University of East London, UK

Master of Arts

English Language Teaching

(MA ELT) Dissertation

An investigation of the potential of international project

activities for student motivation:

A Slovenian lower secondary school case study.

Mentor & Supervisor: Author:

Dr. John Gray Magdalena Bobek

ID No:0735560

May 2010

ii

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge with profound gratitude the help provided by my mentor and

advisor, dr. John Gray, professor at the University of East London, UK, who stood by me one

hundred per cent and guided me through my studies. Being a distance-learning student was

often quite lonely, but with his help and expertise I was able to confront most of my queries

without any particular obstacles.

I would also like to thank my distance-learning colleagues from all over the world with whom

I spent endless hours discussing and debating online and exchanging teaching ideas. I think I

have become a better person having had the priviledge of getting to know all of you. It was an

experience I will never forget. Thank you.

My thanks also go to my family, especially my sons and husband who stood by me and

boosted my morale in finishing my studies. Last but not least, I would like to thank the

teacher and student respondents who took the time to participate in the research survey, as

well as our school headteacher who believed in me and gave me some free space to be able to

complete my life's dream of getting my Master's Degree in English Language Teaching.

iii

Abstract

Being a language practitioner I have always considered motivation as one of the most

important prerequisites for successful and effective learning especially with learners at the

lower secondary school level between the ages of 13-15, an age full of distractions and

beguilement, where the only thing that matters is the world that revolves around them. As

teachers we want to give our students the very best, but often find it difficult to motivate them

mainly because of all the different factors that influence the learning process. For many

second/foreign language learners, teachers represent the first real contact with the target

language, which makes our job as educators even more challenging because we are aware that

the students' lack of motivation may influence their perception of the target language as well

as their language performance. Motivation, in all its complexity, is an aspect of teaching that

should not be taken lightly, as it can influence 'the rate and success of foreign language

learning' (Wang 2008:30), in 'provid[ing] the primary impetus to initiate learning foreign

language and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process'

(Dŏrnyei 1998:117 in ibid:31).

Given its crucial influence on second/foreign language learning I begin my dissertation with a

closer look at the importance of motivation in English Language Teaching, what it entails, the

various factors influencing it and what stimulates it. The literature review analyses the

influences on student behaviour and achievement and looks at reasons why some learners find

language learning so difficult while others embrace it. The indispensable role of the teacher in

motivating learners to learn, and how they can contribute to making language learning an

unforgettable experience for all concerned is given special attention. A detailed analysis of

project-based learning as one of the strategies used not only for motivating learners, but for

enhancing learner autonomy and independence is also provided. This, in turn, leads to the

underlying issue of my dissertation which is to investigate the potential of international

project activities for student motivation based on a Slovenian lower secondary school case

study involving 30 student participants aged 13-16 and three teachers. My decision to persue

this topic stems from my perception as a language teacher who has incorporated international

project activities into my teaching that they are good for motivation and something worth

exploring in greater depth. The results of the research, despite its small-scale, look very

promising. The respondents see project-based learning in a very positive light not only for

iv

stimulating motivation, but for helping develop and maintain it as well as enhancing

communicative competence. They stress the important role of the teacher as a guide towards

achieving learner independence and autonomy and the need for the teacher's positive attitude

and good rapport with students in making project-based learning possible. International

project activities are seen by the respondents as a way of helping them regain their sense of

purpose for learning the target language, as they are putting their knowledge of the target

language to good use. The Research concludes with suggestions to those practitioners who

have not yet put project work, and particularly international project activities, to the test, to at

least consider incorporating them into their teaching.

v

Key words

Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, English Language Teaching, learner, student,

communicative competence, autonomy, learner-centred, project-based learning, project work,

mixed-ability classes, international project activities

List of abbreviations

ELT – English Language Teaching

L1 – the mother tongue

L2 – second or foreign language / target language

ESL – English as a Second Language

ICT - Information and Communication Technology

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………...ii

Abstract ...............................................................................................................................iii

Key words …………………………………………...………………………………........v

List of abbreviations ………………………………………………………………........v

Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………………….vi

Chapter One: Introduction……………………………………………………….........1

1.1 Overview and significance of the study ………………………………………………..1

1.2 The research questions ………………………………………………………………… 2

1.3 Structure of the thesis …………………………………………………………………..2

Chapter Two: Literature Review ………………………………………………........4

2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………..4

2.2 Motivation ……………………………………………………………………………….4

2.2.1 Theories of motivation ……………………………………………………………….4

2.2.2 Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation …………………………………………………6

2.2.3 Motivation from the perspective of the learner ………………………………………7

2.2.4 Motivation from the perspective of the teacher ……………………………………..11

2.3 Project-based learning ………………………………………………………………....13

2.3.1 Project work for enhancing learner-centredness and autonomy……………………..14

2.3.2 Project work for dealing with differentiation in mixed-ability classes ……………...16

2.4 Coping with problems in using project work in ELT ……........................................17

2.4.1 Power relations and group processes ………………………………………………...17

2.4.2 The question of authenticity …………..……………………………………………..20

2.4.3 The language question………………………………………………………………..21

2.5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………24

Chapter Three: The Research Design ……………………………………………..26

3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….26

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3.2 The participants and research site……………….……………………………………26

3.3 The research methods..…………………………………………………………………27

3.3.1 The questionnaire…………………………………………………………………..27

3.3.2 The interviews….…………………………………………………………………. 28

Chapter Four: Data Results Analysis and Discussion …………………………30

4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….30

4.2 Factors influencing motivation in foreign language learning ……………………….30

4.3 Motivation and communicative competence………………………………………….32

4.4 The question of relevancy………………………………………………………………32

4.5 Coping with problems encountered in project-based learning………………………33

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Suggestions for Further Research …………36

5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….36

5.2 A summary of the research outcomes ………………………………………………...36

5.3 The research questions and key ideas ………………………………………………...37

5.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………38

5.5 Suggestions for further research ………………………………………………………39

Appendices ……………………………………………………………………………….41

Appendix 1- Klassen's ethnographic study cited by Auerbach ……………………..41

Appendix 2-Examples of project tasks ……………………………………………….42

Appendix 3-Permission Declaration by school headteacher for conducting

the survey …………………………………………………………………43

Appendix 4-The survey questionnaire………………………………………………..44

Appendix 5-Student interview questions……………………………………………..48

Appendix 6-Teacher interview questions …………………………………………...49

Appendix 7- Interview with Teacher C (by way of example for the reader) ……...50

Appendix 8 - Questionnaire results …………………………………………………53

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………58

Authorship statement ………………………………………………………………...64

1

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 Overview and significance of the study

Motivation, as '[one of the main deter]minants of second/foreign language (L2) learning

achievement' (Dörnyei 1994:273), has often been an issue of debate among language

practitioners all over the world as they attempt to understand it and find strategies with which

to foster and maintain it throughout the learning process. Why is it that even though 'all

learners exhibit an inborn curiosity to explore the world' and 'are likely to find the learning

experience intrinsically pleasant', this ''curiosity'' is soon 'vitiated' once they start school when

faced with 'compulsory school attendance, curriculum content' and 'grades' (Thanasoulas

2002:no pagination)? Given the consensus regarding its significance in L2 learning, the

primary focus of my study will be motivation with a look at some of the different theories that

have attempted to explain it, the different factors that influence it throughout the learning

process including the learners' individuality, the beliefs they have about themselves, their

reasons for learning L2 and the significant role of the teacher all of which influence their

perception of L2 and their language performance. Particular reference will be given to

project-based learning, as it is my belief that it is one of the best ways for motivating learners

with learning difficulties and disciplinary problems, and those who are more proficient in

their work and need further fulfilment in their studies, which is often difficult to attain

especially in mixed-ability classes. I would like to investigate in greater depth how project-

based learning serves to increase learner autonomy and independence, and how it not only

stimulates the learners' motivation, but also gives them the confidence and sense of self-

esteem they so badly need in their L2 learning.

When our school first became involved in international projects, I immediately began

incorporating various project activities into my teaching because I found them interesting, as

they were learner-centred and project-based enabling students to deal with course material

from a completely different angle, and my perception as a teacher was that they seemed to

impact positively on my students. The underlying issue of my research will, therefore, be to

investigate more empirically whether project-based learning and particularly international

2

project activities have the potential to motivate learners at the lower secondary school level to

learn. The research will include an indepth analysis of some of the advantages and benefits as

well as problems and uncertainties encountered by both learners and teachers when

incorporating project-based learning in the English Language Teaching (ELT) classroom at

this level. Based on the views and opinions of the student and teacher respondents in my

survey I hope to have proven that such projects do have implications for the development and

maintenance of student motivation.

I consider this study important not only because it will provide insight into project-based

learning as a major technique underpinning motivation in L2 learning, but also help enhance

the use of international projects as a means of attaining this goal. Hopefully my suggestions

for further research will serve as a signpost to those teachers who are less enthusiastic about

incorporating project work and more precisely international project activities into their

teaching, and stimulate them to at least consider putting project work to the test.

1.2 The research questions

The main research question of my study - Do international project activities boost student

motivation in ELT at the lower secondary school level? - will be explored through the

following three sub-research questions:

1. Do teachers consider project-based learning a useful way of achieving student

motivation and communicative competence in ELT?

2. Do students perceive project work to be a valuable asset to their foreign language

learning?

3. Do students and/or teachers feel there are problems in using project work in ELT and

if so, how can they be met?

1.3 Structure of the thesis

The thesis is divided into five chapters. Chapter One presents an overview of what the study

entails, its significance, hypothesis and structure. Chapter Two reviews the literature on

motivation, its role in ELT, factors affecting it, with a particular focus on project-based

learning as a major technique underpinning motivation in L2 learning, as well as problems

3

encountered by both students and teachers when incorporating it into the learning process.

Chapter Three describes the methodology used in conducting the research including the

participants involved, the methods used and the procedure of data collection. Chapter Four

analyses and discusses the data obtained from the survey. Chapter Five summarises the

findings from the data collected, links the key ideas to the research questions, provides a

conclusion regarding the hypothesis presented at the beginning of the dissertation, and offers

suggestions for further research.

4

Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

I begin the literature review with a short presentation of some of the many theories of

motivation which researchers have used in their attempt to clarify what they consider

stimulates or demotivates learners to learn, and then provide a more detailed explanation of

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. I then look at motivation from the perspective of the learner

followed by that of the teacher while paying particular attention to factors which help enhance

language learning as well as those which may hinder it or present obstacles for both learners

and teachers to overcome in their joint effort in making language learning a success. From

there I turn my attention to project-based learning and its importance for enhancing learner-

centredness and autonomy as well as dealing with differentiation in mixed-ability classes.

Finally I have a look at potential problems which may occur when using project work in ELT,

such as power relations and group processes, the question of authenticity and the language

problem, and propose possible solutions for dealing with them. Given my hypothesis that

project-based learning and in particular international project activities have the potential to

develop and maintain motivation, I also highlight certain advantages of incorporating

international project activities into the language learning process. The chapter concludes with

an encouraging look to the future and urges language practitioners to consider the advantages

of project-based learning as presented in the literature review, and to at least make an attempt

to incorporate it into their teaching.

2.2 Motivation

2.2.1 Theories of motivation

The importance of motivation in ELT is immense. It has been accepted by teachers and

researchers as one of the key factors that can influence 'the rate and success of foreign

language learning' (Wang 2008:30). In the words of Dörnyei (1998:117 in ibid:31),

motivation 'provides the primary impetus to initiate learning foreign language and later the

driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process'. The concept of

5

motivation has intrigued researchers for many years, and as a result many theories have been

formulated to try and explain what motivation actually entails and the reasons behind what

makes students want or not want to learn.

The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1995:929) provides the general meaning

of the verb to motivate as 'to make someone want to achieve something and make them

willing to work hard in order to do it', and motivation as 'eagerness and willingness to do

something without needing to be told or forced to do it'. Definitions from within ELT, while

including this basic concept, entail yet other elements involved in understanding what 'moves'

an individual 'to act', in this case to learn English (McDonough 2007:369) such as, 'instinct,

drive, arousal, need, […] personality traits like anxiety and need for achievement, […]

cognitive appraisals of success and failure, ability' and 'self-esteem' as well as 'the immense

social relevance of language learning worldwide' (Dörnyei 1994:274). Ellis (1994:715)

defines motivation as 'the effort which learners put into learning an L2 as a result of their need

or desire to learn it', while McDonough (2007:369) considers it to be 'a property of the learner'

as well as a 'dynamic', 'transitive concept' that 'changes over time' and is 'remarkably

complex'. The two Canadian psychologists, Gardner and Lambert, who 'initiated and inspired'

much of the research into 'the nature and role of motivation in the L2 learning process', 'were

particularly sensitive to the social dimension of L2 motivation' (Dörnyei 1994:273) as

expressed in their 'integrative' and 'instrumental' concept, where integrative motivation refers

to learning the language in order to take part in the culture of its people', and instrumental

motivation as 'learning the language for a career goal or other practical reason' (1972 in Zhou

2008:8). This concept is not only relevant to bilingual Canada, 'where language learning is a

featured social issue - at the crux of the relationship between the Anglophone and

Francophone communities', but extends far beyond, given the fact that 'the vast majority of

nations in the world are multicultural, and most of these […] multilingual', as well as the fact

that 'there are more bilinguals in the world than there are monolinguals' (Dörnyei 1994:274).

Skehan (1991in ibid:275) argues that 'the most pressing difficulty motivation researchers face

is that of "clarifying the orientation-context links that exist' because of the wide range of

potential differences in 'L1-L2 learning relationship[s]' that exist '(outside Canada!)', and

confirms that 'the exact nature of the social and pragmatic dimensions of L2 motivation' is

always dependent on who learns what languages where'. Even though Gardner's concept was

acknowledged to be fundamentally important, researchers were in the search for 'a more

pragmatic, education-centred approach to motivation' (ibid:273). According to Dörnyei

6

(ibid:275) '[o]ne of the most general and well-known distinctions in motivation theories is that

between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation' as presented by Deci and Ryan (1985), which

attempts to clarify some of the factors influencing a student's inclination or disinclination for

learning.

2.2.2 Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation

Researchers, according to Wang (2008:30), agree that 'motivation is responsible for

determining human behaviour by energizing it and giving it direction'. Motivation can be

considered as coming from within oneself, better known as intrinsic motivation, which 'refers

to doing something because it is inherently interesting and enjoyable (Ryan and Deci

2000:55-56), where choice, decision-making and volition on the part of the learner play a

primary role, and where self-direction or 'flexibility' […] allows ones's attitudes to direct

action towards the effective achievement of one's aims' (Deci and Ryan 1985:6). Motivation

can also come from the outside, better known as extrinsic motivation, which may come in

many forms, such as 'threats […], deadlines […], directives […], and competition pressure'

that undermine intrinsic motivation because learners 'experience them as controllers of their

behavior' (Ryan and Deci 2000:59). In these circumstances the learners' 'ability to think and

reason on their own' is disregarded and does not allow them to 'develop self-determination or

independent thinking' (Ryan and Deci 1996:no pagination). Ryan and Deci add that 'in

situations where the students believe their perspectives are valid and their rights […] equal to

the person distributing the rewards or punishment, there is often the formation of "power-

relationships” with a high probability of subversion, conflict, and/or resentment' (ibid). Could

it also be, as Covington (1998:18) speculates that once the extrinsic motive such as the need

for recognition '- praise, applause, gold stars and grades […] is satisfied or the threat of failure

removed', there may no longer be any particular reason to continue learning? These and

similar circumstances seem to 'detract from true learning and focus students' attention on

performance per se, without regard for what is learned or its meaning to one's life' (ibid).

On the other hand, extrinsic motivation can 'enhance intrinsic motivation' and offer the learner

'a greater sense of autonomy' by allowing for 'choice and the opportunity for self-direction'

(ibid). Intrinsic motivation can be evoked 'when the learning activity and the learning

environment elicit motivation in the student', which can be achieved '[w]hen the goals and

rewards of the learning are meaningful to the learner'; '[w]hen the learning assists the learner

7

in obtaining valued accomplishments' and '[w]hen the learning assists the learners in

integrating themselves with the world, with others, and promotes self-awareness' (Brandt

1995:no pagination). Where L2 learning is concerned it all depends, 'on how important the

learner considers the goal of L2 learning to be in terms of a valued personal outcome'

(Dörnyei 1994:276). Learners are often conscious of their competence in completing a

particular task, and if they recognize it as appropriate and its purpose meaningful and

important to them, then their motivation for completing it will rise (Zhou 2008:9).

However, because all school activities are not 'inherently interesting or enjoyable' for

students, teachers are faced with the challenge of finding new strategies 'to promote more

active and volitional (versus passive and controlling) forms of extrinsic motivation which will

gradually 'lead students to internalize the responsibility and sense of value for extrinsic goals',

make them their own and 'carry them out' 'without external pressure' thus fostering learning

and competence (Ryan and Deci 2000:55-60). '[O]ffering optimal challenges and effectance-

relevant feedback' as well as a feeling of belonging and respect can boost students'

'willingness to accept the proffered classroom values' and promote 'greater internalization of

school-related behavioral regulations' (ibid:64). The extent to which this can be accomplished

will, however, depend on the learners themselves and the behavioural attitudes that they have

towards L2 learning.

Even though language 'can be taught as a school subject', it is at the same time 'an integral

part of the individual's identity involved in almost all mental activities, and […] the most

important channel of social organisation embedded in the culture of the community where it

is used' (Dörnyei 1994:274). It is, in most cases, 'more complex than simply mastering new

information and knowledge', and 'involves various personality traits and social components'

(ibid). Bearing this in mind, it is, therefore, difficult if not impossible to discuss motivation in

L2 learning without considering the learner's 'individuality', 'the beliefs learners hold about

themselves' and their reasons for learning L2 (McDonough 2007:370).

2.2.3 Motivation from the perspective of the learner

There are many reasons which motivate people to learn languages. Based on an investigation

of young L2 adult learners in Hungary, Dörnyei (1994:275) identifies four such motives: '1)

interest in foreign languages, cultures, and people […]; 2) [the] desire to broaden ones view

8

and avoid provincialism […]; 3) [the] desire for new stimuli and challenges […]' and finally

'the desire to integrate into a new community'. However, the extent to which learners'

individual beliefs about themselves influence their motivation in L2 learning is, without

question, a fundamental factor in determining their success or failure. Even though the

motives and conditions for effective language learning may be present, they will be of no

avail if, for example, 'the individual's self-appraisal of what he or she can or cannot do' is a

negative one, as this will 'affect how he or she strives for achievement' as well as his/her

'future goal expectancy' (ibid:276). Weiner, who believes that ‘[c]ausal attributions determine

affective reactions to success and failure’, identifies ability (or lack of it), effort (or

inadequate effort), the task at hand and luck as 'the most important factors affecting

attributions for achievement' (1980:362), where ability and effort are considered 'internal

causes since they presumably reflect inherent characteristics of the individual', and 'task

difficulty and luck […] 'external factors since both are beyond the individual's control'

(Covington 1998:58). Using this attribution theory Covington attempts to explain that

individuals' different explanations for their success or failure is 'the essence of individual

differences in achievement motivation' in that those 'motivated to approach success […]

attribute their failures to internal factors – chiefly to a lack of effort – and their successes to a

combination of high ability and effort', while 'failure-prone individuals […] take little credit

for their successes […] because they do [not] feel worthy of it, and blame themselves for

failure by reason of being stupid' (ibid:58-59). The 'learned helplessness' phenomenon

(Smiley and Dweck 1994 in ibid:67) or 'state of depression or loss of hope', as it has been

described (ibid) only adds to the learner's 'sense of despair' which they attribute largely to

their own 'incompetence' (ibid:68). Self-efficacy ('an individual's judgement of his or her

ability to perform a specific action'), self-confidence ('the belief that one has the ability to

produce results, accomplish goals or perform tasks competently'), as well as the individual's

need for achievement all contribute not only to achieving motivation in language learning, but

also to achieving proficiency in the target language (Dörnyei 1994:277). Those learners who

lack belief in self-efficacy and self-confidence, often 'feel lost in the language class', and need

'meaningful, achievable, and success-engendering language tasks' which will help them to

gradually develop these traits (ibid). This, however, takes time and perseverance from both

the learners and the teacher and sometimes may be very difficult to attain, one of the reasons

being that, as learners grow, their attitudes and behaviours change and with them their

reasons for learning.

9

As language teachers we are aware that the better we know our students the easier and more

interesting our teaching will be. But how well do teachers really know their students?

Covington (1998:83) informs us that around the age of twelve 'the perceived importance of

effort wanes, and is replaced by the conviction that ability alone is sufficient for success'

which for many learners at this age 'becomes the limiting factor in achievement'. As a result

the 'work ethic' that was once so strong, 'declines' (ibid), which in turn demands more energy

and perseverance from the teacher in maintaining the same level of motivation in the ELT

classroom as before. Getting teenagers involved in learning and keeping them motivated can

be quite a challenge, because they constantly need some sort of 'driving force to sustain the

[…] learning process', which can be 'long and often tedious' (Dörnyei 1998:117). The

approval of significant individuals in the learner's life, such as the parents, older brothers and

sisters and the learner's peers as well as the teacher's attitude to the language and confidence

on the part of both teacher and learner are crucial contributors to the path that language

learning will take (Harmer 2001:52).

Another factor to consider is that learners may come from various ethnic backgrounds, child-

rearing practices and peer dynamics' (Covington 1998:51), and based on their life experiences

will view education and learning each from their own individual perspective. '[S]ocial

identity' – that is 'the sense of belonging to a particular social group, whether defined by

ethnicity, by language, or any other means' plays a significant role in language learning as it

also tends to be an emotional involvement, and mirrors the way in which learners see L2 as

well as their role in the L2 classroom (Mitchell and Myles2004:246). The results of Losey's

1995 classroom-based study of 'differences in student output across ethnicity and gender in a

mixed monoligual English and bilingual Spanish/English class clearly show the extent to

which unequal power relations in the society from which learners come can affect their

participation, failure and/or success in L2 learning (ibid). Losey found that '[i]n teacher-led,

English medium, whole-class discussions, the Anglo students dominated overwhelmingly'

with a similar rate of participation from the few Mexican American males in the class,

whereas the Mexican American women 'scarcely contributed at all' even though 'they

comprised almost half the class' (ibid). Surprisingly, however, when working in small groups

'whether with peers or with a tutor, these women talked freely, asking many work-related

questions, and jointly solving problems' (ibid). Losey (1995:655 in ibid) 'attributes the

women's silence in class – and hence, their restricted learning opportunity – to their powerless

position as a 'double minority', in terms of both ethnicity and gender'. The feeling of being

10

dominated by the Anglo students and Mexican American males not only mirrors their

'powerless position', but may also give them the feeling that they are being threatened when

'misunderstandings are too frequent', and so do not want to be the center of attention when

mistakes are being made (ibid:246-248). Because '[l]anguage is part of one's identity and is

used to convey this identity to others', the impact that foreign language learning has on the

social being of the learner is very significant, as 'it involves the adoption of new social and

cultural behaviours and ways of thinking' (Thanasoulas 2002: no pagination). If these new

ways of thinking and asserting oneself cannot be met, then as a result of the lack of self-

esteem and self-confidence in their struggle to master the target language, learners may

sometimes resort to 'resistance, that is, more or less complete withdrawal from [L2]

interaction and a re-assertion of [their] first language identity […] by switching to

monolingual first language use' (Mitchell and Myles 2004:248), or they may respond to whole

class interaction with 'silence' as did the Mexican American women in Losey's study (Losey

1995:635 in ibid:246). If the society in which learners live is reluctant to recognize or

completely 'neglects the foreign language, the learners may have no motivation to learn it' at

all (Zhou 2008:9) or may be demotivated from the very beginning and may not find it

necessary to even improve their interlanguage. Foreign language teaching within the United

Kingdom is a good example of the concerns brought about by 'the reluctance of the British to

learn a foreign language at all, and the declining level of achievement in this domain'

(Williams et al 2002:no pagination). Even though the United Kingdom is a multilingual

country, 'the public perception […] shaped and reflected

by the media', is that 'of a

monolingual, monocultural society whose standardised English […]

has proved so attractive

to outsiders across the world that

Britons have no need to explore other languages'

(McLauchlan 2007:no pagination). With 'British media discourses remain[ing] stronger than

the voices of other bodies engaged with foreign languages and cultures (Coleman et al

2007:no pagination), it is not surprising the extent to which this negative attitude has

influenced secondary school learners in demotivating them 'to continue studying a foreign

language, once it is no longer compulsory, and to 'regard the learning of foreign languages as

difficult, boring, and […] of little practical use' (McLauchlan 2007:no pagination). This,

topped off by the government's 'removal of language from the core curriculum' for students

from 14 to 16 years of age has led to 'a dramatic fall in numbers of language learners'

(Coleman et al 2007:no pagiantion), which, according to Graddol, can have 'serious

consequences', '[a]s we move into an era where our future will need to be based on

multilingualism'(1997 in Williams et al 2002:no pagination). This is in itself a correct claim if

11

we consider that 'the number of people using English as their second language will grow from

235 million to around 465 million during the next 50 years' thus changing 'the balance

between L1 and L2 speakers, with L2 speakers eventually overtaking L1 speakers'

(Graddol 1999:62 in McKay 2002:13).

Finally, Klassen's 1991 ethnographic study in Toronto's Spanish-speaking community, as

reported by Auerbach (1993:17) [see Appendix 1], revealed some of the consequences

beginning-literate Spanish speakers faced in monoligual ESL (English as a second language)

classes due to the persistent feeling of incompetence and domination. The interviewees

reported 'a strong sense of exclusion', due to the complete preclusion from participation and

progress until some of them even dropped out of the course (ibid:18). This only added to their

marginalization in the outside world, as they were unable to enrole into higher level ESL

courses 'required for entry into job training programs which limited their employment

possiblities' (ibid). Instead of integrating these learners into the rest of the class, the teachers

isolated them from the other students, either because of their 'own sense of frustration at being

unable to communicate with them or because they felt they were 'being forced to reduce

lesson content to the most elementary childlike uses of language' (ibid), which illustrates how

important the teacher's role is in initiating and helping to sustain motivation throughout the

learning process and the power teachers have in influencing learning outcomes.

2.2.4 Motivation from the perspective of the teacher

Being the person learners usually look up to and often imitate, the teacher has great

influencial power as far as motivation is concerned. There is no doubt that teachers must be

fully aware of the language content if they are to teach it effectively or else they will not be

able to 'successfully interpret coursebook syllabuses and materials' or 'adapt these to the

specific needs of the learners' or deal with learners' errors and other queries (Thornbury

1997:xii). However, since learning a L2 is also 'influenced by cultural and attitudinal factors'

(ibid:x), being aware of the kind of learners one is dealing with, and knowing which approach

will appropriately motivate each group is very significant for their understanding of the

language content and subsequent language performance. The teacher's role remains both

'central, and difficult' as it involves 'providing a supportive and challenging learning

environment […] facilitating the development of the learners' own motivational thinking' and

most importantly 'not doing anything to de-motivate them' (McDonough 2007:370).

12

By using the right strategies and appropriate teaching materials teachers can trigger the

learners' 'schematic knowledge' which they bring to a given text and which influences how

they will process it (Alptekin 1993:136). Material based on local or international issues with

which learners can identify will arouse their interest and stimulate their desire to know more

(Wang 2008:32), which will in turn enable them to remember grammatical structures, phrases

and lexical items faster and easier. If the teacher is to succeed in motivating learners, then,

'relevance has to be the red thread permeating activities' (Chambers 1999:37), or in other

words, the teacher has to try to incorporate the learners' goals and topics of interest into the

curriculum (Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination). On the contrary, teaching material that is

culturally bound will create a void between the world of the writer and that of the learner as

they will have little or nothing in common causing the learner to lose interest and gradually

become demotivated, which will, no doubt, encumber the learning process. Using material

that is 'too difficult' for learners to handle, 'having activities that are too long without any

motivational variation, and giving exams that are too demanding' (Corria 1999:17-18 cited in

Wang 2008:32), are dangers that the teacher must be careful to avoid so as not to make the

material and accompanying tasks 'a time-consuming, laborious and frustrating experience'

(Alptekin 1993:137). Those learners with insufficient linguistic ability will 'also need a large

amount of contextual support' before getting any task done since many of the words they will

be decoding will either be unknown to them or accessed slowly (Paran 1996:29). An

interesting observation made by Wang (1996:37) is that '[s]uccess or lack of success plays a

vital role in the motivational drive of a student' and that '[b]oth complete failure and complete

success may be demotivating'. It is very important for teachers to 'select activities which will

challenge the students at the proper level', that are not 'beyond' or 'below' their abilities (Wang

2008:33), which has proven to be a challenging task especially in mixed-ability classes.

By providing a relaxed atmosphere in the ELT classroom teachers can contribute to making

learners feel good about themselves. 'Allowing learners to bring their own knowledge and

perspectives into the learning process' (Nunan (1999 in ibid); letting them express their

feelings and opinions to the class; making an effort to understand them, their learning styles

and language level, and accepting them for what they are all contribute to being

acknowledged by their peers and the teacher, and give them the 'confidence in their ability to

succeed' (ibid). Giving learners the opportunity to use and practise the target language in

order to 'communicate their own experiences about their lives […] and talk about topics

13

which they are interested in and like' strengthens their desire to learn and improve their

interlanguage, even if this means simply using English for practical reasons, such as 'ask[ing]

about something they do not know or […] want to know' (ibid:32-33). Often enough 'intrinsic

motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language'

(ibid:33). It should be noted, however, that excessive correction of errors on the part of the

teacher can have a devastating effect on learners as they tend to become passive in order to

avoid making them. Teachers should practise tolerance when learners are trying to express

their thoughts and perhaps correct errors only when essential to the understanding of the main

idea being conveyed. Learners need 'both ample opportunities to learn and steady

encouragement and support in their learning efforts' which only 'a safe classroom climate can

give them, a place where they feel 'they do not run the risk of being ridiculed' (Thanasoulas

2002:no pagination). Commending learners on a regular basis for their contribution to the

lesson, even when minimal, and giving words of encouragement can reduce classroom

anxiety and make learning less stressful (ibid).

Another way of giving learners initiative is by frequently incorporating project-based

learning activities into lessons, which will enable them 'to use the language effectively for

their real communicative needs, rather than simply […] provid[ing] [them] with the

knowledge about the grammar system' of the target language (Hiep 2007:196).

2.3 Project-based learning

I am not denying the importance of grammar instruction for the development and

restructuring of the learners' interlanguage, and I fully agree with Thornbury (1997:xiii-xiv)

that there is a need 'for grammatical 'conscious raising' techniques […] that focus the learner's

attention on salient features and recurring patterns in language data' which help in noticing

similar features in real live contexts (ibid). After all 'one of the goals of language instruction

is', as he puts it, that [...] learners move in the direction of achieving […] communicative

competence' that is 'the knowledge of what constitutes effective language behaviour in

relation to one's communicative objectives' balanced by knowing 'what is 'correct'' or

'linguistic competence' (ibid). However, besides having sufficient language awareness to be

able to 'alert the learner[s] to the features of the language to be 'noticed' (ibid), teachers should

also give them as many opportunities as possible to experience and use the knowledge

obtained in grammar instruction. Cook (1989:41) points to 'the disturbing sensation' faced by

14

all L2 learners 'of understanding every word, […] but somehow missing the point', and adds

that '[i]n production, learners need to choose the words which most suitably realize their

intention, and this does not always entail the most closely related form'. For learners to be

able to deviate the meanings of words, to use elipses and to understand the pragmatic meaning

behind an utterance, they need exposure to L2, which can be created in the ELT classroom

through project-based learning activities. Enhancing learner-centredness and autonomy,

dealing with differentiation in mixed-ability classes, and fostering peer interaction are some of

the priorities of project-based learning, which not only help boost the learners' will and desire

to actively participate in the language learning process, but motivate them to use L2 to its

fullest potential.

2.3.1 Project work for enhancing learner-centredness and autonomy

According to Fried-Booth (2002:5), project work is about learners developing 'confidence in

using English in the real world', taking 'the experience of the classroom out into the world and

provid[ing] an opportunity for informal learning' where they can work 'on a topic of interest to

them' and use 'language for a specific purpose, with a particular aim in mind' while at the

same time putting to use what they have learnt. It is, as Fried-Booth (ibid:6) states, one of the

ways of 'equip[ping] the learner to assume […] independence' or in other words, it enhances

learner autonomy. But what exactly is learner autonomy? Dam (1990 in Thanasoulas 2000:no

pagination) holds that 'someone qualifies as an autonomous learner when he independently

chooses aims and purposes and sets goals; chooses materials, methods and tasks; exercises

choice and purpose in organising and carrying out the chosen tasks; and chooses criteria for

evaluation'. Generally speaking, '[l]earners […]are expected to assume greater responsibility

for, and take charge of, their own learning' (ibid). This, however, does not mean that 'the

teacher becomes redundant, abdicating his/her control over what is transpiring in the language

learning process' (ibid), which some proponents of traditional grammar instruction such as

writer and trainer, Robert O'Neill, seem to believe. He argues that by 'letting students do the

learning on their own with teachers only intervening when and if needed, might amount to a

form of neglect' and that '[i]t could be tantamount to an abdication by the teacher of the

knowledge-giving role' (O'Neill 1994 in Harmer 2001:57). Contrary to this affirmation,

Thanasoulas (2000:no pagination) considers it 'nothing short of ludicrous to assert that

learners come into the learning situation with the knowledge and skills to plan, monitor, and

evaluate their learning, or to make decisions on content or objectives', and asserts that

15

'autonomous learning is by no means 'teacherless learning'', but that teachers are needed to

'adapt resources, materials, and methods to the learners' needs', and give them a ''helping

hand'' on their way to autonomy. Even though it is often difficult for teachers to change from

being the 'purveyor of information to counsellor and manager of learning resources' or 'to let

learners solve problems for themselves' (ibid), the teacher and learner can work together to

promote and foster autonomy 'by creating a friendly atmosphere characterised by 'low threat,

unconditional positive regard, honest and open feedback, respect for the ideas and opinions of

others, approval of self-improvement as a goal,' and 'collaboration rather than competition'

(Candy 1991: 337 in ibid), which is exactly what project work aims to achieve.

Project work is learner-centred with learners working together 'driven by the need to create an

end-product', and what makes this so 'worthwhile', is 'the route to achieving this end product'

(Fried-Booth 2002:6). The product is, of course, relevant to the goals 'set by outsiders (i.e,

teachers or the curriculum)', but which will also be defined and carried out based on the

group's own 'personal criteria' (Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination). Project work is 'a personal

experience', because learners 'are writing about their own lives […] their dreams and

fantasies, their own research into topics that interest them' and will undoubtedly 'put a lot of

effort into getting it right' (Hutchinson 1991:11). By giving learners the opportunity to work

on a task 'which they have defined for themselves' will develop their confidence and

independence (Fried-Booth 2002:6), and they will value it more because 'their free choice and

autonomy' have been maximised (Good and Brophy 1994:228 in Thanasoulas 2002:no

pagination). This will gradually lead to self-motivation, which, as Ushioda (1997:41 in ibid)

claims, is 'a question of thinking effectively and meaningfully about learning experience and

learning goals' as well as 'a question of applying positive thought patterns and belief structures

so as to optimise and sustain one's involvement in learning'.

Even though project work and the communicative approach have contributed to getting the

learner more involved in language learning, they have often come under attack by those who

believe that communicative language teaching favours native-speaker teachers over non-

native speaker teachers, because it is said to demand 'a relatively uncontrolled range of

language use on the part of the student' which, in turn, will expect the teacher to 'respond to

any and every language problem which may come up' (Harmer 2001:86). According to Tudor,

however, it is more a matter of being mature, intuitive and open to the learners' input and have

a greater tolerance of uncertainty, qualities, which are 'in marked contrast to more traditional

16

teacher behaviour', but which 'are precisely those characteristics most people would expect of

any teacher, traditional or modern, who has their learners' best interests at heart' (1993 in

ibid:57). Judging by the increasing interest that teachers from different countries have shown

in developing project ideas to suit their own teaching situation, and having them published in

collections such as Project Work by Fried-Booth (2002), shows that project work can be

applied in learning situations worldwide, each unique and diverse in its approach (Fried-

Booth 2002:5). How and when it is to be incorporated into lessons all depends on when the

teacher considers it appropriate and the objectives they want to achieve with a particular

group of learners.

2.3.2 Project work for dealing with differentiation in mixed-ability classes

Even though the teacher is no longer the dominating figure in the learner-centred approach, it

still remains their obligation to recognize and develop the students' potential and distinctive

qualities (Han 1979 in Zhenhui :no date/pagination), and find a balance to suit the level of

knowledge of every learner in the class, and how they can contribute to the activities

undertaken. For teaching to be a success in classes with learners of different abilities and

proficiencies teachers must recognize that they are teaching a group of individuals and not 'a

single student with 25 faces', that some are quicker than others and more confident while

others are shy and slow (Pearsonlongman, no date/pagination). Learners 'are motivated in

different ways and to different degrees' (Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination). Some may like

'doing grammar and memorising' while 'others want to speak and role-play' or may 'prefer

reading and writing, while avoiding speaking' (ibid). By incorporating project work into the

lesson, allows learners to work 'autonomously', with the teacher monitoring and offering extra

help and guidance whenever necessary (ELT: no date/pagination). Wells (1999:333 in

Mitchell and Myles 2004:214) claims that 'whenever people collaborate in an activity, each

can assist the others, and each can learn from the contributions of the others'. Groups may

consist of learners 'of widely differing levels', giving all the participants within the group,

including slower learners, the opportunity to exchange ideas and incorporate preferred

learning strategies in confronting a particular task, or of stronger learners 'where the

difference is not too extreme' in which case the autonomous work might be incoroporated

more frequently into lessons (ELT no date/pagination). 'One of the great benefits of project

work' is its 'adaptability', meaning that 'the same project task' can be done 'by students at

different levels', ie. prepared in a more straight forward way for younger or slower learners or

17

involving a wider range of different structures at the intermediate level (Hutchinson 1991:4).

Project work can also be done 'on almost any topic […] factual […] or fantastic' and 'help to

develop the full range of the learners' capabilities' (ibid:6), which, in turn, can create a highly

motivated atmosphere allowing individuals, even those who are 'less linguistically gifted', to

contribute in ways which will 'reflect their different talents and creativity' (Fried-Booth

2002:6), something desperately needed in mixed-ability classes. A learner's talent as an artist,

for example, can contribute to the group's end product and give him/her 'the self-esteem,

which would otherwise be unlikely in a more conventional language lesson' (ibid). '[E]ven the

most reluctant, skeptical learner is susceptible to peer group enthusiasm and derives benefit

from taking part in a project' (ibid:7). Slower learners and those with disciplinary problems

seem to adapt to peer work very well, as they have less of a chance of being intimidated by

the teacher and surprisingly often show a creative side to their otherwise indifferent

behaviour. They can 'work at their own pace and level' and 'achieve something that they can

take pride in, perhaps compensating for their lower language level by using more photos and

drawings' in their work (Hutchinson 1991:11). Project work also supports the 'cross-

curricular' approach to learning, which gives learners 'the opportunity to use the knowledge

they gain in other subjects in the English class' (ibid:13), thus giving learners, who are better

in other subject areas, the opportunity to use this knowledge as a resource in the language

project being done. Some interesting examples of these types of projects from Hutchinson's

book, Introduction to Project Work (1991), can be found in Appendix 2.

But regardless of the success that project-based learning has had in schools all over the world,

is not to say that it is without problems. There have been some cases where the use of project

work has posed problems for both teachers and learners, and to which I now turn.

2.4 Coping with problems in using project work in ELT

2.4.1 Power relations and group processes

Through the peer interaction that begins to develop during project work, as seen in the

previous section, with learners helping, and supporting one another, working together and

collaborating around project activities, they become 'active constructors of their own learning

environment, which they shape through their choice of goals and operations' (Ohta 2001 in

18

Mitchell and Myles 2004:221). Sometimes, however, the collaboration within a group of

learners may be hindered due to misconceptions and/or misunderstandings among the group

members. The success or failure of learner-centred learning depends to a great extent on

factors which 'promote group cohesiveness' such as 'the time spent together and shared group

history, learning about each other, interaction, intergroup competition' as well as 'the active

presence of the leader' (Ehrman and Dörnyei 1998:142), not to mention '[t]eacher behaviour,

which has the power to influence not only 'the rapport with the students', but can also ''prevail

upon'' and/or ''attract'' students to engage in tasks' (Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination). By

obtaining 'mutual trust and respect with the learners, by means of talking to them on a

personal level' and 'impart[ing] a sense of commitment to, and interest in the subject matter'

both 'verbally' and 'non-verbally', the teacher can cue the learners as to the way they should

behave (ibid). The teacher is a necessary component of the learning process, one who sets the

classroom climate by offering additional help in getting the learners oriented in their groups,

in getting their objectives straight and in directing them to the resources they will need in

getting their work done. If, however, teachers cannot 'organise [or] manage the classroom as

an effective learning environment, the atmosphere will no doubt become very 'chaotic', a

place where 'motivation is unlikely to develop' and where, as a result of being left to

themselves, learners can become 'anxious' or even 'alienated' (ibid), which will undoubtedly

further negatively influence the work they are trying to create in their groups. There are four

stages or 'group processes' that, according to Tuckman (1969, quoted in Argyle 1969, cited in

Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination) almost all groups go through from their formation onwards

that have 'important implications for the study of the classroom and the use of group activities

during teaching' (ibid).

In normal conditions when a group is initially formed, participants are still dependent on the

teacher, and experience anxiety and uncertainty in their search for acceptable behaviour,

which is soon replaced, in the second stage, by a rebelious attitude against the leader and a

resistance to the 'role relations' within the group (ibid). Once cohesion and a sense of co-

operation begin to develop by stage three, the participants resolve their problems and by stage

four begin attending to their assignment (ibid). Problems arise when group members

experience unresolved issues and if these misunderstandings persist, or if the teacher neglects

to intervene in group activities that have somehow come to a standstill due to the lack of

teacher input, as observed by O'Neill (1991). As a result the group can suffer negative

implications not only for the end product, but also for the learners' subsequent motivation

19

(ibid). Daniels (1994 in Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination) points out that '[i]n reality, this

process may go on forever' due to 'student lethargy and underachievement norms in the

classroom' which can hinder 'effective teaching and learning'. In order to avoid such negative

outcomes Thanasoulas suggests that 'group norms […] should be discussed and adopted by

members, in order to be constructive and long-lasting', and '[i]f a norm mandated by a teacher

fails to be accepted as proper by the majority of class (or group) members, it [should] not

become a group norm' (ibid, italics and brackets added). If learners are to be considered as

'active constructors of their own learning environment, (Ohta 2001 in Mitchell and Myles

2004:221), then they must also have a voice in the planning and implementation of the group

goal. On the other hand if the unresolved issues arise due to the teacher's complete neglect in

providing the input needed, as in the case presented by O'Neill (1991: 295) of six Japanese

businessmen, whose discussion in pair work amounted to nothing but 'confusion' as they tried

to decifer the meaning of the instructions without any input what-so-ever from the teacher,

then the outcome is also bound to be unsuccessful as are any follow-up activities, or may take

longer to accomplish.

Fried-Booth (1982:100-101) asserts that 'the group dynamics of the entire working situation

need to be sufficiently positive over the time period to achieve the end-product', and urges

teachers to see to it that the activity 'operates within the students' language learning capacity,

[…] that the accompanying language development has a direct bearing on the need to attain

language objectives', that it 'satisf[ies] the students' perception of what is relevant and likely to

be of use and interest', and that it has the 'flexibility for students to be creative and innovative

as [it] proceeds', since '[a] tangible end-product within reach and produced by the individual

and the team is the strongest possible motivating factor'. All this can be made possible with

the help of the teacher, who, as the 'co-ordinator and instigator', has the 'commitment and

leadership' needed, to help the students 'feel willing to make the sestained effort' in getting

their work done (ibid). Teachers should encourage learners 'to be proud of themselves', 'to

evaluate themselves in a positive light' and 'take credit for their advances'(Thanasoulas

2002:no pagination). By 'promoting attributions to effort rather than to ability', 'providing

motivational feedback' and 'increasing learner satisfaction and the question of rewards and

grades', while at the same time taking care not to make grades the only criterion 'for judging

overall success and failure''(Dörnyei 2001:134 in ibid), teachers can help foster positive

learning behaviour and diminish the students' feeling of underachievement. Unfortunately,

20

there may be situations where these objectives may prove difficult to achieve due to the lack

of relevancy.

2.4.2 The question of authenticity

'A foreign language can often seem a remote and unreal thing' for learners if they '[do not] see

[it] as relevant to their own lives' (Hutchinson 1991:11). This seems to be the case with

language learners in Vietnam, for example, where the 'socio-cultural, political, and physical

conditions […] markedly differ' from those in the Western World, where the learners' purpose

for learning English is to be able 'to conduct their present and future life in communication

with native and other competent English speakers' (Hiep 2007:195). Hiep argues that because

the Vietnamese English language students 'share the same mother tongue' they 'do not

have

the immediate need to use English in the classroom' or outside it, and '[t]he principle of doing

tasks in the classroom which are applicable to the world outside […] is thus questioned', as is

questioned the 'authentic material' with which they have to work (ibid:195-196). Even though

researchers like Kramsch and Sullivan (1996 in ibid:196) insist that 'it can be problematic to

take a set of teaching methods developed in one part of the world and use it in another part', it

should be noted that there may be other causes to this problem, such as 'traditional

examinations, large class sizes […] students' low motivation […] and […] teachers' limited

expertise in creating communicative activities like group work' (ibid:200), causes which can

be found in many other parts of the world, but which need to be confronted if they are to give

project-based learning a chance to succeed at all. However, 'to decide a priori that [a]

teaching approach is inappropriate in a certain context, as Larsen-Freeman (2000:67 in

ibid:196) argues, 'is to ignore developments in language teaching', which 'might lead to the

de-skilling of teachers' altogether. Perhaps it is not a matter of rejecting 'the methodology

itself', as suggested by Harmer (2003:292 in ibid:200), but a question of how 'to amend[ ] and

adapt[ ]' communicative ideas 'to fit the needs of the students who come into contact with

them'. These teachers should be aware that if learners 'are to become real language users, they

must learn that 'English, as an international language, should not be [used] just for talking

about the ways of the English-speaking world', but should also be 'a means of telling the

world about [their] own culture', and that one of the ways of helping 'to bridge this relevance

gap' is through project work (Hutchinson 1991:11-12). By bringing the learners' schematic

knowledge to the surface (Alptekin 1993:136), incorporating it into the existing course

material and expanding it further within their own sphere through project work, makes

21

learning more relevant to the learners because they become the focal point of the learning

process.

With the growing use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and access to

the Internet, even though still 'accessible to only a tiny minority of the world's citizens'

(Trotman 2000:no pagination), communicative language teaching and project work are slowly

being given a new dimension. By working with peers in other institutions all over the world

learners have the opportunity to expand on existing course material and create projects of

their own . Using ICT tools such as e-mail, video conferencing and skype, projects can be

planned and carried out between groups of learners from different countries, giving them the

opportunity to use English as 'a bridge enabling two cultures to communicate with each other'

(Hutchinson 1991:12). With the growing knowledge of ICT that learners possess now-a-days,

they are able to create joint web sites and put their projects onto these web sites for the world

to see. Learners can also search the Internet for information and pictures pertaining to their

assigned projects, learn to use resources available on the Internet, such as online dictionaries,

and by using cameras they can even 'observe or take part in each others' lessons in real time'

(Trotman 2000:no pagination). Their use of language as they 'negotiate plans, analyse and

discuss information and ideas is determined by genuine communicative needs' (Hedge

1993:276-277). Unfortunately some experts consider the language of peer interaction merely

'junky input' and stand firm in their belief that learner-centred learning is concerned only

with getting the meaning across even though the language used may be 'aberrant' (O'Neill

1991:303).

2.4.3 The language question

There is no doubt that 'a vital ingredient in learning any language is […] exposure to it

(Harmer 2001:66), and, according to Krashen (1985 in ibid), 'the best kind of language that

students could be exposed to', is ''comprehensive input', that is language which students

understand the meaning of, but which is nevertheless slightly above their own production

level'. Harmer (ibid) ascerts that the person who can provide learners with 'language which

has been 'roughly tuned' to be comprehensible to them'; who 'can react appropriately […] in a

way that a coursebook […] cannot', and who knows how to talk at 'just the right level' for

them to understand if not every word, then at least the general 'meaning of what is being said',

is the teacher. The teacher's use of language is undoubtedly important, and by 'use of

22

language' does not only refer to 'the choice and appropriateness of structure and vocabulary',

as O'Neill (1991:302) clarifies, but also to 'the way teachers use their voices and bodies to

give an extra, affective dimension to the words they speak'. O'Neill (ibid:303), however,

seems to believe that in learner-centred lessons these skills are 'ignored or even decried', and

that because 'even in the most skilfully organized group activities, the teacher cannot monitor

more than a small percentage of what any individual student actually says', all that learners

are left with is peer interaction or 'junky input', to use his expression. One thing that O'Neill is

forgetting, however, is that it is the learners who need to practice L2 not the teacher, and that

if teachers talk too much, learners are 'denied their own chance to practise' the target language

(Harmer 2001:66). By giving learners a chance to express themselves in L2 and by supplying

them from time to time with a translation of what they cannot yet say, or in Thornbury's

words, by 'scaffold[ing] learners' production of language' (2001 in Ferrer, no date:3), they are

given 'the opportunity to notice how their intended meaning is realised in the target language',

which helps restructure their interlanguage and develops their communicative competence

(ibid:5). If the teacher is not available for guidance at any particular moment, learners can

scaffold one another within the group, as in the example cited by Donato, of three adult

English first language learners of French collaborating to construct the past compound tense

of the reflexive verb se souvenir, 'to remember':

A1 Speaker 1 …and then I'll say…tu as souvenu notre anniversaire de

mariage…or should I say mon anniversaire?

A2 Speaker 2 Tu as …

A3 Speaker 3 Tu as …

A4 Speaker 1 Tu as souvenu …'you remembered'

A5 Speaker 3 Yea, but isn't that reflexive? Tu t'as …

A6 Speaker 1 Ah, tu t'as souvenu

A7 Speaker 2 Oh, it's tu es

A8 Speaker 1 Tu es

A9 Speaker 3 tu es, tu es, tu …

A10 Speaker 1 T'es, tu t'es

A11 Speaker 3 tu t'es

A12 Speaker 1 Tu t'es souvenu

(Donato 1994:44 in Mitchell and Myles 2004:216)

Donato makes the point that even though no one within the group has 'the ability to produce

this complex form without help', it is 'through their successive individual contributions' and

using their L1 as a scaffold that 'the verb form is collectively reshaped', which confirms that

peer scaffolding can result in linguistic development within the individual' (ibid). The

23

question that probably comes to mind here is just how important a role should the learners' L1

play in peer interaction?

To impede learners from using their L1 completely in the language classroom, 'implies', as

Phillipson puts it, 'the rejection of the experiences of other languages, meaning the exclusion

of the child's most intense existential experience' (1992:189), which, according to Auerbach

(1993:16) 'may impede language acquisition precisely because it mirrors disempowering

relations'. Because 'the thinking, feeling, and artistic life of a person is very much rooted in

their mother tongue' (Piasecka 1988:97), it becomes the driving force in learning to speak and

use a new language. That is why learners should not be denied 'the right to draw on their

language resources and strengths' however minimal their L1 literacy may be (Auerbach

1993:22). It is also a known fact that learners are very dependent on their L1 especially at the

beginning stage of L2 learning, and that even though 'teachers try to keep the two languages

separate, […] learners in their own minds keep the two in contact' (Widdowson 2003:150).

Why should learners 'relinquish their mother tongue personality' when they can use it to their

advantage as 'a resource' allowing for 'learner centred curriculum development' (Gray

2009:9), where L2 becomes 'an extension or alternative realization of what the learner already

knows' (Widdowson 1979:111). This allows for 'language and culture shock to be alleviated',

'validates the learners' lived experiences' and 'supports a gradual developmental process in

which, use of the L1 drops off naturally as it becomes less necessary' (Auerbach (1993:19-

20).

While working on their projects learners will automatically begin interacting in both L1 and

L2, because it is natural for them to be 'constantly referring to, and making comparisons with

their L1' (Thornbury personal communication 2000 in Gray 2009:9), but which should not

cause too great a concern for the teacher, as they are working towards an L2 end product.

There will, in fact, be a lot of 'realistic translation work' going on, as '[a] lot of the source

material […] (leaflets, maps, interviews, texts from reference books, etc.) will be in [L1]'

(Hutchinson 1991:15) or on the Internet in both English and L1. It will also be difficult to

'anticipate all the language the learners will need', especially when working in collaboration

with learners from other countries, and in addition they will also be 'develop[ing] the skills of

looking for words they do not know or alternative ways of expressing what they want to say'

(ibid:17). Believe it or not, even 'grammar […] will appear more relevant because the students

know they will need these things for their project work' (ibid:15) and/or interaction with their

24

foreign peers. However, Hutchinson advises against assessing a project only on the basis of

linguistic accuracy, and suggests giving credit to its 'overall impact' (ibid:18) because by

'encourag[ing] a focus on fluency', as project work undoubtedly does, 'errors of accuracy are

bound to occur' (ibid:8), and by drawing attention to things that are wrong over those that are

good will only add to the learners' demotivation (ibid:18). Let us not forget that 'there is more

to language learning and education than just accuracy', and since any project is 'only part of

the total amount of work within a language course', why should it become 'a hostage to

accuracy in oriented assessment systems' (ibid)? As for those teachers who critisize project-

based learning simply because of their own fear of not being able to cope with the wide range

of language that will supposedly arise on the part of the learners (Thonosaulas 2002:no

pagination), let them rest assured that because English has become 'the means of

communication among people from different first language backgrounds, across

linguacultural boundaries […] it functions as a global lingua franca' or international language,

and as such is 'being shaped at least as much by its nonnative speakers as by its native

speakers' (Seidlhofer 2005:339), and the desire to understand and be understood is stronger

than to only sound native-like.

2.5 Conclusion

It is very difficult to come to any final conclusions regarding the ideal way to teach, because

of the many factors involved in motivating learners to learn. O'Neill (1991:302-303) tells us

that 'even the best teachers cannot really know what works or does not work for students', and

suggests that '[a]ll they can do is sharpen their intuitions and instincts, and try out various new

ideas' while not abandoning the things that seemed to work well in the past. Those teachers,

on the other hand, who firmly believe that only 'by sticking to the language materials and

trying to discipline their refractory students, they will manage to create a classroom

environment that will be conducive to learning', err, because they 'lose sight of the fact that,

unless they accept their students' personalities and work on those minute details that constitute

their social and psychological make-up, they will fail to motivate them' (Thanasoulas 2002:no

pagination). Garcés (1998-99:31-32) makes the point that 'the development of any foreign

language teaching […] program involves dealing with 'real teachers', 'real students', 'real data',

and coping with 'real circumstances', and that 'the more closely a second language teaching

program is based on the specific needs of the students, the more successful and effective the

course will be'. I am not claiming that project-based learning is the only solution to achieving

25

and maintaining motivation in ELT, but I do believe it provides an opportunity for the learner

'to develop creativity, imagination, enquiry, and self-expression' (Hutchinson 1991:18), and

because it links language content to the learners' life experiences, it helps make pedagogy

'context-sensitive' and 'location-specific' as it is 'based on a true understanding of local

linguistic, social, cultural, and [even] political particularities’ (Kumaravadivelu 2006:69) all

of which can, in turn, help foster and enhance motivation to learners of all ages.

26

Chapter Three

The Research Design

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the methodology used in conducting my research including a

description of the participants involved, the research site, the format and content of the

questionnaire and interviews and the procedure used for collecting the data.

3.2 The participants and research site

In my research I included 35 students ranging from 13-16 years of age, who were active

participants in international project activities for at least four years at the primary – lower

secondary school in which I teach. At the time this survey took place 19 of the respondents

still attended classes at the lower secondary school level while 16 of them already attended

secondary school, but nevertheless played an active role in the above-mentioned projects.

Three students from the group were chosen to take part in a short interview and will be

referred to as Student A, Student B and Student C.

In addition to the students I also included three colleagues who were involved in international

projects at our school for many years, and whose expertise in this area enabled them to

competently evaluate the impact these projects have on learner motivation and especially on

motivation in L2 learning. The teacher respondents included:

- Teacher A: the school computer teacher, female, aged 32, with a bachelor's degree in

Mathematics and Computer Science. Her involvement in international projects included

preparing and carrying out video conferences with students from different countries, and

preparing websites in collaboration with students for their international projects using ICT

tools.

- Teacher B: the school librarian, female, aged 47, with a bachelor's degree in Librarianship

27

and History. As co-organizer and co-ordinator of international projects at our school since

1999 she has succeeded in motivating many students to work on projects including those with

disciplinary problems.

- Teacher C: English Language assistant, female, Australian, aged 50, with a bachelor's

degree in Commerce and Economics obtained in Australia. She was a language assistant at

our school for three years, where she assisted English teachers during regular lessons and led

project workshops.

For the most part the survey was carried out at a given time on the premises of the primary –

lower secondary school in which I teach in compliance with the headteacher of our institution

and the chosen student/teacher respondents themselves. Even though the sixteen secondary

school students were initially invited to take part in the survey on the school premises, they

participated by e-mail, due to their variable schedules at the various secondary schools, which

made it impossible for all of them to be present at our institution at the same time. The school

librarian and school computer teacher took part in the research on the school premises at a

time and day that was convenient for each of them. The foreign language assistant was

interviewed through the Internet using Skype as she was no longer employed at our school

during the time of the research.

The purpose of the research was explained to all the participants before the actual survey took

place and the survey was conducted on a voluntary basis. The participants were guaranteed

that their identities would remain anonymous and their replies confidential and would only be

used for the purposes of this research. They were informed that they could withdraw from

participation if they felt in any way uncomfortable or intimidated by the contents of the

survey. They were also assured feedback concerning the outcomes of the research.

3.3 The research methods

3.3.1 The questionnaire

The questionnaire, which was prepared only for the students, was anonymous to allow for

honesty in the answers. After obtaining written permission from the school's headteacher for

the execution of my intended survey [see Appendix 3], I first conducted a pilot survey with

28

three reliable students chosen from different classes who had a good command of English, to

verify that there was no ambiguity in the understanding of the questionnaire, and to suggest

any improvements that would help make it more 'user-friendly' (Wallace 1998:139). They

found it quite comprehensible and had no particular comments to make regarding its overall

structure. I then administered the actual questionnaire to the lower secondary school students

myself to make sure that if any queries came up on their part regarding the understanding of

the questions, they would be answered immediately. The questionnaire sent by e-mail to the

student respondents attending secondary school was accompanied by detailed instructions and

my telephone number in case any queries came up regarding the understanding of the

questions.

Given the fact that the student respondents in my survey were 13-16 years of age with a

limited knowledge of English, the questionnaire, which was written only in English, contained

more closed questions with only a few containing a combination of both closed and open

elements in order to make it easier for the students to answer them without any major

misunderstandings. The format of my questions included quite a few YES/NO responses,

ranking, circling, ticking and four open-ended responses. [See actual questionnaire in

Appendix 4]. Of the entire sixteen questions asked, only the first one is a general question

regarding the age when the respondents first started learning English. Questions 2 to 8 are

connected to motivation in learning English and focus on how it has changed through the

years if at all, as well as the factors influencing the change itself. Questions 9 to 11, 13 and 14

deal with group work, its effect on motivation and problems encountered when using it.

Questions 12, 15 and 16 involve the students' views on international project activities. I

allowed the students to write their answers to the open questions in L1 if they felt they could

express their thoughts better that way.

3.3.2 The interviews

I prepared two different interviews – one for the teacher participants and one for the three

students chosen from among the student respondents. Even though most interviews are 'one-

to-one', as Wallace (ibid:149) informs us, his suggestion of having a group interview in the

form of a 'structured discussion' using the 'brainstorming approach' was very useful in the

interview I had with the three students. As I did not want their views and opinions to be

affected by my point of view, as that might 'affect the nature of the data collected' (Gray

29

2004:23), the interview was conducted in the form of a discussion among the respondents

with very little intervention from me. The atmosphere was relaxed and casual, which boosted

their morale and encouraged them to talk and give their opinions more freely. Their group

interview was recorded on the computer relevant parts of which were transcribed to be used in

this research. By incorporating both techniques in my survey, I was able to 'elicit basic factual

data' from the questionnaire, and 'follow up on [students'] attitudes and experiences' through

the interview (Wallace 1998:151). The five interview questions [see student interview

questions in Appendix 5] dealt with their opinions regarding teacher talking time and the

importance of their own particpation in class; how important they consider accuracy/grammar

and/or fluency to be when working on projects; whether they perceive international project

activities to be an asset in their L2 learning, and to describe any problems encountered during

project or group work. They were also asked to suggest any ideas that, in their view, would

help make ELT more interesting.

The teachers were interviewed individually, two on the school premises and one via skype.

All three interviews were conducted in the form of a casual conversation. The interviews with

Teachers A and C were conducted in English, while Teacher B chose to give her comments in

L1. I prepared four semi-structured interview questions, the first of which focused on their

view of student motivation between the ages of 13-16, that is at the lower secondary school

level. Question 2 was designed to reflect on whether project-based learning including

international project activities help achieve communicative competence for learners of

English, and question 3 required the teachers to give their opinions regarding the extent to

which project work helps achieve motivation. Finally they were asked to decribe some of the

problems faced when incorporating project work and more precisely group work in their

lessons. [See teacher interview questions in Appendix 6].

The interview questions were given to both the teachers and students before the interviews

actually took place to allow time for reflection. I now turn to the data results produced by this

research.

30

Chapter Four

Data Results Analysis and Discussion

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter I will analyse and discuss the data results obtained from the questionnaire and

the views expressed by both the students and teachers in the interviews. All 19 student

respondents from the lower secondary school level took part in the questionnaire, while only

eleven out of the initial sixteen students from the secondary schools managed to send me their

completed questionnaires by e-mail. All the interviews were carried out as planned. My

findings and data analysis will, therefore, be based on the answers and views of 30 students

and three teachers. Relevant information obtained from the student and teacher interviews has

been incorporated into the body of my dissertation along with direct quotes given by the

respondents themselves. The interview with Teacher C can be found in Appendix 7 by way of

example for the reader. All data results obtained from the questionnaire can be found in

Appendix 8, and have also been incorporated into my analysis and discussion. The results will

be analysed under the following headings:

1. Factors influencing motivation in foreign language learning

2. Motivation and communicative competence

3. The Question of Relevancy

4. Coping with problems encountered in project-based learning

4.2 Factors influencing motivation in foreign language learning

How to teach effectively in order to help learners achieve successful foreign language

learning is a language teacher's main priority. One of the main factors in determining the

outcome of any language course is motivation, which, even though achieved, may be very

difficult to maintain as the learning progresses, one of the reasons being the change in the

learners' attitude to learning as they get older (See Chapter Two). Based on the questionnaire

results, even though 26 out of the entire 30 student respondents stated they enjoyed learning

31

English when they first started learning it, when asked if they enjoy learning it now, only 19

students or 63% answered YES and 10 students or 33%, SOMETIMES, the two top reasons

being the teacher and that their own attitude to learning had changed. The three teacher

respondents seemed to agree that students at the lower secondary school level are not

motivated enough to learn. Both Teachers A and B agreed that learners are far too often

compelled to absorb too much information without really understanding it, which only adds to

their frustration and demotivation, or as Teacher B commented:

They are not adults yet and at this age do not have enough experience in life to

know why motivation is important. They are bombarded with too much information

and cannot take it all in.

'[A]part from the need to get good grades' Teacher C [see Appendix 7] did not see students at

this age as 'keen to learn', but she felt that they considered learning merely 'a process that they

have to go through'. Surprisingly, however, 96% of all the student respondents said they

would still make an effort to do well in English even if there were no tests or exams to study

for, not so much because they like it, but because it is an important language for international

communication and they plan to use it in the future. Being able to have a conversation with a

native speaker or other foreign person, and using their knowledge of English when working

on projects or other tasks independently regardless of any mistakes made, were ranked as the

top two situations where the students feel the most satisfied with their English, while good

marks on test papers ranked last. Both the student and teacher participants emphasized the

important role of the teacher in helping to motivate learners to learn and the need for project

work to make L2 learning more interesting and enjoyable. Teacher B convincingly argued:

The teacher has to be the one to motivate learners to learn because at this age many

are still not self-confident enough to know how to motivate themselves. One of the

ways that has proven to be very effective is getting them involved in international

projects, which seem to do away with the fear of the unknown and help bring back

their self-confidence.

Even though most teachers try to provide as much practice of 'real-life interactions' in the

classroom as possible (Zhenhui no date/pagination), the real test of the learners' ability to

interact in L2 comes when confronted with unexpected situations where they are forced to

react spontaneously and appropriately on the spot so to speak. Both student and teacher

interviewees were unanimous in their view regarding the impact of projects and especially

international project activities in helping to achieve this aim. Teacher C [see Appendix 7]

summed it up nicely saying, 'exposure to an international atmosphere […] [gives] the students

32

[…] another platform for the use of their acquired knowledge […] creates a sense of

adventure', where 'learning becomes more attractive to students' which 'increases their

enthusiasm and hence motivation'. All 30 student respondents enjoy working on projects

because of the variegated activities involved. [See their comments in Appendix 8 – question

results 12 and 12(a)]. Once motivation has been attained, however, it must also be maintained.

4.3 Motivation and communicative competence

Once motivation is achieved, teachers have to get the learners' linguistic and communicative

competence working hand in hand to maintain their motivation, while taking care not to

forget that 'communicative competence does not automatically result from linguistic

competence' (ibid). Bearing in mind Cook's assertion that '[t]here are times, when making

language function effectively is more important than producing perfectly pronounced,

grammatically correct sentences (1989:41), it becomes evident, as Zhenhui (no

date/pagination) states, that 'a good command of English grammar, vocabulary, and syntax

does not necessarily add up to a good mastery of English', but that there should be an

understanding of what the 'social conventions governing language form and behaviour within

a communicative group' are. All three student interviewees agreed that exposure to the target

language is vital in ELT and stressed their desire for teachers who talk too much, or are, as

(Thornbury 1997:xiii) puts it, 'over-zealous' in their desire to display their language

awareness, as well as those 'over-concerned with linguistic accuracy at the expense of

fluency', not to overdo it, but to give learners the chance to talk in order for them to gradually

gain the confidence and independence in L2 that so many of them lack. Just the right amount

of teacher input will enable learners to hear new structures and phrases being used correctly

first hand, which will not only benefit their linguistic competence, but also their

communicative competence when working independently in their groups where they will be

compelled to use what they have learned without the teacher's direct assistance. In order for

this to be meaningful to learners, the student interviewees stressed the importance of

relevance to which I now turn.

4.4 The question of relevancy

In order to 'inspire' or motivate learners to learn, Thanasoulas (2002:no pagination) reminds

us that activities have to be relevant for the learners, and it is the teachers' job to 'find out their

33

goals and the topics they want to learn, and try to incorporate them into the curriculum'. As

discussed in Chapter Two (2.2.4), it has to do with bringing the learning experience closer to

the students and making it relevant to their needs. 87% of all the student respondents agreed

that international projects made English more relevant. Speaking on behalf of the three

student interviewees, Student A commented:

By having direct contact with the language you get experience because you are forced

to use what you know and the atmosphere is a more relaxed one, which makes it easier

to correct any mistakes made without feeling pressured. If the project involves going

to another country, you have no one to depend on except yourself in getting it right

and you then begin to realize how important it is to use the language as much as

possible.

According to Student C 'by having the opportunity to use English more frequently in everyday

situations you gradually become more aware of your own accuracy and start correcting

yourself almost simultaneously'. The more opportunities learners have in using the target

language in relevent situations, the sooner they gain a deeper understanding of the meaning

behind the language. The interesting remark that Student C added was that 'you cannot help

but be more aware of your interlocutor's mistakes as well, which is sometimes difficult to

overlook, especially if the meaning behind the utterance is not understood'. When asked

at question 15(a) how international project activities have made English more relevant for

them, the students' comments included:

- You get experience in communicating in English.

- Using English in a project tells you how much you actually know.

- It helps to improve your pronunciation.

- Experience with foreign students makes learning easier.

With project-based learning it is a matter of starting with your own life experiences, with

things that relate to you as an individual, bringing these experiences to the surface, sharing

them with others and expanding them further, and where international projects are concerned,

even beyond the classroom walls. However, even though proven to be an asset, students and

teachers alike have at one time or another experienced problems when using project work in

language classrooms.

4.5 Coping with problems encountered in project-based learning

One of the problems mentioned in the survey was accuracy and the question of assessment.

Perhaps it is true that 'once language habits are formed, they are difficult to break', however,

'accuracy does not mean 100% error-free', which is in itself 'an impossible achievement'

34

(Zhenhui no date/pagination). '[E]rrors should be tolerated and the teacher should emphasize

that error-making is not at all disgraceful, but a natural and common practice' (ibid). When

asked how they would prefer to communicate in class or when working on their projects, 53%

of the student respondents preferred using a lot of English and only some L1, in their case

Slovenian, 30% preferred using only English, while only 17% opted for a little English and

mainly L1, and 0% were in favour of using L1 only. Student B remarked that 'the gravity of

grammar mistakes depends on whether you are writing, speaking, presenting or casually

discussing in L2 and that 'as school work is directly linked to grades', learners tend to make

more mistakes in class under pressure than in a relaxed atmosphere outside the classroom.

Even though projects serve as a tremendous asset to foreign language learning, only 77% of

the respondents believed that projects should be assessed, of which 65% opted for assessing

the overall project, 26% the presentation of the project, while only 9% chose assessing

grammar only. Student C added that even though grammar is very important, it should not

always be given top priority, but that conveying the intended message is almost as important

if not the most important part of language learning. The teacher interviewees agreed that even

though this is true, students should not take assessment lightly and should try to do their best

at all times, since the education system still focuses primarily on grades as the deciding factor

in their education. Student B commented that a lot of frustration could be avoided if some

teachers were not so 'narrow-minded', and added:

Some teachers do not let students give their opinions or contradict them in any way

even if the students know another answer is possible. Many teachers are very

dependent on coursebooks and stick to what is written in them, so you are not allowed

to give another answer.

Could this mean that some teachers are afraid of being challenged by learners, and prefer to

use 'methods and techniques' which they deem 'exotic' and 'modern' or which demonstrate

'specialized knowledge' to justify their 'status as professionals' in order to avoid the

'uncomfortable feeling' brought about by 'an awareness of how little more [they] really do

know about learning than [their] students' (Atkinson 1987:242)? The power generated from

teachers to students is best described by Teacher B, who commented that:

[a] negative or superior attitude to learning from the teacher will only discourage

learners to learn and that goes for whichever subject one teaches. But being

open to ideas from students will not only benefit them, but will strengthen their belief

in the teacher. This positive relationship between student and teacher is very important

in achieving motivation.

35

The student interviewees indentified yet another problem when working in groups, that of

working with lazy students and foreigners who have been in the country for only a short time

and have trouble understanding and expressing themselves in L2 and in the L1 of the country

in which they are residing, in this case Slovenia. The student respondents' most frequent

solutions to this problem included trying to convince these learners to work by giving them

easier tasks to do in the group, encouraging them to do their best and sometimes even

finishing the work themselves, and if all else fails, as in the case with lazy students, informing

the teacher about their negative attitude and letting them deal with it. All three student

interviewees considered group project assessment in situations like this out of the question, as

it would not be fair for all group members to get a good grade if the work was done only by a

few. Teacher C commented that there are always bound to be some 'less enthusiastic' students

especially in mixed-ability groups, who will be looked down on by other group members, and

suggested that by assigning them specific tasks at their level, ones they can handle, usually

helps make them feel like they are 'part of the team and encourages participation' [see

Appendix 7]. Both Teachers A and B agreed that even though slower students may take a bit

longer to finish their assignments, and may need to be reminded of what still needs to be done

more often than others, they are usually very eager and motivated to complete their work

especially if it involves themes they can relate to, and are also anxious to discuss the project

results with their foreign counterparts. Teacher A was convinced that it is precisely

international project activities that motivate even learners with the worst disciplinary

problems, and added that in her experience with international projects disciplinary problems

with students simply do not exist.

Having analysed and discussed the data results obtained from the questionnaire and the views

expressed by both the student and teacher respondents in the interviews, I will now examine

how the research outcomes have succeeded in providing answers for the research questions.

36

Chapter Five

Conclusion and Suggestions for Further Research

5.1 Introduction

In this chapter I will provide a summary of the research outcomes, link the key ideas to the

research questions, provide a conclusion regarding the hypothesis presented at the beginning

of my dissertation, and finally offer suggestions for further research.

5.2 A summary of the research outcomes

One of the main factors influencing motivation in language learning at the lower secondary

school level are the students themselves and their attitude towards learning which they

perceive changes as they get older. The teacher's attitude is also considered to have an impact

on stimulating or demotivating learners. After all a key element in achieving motivation and

enthusiasm in language learning is for the teacher to 'establish a relationship of mutual trust

and respect with the learners', keeping in mind that their 'commitment to and interest in the

subject matter is reflected in the learners themselves' (Alison (1993 in Thanosaulus 2002:no

pagination). However, there still exist those teachers who teach from a pedestal using only

the coursebook, and who disregard any new teaching techniques or innovative ideas, which

deeply discourages students to learn. Judging by their comments, it seems obvious that

learners at this age yearn for some independence in their learning and thus the need for

project-based learning to become a component part of the learning process, as it not only

enables them to practise L2 through doing, but also enhances learner autonomy and gives

them a purpose for applying what they know. Learners also want exposure, which enhances

both linguistic and communicative competence and makes it a valuable asset to their L2

learning as a whole. By adding the international aspect to project-based learning, students not

only achieve motivation, but by practising L2 in 'real life interactions' (Zhenhui no

date/pagination) in a relaxed atmosphere, they gradually become more independent in their

use of the target language. However, project work has some urgent problems that have to be

dealt with to assure for its continued success.

37

One of these is project assessment and the question as to what should be assessed. According

to the student respondents grammar is given too much attention. They consider the

appropriateness in specific situations as more important than merely stressing the correctness

of grammar and vocabulary. However, because it is difficult to evade the necessity and

importance of assessment as part of the education system, students are urged that while

enjoying project work, to take grammar more seriously. The problem of assessment is also

evident when working on projects in mixed-ability groups or groups that include lazy students

or foreign students who have been in the country for only a short time and have trouble

understanding and expressing themselves in L2 and in the L1 of the country in which they are

residing. While eager to show their willingness in encouraging slower learners to learn,

students are reluctant to having group projects assessed when most of the work is done by one

or two members while the rest show minimal effort in getting the job done. If, however,

project assessment is inevitable, then, students should be assessed based on the individual

effort put into the overall product. From the teachers' point of view, by assigning slower

learners specific tasks that will make them feel they have contributed something to the group,

even though minimal, or having them contribute through their other talents will certainly

stimulate their participation and motivate all the members of the group towards a successful

project outcome.

5.3 The research questions and key ideas

The main research question of my study - Do international project activities boost student

motivation in ELT at the lower secondary school level? - was explored through the three sub-

research questions to which I now turn:

1. Do teachers consider project-based learning a useful way of achieving student

motivation and communicative competence in ELT?

2. Do students perceive project work to be a valuable asset to their foreign language

learning?

3. Do students and/or teachers feel there are problems in using project work in ELT and

if so, how can they be met?

From the evidence presented and analysed we can safely say that project-based learning has

implications for the development and maintenance of student motivation and communicative

competence in ELT. What makes it so inviting is its adaptability to learners of all ages and

38

abilities, offering them a 'limitless' range of possible activities and topics to work with while

at the same time making it a personal experience for each individual learner (Hutchinson

1991:10). It gives learners the opportunity to link learning content with their own life

experiences and makes learning more enjoyable. It leaves the learner with a sense of

accomplishment, which, even though small, plays an important role in creating motivation. It

underpins the cross-cultural approach to teaching and by fostering the use of a wide range of

communicative skills, links the learner with the outside world. Learners, who have

experienced project-based learning and in particular international project activities, welcome

it with open arms as it allows for learner centredness and gives them more autonomy in their

work, and less able learners the opportunity to participate better without the fear of being

intimidated. All learners have a greater sense of responsibility to themselves and their peers in

getting the work done as they are all working towards the same goal. What makes project

work even more inviting for the teacher is that 'even the most reluctant, skeptical learner is

susceptible to peer work enthusiasm and derives benefit in taking part in a project' (Fried-

Booth 2002:7). Problems when using project work are bound to occur, and when they do,

they should be dealt with simultaneously by all the members involved. By getting learners

involved in making choices and decisions together with the teacher through dialogue, will not

only help in making them feel more secure in their learning, but their enthusiasm for learning

will grow (Wallace 1998:172-73) as will their sense of autonomy.

5.4 Conclusion

The research based on a Slovenian lower secondary school case study as presented in my

dissertation suggests that the potential of international project activities for student motivation

in L2 learning is significant. Project work not only contributes to stimulating motivation and

adds the spark needed to boost the learners' desire to learn, but the new learning experiences

that the students encounter when working with peers at the international level also have

implications for the development and maintenance of motivation, which in turn benefits their

learning. By serving as a bridge between cultures and enabling users of English to tell the

world about their own culture, international projects have given learners a sense of purpose

for learning L2. They are not only working towards scholastic achievement, but are putting

their knowledge to good use. By knowing that their end products will be displayed in foreign

schools, read by foreign students, foreign teachers and possibly published in foreign

educational magazines and websites, students want to do their best. The teacher's role is

39

undeniably important in guiding the learners on their way to learner independence and

autonomy. Only those teachers who can defy 'traditional school settings with […] a host of

institutional constraints that […] tend to cultivate [merely] extrinsic motivation' will succeed

in bringing the learner 'into a collaborative process of competence building' (Brown

1994:10). International project activities support peer scaffolding which can lead to the

individual's linguistic development. By actively using what they already know about English,

learners will become all the more confident, and by further developing language skills in their

search for new ways of expressing themselves as well as through their interactions with their

foreign peers, their confidence will grow. There is no doubt that mistakes will be made along

the way, but with the teacher's positive attitude even these will be overcome.

5.5 Suggestions for further research

As a language practitioner I have always held my ground against coursebook dependency,

because I feel it not only marginalizes the teacher's role 'to that of little more than a

technician' (Richards 1998:132), but also limits the leaners' opportunity to experience

language in a wider scope. It takes a lot of time and effort to find new strategies and techniqes

to make learning interesting and motivating for learners, and even though some practitioners

seem to think it a waste of time, project work has proven to be very successful in this area, not

to mention international project activities that have left their mark on learners of all ages. It

would be wise for teachers who have not yet applied project work in their teaching to witness

how this strategy works by attending classes at individual schools where it has proven to be

successful or seminars and teachers' conferences given by colleagues who have experienced

international projects. Given their potential for student motivation the question as to whether

they should become incorporated into the curriculum could be dealt with at teacher study

groups, where their advantages and/or disadvantages as well as the question of their

assessment could be discussed and eventually put to the test. Following their application it

would be wise for teachers to get feedback as to their potential from the students themselves.

Despite the small scale research provided by my thesis I hope it has thrown some light onto

the potential of international projects for student motivation. Like Covington (1998:2) I

believe that 'education should provide young people with a sense of empowerment that makes

their futures ''real'' by moving beyond merely offering them a few plausible but limited

alternatives to indicating how their preferred dreams can actually be attained'. After all 'the

40

greatest legacy of education is to encourage in our students a will to learn and to continue

learning as personal circumstances change – in short, to promote a capacity for resiliency and

self-renewal' (ibid:3). Is this not what education is all about?

41

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1

Klassen's ethnographic study cited by Auerbach

Auerbach cites some of the problems faced by interviewees in Klassen's (1991)

ethnographic study:

'Similarly Klassen's ethnographic study in Toronto's Spanish-speaking community found that

monolingual ESL classes were virtually inaccessible to the beginning-literate Spanish

speakers. Despite their lack of Spanish literacy, the people he interviewed were able to

manage in virtually every domain of their lives except in the ESL classroom; there, they

reported becoming completely silenced, making virtually no progress, or dropping out:

Angela … said that she had never gone back to an ESL class she once started because the

teacher embarrassed her by asking her about things she had never learned before. Maria

and Dõna Lucia described spending their time in class ''drawing letters and words they

could not understand while everyone else read the words and learned. Maria said she left

the class knowing no more than when she first came …. Pedro and Rebecca both said that,

because they did not ''know Spanish'' (meaning that they did not know proper ''schooled''

Spanish), they could not understand the ESL teachers' explanations about grammar,

especially verbs (p.52)'.

(Auerbach 1993:17-18)

42

APPENDIX 2

Examples of project tasks

Three examples of project tasks from Hutchinson's INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT

WORK (1991) that make use of knowledge from Geography, Science and Biology classes

and show the cross-curricular aspect of project work:

(i)

Make a project about a country.

1 Choose a country. Find some

information about it. Try an atlas, an

encyclopaedia, the Internet, travel

agencies, and the country’s embassy.

2 Write a few paragraphs about the

country.

3 Illustrate your text with a map and

pictures.

(ii)

Make a poster about an

environmental problem.

1 Choose your topic.

2 Do some research to find information

and illustrations.

3.Design your poster and write your text.

(iii)

Make a project about teenage health.

1 Choose some topics to write about, e.g. food,

exercise, drugs.

2 Make some rules for living a healthy life.

3 Find some pictures to illustrate your ideas.

4 Present your ideas as an information leaflet or as a

short TV programme.

(Hutchinson 1991:14-19)

43

APPENDIX 3

Permission Declaration by school headteacher

for conducting the survey

44

APPENDIX 4

The survey questionnaire

Dear Participants,

I have invited you to take part in a survey questionnaire which forms part of my MA thesis in

English Language Teaching at the University of East London, UK. It involves the views of

students at the lower secondary school level on motivation in ELT and project-based learning

with a focus on international project activities. It will only take a few minutes of your time to

complete. I guarantee that your identities will remain anonymous and your replies confidential

and will be used only for the purposes of this research.

Thank you for your trust in me and for your cooperation.

Yours sincerely,

Magdalena Bobek

Osnovna šola Pivka

Slovenia.

The Questionnaire

Read the statements and/or questions carefully before answering them.

The questionnaire is anonymous, so please be honest in your answers.

1. Circle the age when you started learning English.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Did you enjoy learning English then? Circle (a) or (b).

a. YES b. NO

45

3. Why are you studying English now? Rank in order of importance (1= the most

important). Write the appropriate number in the box provided.

because I need it for my further education to get my diploma

because I like it

because I plan to use it in the future

because it is an important language for international communication

4. Do you enjoy learning English now? Circle (a), (b) or (c).

a. YES b. NO c. SOMETIMES

5. How would you describe your motivation for learning English now compared to when

you first started? Tick (√) one right answer for you.

The same

Better

Worse

Variable/changeable

6. Based on your answer at number (5), what or who do you think has affected your

motivation for learning English in all these years?

Tick (√) up to three answers or give another reason.

The teacher

Your school friends

Irrelevant learning material

Good learning material

Tests and exams

Your family (parents, older brothers/sisters)

Your attitude to learning has changed

Other: ____________________________________________________________.

7. When do you feel the most satisfied with your English?

Circle two of the best answers for you.

a. when I get a good mark on a written test paper

b. when I understand the English lesson and can do the homework assignment by

myself

c. when I am able to have a conversation in English with a native speaker or other

foreign person without help from anyone

d. when I can use my knowledge of English in working on projects or other tasks oral

or written even though I may make some mistakes with the language, which doesn't

bother me

46

8. Would you still make an effort to do well in English if there were no tests and/or

exams to study for? Circle (a) or (b).

a. YES b. NO

9. When working on a project, how do you prefer to work? Circle two possible answers.

a. individually

b. in pairs

c. in groups

d. whole class with the teacher in control and having the last word

10. Here are some problems encountered by students when working with other classmates

in a group? Rank them in order of difficulty based on your own experience

(1= the most difficult problem to cope with).

lazy attitudes from some students

disagreements regarding the understanding of the work to be done

disagreements regarding who will lead the group work

using English in group discussions

11. How did you deal with the problem that was the most difficult to cope with?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

12. You have been involved in many international projects in the past.

Just to refresh your memory:

Comenius – Bridges, Eurofolk, Colour My World…

ETwinning – The Round Table, Clocks of Europe, Eurocastles...

Spring Day

Europe at school…

Many of them involved preparing project activities in groups, presenting them and

exchanging ideas and end products with friends from different countries, and debating

with them through video conferences and skype.

Did you enjoy doing these projects? Circle (a) or (b).

a. YES b. NO

12(a). If you circled YES at (12), what did you enjoy about them? _____________________

__________________________________________________________________________

12(b).If you circled NO at (12), why did you not enjoy them? _______________________

__________________________________________________________________________

47

13. When preparing a class and/or international project with your classmates, what do you

consider to be the best way to communicate in the group that will benefit your English

language advancement?. Circle one answer.

a. using English only

b. using a lot of English and some Slovenian

c. using only a bit of English and mainly Slovenian

d. using Slovenian only

14. Do you think project work should be assessed? Circle (a) or (b).

a. YES b. NO

14(a). If you circled YES in (14), what do you think should be assessed? Circle one answer.

a. grammar only

b. the overall project

c. the presentation of the project

15. Have international projects made learning English more relevant for you?

Circle (a) or (b).

a. YES b. NO

15(a) If you circled YES at (15), explain how they have made English more relevant?

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

16. Have international projects helped in motivating you to learn English? Circle (a) or (b).

a. YES b. NO

16(a) If you circled YES at (16), briefly explain how they have helped make English more

enjoyable for you.

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________.

That's the end of the questionnaire. Thank you for your time and effort.

I wish you good luck in your studies.

Magdalena Bobek.

48

APPENDIX 5

Student interview questions

Interview questions for the students

Interviewee: …………………….. Intended duration: …………….mins.

Date: ……………………………..Interview began: ……………………

Location: ………………………...Interview finished: …………………

Actual duration: ……………….mins.

Topic: Views on Student Motivation and Project-based Learning in English Language Teaching

1. Do you enjoy it when only the teacher talks English in class or do you want the

opportunity to practise English too?

2. You have prepared many projects in the last few years. Do you always concentrate on

English grammar mistakes when preparing a project for presentation in class or during

a video conference discussion/debate on a certain topic, and if so, do you consider it

important to correct them or is it more important for you to get your intended meaning

across?

3. Do you think international project activities to be an asset to your foreign language

learning? If yes, why? If no, why not?

4. Can you think of any other problems regarding the use of project work or international

project activities other than the ones already mentioned in the questionnaire?

5. What do you suggest would make English Language Teaching more interesting?

49

APPENDIX 6

Teacher interview questions

Interview questions for the teachers

Interviewee: …………………….. Intended duration: …………….mins.

Date: ……………………………..Interview began: ……………………

Location: ………………………...Interview finished: …………………

Actual duration: ……………….mins.

Topic: Views on Student Motivation and Project-based Learning in English Language Teaching

1. Do you feel that students between the ages of 13-16 are motivated enough to learn? If

not, please give at least one reason.

2. Judging from your experience with project work and especially international project

activities, do you believe that project-based learning helps achieve communicative

competence for learners of English at the lower-secondary school level? How?

3. In your opinion to what extent does project work help achieve student motivation?

4. Have you ever encountered any problems while incorporating project work in your

teaching such as lazy attitudes from some students, various disagreements in the

groups regarding the work to be done or who will lead the group work, problems with

slower learners or any other problems? If so, name at least two and explain how you

dealt with them.

50

APPENDIX 7

Interview with Teacher C

(by way of example for the reader)

Interviewee: Teacher C Intended duration: 30 mins.

Date: 7th March 2010 Interview began: 8.15 p.m.

Location: Internet – Skype Interview finished: 9.00 p.m.

Actual duration: 45 mins.

Topic: Views on Student Motivation and Project-based Learning in English Language Teaching

Interviewer:

Thanks for allowing me to interview you. Feel free to say whatever you think is important

regarding the topic of motivation and project work, as we agreed on over the phone. If you

don't want to answer a question, just let me know and we'll go on to the next one. OK?

Teacher C:

OK. Fine. No worries.

Interviewer:

You've had quite a lot of experience in teaching English. Do you feel that students

between the ages of 13-16 are motivated enough to learn?

Teacher C:

Not really, hmmmm…. apart from the need to get good grades at school, which for some is

not thought to be important anyway, I don't think students in this age group are keen to

learn…Learning at school is a process that they have to go through and … I think many of

them see it as just that at this stage.

Interviewer:

But don't you think they are motivated at all?

51

Teacher C:

Whether or not they are motivated to learn for other reasons than getting a grade is difficult to

say – that is I don't know if they are interested in learning something new for the sake of

learning itself. Of course, there are always students who are avid learners and are always

motivated, but … I don't think they are the majority.

Interviewer:

Judging from your experience with project work and especially international project

activities, do you believe that project-based learning helps achieve communicative

competence for learners of English at the lower-secondary school level?

Teacher C:

think the exposure to an international atmosphere is extremely positive for students. It

encourages them to find out about and understand other cultures…Well, at least in my

experience all international projects were conducted in English ... and this gave the students

who participated another platform for the use of their acquired knowledge.

Interviewer:

What do you mean by 'another platform'?

Teacher C:

It meant that they had to prepare for video-conference events… exchange information with

their international counterparts, prepare reports and presentations and generally expand their

use and fluency in English….. I think that all these activities increase students' competence as

well as self-confidence.

Interviewer:

In your opinion to what extent does project work help achieve student motivation?

Teacher C:

I think project work, particularly international project work, creates an atmosphere of

adventure which undoubtedly motivates students to participate…and …it …mmm... offers

them new experiences and encourages them to see learning in a different light. If learning is

52

not solely connectecd with the classroom it becomes more attractive to students, increases

their enthusiasm and hence motivation.

Interviewer:

Have you ever encountered any problems while incorporating project work in your

teaching…maybe lazy attitudes from some students, or various disagreements in the groups

regarding the work to be done or who will lead the group work…perhaps problems with

slower learners or anything you can think of?

Teacher C:

I don't recall having any particular problems with students during project work … of

course there are always some students who are less enthusiastic.

Interviewer:

And how did you deal with them?

Teacher C:

If they work in groups and are assigned tasks this usually helps to make them feel part of

the team and encourages participation.

Interviewer:

Thank you so much for taking part in my survey. I'll let you know when it's finished, so

that you can read it. Good luck and take care.

53

Appendix 8

Questionnaire results

The questionnaire results are based on the answers given by 30 student respondents:

- 19 students from the lower secondary school level aged 13-15

- 11 students from the secondary school level aged 16.

1. Circle the age when you started learning English.

Results: (ranked in order of the most frequent starting age): 9, 6, 4, 5, 8, 10

2. Did you enjoy learning English then?

Results: (percentage of students that selected each option):

YES = 87% NO = 13 %

3. Why are you studying English now? Rank in order of importance (1= the most

important).

Results: (ranked in order of importance – (1) is the most important):

1. because it is an important language for international communication

2. because I plan to use it in the future

3. because I need it for my further education to get my diploma

4. because I like it

4. Do you enjoy learning English now?

Results: (number and percentage of students that selected each option):

YES = 19 students or 63 % NO = 1 student or 4 % SOMETIMES = 10 students or 33%

5. How would you describe your motivation for learning English now compared to when

you first started?

Results: (ranked in order of the most frequently ticked description):

1. Better

2. Variable/changeable

3. Worse

4. The same

54

6. Based on your answer at number (5), what or who do you think has affected your

motivation for learning English in all these years?

Results: (ranked in order of most frequently ticked answers – (1) is the most frequently

ticked): 1. The teacher

2. Your attitude to learning has changed

3. Good learning material

4. Your school friends / Your family (parents, older brothers/sisters) / Tests and exams /

Irrelevant learning material

7. When do you feel the most satisfied with your English?

Results: (students' opinions ranked from the most to the least satisfied situations):

1. c. when I am able to have a conversation in English with a native speaker or other

foreign person without help from anyone

2. d. when I can use my knowledge of English in working on projects or other tasks oral

or written even though I may make some mistakes with the language, which doesn't

bother me

3. b. when I understand the English lesson and can do the homework assignment by

myself

4. a. when I get a good mark on a written test paper

8. Would you still make an effort to do well in English if there were no tests and/or

exams to study for?

Results: (percentage of students that selected each option):

YES = 96 % NO = 4 %

9. When working on a project, how do you prefer to work?

Results: (ranked in order of the most frequent answers given by students, (1) being the most

frequent):

1. in pairs

2. in groups

3. individually

4. whole class with the teacher in control and having the last word

10. Here are some problems encountered by students when working with other classmates

55

in a group? Rank them in order of difficulty based on your own experience.

Results: (ranked in order of difficulty: (1) is seen as the most difficult problem):

1. lazy attitudes from some students (chosen by 12 students)

2. disagreements regarding the understanding of the work to be done

3. disagreements regarding who will lead the group work

4. using English in group discussions

11. How did you deal with the problem that was the most difficult to cope with?

Results:

Some of the solutions proposed by students for the most difficult problem at question number

(10) included:

I tried to convince them to work;

The group gave them an easy task to do;

The other members encouraged them to do their best;

I finished the work myself;

I informed the teacher about the lazy student.

*For the problem ranked as the second most difficult one at question number 10

(disagreements regarding the understanding of the work to be done), the students asked the

teacher to explain again what was to be done and/or expected of them in the group.

12. You have been involved in many international projects in the past.

Just to refresh your memory:

Comenius – Bridges, Eurofolk, Colour My World…

ETwinning – The Round Table, Clocks of Europe, Eurocastles...

Spring Day

Europe at school…

Many of them involved preparing project activities in groups, presenting them and

exchanging ideas and end products with friends from different countries, and debating

with them through video conferences and skype.

Did you enjoy doing these projects?

Results: (percentage of students that selected each option):

YES = 100 % NO = 0 %

12(a). If you circled YES at (12), what did you enjoy about them?

Results:

Some of the answers given by the students were very similar, so I incorporated them into the

following answers:

56

I like team work.

It's about learning the language and having fun at the same time.

We learned about other people and cultures.

The themes were good.

I enjoyed the video conferences and having a penfriend.

It was fun debating in English with my friends.

I was connected with someone from another country.

The teacher had a positive attitude.

The projects gave me the opportunity to absorb the language and I began to understand

it better and use it more.

I enjoyed debating in English.

12(b).If you circled NO at (12), why did you not enjoy them?

Results: No one answered this question because all 30 respondents enjoyed working on

the projects.

13. When preparing a class and/or international project with your classmates, what do you

consider to be the best way to communicate in the group that will benefit your English

language advancement?.

Results: (the number and percentage of students that selected each option):

- using a lot of English and some Slovenian – 16 students or (53 %)

- using English only – 9 students or (30 %)

- using only a bit of English and mainly Slovenian – 5 students or (17 %)

- using Slovenian only – no students or (0 %)

14. Do you think project work should be assessed?

Results: (number and percentage of students that selected each option):

YES = 23 students or 77 % NO = 7 students or 23 %

14(a). If you circled YES in (14), what do you think should be assessed?

Results: (options are ranked in order of preference accompanied by the number and

percentage of the 23 students from previous question that selected each option):

1. the overall project – 15 students or (65 %)

2. the presentation of the project – 6 students or (26 %)

3. grammar only – 2 student or (9 %)

57

15. Have international projects made learning English more relevant for you?

Results: (number and percentage of students that selected each option):

YES = 26 students or 87 % NO = 4 students or 13 %

15(a) If you circled YES at (15), explain how they have made English more relevant?

Results: Students' answers included:

You get experience in communicating in English.

They bring the world closer to you in an interesting way.

English has become more relevant to me and has begun to mean something to me.

Using English in a project tells you how much you actually know.

Experience with foreign students is very good and it makes learning easier.

It helps to improve your pronunciation and later on even grammar.

You have the opportunity to talk with peers about a variety of things that help you later

on in your studies.

I can now see how important it really is in the world and how important it is for me to be

able to speak it.

Being involved in international projects means you have to devote more time to learning

English, but it is worth the effort, because it gets easier.

16. Have international projects helped in motivating you to learn English?

Results: (number and percentage of students that selected each option):

YES = 26 students or 88 % NO = 4 students or 12 %

16(a) If you circled YES at (16), briefly explain how they have helped make English more

enjoyable for you.

Results: Some interesting answers included:

It is more than just grammar.

It enables me to talk to native L2 speakers.

You can learn about English in a relaxed atmosphere.

I felt good because I could follow lessons better and my interest in English increased.

It enables us to not only understand the language, but speak better.

58

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Authorship statement

I declare that this dissertation is original and my own copyrighted work, produced

autonomously on the basis of the referenced bibliography and under the guidance of my

mentor and supervisor, dr. John Gray.

Author:

20th May, 2010 Magdalena Bobek.