AN INTRODUCTION TO AN INTRODUCTION TO THEORYTHEORY

WHAT IS THEORY?WHAT IS THEORY?

Theory = ExplanationTheory = Explanation

A theory of crime explains A theory of crime explains how a certain thing or how a certain thing or

certain things are related certain things are related to criminal behavior.to criminal behavior.

Things Related to CrimeThings Related to Crime

• Crime is part of human nature Crime is part of human nature (human beings are born evil)(human beings are born evil)

• Crime is related to biological things Crime is related to biological things (e.g., chromosome abnormalities, (e.g., chromosome abnormalities, hormone imbalances)hormone imbalances)

Things Related to Crime Things Related to Crime (cont.)(cont.)

• Crime is related to psychological Crime is related to psychological things (e.g., below-normal things (e.g., below-normal intelligence, satisfaction of basic intelligence, satisfaction of basic needs)needs)

• Crime is related to sociological Crime is related to sociological things (e.g., social disorganization, things (e.g., social disorganization, inadequate socialization) inadequate socialization)

Things Related to Crime Things Related to Crime (cont.)(cont.)

• Crime is related to economic Crime is related to economic things (e.g., poverty, things (e.g., poverty, unemployment)unemployment)

• Crime is related to some Crime is related to some combination of all four kinds of combination of all four kinds of things.things.

Components of Scientific Components of Scientific TheoriesTheories

• ConceptsConcepts• Definitions of ConceptsDefinitions of Concepts• PropositionsPropositions• Philosophical AssumptionsPhilosophical Assumptions

ConceptsConcepts

• Are words or phrases that Are words or phrases that represent some phenomenon in represent some phenomenon in the world.the world.

• Examples: crime, juvenile Examples: crime, juvenile delinquency, criminal justice, delinquency, criminal justice, police, corrections, the police, corrections, the administration of justiceadministration of justice

Concepts (cont.)Concepts (cont.)

• The object of theory is to explain The object of theory is to explain the interrelationship of concepts, the interrelationship of concepts, that is, how concepts are related that is, how concepts are related to each other.to each other.

• Example: Is Example: Is povertypoverty related to related to crimecrime? Is ? Is crimecrime related to related to povertypoverty??

Definitions of ConceptsDefinitions of Concepts

• Nominal definitions = dictionary Nominal definitions = dictionary definitionsdefinitions

• Assigned to concepts to: Assigned to concepts to: • clarify what the concepts mean to a clarify what the concepts mean to a

researcherresearcher• make possible general discussions make possible general discussions

about them.about them.

Example of Nominal Example of Nominal DefinitionDefinition

Crime = violation of the Crime = violation of the criminal lawcriminal law

Operational DefinitionsOperational Definitions

• Describe how concepts are or will Describe how concepts are or will be measured for research be measured for research purposes.purposes.

• Examples:Examples:• Crime = “offenses known to the Crime = “offenses known to the

police” (FBI’s UCRs)police” (FBI’s UCRs)• Crime = victimization data (U.S. Crime = victimization data (U.S.

Justice Dept.’s NCVS)Justice Dept.’s NCVS)

Debates about what Debates about what should or should not be should or should not be considered a violation of considered a violation of

the criminal law and, the criminal law and, hence, crime, continue.hence, crime, continue.

PropositionsPropositions

• Are interrelated conceptsAre interrelated concepts• Example: As Example: As povertypoverty increases, increases,

crimecrime increases (= positive linear increases (= positive linear relationship)relationship)

Types of RelationshipsTypes of Relationships(Propositions)(Propositions)

• Positive linear relationshipsPositive linear relationships• Negative linear relationshipsNegative linear relationships• No relationshipNo relationship• Curvilinear relationshipsCurvilinear relationships

Philosophical AssumptionsPhilosophical Assumptions

• Are assumptions or ideas that cannot be Are assumptions or ideas that cannot be tested scientifically or empiricallytested scientifically or empirically

• A A scientificscientific or or empirical testempirical test is one that is one that uses the human senses (seeing, uses the human senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching) hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching) to discover some aspect of the world.to discover some aspect of the world.

Philosophical Assumptions Philosophical Assumptions (cont.)(cont.)

• Are like religion in a way--they are Are like religion in a way--they are either believed or they are not, but either believed or they are not, but they cannot be proven they cannot be proven scientifically or empiricallyscientifically or empirically

• Example: Existence of God or a Example: Existence of God or a Supreme Being is either believed Supreme Being is either believed or it is notor it is not

Philosophical Assumptions Philosophical Assumptions (cont.)(cont.)

• Are often ignoredAre often ignored• Are sometimes considered the Are sometimes considered the

“hidden agenda” of theories“hidden agenda” of theories

3 Types of Philosophical 3 Types of Philosophical Assumptions Important To Assumptions Important To

All TheoriesAll Theories

Ethical assumptionsEthical assumptions

Epistemological assumptionsEpistemological assumptions

Metaphysical assumptionsMetaphysical assumptions

Ethical AssumptionsEthical Assumptions

• Also called Also called normative implicationsnormative implications• Are ideas about what is “good” Are ideas about what is “good”

and “bad,” “right” and “wrong,” and “bad,” “right” and “wrong,” and what we ought to doand what we ought to do

Ethical Assumptions Ethical Assumptions (cont.)(cont.)

• Thus, implicit in each theory about Thus, implicit in each theory about crime are certain value judgments crime are certain value judgments and policy implications that follow and policy implications that follow logically from the theory.logically from the theory.

Policy Implications of Policy Implications of TheoriesTheories

• Generally can be linked to Generally can be linked to conservative, liberal, or radical conservative, liberal, or radical viewsviews

• In this way, all crime and In this way, all crime and delinquency theories are delinquency theories are “political.”“political.”

Policies Based on Policies Based on Conservative TheoriesConservative Theories

• Aim to preserve old or traditional Aim to preserve old or traditional social institutions, methods, social institutions, methods, customs, and so forthcustoms, and so forth

• Examples of social institutions are Examples of social institutions are the family, organized religion, the family, organized religion, schools, the media, the political schools, the media, the political system, and the economic systemsystem, and the economic system

Policies Based on Policies Based on Conservative Theories Conservative Theories

(cont.)(cont.)• Invariably focus on the individual Invariably focus on the individual

offender, leaving social institutions offender, leaving social institutions untoucheduntouched

• Examples: (1) most bio- or Examples: (1) most bio- or psychotherapeutic interventions, (2) psychotherapeutic interventions, (2) “three strikes and your out laws,” and “three strikes and your out laws,” and (3) the death penalty(3) the death penalty

Policies Based on Liberal Policies Based on Liberal TheoriesTheories

• Generally attack crime using Generally attack crime using existing social institutions, existing social institutions, especially agencies of the stateespecially agencies of the state

• Examples: (1) educational and Examples: (1) educational and vocational programs, (2) vocational programs, (2) community policing, and (3) community policing, and (3) “midnight basketball”“midnight basketball”

Policies Based on Radical Policies Based on Radical TheoriesTheories

• Seek the fundamental Seek the fundamental transformation of social institutions transformation of social institutions or their abolitionor their abolition

• Examples: (1) an economic system Examples: (1) an economic system based predominately on socialist based predominately on socialist rather than capitalist principles, (2) rather than capitalist principles, (2) a redefinition of crime (cont.)a redefinition of crime (cont.)

Policies Based on Radical Policies Based on Radical Theories (cont.)Theories (cont.)

• Examples (cont.): (3) greater Examples (cont.): (3) greater attention to corporate and attention to corporate and government crimes, and (4) government crimes, and (4) community-based strategies for community-based strategies for controlling crime and delinquency controlling crime and delinquency

Epistemological Epistemological AssumptionsAssumptions

• Address the question of how Address the question of how knowledge is obtainedknowledge is obtained

• Most crime theories are based on Most crime theories are based on assumption that the world can be assumption that the world can be understood through science (i.e., understood through science (i.e., human capacity to observe and human capacity to observe and reason)reason)

Other Potential Ways of Other Potential Ways of KnowingKnowing

• AuthorityAuthority• InstinctInstinct• IntrospectionIntrospection• IntuitionIntuition• MysticismMysticism• SpiritualismSpiritualism• ESPESP• PragmatismPragmatism

• Anamnesis (recall Anamnesis (recall from previous from previous lives)lives)

• Supernatural Supernatural revelationrevelation

• Occult sourcesOccult sources• Linguistic analysisLinguistic analysis

Epistemological Epistemological Assumptions (cont.)Assumptions (cont.)

• Another assumption is that if the Another assumption is that if the world and its functioning can be world and its functioning can be understood, then they can be understood, then they can be changed.changed.

Epistemological Epistemological Assumptions (cont.)Assumptions (cont.)

• Some crime theories are based on Some crime theories are based on the assumption that questions the the assumption that questions the existence of an objective reality existence of an objective reality apart from people’s imaginations. apart from people’s imaginations.

Metaphysical AssumptionsMetaphysical Assumptions

• Address the nature of realityAddress the nature of reality• Two important assumptions:Two important assumptions:

• (1) ontology = human nature(1) ontology = human nature• (2) cosmology = nature of society(2) cosmology = nature of society

Two Key Ontological Two Key Ontological AssumptionsAssumptions

• Human behavior is freewilled or Human behavior is freewilled or determined determined

• The inherent condition of human The inherent condition of human beings, or condition of human beings, or condition of human beings in a hypothetical state of beings in a hypothetical state of naturenature

Ontological Assumption:Ontological Assumption:Human Behavior Is Human Behavior Is

FreewilledFreewilled

• If freewilled, then humans are If freewilled, then humans are responsible for their behaviorresponsible for their behavior

• Unless they can provide an Unless they can provide an acceptable defense or excuseacceptable defense or excuse

• Ethical implication = People should Ethical implication = People should be deterred from crimebe deterred from crime

Ontological Assumption:Ontological Assumption:Human Behavior Is Human Behavior Is

Determined Determined

• If behavior is determined, people If behavior is determined, people ought not to be held liable, or fully ought not to be held liable, or fully liable, for their crimes. liable, for their crimes.

• Ethical implication = Factors that Ethical implication = Factors that cause crime should be changedcause crime should be changed

The 2nd Key Ontological The 2nd Key Ontological Assumption: The Inherent Assumption: The Inherent

Condition of Human Beings, Condition of Human Beings, or the Condition of Human or the Condition of Human Beings in a Hypothetical Beings in a Hypothetical

State of NatureState of Nature

3 Conceptions3 Conceptions

• Human beings are inherently bad Human beings are inherently bad or evil.or evil.

• Human beings are inherently good.Human beings are inherently good.• Human beings are born with a Human beings are born with a

“tabula rasa,” neither inherently “tabula rasa,” neither inherently good nor bad.good nor bad.

Human Beings Are Human Beings Are Inherently Bad or EvilInherently Bad or Evil

• Are likely or expected to commit Are likely or expected to commit crimecrime

• Originated with belief in original Originated with belief in original sinsin

• Popularized by HobbesPopularized by Hobbes• View found in Freudian View found in Freudian

psychoanalytic theory and some psychoanalytic theory and some versions of social control theoryversions of social control theory

Human Beings Are Human Beings Are Inherently Bad or Evil Inherently Bad or Evil

(cont.)(cont.)

• Policy implication = Society must Policy implication = Society must devise methods to constrain or devise methods to constrain or control crime.control crime.

Human Beings Are Born Human Beings Are Born with a “Tabula Rasa,” with a “Tabula Rasa,”

Neither Inherently Good Neither Inherently Good Nor BadNor Bad

Humans are products of Humans are products of experiencesexperiences

Attributed to LockeAttributed to Locke

View found in learning View found in learning theoriestheories

Human Beings Are Born Human Beings Are Born with a “Tabula Rasa,” with a “Tabula Rasa,”

Neither Inherently Good Neither Inherently Good Nor Bad (cont.)Nor Bad (cont.)

Policy implication = Structure Policy implication = Structure society to promote society to promote

experiences conducive to law-experiences conducive to law-abiding behavior rather than abiding behavior rather than

criminal behaviorcriminal behavior

Human Beings are Human Beings are Inherently GoodInherently Good

• Society, or something about Society, or something about society, makes human beings bad society, makes human beings bad and prone to commit crimeand prone to commit crime

• Associated with RousseauAssociated with Rousseau• View of most critical theoriesView of most critical theories

Human Beings are Human Beings are Inherently Good (cont.)Inherently Good (cont.)

• Policy implication = Change Policy implication = Change society so that human beings will society so that human beings will not be subjected to corrupting not be subjected to corrupting influencesinfluences

2nd Metaphysical 2nd Metaphysical Assumption: CosmologyAssumption: Cosmology

• Nature of societyNature of society• Two competing views:Two competing views:

• (1) Society is characterized primarily (1) Society is characterized primarily by a by a consensusconsensus about moral values about moral values

• (2) Society is characterized primarily (2) Society is characterized primarily by by conflictconflict about moral values about moral values

Society: Society: ConsensusConsensus About About Moral ValuesMoral Values

• Most people agree most of time Most people agree most of time about what is good & bad, right & about what is good & bad, right & wrongwrong

• Key ethical issue: How to control Key ethical issue: How to control conflictconflict

Society: Society: ConflictConflict About About Moral ValuesMoral Values

• Most people disagree most of time Most people disagree most of time about what is good & bad, right & about what is good & bad, right & wrongwrong

• Key ethical issue: How to better Key ethical issue: How to better build consensus, appreciate build consensus, appreciate diversity, or repress dissent and diversity, or repress dissent and conflictconflict

Note:Note:• Ethical assumptions are derived Ethical assumptions are derived

directly from metaphysical directly from metaphysical assumptionsassumptions

• That is, beliefs about human That is, beliefs about human nature and society inevitably guide nature and society inevitably guide public policy decisionspublic policy decisions

Philosophical Assumptions Philosophical Assumptions Are ImportantAre Important

• Theories are frequently accepted Theories are frequently accepted or rejected because of belief in or rejected because of belief in philosophical assumptionsphilosophical assumptions

• Scientific support or no support for Scientific support or no support for a theory often dismissed (because a theory often dismissed (because no critical tests)no critical tests)

ParadigmsParadigms

• Are organizational schemesAre organizational schemes• Group together philosophical Group together philosophical

assumptionsassumptions• 3 general paradigms in the text:3 general paradigms in the text:

• (1) the classical/neoclassical(1) the classical/neoclassical• (2) the positivist(2) the positivist• (3) the critical(3) the critical

TESTING THEORIESTESTING THEORIES

Testing TheoriesTesting Theories

• Determining whether one theory is Determining whether one theory is better (has more better (has more explanatory explanatory powerpower) than another) than another

Explanatory Power (as Explanatory Power (as applied to theories of applied to theories of

crime)crime)

Ability to explain and predict Ability to explain and predict crime in different places at crime in different places at

different timesdifferent times

Ability to explain many Ability to explain many different types of crimedifferent types of crime

Explanatory Power (as Explanatory Power (as applied to theories of applied to theories of

crime) (cont.)crime) (cont.)

Ability to explain crime at Ability to explain crime at different levels of analysis different levels of analysis (individual criminality and (individual criminality and

crime rates)crime rates)

Also called Also called generalizabilitygeneralizability or or scopescope of a theory of a theory

Judging TheoriesJudging Theories

• The greater the explanatory The greater the explanatory power, generalizability, or scope of power, generalizability, or scope of a theory, the better the theory.a theory, the better the theory.

• To call a theory unscientific is not To call a theory unscientific is not necessarily to condemn it.necessarily to condemn it.

Judging Theories (cont.)Judging Theories (cont.)

• It means that the theory can’t claim It means that the theory can’t claim what “good” scientific theories can what “good” scientific theories can claim: That evidence of senses makes it claim: That evidence of senses makes it irrational to reject it.irrational to reject it.

• Remember evidence from senses can Remember evidence from senses can be wrongbe wrong

• Examples: hallucinations and optical Examples: hallucinations and optical illusionsillusions

Testing Scientific TheoriesTesting Scientific Theories

• VerificationVerification• FalsificationFalsification

VerificationVerification

• Involves the observation and Involves the observation and confirmation of a theoretical confirmation of a theoretical proposition’s predicted relationshipproposition’s predicted relationship

FalsificationFalsification

• Involves disproving a proposition by the Involves disproving a proposition by the observation of negative examplesobservation of negative examples

• Finding negative examples for a Finding negative examples for a proposition does not necessarily proposition does not necessarily condemn it, but it does suggest that the condemn it, but it does suggest that the theory’s explanatory power is limitedtheory’s explanatory power is limited

• Limitation may be due to historical Limitation may be due to historical circumstancescircumstances

Falsification (cont.)Falsification (cont.)

• More critical test (than verification) More critical test (than verification) of a theoryof a theory

• Reason: Theories can never be Reason: Theories can never be proven trueproven true

• Why? Because of the potential for Why? Because of the potential for spurious relationshipsspurious relationships

Evaluating a TheoryEvaluating a Theory

• All that accurately can be said is All that accurately can be said is that one theory is more or less that one theory is more or less compellingcompelling, , believablebelievable, or , or convincingconvincing than another theory. than another theory.

• More compelling theory has More compelling theory has successfully withstood more successfully withstood more attempts to falsify itattempts to falsify it

Evaluating a Theory Evaluating a Theory (cont.)(cont.)

• Not accurate to say that a theory is Not accurate to say that a theory is true or false or right or wrongtrue or false or right or wrong

WHY IS THEORY WHY IS THEORY IMPORTANT, OR WHY IMPORTANT, OR WHY

STUDY CRIME AND STUDY CRIME AND DELINQUENCY THEORY?DELINQUENCY THEORY?

Why Theory Is ImportantWhy Theory Is Important

• Everything people do in life is Everything people do in life is based on theorybased on theory

• Even though many people are not Even though many people are not conscious or aware of the theory conscious or aware of the theory on which actions are basedon which actions are based

• However, what they do, they do for However, what they do, they do for a reasona reason

Why Theory Is Important Why Theory Is Important (cont)(cont)

• Everything done in criminal justice Everything done in criminal justice is based on theoryis based on theory

• Even though practitioners are Even though practitioners are generally unaware of theory on generally unaware of theory on which their actions are basedwhich their actions are based

• Theory is studied to explain and Theory is studied to explain and understand why people do what understand why people do what they dothey do

Why Theory Is Important Why Theory Is Important (cont)(cont)

• People who are uninterested in theory People who are uninterested in theory are people who move blindly through are people who move blindly through lifelife

• In criminal justice, people who are In criminal justice, people who are uninterested in theory intervene in uninterested in theory intervene in other people’s lives with only vague other people’s lives with only vague notions about why they are doing what notions about why they are doing what they dothey do

THUS, IT IS IMPORTANT THUS, IT IS IMPORTANT FOR YOU TO KNOW FOR YOU TO KNOW

THEORY!THEORY!