), 223ใใ (ๅ), 223ใฒใใ (็พ), 222ใพใ (ไธ), 223ใผใญ, 223
Numerical counters100, 2301000, 23010000, 230100000000, 231assorted, 231
Obsolete kana, 2, 50Offering an opinion, 318Okurigana, 45, 94Only, 190Onomatopoeia, 157Onโyomi, 17
Open choice, 270location, 271
Order, 223Order of magnitude, 223Ordinal numbers, 246Ordinality, 246Origin, 65, 182Out-group, 297, 298Over there, 74
P.m., 262Particles, 52, 65, 147, 150ใ, 151ใใใ, 178ใใช, 178ใใ, 198ใใ, 182ใ, 155ใใฆใ, 186ใใช, 178ใใ, 196ใใ, 196ใใใ, 195ใใใ, 195ใใใฉใ, 187ใใ, 197ใใ, 195ใใ, 195ใ, 175ใใ, 199ใ, 176ใใ, 189ใใ, 200ใใค, 197ใ, 176ใ, 176ใใฃใฆ, 206ใ ใ, 190ใ ใใซ, 207ใ ใฃใฆ, 205ใ ใฎ, 204ใฃใใ, 196ใฃใ, 177
English index 375
ใฃใใฃใฆ, 206ใฃใใ, 207ใฃใฆ, 177ใฃใฆใฐ, 207ใคใค, 187ใง, 162ใงใ, 192ใจ, 155ใจใ, 193ใจใ, 200ใฉใใ + Negative, 203ใฉใใใ, 203ใช, 175ใชใใ, 185ใชใฉ, 194ใชใ, 200ใชใใ, 194ใชใใฆ, 208ใชใใจ, 207ใซ, 163ใซใฆ, 204ใซใฏ, 204ใญ, 174ใฎ, 165ใฎใ , 179ใฎใง, 181ใฎใงใ, 179ใฎใซ, 193ใฏ, 167ใฐใใ, 192ใฐใใ, 191ใฐใฃใ, 192ใฐใฃใใ, 192ใฐใฃใใ, 192ใธ, 164ใปใ + Negative, 209ใปใฉ (็จ), 188ใพใง, 183ใพใงใซ, 184ใพใงใ, 208ใ, 170ใใฎ, 198ใใฎใ, 201
ใใฎใง, 202ใใฎใฎ, 201ใ, 178ใใใชใ (ใๅฆใ), 205ใใ, 194ใ, 173ใใ, 184ใ, 179ใ, 173ใใ , 179ใใงใ, 179
Passive voice, 129, 130Permissive, 133Personal pronouns, 300
first person, 300group suffixes, 302he, 301I, 300second person, 301she, 301third person, 301you, 301ใใใ (็ง), 300ใใชใ (่ฒดๆน), 301ใใใ, 301ใใฌใ (ใไธป), 301ใใฎใ (ๅทฑ), 301ใใพใ (ใๅ), 301ใใ (ไฟบ), 301ใใฎใใ (ๅฝผๅฅณ), 302ใใ (ๅฝผ), 301ใใใพ (่ฒดๆง), 301ใใฟ (ๅ), 301ใใฃใใ (ๆ่ ), 301ใผใ (ๅ), 300ใใค (ๅฅด), 302ใ (ๆ), 302ใใ (็ง), 300ใใใใ (็ง), 300ใใใ (็ง), 300ใใ (ๆ), 302
Phonetic building blocks, 1Phonetic guide, 21
376 English index
Phonetic kanji, 8Phonetic script, 17Phonetic writing, 17Pitch, 39Point in space, 163Point in time, 163Possession, 65Possessive, 79Possibilities, 279Possibility of, 280Pound (ยฃ), 239Preference, 269Prefixes
classical honorific, 147honorific, 147negative, 148ใ (ไปฅ), 150ใโใใใ (ๅฐ), 150ใใ (ๅ), 150ใใ (ๆ), 150ใใ (ๆฐ), 149ใใ (ๅ จ), 149ใใ (ๅฏพ), 150ใ ใโใใ (ๅคง), 150ใกใใ (่ถ ), 150ใฏใ (ๅ), 150ใฒ (้), 149ใต (ไธ), 148ใพใ (ๆฏ), 149ใพใฃ (็ใฃ), 150ใฟ (ๆช), 148ใ (็ก), 149
Prepositional locationeastern side, 219exterior, 219facing side, 219front, 219interior, 219left side, 219northern side, 219opposing side, 219other side, 219reverse, 219
right side, 219southern side, 219top, 219underside, 219western side, 219
Prepositional nounsใใใ (้), 216ใใจ (ๅพ), 215ใใ (ไธ), 211ใใใ (ๅพใ), 214ใใ (่ฃ), 215ใใใฆ (่กจ), 213ใใ (ๅด), 218ใ (ๅพ), 215ใใ (ไธ), 212ใใ ใ (ไธญ), 213ใใจ (ๅค), 216ใกใใ (่ฟใ), 216ใกใ ใ (ไธญ), 213ใจใชใ (้ฃ), 217ใชใ (ไธญ), 214ใฎใก (ๅพ), 215ใฎใกใปใฉ (ๅพ็จ), 215ใฒใ ใ (ๅทฆ), 212ใธใ (่พบ), 217ใพใ (ๅ), 212ใฟใ (ๅณ), 212ใใใ (ๅใใ), 217ใใ (ๆจช), 217
Prepositional phrase, 52Prepositions, 209, 210
above, 211across, 217after, 215afterwards, 215amid, 214among, 214amongst, 214around, 217as, 210at, 210back, 215before, 212
English index 377
behind, 214below, 212beneath, 212besides, 217between, 216beyond, 217by, 210close to, 217conceptual nouns, 210cross-โฆ, 213despite, 210during, 210, 213except, 210facing, 213, 217for, 210from, 210front, 213in, 214in front of, 212inside, 214left, 212near, 216nearby, 217next to, 217of, 210off, 210on, 211opposite, 215, 217out, 216outside, 216over, 211prior, 212right, 212save, 210since, 210through, 210throughout, 213to, 210translation of, 209under, 212underneath, 212up, 211upon, 211
with, 210within, 214without, 210
Presumptive, 319Probably, 280Progressive, 103Prone, 278Pronouns, 72
it, 30kosoado, 31
Pronunciation, 6, 15
Pseudo-future +ใจ + verb, 119Punctuation, 13, 14Purpose, 164
Quantification, 256Quantifiers, 256
a li le, 259a li le bit, 259a lot, 260all, 261always, 256considerably, 258even more, 260every, 261everything, 261mostly, 257never, 256not at all, 258, 259not much, 257not often, 257often, 257rather, 258sometimes, 258to the brim, 260usually, 257very, 257very much, 260wholly, 261ใใพใ (ไฝใ), 257ใใใพใ, 257ใใฃใฑใ (ไธๆฏ), 260
378 English index
ใใคใ, 256ใใชใ (ๅฏใชใ), 258ใใฃใฑใ, 259ใใใ (ๅฐใ), 259ใในใฆ (ๅ จใฆ), 261ใใฃใจ, 260ใใใใ (ๅ จ็ถ), 258ใใใถ (ๅ จ้จ), 261ใใใฆใ (ๅคงๆต), 257ใกใใฃใจ, 259ใจใใฉใ (ๆใ ), 85, 258ใจใฆใ, 257ใใฃใจ, 260ใใ, 257
Quantifying, 256Questioning suggestion, 319Quotation, 206
Radical, 22Radicals
traditional, 23Ranges and estimations, 228Receiving, 305, 310ใใใ ใ (ๆดใ), 310ใใใ ใ (้ ใ), 310ใใใ (่ฒฐใ), 310
Recommending, 318Repetition, 33Representative list, 67, 193Representative listing, 204Request, 105Resemblance, 279Resignation, 179Resultant state, 103Rhetorical agreement, 174Root concept, 65
Save, 189Seal style, 26Second hand information, 272Seeming to, 115Semantic blocks, 38Sentence structure, 35
Serial action, 94Shijimoji, 18Shinto terminology, 147Shoukeimoji, 18Showing face, 296Shuลwรฉn Jiฤzรฌ (่ชชๆ่งฃๅญ), 23Simultaneous action, 38, 160, 185, 186
dominant/subordinate, 186equal duration, 185
Since, 207Social language, 296Sound words, 34South, 218SOV language, 35Special compound verbsใใ (ๅใ), 95ใใ (่พผใ), 95ใ ใ (ๅบใ), 96ใชใใ (็ดใ), 95
Special conjunctionsใฆใใ, 102ใฆใใ, 104ใฆใใ, 102ใฆใใ, 107ใฆใใ ใใ, 105ใฆใใ, 104ใฆใใพใ, 106ใฆใฟใ, 107ใฆใ, 104ใจใ, 107
Specialใฆ form conjunctions, 102Speech pa erns, 40
effeminate, 41female, 40honorific, 41, 137, 298humble, 137, 138, 141, 298male, 40masculine, 41plain, 40polite, 297reserved, 40
Square style, 26
English index 379
Standard Japanese, 124State words, 34Stating fact, 181Strokes, 19
angled strokes, 20enclosures, 21multi-angled strokes, 20straight strokes, 19
Strong impression, 273, 275, 276Style, 275Subject, 41Suggesting, 319Surely, 281SVO language, 35Syllabary, 1Syllabic script, 8, 16Syllables, 1Syntax, 1
Taika reform, 15Taking a liberty, 310Tang dynasty, 16Tangible, 198Teacher, 304Telling dates, 261Telling time, 261Tenchuumoji, 19That, 73
(noun), 72direction, 74honourable person, 74kind of, 73manner, 74person, 74, 75way, 74
Thatโฆin that manner, 273style, 275way, 275
The day in question, 251The minute [X]โ [Y], 205Them, 302There, 74
This, 73(noun), 72direction, 74honourable person, 74kind of, 73manner, 74person, 74, 75way, 74
This month, 252This week, 251This year, 254Thisโฆ
in this manner, 273style, 275way, 275
Three days ago, 250Three years ago, 254Time counters
calendar months, 252clock hours, 248days, 249durational hours, 248minutes, 247months of duration, 253scholar year, 254seconds, 247weeks, 251weeks of duration, 251years, 254years of age, 255years of duration, 255
Time frame, 163To be, 77Today, 250Tokugawa period, 16Tokugawajidai, 16Tomorrow, 250Tone difference, 40Top floor, 237Topic, 41Touyou, 18Trait, 277Transitive, 28
380 English index
True adverbs, 84Trying something, 107
Uncertainty, 194, 282Undergraduate, 255Underlining, 14Up to and including, 184Up to โฆ, 184Up until โฆ, 184Using numbers, 261
Vaguely representative, 194Verb actor, 52, 130Verb details, 52, 130, 164Verb particlesใ, 52, 132, 134, 309ใจ, 76, 78ใซ, 52, 76, 78, 85, 130, 132, 307, 309,
311ใฏ, 53ใ, 52, 78, 134
Verb typesclass i, 48class ii, 48godan, 29, 47ichidan, 29, 47ru verbs, 48type i, 48type ii, 48u verb, 48
Verbal adjectives, 48, 84, 90Vicinity, 217Vocal cords, 2Voicing, 2
We, 302Weak impression, 272Week after next, 251Week before last, 251West, 218What, 73Whatโs moreโ โฆ, 177Where, 74Whether or not, 282
Whether โฆโ or โฆ, 205Which, 73
(noun), 72direction, 74honourable person, 74kind of, 73manner, 74person, 74, 75way, 74
Whichโฆin which manner, 273style, 275way, 275
Who, 75Wishful thinking, 178Word boundary, 17Word classes
adjectives, 32adverbs, 32articles, 28compound words, 35counters, 33mimesis, 34nominalisers, 31noun, 29onomatopoeia, 34particles, 33prefixes, 33pronouns, 30quantifiers, 33suffixes, 33verbs, 28
Word order, 36, 38Writing
direction, 14half-height, 15half-width, 15
Writing dictionarygotaijiten, 27santaijiten, 27
Wri en stylesgothic, 23gyousho, 25
English index 381
kaisho, 23minchou, 23reisho, 26sousho, 25tensho, 26
Year after next, 254Year before last, 254Yen (ยฅ), 239Yes/no question, 180Yesterday, 250
Zen Buddhism, 16
โใฆไธใใ
ใใ, 128โฆfold, 267โฆside, 218
โฆใใฐ, 121, 318โฆใใฉใใ, 152, 282โฆใใใฉใ, 319โฆใฎใใใซ (โฆใฎ็บใซ), 164โฆใฎใงใใ, 180โฆใฎใชใใง (โฆใฎไธญใง), 270
Japanese index
ใใ, 74ใใใค, 75ใใ (ๆ), 263ใใใฃใฆ (ๆๅพๆฅ), 250ใใใโใใ (ๆๆฅ), 250ใใใ, 74ใใใใ (้ฟๅง็ฅ), 233ใใใ, 74ใใกใ, 74ใใฃใก, 74ใใชใ, 75ใใฎ, 72ใใฎใใใซ (ใใฎๆงใซ), 273ใใพใ, 257ใใพใ (ไฝใ), 257ใใใใจใ (ๆ้ฃใ), 145ใใใพใ, 70ใใใพใใ, 70ใใ, 55, 57, 60, 77, 79, 91ใใ, 73ใใใช, 73ใใใชใตใใซ (ใใใช้ขจใซ), 275ใใใพใ, 257
ใ(ใฃ)โใใค (ไบ), 223ใใ, 57, 90ใใ (ๅนพ), 226ใใ (่กใ), 59ใใใค (ๅนพใค), 143, 238ใใใพใใ, 168ใใใ, 136ใใใใใ (ๅทฒ็ถๅฝข), 121ใใใ (่ดใ), 138, 139ใใใ ใใพใ, 310ใใใ ใ, 139, 310ใใก (ไธโๅฃฑ), 222ใใกใใค (ไธๆ), 252
ใใกใ ใ (ไธๆฎต), 29, 47ใใกใซใก, 250ใใกใฐใ (ไธ็ช), 65, 245ใใกใฐใใใ (ไธ็ชใใ), 65ใใฃใ, 59ใใฃใฑใ (ไธๆฏ), 236ใใค, 250ใใคใพใงใ, 208ใใงใ (ๅบใงใ), 144ใใใฃใใใ, 142ใใ, 77ใใใฏ, 24ใใใใ (้ข็), 255
ใใใใ (ไผบใ), 139ใใใใพใใ (ๆฟใ), 139ใใใฟ (ๅ่บซ), 129ใใก, 297ใใกใใ (ๅ ๅด), 219ใใฅใ (ๅฏๆ), 252ใใใใ (่ฃๅด), 219ใใใใ (ไธๅด), 219ใใ, 174
ใใฉใใ ใ (ๆฑๆธๆไปฃ), 16ใใใ (็ตตๆๅญ), 18ใใ (ๅพใ), 135
ใโใโใฟโใใโใใ (ๅพก), 138, 147ใใใงใชใใ (ใๅบใงใชใใ), 142ใใใงใซใชใ (ใๅบใงใซใชใ), 142ใใใใใช (้ใไปฎๅ), 45ใใฃใใใ, 142ใใจใจใ (ไธๆจๆฅ), 250ใใจใจใ (ไธๆจๅนด), 254ใใชใ (ๅใ), 277ใใชใใ (ๅใใ), 278
383
384 Japanese index
ใใผใใใ (ๆใๅฌใ), 142ใใพใใ (ใๅใ), 302ใใใใซใชใ (ใๅฌใใซใชใ), 142ใใใซใใใ (ใ็ฎใซๆใใ), 139ใใใฆใใ (่กจๅด), 219ใใใใฟใชใใ (ใไผใฟใชใใ), 142ใใใใฟใซใชใ (ใไผใฟใซใชใ), 142ใใ, 139ใใใใฟ (้ณ่ชญใฟ), 17, 138, 147
ใ, 160, 170, 171, 178, 201ใใใใใ (ไผๆๆๅญ), 19ใใใใ (ๆฅทๆธ), 23ใใใใใ (ไปฎๅๆๅญ), 19ใใใ, 178ใใฆใใใ (ไปฎๅฎๅฝข), 109, 121ใใชใใ (ๅฟ ใ), 281ใใฎใใใ (ๅฏ่ฝๆง), 280ใใ, 280ใใใใใชใ (ใใ็ฅใใชใ), 279ใใใใใพใใ (ใใ็ฅใใพใใ), 198,
280ใใใใใ (ใใ็ฅใใ), 280ใใใใณ (็ซๆๆฅ), 264ใใ, 181, 183, 184, 311ใ +ใใ, 182ใฆ-form +ใใ, 182
ใใใ (ๅฝผ็ญ), 302ใใใจใ (้ขๆฑ), 124ใใใชใฅใ (็ฅ็กๆ), 253
ใ, 156, 167, 178ใใใถใใ (ๅญฆ้จ็), 255ใใใ (้ฃใ), 96ใใก (ๅใก), 278ใใฆใใซ, 186
ใใใพใ (่ฒดๆง็ญ), 302ใใใใ (ๅฆๆ), 252ใใ (ๅ), 218ใใใใ (ๅๅด), 219ใใฃใจ, 281ใใฎใ (ๆจๆฅ), 250ใใ ใ (ไน), 222
ใใใ (ไปๆฅ), 250, 263ใใใญใ (ๅปๅนด), 254ใใ (ๅใ), 196ใใใใใณ (้ๆๆฅ), 264
ใใใใ (ๆฌ้ณ่ช), 34, 157ใใใใ (ๆฌๆ ่ช), 34, 157ใใใใใ (่กๆธ), 25
ใใใค (ไนๆ), 252ใใ ใใ, 125ใใ (ๆฅใ), 55, 56, 92ใใใใฟ (่จ่ชญใฟ), 17, 147
ใ(ใ)ใฉ(ใ), 201ใใ (ไบฌ), 223ใใใใใใ (ๅฝขๅฃฐๆๅญ), 19ใใ (ไปๆ), 263ใใฉ, 187ใใฉใ, 187ใใใฉ, 187ใใใฉใ, 187ใใใใใ (่ฌ่ญฒ), 137ใใใใใ (่ฌ้่ช), 298
ใใคใใใณ (ๆๆๆฅ), 264
ใโใใใฎ (ไน), 224ใใ, 124ใใใค, 75ใใ, 74ใใใ (ๅฃ่ช), 47, 325ใใ, 74ใใใใฉ, 31, 72ใใกใ, 74ใใฃใก, 74ใใจ (ไบ), 166ใใจใใงใใ (ไบใๅบๆฅใ), 137ใใจใ (ไปๅนด), 254ใใชใ, 75ใใฎ, 72ใใฎใใใซ (ใใฎๆงใซ), 273ใใ, 124ใใ, 73
Japanese index 385
ใใใใค (ไปๆ), 252ใใใใ ใ (ไป้ฑ), 251ใใใช, 73ใใใชใตใใซ (ใใใช้ขจใซ), 275ใใใฐใ (ไปๆฉ), 263ใใใ (ไปๅค), 263
ใ (ไบ), 222ใใใใใ (ๆๆฒณๆฒ), 233ใใใ (่ชๅนน), 45, 325ใใใค (ไบๆ), 252ใใ (ๅๅพ), 248, 262ใใใใพใ, 125ใใใ, 125, 144ใใใ ใใใ (ไบๅ้ณ), 1ใใใ (ๅๅ), 248, 262ใใใใใงใใใฃใใใ (ใๅญ็ฅใงใใใฃ
ใใใ), 142ใใใใใ (ใๅญ็ฅใ), 142ใใใใใฆใ (ไบไฝ่พๅ ธ), 27ใใ ใ (ไบๆฎต), 29, 47ใใใใชใใ (ใ่ฆงใชใใ), 142ใใใใซใใใ (ใ่ฆงใซๅ ฅใใ), 139ใใใใซใชใ (ใ่ฆงใซใชใ), 142
ใใ (ๆ), 143ใใ (ๆญณ), 143ใใใใใใใ (ๆไธ้), 237ใใใใจใจใ (ไธๆจๆจๆฅ), 250ใใใใจใจใ (ไธๆจๆจๅนด), 254ใใใใใ (ๅทฎใไธใใ), 139ใใใใใ, 133ใใใ, 131ใใฃใฑใ, 259ใใคใ (็ๆ), 252ใใใใใค (ๅๆฅๆ), 252ใใใใใ ใ (ๅๆฅ้ฑ), 251ใใใใญใ (ๅๆฅๅนด), 254ใใ (ไธโๅ), 222ใใใใค (ไธๆ), 252ใใใใใใฆใ (ไธไฝ่พๅ ธ), 27
ใใใญใ (ๆฎๅฟต), 186ใใใญใใชใใ (ๆฎๅฟตใชใใ), 186
ใโใใ (ๅ), 222ใใใใฃใฆ (ๆใ ๅพๆฅ), 250ใใใค (ๅๆ), 252ใใใใ (ๆไบๆๅญ), 18ใใใใ (ไธๅด), 219ใใกโใชใช (ไธ), 222ใใกใใค (ไธๆ), 252ใใใคใ (้ๆ), 253ใใใใใใใ (่ฑกๅฝขๆๅญ), 18ใใใใ (ๆญฃๅ), 248ใใใใ (ๆญๅ), 263ใใ, 124ใใใ (ๅธซ่ตฐ), 253
ใใฉใใ (่ชๅ่ฉ), 29, 78ใใพใ, 106ใใ, 69ใใใใใพใใ, 70, 71ใใใใใพใใใงใใ, 71ใใใ, 106ใใใชใ, 69ใใใชใใฃใ, 70ใใ ใ (ๅโๆพ), 222ใใ ใโใกใใโใ (้), 267ใใ ใใใกใใค (ๅไธๆ), 252ใใ ใใใค (ๅๆ), 252ใใ ใใซใใค (ๅไบๆ), 252ใใใ (ไน), 268ใใใใใ (ไนๆ น), 268ใใใใใ (ๅธธ็จ), 18ใใใ (ๅฉ่ฉ), 147ใใ, 56
ใใใใใณ (ๆฐดๆๆฅ), 264ใใ, 55, 78, 92, 125, 134, 308ใใใปใฉ, 188
ใ, 88, 102ใใ, 56
ใใ, 124ใใใใ, 133ใใ, 131ใใใใค (ๅ ๆ), 252
386 Japanese index
ใใใใ ใ (ๅ ้ฑ), 251ใใใใใใค (ๅ ๅ ๆ), 252ใใใใใใ ใ (ๅ ๅ ้ฑ), 251ใใใฑใ (ๅ ่ผฉ), 298
ใใใค, 75ใใ, 74, 114, 272, 316ใใใใ (่ๆธ), 25ใใใญใ, 174ใใ, 74ใใกใ, 74ใใฃใก, 74ใใจ, 297ใใจใใ (ๅคๅด), 219ใใชใ, 75ใใฎ, 72ใใฎใใใซ (ใใฎๆงใซ), 273ใใ, 73ใใใใ (ๅฐๆฌ), 137ใใใใใ (ๅฐๆฌ่ช), 298ใใใช, 73ใใใชใตใใซ (ใใใช้ขจใซ), 275
ใใใใ (ๅญใใ), 139
ใ, 58ใใ, 111ใใ (ๅบฆใ), 111ใใใใใ (ๅคงๆญฃ), 263ใใใ, 113ใใ (่ถณใ), 265ใใใฟ (็ณ), 240ใใก (้), 302ใใฃใฆ, 205ใใฉใใ (ไปๅ่ฉ), 29, 78ใใณ (ๅบฆ), 243ใใถใ (ๅคๅ), 280ใใ, 58, 59, 108, 109ใใ, 59, 108
ใ , 67, 77, 84, 90, 120, 141, 179, 205ใ ใใฆใ (ๆฟ็น), 2ใ ใ, 190, 202ใ ใใงใชใ, 191
ใ ใ (้ง็ฎ), 168ใ ใ (่ชฐ), 75
ใกใ (ๅฐไธ), 237ใกใใ (่ฟใ), 216ใกใพใ, 106ใกใใ, 106ใกใ ใใซใใ (ไธญไบ้), 237ใกใใ (ๅ ), 223
ใฃใฆ, 205ใฃใฝใ, 277
ใค, 97ใคใใใก (ไธๆฅ), 250ใคใใ (็ฉใใ), 290
ใฆ form, 59, 128change rules, 98negative, 100ใ, 171ใใใ, 171
ใฆ form +ใ, 206ใฆใใญใใ (ไธๅฏง่ช), 81, 297ใฆใ (็), 277ใฆใซใใฏ, 147ใฆใปใใ (ใฆๆฌฒใใ), 115ใฆใใใ (็ฏๆธ), 26ใฆใใกใ ใใใ (่ปขๆณจๆๅญ), 19
ใง, 68, 162, 190, 202ใงใใ, 69, 77, 126, 141ใงใใใฃใใใใพใ, 143ใงใใใฃใใใ, 77, 143ใงใใ (ๅบๆฅใ), 134ใงใใใ ใ (ๅบๆฅใใ ใ), 190ใงใใใใพใ, 141ใงใใใ, 77, 141ใงใใ, 199ใงใ, 67, 77, 81, 90, 120, 141, 162ใงใชใ, 191, 192ใงใฏ, 69ใงใฏใใใพใใ, 70, 71ใงใฏใใใพใใใงใใ, 71
Japanese index 387
ใงใฏใชใ, 70ใงใฏใชใใฃใ, 70ใงใ, 205
ใจ, 170, 177, 178, 193, 204, 207ใจโใจใ (ๅ), 224ใจใใใฐ (ใจ่จใใฐ), 207ใจใใฃใใ (ใจ่จใฃใใ), 207ใจใใฃใฆใ (ใจ่จใฃใฆใ), 177ใจใใใ (ๅฝ็จ), 18ใจใ (ๆ), 287ใจใใใใใ ใ (ๅพณๅทๆไปฃ), 16ใจใใ (ๆ), 203ใจใใฆ(ใ), 177ใจใฆ, 205
ใฉใใค, 75ใฉใ, 74ใฉใใซใงใ, 193ใฉใ, 74ใฉใใพใงใ, 208ใฉใกใ, 74ใฉใกใใ, 270ใฉใฃใก, 74ใฉใฃใกใ, 270ใฉใชใ, 75ใฉใฎ, 72ใฉใฎใใใ, 250ใฉใฎใใใซ (ใฉใฎๆงใซ), 273ใฉใใใณ (ๅๆๆฅ), 264ใฉใ, 73ใฉใใช, 73ใฉใใชใตใใซ (ใฉใใช้ขจใซ), 275
ใช, 68, 84, 126, 178ใชโใชใชโใชใฎ (ไธ), 223ใชใ, 175ใชใ, 175ใชใ, 54, 57, 60, 79, 91, 119ใชใใง, 128ใชใใฃใ, 60ใชใใง (ไธญใง), 214ใชใใใ, 120ใชใใคใ (้ทๆ), 253
ใชใใใฐ, 320ใชใใใฐใใใชใ, 320ใชใใใฐใชใใชใ, 320ใชใใ, 125, 175ใชใใใ, 272ใชใใ, 125, 141, 142ใชใฉ, 194ใชใซ (ไฝ), 73, 207ใชใซใ (ไฝใ), 271ใชใใ (้ฃ็ฑไป), 233ใชใ, 109, 111, 122ใชใใ, 202ใชใใฐ, 122ใชใ, 205ใชใ, 76ใชใในใ, 191ใชใ (ไฝ), 226ใชใใใค (ไฝๆ), 252ใชใใใ (ไฝๆ), 238ใชใใใ (ไฝๆญณ), 143, 238ใชใใงใ (ไฝใงใ), 271ใชใใจใใ (ไฝใจ่จใ), 208ใชใใจใชใ, 208ใชใใซใก (ไฝๆฅ), 250ใชใผ, 175
ใซ, 164, 204ใซ (ไบโๅผ), 222ใซใใค (ไบๆ), 252ใซใใ (้ฃใ), 96ใซใ (่ฅฟ), 218ใซใใใ (่ฅฟๅด), 219ใซใใฆใ, 208ใซใกใใใณ (ๆฅๆๆฅ), 264ใซใ (ไผผใ), 279
ใฌ, 88, 119, 122
ใญ, 207ใญใ, 174ใญใ, 174ใญใผ, 174
ใฎ, 179
388 Japanese index
ใฎใใจ (ใฎไบ), 166ใฎใง, 207ใฎใฟ, 202ใฎใฟใชใใ, 202
ใฏ, 156, 204ใฏใใใใใ (ๆ่ฆใใ), 139ใฏใใก (ไบๅๆญณ), 255ใฏใก (ๅ ซ), 222ใฏใกใใค (ๅ ซๆ), 252ใฏใกใใใ (ๅ ซ็ณ), 240ใฏใคใ (ไบๅๆฅ), 250, 255ใฏใฅใ (่ๆ), 253ใฏใญ (็พฝ), 241ใฏใ (ๅ), 262ใฏใใ ใใฆใ (ๅๆฟ็น), 3ใฏใใทใ (ๅๅ), 247
ใฐใใ, 202ใฐใใใงใชใ, 192ใฐใ (ๆฉ), 263
ใฒโใฒใจ (ไธ), 223ใฒใใ (ๆฑ), 218ใฒใใใใ (ๆฑๅด), 219ใฒใ (ๅผใ), 266ใฒใ ใใใ (ๅทฆๅด), 219ใฒใใใใ ใใ (ๆจๆบ่ช), 124ใฒใ (ๆผ), 263
ใตโใตใโใตใค (ไบ), 223ใตใ (้ขจ), 275ใตใใใ (ไธๅฏๆ่ญฐ), 233ใตใฟใฅใ (ๆๆ), 253ใตใใใช (ๆฏใไปฎๅ), 21
ใถใใ (้จ้ฆ), 23ใถใ (ๅ), 266ใถใใ (ๆ่ช), 47, 325
ใธใใใ (ๅนณๆ), 263ใธใใปใ (ๅนณๆน), 267
ในใใใ, 289
ใปใใใใ (ๆนใใใ), 318ใปใใชใใชใ, 209ใปใฉ, 203ใปใใใค (ๆฌๆฅ), 250
ใพใ, 119ใพใ (ๆ), 240ใพใ (ๆฏ), 263ใพใใ (ๅใ), 139ใพใ, 70, 81, 89, 121ใพใง, 184
ใฟโใฟใฃ (ไธ), 223ใฟใใใ (ๅณๅด), 219ใฟใใ, 276ใฟใชใฅใ (ๆฐด็กๆ), 252ใฟใชใฟ (ๅ), 218ใฟใชใฟใใ (ๅๅด), 219ใฟใใกใใ (ๆๆ), 23
ใโใใคโใใ (ๅ ญ), 223ใใใใใ (ๅใใๅด), 219ใใคใ (็ฆๆ), 252ใใใใใ ใใใ (็ก้ๅคงๆฐ), 233
ใใใ (ๆๆฒป), 263ใใใใใใ (ๅฝไปคๅฝข), 123
+ใ, 124+ใ, 124
ใใใใใฎใใใฟ (่ฟทๆใฎๅ่บซ), 131ใใ (ๅฌใ), 142ใใใใใ (ๅฌใไธใใ), 142
ใ, 197ใใใ (็ณใ), 139ใใใใใณ (ๆจๆๆฅ), 264ใใฃใจ, 64ใใใ, 310
ใ, 179, 193, 204ใโใใ (ๅ ซ), 224ใใใ (ๆใ), 96ใใชใ, 179ใใใ (ๅผฅ็), 252
Japanese index 389
ใใ (่กใ), 59
ใ, 154, 179ใโใใฃ (ๅ), 223ใใ, 57, 90ใใ (ๆง), 273ใใใซใใ (ๆงใซใใ), 274ใใใซใชใ (ๆงใซใชใ), 274ใใใฃใ, 58, 60ใใ, 57ใใใใ, 272ใใ, 203ใใ (ๅค), 263ใใใใใใฏใ (ๅ็ณๅ), 240
ใ (็ญ), 302ใใใใค (ๆฅๆ), 252ใใใใ ใ (ๆฅ้ฑ), 251ใใใญใ (ๆฅๅนด), 254ใใใ, 275ใใใ, 129, 134
ใใฃใฝใ (็ซๆน), 267
ใใ (้ถ), 223ใใใใ (้ทๆธ), 26ใใใ (้ถๆ), 248ใใ, 129, 134ใใใใใใ (้ฃไฝๅฝข), 53, 83, 84ใใใใใใ (้ฃ็จๅฝข), 92, 97
ใใ (ๅ ญ), 222ใใใใค (ๅ ญๆ), 252ใใใใใ (ๅ ญ็ณ), 240
ใ, 159, 167
ใ, 88
ใดใทใใฏ, 23
ใใซ, 239
ใใซ, 192
ใใณใ, 239
ใฆใผใญ, 239