An Investigation on the Anthropometry Profile and Its Relations Hi

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An investigation on the anthropometry profile andits relationship with physical performance of eliteChinese women volleyball playersYuyi ZhangSouthern Cross University, [email protected]

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Suggested CitationZhang, Y 2010, 'An investigation on the anthropometry profile and its relationship with physical performance of elite Chinese womenvolleyball players', MSc thesis, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW.Copyright Y Zhang 2010

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An Investigation on the Anthropometry Profile and Its Relationship with Physical

Performance of Elite Chinese Women Volleyball Players

Yuyi Zhang

Bachelor of Sport Science

This thesis is presented in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science

School of Health and Human Sciences

Southern Cross University

2010

2

Abstract

The purposes of this study were to determine the anthropometric characteristics of elite

Chinese women volleyball players, identify the differences in the anthropometric

profile and physical performance between the players at different volleyball positions,

and examine the correlations between the anthropometric profile and the physical

performance of the players. Thirty-one anthropometric indices and four physical

performance (medicine ball throwing, running vertical jump, T shuttle run agility test

and timed 20 sit ups) were measured for 100 volleyball players recruited from the top

eight teams of 2007-2008 national championship. The average age of the players was

22.3±3.6 (SD) years and the average training age was 9.7±4.0 years. For the elite

Chinese women volleyball players, the average values of stature, body mass, sitting

height, standing reach height, and BMI were respectively 183.6±5.8 cm, 70.5±7.6 kg,

95.7±3.5 cm, 236.7±7.8 cm, and 20.9±2.0. The overall anthropometric characteristics

of these volleyball players can be described as high stature; relatively longer forearm,

palm, calf and Achilles’ tendon lengths but a shorter sitting height; wider femur,

biiliocristal and biacromial breadths; larger difference between relaxed and tensed arm

girth, smaller wrist and ankle girths, smaller ankle girth / Achilles’ tendon length index;

and smaller skinfolds. The results also revealed that most of the anthropometric

variables were poorly correlated with the selected physical performance measurements,

except that the biepicondylar femur breadth, calf girth and calf length indices were

significantly correlated with the running jump height. There were significant

differences among the anthropometric profiles of the players at different volleyball

positions, especially in the indices of body mass, stature, standing reach height,

radiale-stylion length, acromiale-dactylion length, midstylion-dactylion length,

iliospinale height, tibiale-laterale height length, biacromial breadth, biiliocristal breadth,

transverse chest breadth and gluteal girth (all P<0.001). However, the physical

performance of the players at different positions showed no significant

between-position difference except the running jump height. The average somatoype

values of elite Chinese women volleyball players were “3.7-2.9-4.0”, belonging to

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endomorph-ectomorph. Their somatoypes were found mainly in four of the 13

categories, with 29% in endomorphic ectomorph, 14% in balanced ectomorph, 11% in

balanced endomorph and 9% in ectomorph-endomorph. The somatotype of the spikers

and liberos was of the central type, that of the second spikers and second setters was

endomorphic ectomorph, and that of the setters was endomorph-ectomorph. Based on

the findings of this study, it is recommended that the following anthropometric indices

be considered in recruitment for women volleyball players: body mass, stature, sitting

height, biacromial breadth, subscapular skinfold, ankle girth, forearm girth and

Achilles’ tendon length.

4

Acknowledgements

I owe tremendous debt of gratitude to many people who have greatly contributed to or

have helped with the development of this thesis in their special ways during the years

that it has been in preparation.

My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to Professor Zhou Shi, my supervisor, for

his sense of responsibility, enlightening guidance, and incredible patience during the

whole course of my writing. He has walked me through all the stages in the writing of

this thesis. Without his consistent and illuminating instruction, this thesis could never

have reached its present form. Moreover, his profound knowledge, rigorous

scholarship and good character will be a lifetime model for me.

Second, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Associate Professor Zhang

Qin, my co-supervisor, who gave me timely instruction and help in the data collection,

data analyses, and the writing of this thesis. She is a guide not only in my study, but

also in my life.

I would like to show my most sincere appreciation to the academic, technical and

administrative staff in the School of Health and Human Sciences, the staff of the

International Office, and the staff of the Library at Southern Cross University，for their

kind and warm help in the study and the life of a young student far way from her home.

My appreciation also goes to Mr. Xu Li, the director of Chinese Volleyball

Management Center, and Mr. Cai Yi, the secretary of competition department of

Chinese Volleyball Management Center, along with the coaches and players in China

national women volleyball team, Bayi-army women volleyball team, Tianjin women

volleyball team, Shanghai women volleyball team, Jiangsu provincial women

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volleyball team, Liaoning provincial women volleyball team, Sichuan provincial

women volleyball team, Zhejiang provincial women volleyball team and Shandong

provincial women volleyball team. They gave me unreserved help and support along

my data collection and made this investigation possible. Their kindness and patience to

a young student like me will always be treasured up in my memory.

Last but by no means the least, my thanks are also go to my parents. It is always their

love and support that makes me rosy in the writing of this thesis and in my daily life as

well.

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Table of Contents

Declaration ........................................................................................................................... 1

Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 2

Acknowledgement ………………………………………………..……………………………... 4

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. 6

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ 9

List of Figures .................................................................................................................... 15

1. Chapter One: Introduction ........................................................................................... 16

1.1 Background of the research ................................................................................ 16

1.2 Significance of the research ................................................................................ 24

1.3 Statement of the problem .................................................................................... 24

1.4 Purposes of the research ...................................................................................... 25

1.5 Research hypotheses ........................................................................................... 25

1.6 Research outline .................................................................................................. 26

1.7 Limitations of the research .................................................................................. 26

2. Chapter Two: Literature Review ................................................................................. 28

2.1 Volleyball ............................................................................................................ 28

2.2 Anthropometry and sports ................................................................................... 30

2.3 Somatotype ......................................................................................................... 42

2.4 Physical performance………………………………………………………………..55

2.5 The recruitment based on anthropometry ........................................................... 70

2.6 Summary of the Literature Review ..................................................................... 84

3. Chapter Three: Methods .............................................................................................. 85

3.1 Participants .......................................................................................................... 85

3.2 Research design .................................................................................................. 87

3.3 Ethical considerations ......................................................................................... 88

3.4 Equipment ........................................................................................................... 89

3.5 Procedures ........................................................................................................... 89

3.6 Statistical analysis ............................................................................................. 106

7

4. Chapter Four: Results ................................................................................................. 107

4.1 Results for anthropometric variables and physical performance measurements

................................................................................................................. …..107

4.2 Correlations between the anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance….. ............................................................................................. 111

4.3. Anthropometric characteristics of the players at the five volleyball positions 114

4.4 Physical performance of the five volleyball position groups ............................ 120

4.5 Somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball player ................................... 123

4.6 Clustering analyses for anthropometric profile of elite Chinese women volleyball

players ............................................................................................................ 126

4.7 Regression analysis and prediction of physical performance ........................... 129

5. Chapter Five: Discussion ............................................................................................ 138

5.1 Analysis on anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women volleyball

players ............................................................................................................ 138

5.2 Analyses of anthropometric characteristics between different volleyball

positions……. ................................................................................................ 140

5.3 The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance… ............................................................................................... 149

5.4 The differences in physical performance between different volleyball

positions........... .............................................................................................. 155

5.5 Somatotypes ...................................................................................................... 156

5.6 Typical anthropometric characteristics of volleyball players ........................... 162

5.7 Regression model for anthropometric characteristic and physical performance of

elite Chinese women volleyball players ........................................................ 164

6. Chapter Six: Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research ........................... 167

6.1 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 167

6.2 Suggestions for future research ......................................................................... 169

7. References .................................................................................................................... 171

8. Appendices ................................................................................................................... 184

8

Appendix 1: Definition of terms ..................................................................................... 184

Appendix 2: Health status assessment ........................................................................... 190

Appendix 2: Health status assessment (Chinese) .......................................................... 194

Appendix 3: Information sheet ....................................................................................... 198

Appendix 3: Information sheet (Chinese) ..................................................................... 202

Appendix 4: Informed consent form .............................................................................. 205

Appendix 4: Informed consent form (Chinese) ............................................................ 208

Appendix 5: Expert Questionnaires ............................................................................... 210

Appendix 6: Tables for results ....................................................................................... 211

Publication ………………………………………………………………………………254

9

List of Tables

Number Title Page

Table 1-1 The mean values of body mass and stature of elite women

volleyball players in the past four Olympics games

17

Table 1-2 Physical characteristics of the female volleyball players at

different positions of the top six teams in the 26th Olympic

Games

21

Table 2-1 Physical ability tests significantly correlated with

proficiency in the game

34

Table 2-2 A comparison of anthropometric indices between the

players from China and three other countries (Mean ± SD)

36

Table 2-3 The physical characteristics of 287 players in the 15th World

Women Volleyball Tournament.

36

Table 2-4 A comparison of four anthropometric indices between Chinese

and Italian, Russian and USA women’s volleyball teams.

39

Table 2-5 A comparison of “(trochanterion height - calf length)/calf

length×100”

40

Table 2-6 Average value of the index of “Achilles’ tendon/calf length

×100” in gymnasts and volleyball players (mean ± SD)

41

Table 2-7 A comparison of the index “ankle girth/Achilles’

tendon×100” in different sports (mean ± SD)

41

Table 2-8 Categorization of somatotype methods based on Heath-Carter

measurement

46

Table 2-9 Results of female volleyball players somototype 49

Table 2-10 Somatotypes of ten varsity and nine junior varsity women

intercollegiate volleyball players

52

Table 2-11 Statistics of four indices of female volleyball players from

top 9 teams in the 26th Olympics Games

68

10

Table 2-12 Anthropometric characteristics of elite female volleyball

players at volleyball positions

78

Table 2-13 The anthropometric characteristics of the spikers in 15th

World Women’s Volleyball Tournament

79

Table 2-14 The anthropometric characteristics of the second spikers in

15th World Women’s Volleyball Tournament

79

Table 2-15 The anthropometric characteristics of the setters in 15th World

Women’s Volleyball Tournament

80

Table 2-16 The anthropometric characteristics of the second setters in 15th

World Women’s Volleyball Tournament

80

Table 2-17 The anthropometric characteristics of the liberos in 15th World


80

Table 3-1 The top eight teams of the 2007-2008 Chinese Women’s

Volleyball Tournament

85

Table 3-2 The general information for all volleyball players 86

Table 3-3 General information for the five players’ positions 86

Table 3-4 The items of anthropometric measurements 90

Table 3-5 The derived indices from the anthropometric data 92

Table 3-6 Results statistics of the survey 101

Table 3-7 Test-Retest Reliability of Four Physical performance Tests 102

Table 4-1 Anthropometric variables for elite Chinese women volleyball

players

211

Table 4-2 Somatotype values for elite Chinese women volleyball players 108

Table 4-3 Physical performance testing data for elite Chinese women

volleyball players

108

Table 4-4 Derived anthropometric indices of elite Chinese women

volleyball players

109

Table 4-5 Correlations between anthropometric profile and medicine ball

throwing

213

11

Table 4-6 Correlations between anthropometric profile and T-shuttle run

agility test

215

Table 4-7 Correlations between anthropometric profile and timed 20

sit-ups performance

217

Table 4-8 Correlations between anthropometric profile and running

vertical jump height

218

Table 4-9 Correlations coefficients between the derived anthropometric

indices and medicine ball throwing

220

Table 4-10 Correlations between the derived anthropometric indices and

T-shuttle run agility test

221

Table 4-11 Correlations between the derived anthropometric indices and

timed 20 sit-ups

222

Table 4-12 Correlations between derived anthropometric indices and

running vertical jump

223

Table 4-13 Correlations between BMI and physical performance 113

Table 4-14 Correlations between sum of four skinfolds and physical

performance

113

Table 4-15 Correlations between somatotype values and physical

performance

114

Table 4-16 One-way ANOVA for anthropometric indices of players at

different positions

224

Table 4-17 One-way ANOVA for evaluation indices of players at different

positions

226

Table 4-18 One-way ANOVA for body composition anthropometric

indices of players at different positions

115

Table 4-19 One-way ANOVA for body composition evaluation indices of

players at different positions

116

Table 4-20 Multiple comparison for basic anthropometric difference

among the players at different positional groups

229

12

Table 4-21 Multiple comparison for length indices among the players at

different positional groups

230

Table 4-22 Multiple comparison for breadth indices among the players at


233

Table 4-23 Multiple comparison for girth indices among the players at

different positional groups (A)

234


different positional groups (B)

236

Table 4-25 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “spikers-second

spikers”

238

Table 4-26 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “spikers-setter” 239

Table 4-27 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “spikers-second

setter”

240

Table 4-28 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “spikers-libero” 241

Table 4-29 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “second

spikers-setter”

242


spikers-second setter”

243


spikers-libero”

244

Table 4-32 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “setter-second

setter”

245

Table 4-33 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “setter-libero” 246


setter-libero”

247

Table 4-35 Multiple comparisons for anthropometric indices of body

composition among the players at different positional groups

118

Table 4-36 Multiple comparisons for evaluation indices of body

composition among the players at different positional groups

119

13

Table 4-37 One-way ANOVA for physical fitness of players at different

tactical positions

120

Table 4-38 Multiple comparisons for physical fitness among the players at


122

Table 4-39 Distributions of the somatotypes of elite Chinese women

volleyball players

124

Table 4-40 Somatotype distributions in the eight women volleyball teams 124

Table 4-41 ANOVA for somatotype value of the players at different

tactical positions

125

Table 4-42 Comparisons of somatotype data at the five volleyball

positions

248

Table 4-43 Comparisons of statistics of percentage of somatotyping

between players at the five volleyball positions

249

Table 4-44 Comparisons of somatotypes between players at the five

volleyball positions

126

Table 4-45 Difference analyses for somatotype values of different

positional groups

250

Table 4-46 Numbering of anthropometry indices 251

Table 4-47 Statistics table of R-model cluster coefficient 252

Table 4-48 Statistical table of R-model cluster for typical indices 128

Table 4-49 Summary of regression prediction of medicine ball throwing

with anthropometric indices

129

Table 4-50 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of medicine ball

throwing with anthropometric indices

130

Table 4-51 Summary of regression prediction of running vertical jump


131

Table 4-52 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of running vertical jump


132

Table 4-53 Summary of regression prediction of T-shuttle run agility test 133

14


Table 4-54 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of T-shuttle run agility

test with anthropometric indices

133

Table 4-55 Summary of regression prediction of timed 20 sit-ups with

anthropometric indices

134

Table 4-56 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of timed 20 sit-ups with


135

Table 5-1 Comparison of anthropometric data between top women

volleyball teams in Chinese and world

140

Table 5-2 Comparison of stature between top women volleyball teams in

Chinese and world

146

Table 5-3 Comparison of body mass between top women volleyball

teams in Chinese and world

147

Table 5-4 Comparison of the Katoly indices between top women

volleyball teams in Chinese and world

148

Table 5-5 Somatotype characteristics for Italian female volleyball players

in different volleyball positions

157

Table 5-6 Statistics for Foreign women volleyball players’ somatotyp 160

Table 5-7 Summary of the regression models for specific physical

performance to anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese

women volleyball players

165

Table 5-8 Test of regression equation for specific physical performance

of elite Chinese women volleyball players

166

15

List of Figures

Number Title Page

Figure 1-1 The average height of elite women volleyball players in the top four

teams in the past four Olympics games, compared with that of the

Chinese team

19

Figure 2-1 Somatochart for Greek female players from different competition

level

82

Figure 3-1 The sites of anthropometric measurements 90

Figure 3-2 The medicine ball throwing test 103

Figure 3-3 The running vertical jump test 104

Figure 3-4 The route of T-shuttle run agility test 105

Figure 3-5 The T-shuttle run agility test 105

Figure 3-6 The timed 20 sit-ups test 106

Figure 4-1 Clustering pedigree chart for anthropometric indices 127

Figure 5-1 Distribution of somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball

players at different volleyball positions

159

Figure 5-2 Distribution of Chinese and foreign elite women volleyball

players’ somatotype

161

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1. Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Background of the research

1.1.1 The characteristics of volleyball as a sport

Volleyball is a complex game of simple skills. The volleyball court is a rectangular

field with the size of 9 × 9 m on each half separated by a net of 2.24 m in height in the

middle. Two teams in the match, as opponents, will exercise various skills and tactics

to attack and to defend. The ball is served into play. To attack, the players try to make

the ball fall down onto the ground of the opposite side. To defend, they try to prevent

the ball from falling down onto the ground of their own side. A team can touch the ball

three times on its own side. As a purely rebound ball game (you can't hold the ball),

volleyball is a sport of constant motion. The basic pattern of movement in making an

attack includes a dig (an underarm pass made with the forearms), a set (an overhead

pass made with the hands), and a spike (the overhead attacking shot). Teams can also

try to block the opponent's spike as the ball crosses the net (International Volleyball

Federation, 2008).

In each team there are six players standing in two rows with three players in each. In a

match, every player should change their position in turn except the libero, which means

every player on the court should be able to serve, set, pass, spike and block. So it is

essential for the players to possess physique and physical performance that allow them

to play their roles most effectively (Chen, 1989a).

The height over the volleyball net always means the mastery of the game. The height is

decided by a combination of the athlete’s body height and the jumping height, and

usually it is shown in blocking height and spiking height. A team will lose its capacity

of winning a score if there is a lack of predominance over the net (Tian, 2006).

17

It has also shown in recent years that there is a trend that more women’s teams adopt

the technique, tactics and physical performance that were previously seen only in male

volleyball players. The skills like higher attack, powerful jumping-serve, attack from

the back row and aggressive blocking are now widely used by female volleyball

players. All these bring forward greater demand for specific physical fitness and

physique of female volleyball players. For example, during the period from 1992 to

2002, the number of female volleyball players who were taller than 190 cm increased

rapidly (Gao, 2006). Table 1-1 shows the trend of change in anthropometry and the

height indices of the top six women volleyball teams in the 26th to the 29th Olympics

games (Zhang, 1998b, Gao, 2006, International Volleyball Federation, 2008).

Table 1-1 The mean values of body mass and stature of elite women volleyball

players in the past four Olympics games

Games 26th 27th 28th 29th

Mass 71.4 71.7 71.8 73.4

Stature 1.81 1.82 1.83 1.84

Spiking height 306.7 305.2 304.8

Blocking height 290.4 291.9 297.2

Source: (Gao, 2006; International Volleyball Federation, 2008; Zhang, 1998)

1.1.2 Physical performance of volleyball players

In volleyball, technical and tactical skills, anthropometric characteristics and individual

physical performance capacities are most important factors that contribute to the

success of a team in competitions (Hakkinen, 1993).

Physiologically, a volleyball game is an intermittent exercise that requires the players

to perform frequently short bouts of high-intensity activities such as jump and spike,

followed by periods of low-intensity activities (Kuenstlinger et al., 1987, Viitasalo et

al., 1987). Therefore the players should possess both high aerobic and anaerobic power.

18

The instant and explosive spiking and blocking over the net are intense enough to

trigger anaerobic metabolism which means lactic acid may accumulate in the blood.

Moreover, since the match time is not restricted, a match sometimes may last for more

than two hours. Therefore, it also requires a high level of aerobic fitness (Chen, 2005,

Tian, 2006).

Volleyball players require well-developed muscular strength, power and endurance,

speed, agility, and flexibility, and have a high level of jumping ability, fast reaction

time and swift movements (She, 1999). Considerable demand is also placed on the

neuromuscular system during sprints, jumps (blocking and spiking), and high-intensity

court movements that occur repeatedly during competition (Hakkinen, 1993).

Versatility and speediness are the trend of development in modern volleyball sport.

“Versatility” means that the athletes should not only be well-prepared for their specific

position, but also posses high levels of all-round skills in serving, setting, spiking,

blocking and defense. “Speediness” requires the athletes to be able to move quickly to

the optimal place on the court. Speediness and agility in tactics, as the key factors,

work together to make suddenness the feature of modern volleyball sport (Huang,

1992).

Among all the physical performance indicators, speed and power (eg. in jumping and

spiking) are of the most important ones. Particularly, jumping height is decisive for the

execution of techniques and tactics (Jin et al., 2007). The research by Japan Volleyball

Association demonstrated the significant correlation between the vertical jumping

index and the competitive ability of the volleyball players. It was found that the

jumping ability had a positive correlation with the number of spiking, and the total

success rates of spiking, blocking and serving in a game (Tian, 2006).

1.1.3 Anthropometric characteristics of female volleyball players

Optimal physique is apparently an advantage to volleyball performance. Only when a

19

volleyball team is collectively equipped with all the ideal anthropometric

characteristics can the team win the dominance in a game (Chen, 2005).

Height has been reported to be a discriminating factor between successful and

non-successful teams in a collegiate tournament (Morrow et al., 1979), correlating

significantly with the final standings of an open national tournament (Gladden and

Colacino, 1978). The height over the net is a decisive factor for volleyball games,

determined by the athletes’ stature and jumping height, and shown in blocking height

and spiking height. All these bring forward the demand for specific physique of

volleyball athletes. The stature data shown in Figure 1-1 demonstrates the trend of

change in the top women’s volleyball teams in recent Olympic games (Gao, 2006).

176

178

180

182

184

186

188

26th 27th 28th 29th

Height(cm)

Chinese team

Top four teams inOlympics

Figure 1-1 The average height of elite women volleyball players in the top four

teams in the past four Olympics games, compared with that of the Chinese team

Source: Zhang (1998b) and Gao (2006).

The rivalry in modern volleyball games focuses on the dominance over the net, and the

best way to win this dominance is to recruit athletes who are taller with greater

jumping ability. Previous investigations indicated that elite volleyball players did

demonstrate advantageous physique characteristics (Li, 1995). The major

characteristics of volleyball players include high stature and standing reach height, low

Katoly index (= mass/height×1000), long arm span, long Achilles’ tendon and long

20

lower-limb and calf. As a result, in the recruitment, high stature should not be the only

criterion, other characteristics should also be considered (Tian, 2006).

Body mass correlates well to muscle size and power in elite athletes. It has been

reported that Katoly index correlates well to the quantity and strength of muscles (Gai

and Li, 2002, Li, 2002).

Arm span and standing reach height have also been suggested as essential factors for

higher spiking and blocking (Zeng, 1992). Arm span is closely related to most of the

volleyball techniques, especially in attacking. To make full use of the spiking speed of

a waving arm, a long arm is an advantage. Jin and colleagues suggested that standing

reach height should be used as an essential criterion in recruitment of volleyball

players (Jin et al., 2007). You and Huang (2000) suggested that arm length had a

significant correlation with the performance over the volleyball net, especially in

attacking (You and Huang, 2000). Longer arm is important too in defence. The length

of the arm span of elite volleyball players has been found to be approximately 5 cm

longer than his/her height. The arm span and the standing reach height are found to be

closely related (Zeng, 1992).

In summary, the anthropometric characteristics of volleyball players have been

reported as high stature, and relatively longer limbs, shorter sitting height, higher lean

mass, larger girth difference between the relaxed and flexed-and-tensed arm, wider

hand, narrower pelvis, longer calf, slimmer ankle, longer Achilles’ tendon, and wider

but not longer feet (Tian, 2006).

1.1.4 Physique characteristics of volleyball players at different positions

An athlete’s anthropometric characteristics represent important prerequisites for

successful participation in any given sport (Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b).

Indeed, it can be assumed that an athlete’s anthropometric characteristics can in some

way influence his/her level of performance (Carter and Heath, 1990, Rienzi et al.,

21

1999). However, although studies have examined the anthropometric and physiological

profiles of athletes from a variety of sports (Cardinal, 1993, Gabbett, 2000b, Rienzi et

al., 1999, Zabukovec and Tiidus, 1995a) it appears that few studies have examined the

anthropometric or physiological profile of elite volleyball players, particular in relation

to their positional role within the sport (Duncan et al., 2006).

It has been suggested that volleyball players at different positions have different

anthropometric characteristics, especially in height. Nowadays, among the prominent

volleyball players in the world, the average height of setters is about 180～185 cm,

spikers is about 185～190 cm, second spikers is about 190～200 cm, and second

setters is about 185 ～ 195 cm (Ling, 2007b). Table 1-2 shows the physical

characteristics of the female volleyball players of the top six teams in the 26th

Olympics Games, and the players at different positions (Zhang, 1998b).

Table 1-2 Physical characteristics of the female volleyball players at different

positions of the top six teams in the 26th Olympic Games

Spikers Second

spikers

Setters Second

setters

Body mass (kg) 70.8 73.9 68.4 72.2

Stature (cm) 180.5 184.8 175.9 181.3

Running vertical jump

(cm)

307.6 309.9 295.3 307.6

Source: (Ling, 2007a)

1.1.5 Physique and recruitment of talented volleyball players

Success in sport competitions has been associated with specific anthropometric

characteristics, body composition and somatotype (Bayios et al., 2006, Duncan et al.,

2006, Hakkinen, 1993).

22

Recruitment based on scientific analysis and early training is critical in modern sports

training. Volleyball players usually begin their training at the age of 11-12 (Guo, 1999).

The reliability of the prediction for volleyball players’ future height has been thought

as a key factor of a successful recruitment (Huang, 1992).

In the world, and in China, various methods and approaches have been utilized in the

selection of players, such as performance based, by experience of coaches, use of

qualitative and quantitative indices, and scientific testing. Talent identification for

players always includes certain anthropometric measurements. Among the

anthropometric indices, some of them are highly attributable to heredity (e.g. stature,

length and width), but some others are with very low heredity, such as the nutrition

indices like body mass.

The talent search for volleyball program at Queensland Academy of Sport has

identified that height, standing reach height, muscular power, speed, agility, and

maximal aerobic power are essential characteristics for success in volleyball (Gabbett

et al., 2006). It has been demonstrated that junior players and teams are significantly

different to elite players and teams in some selected physiological and anthropometric

measurements.

The average age of a champion team is usually in the range of 23 to 25 years. It

normally needs 8 to 10 years to build up a champion team or to cultivate a champion

athlete. Therefore, the best age for recruitment is around 13 years for female athletes

and 15 years for male athletes. An important issue in the recruitment is the prediction

of the physique, and the reliability of the prediction. So far the recruitment of

volleyball athletes have been mainly based on personal experience of the coaches, and

this, to some extent, restricts the improvement of volleyball sport.

Huang (1992) also suggested that, in the recruitment of volleyball players, “the

anthropometric characteristics include stature, body mass, relative length of the limbs,

23

the length of the limbs/stature ratio, palm and foot length, body and limbs girths and

widths, mass/stature, etc., we should pay attention not only on the indices of girths and

mass/height ratio, but also the relative length of limbs and Achilles’ tendons, the stature

and the height of feet arches” (Huang, 1992).

Yang (1996) had collected 106 testing items for physical performance (23 items from

China, 26 items from Japan, 26 items from USA, 10 items from Canada, 14 items from

former Soviet Union, and 7 items from Holland), and categorized 61 test items that

were commonly used in these countries to six domains that were thought to be closely

related to volleyball performance, including: explosive force, stamina, agility, muscle

strength, flexibility, coordination and balance. Furthermore, 10 testing items were

selected, including 20-metre sprint starting from a prone position, spiking jump, 3-step

frog-leap, medicine ball throwing, sit-ups, 12-minute race, 3-metre shuttle run,

36-metre shuttle run, deep squat with barbell, standing forward body flexion (Yang,

1996). Gabbett et al. (2006) selected the following items to measure physical

performance of volleyball players: lower-body muscular power (vertical jump, spike

jump), upper-body muscular power (over-head medicine ball throwing), speed (5-m

and 10-m sprint), agility (T-test), and maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test).

However, there have been few reports on the relationship between the anthropometric

characteristics and physical performance of elite volleyball players, particularly at

different playing positions.

In summary, volleyball is a team sport which requires specific anthropometric

characterics of players for elite performance, particularly in relation to dominance over

the net. Volleyball coaches have been paying greater attention on anthropometric

characteristics in recruitment of potential players. However, according to the literature

we collected, at present there are few reports on the anthropometry profile of elite

volleyball players. Particularly there is a paucity of information on the differences

between players at different playing positions and the relationships between the

anthropometry measurements and physical performance.

24

1.2 Significance of the research

This study was the first to systematically analyse the anthropometric characteristics,

and their relationship with physical performance for elite female volleyball players in

China. Through quantitative analysis of elite female volleyball players, unique

physique characteristics to volleyball players may be identified that will provide

evidence for validation of indices that will be useful in recruitment of talented athletes.

Athletes at different positions in volleyball may have different physique. Defining

these differences for elite female volleyball players may assist further in the

identification of talented athletes for specific positions.

Anthropometry is a very old science, and, like many old sciences it has followed a

variety of paths. One of the consequences of multiple anthropometric traditions has

been the lack of standardization in the identification of measurement sites, and in

measurement techniques. This makes comparisons across time and space extremely

difficult. The International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK)

has recommended standardized practices in anthropometry (Marfell-Jones et al.,

2006b). This study will be the first study that applies ISAK standards in examining the

anthropometric characteristics of Chinese players. Adoption of the international

standards will allow comparative studies for the data collected from Chinese players

with those from other countries.

1.3 Statement of the problem

1) Anthropometric characteristics have been recognized as important contributors to

volleyball performance. However, in China various non-standardized methods and

definitions have been used in the past to describe athletes’ anthropometric

characteristics and no information is available about the somatotypes of elite Chinese

female volleyball players.

25

2) There has been no information available about the specific anthropometric

characteristics of volleyball players at different positions.

3) Various indicators have been used in the past for athletes’ physical performance.

However, no one has examined the relationships between standardized

anthropometric measurements and performance indicators for elite Chinese female

volleyball players.

1.4 Purposes of the research

1) To establish an anthropometric profile (31 items) database for elite Chinese female

volleyball players (top eight teams in 2008 China National Tournament) and the

players at different positions (the spiker, the second spiker, setter, the second setter and

the libero), using the methods recommended by the International Society for the

Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK).

2) To examine the physique and proportions of body parts and their correlations to four

selected physical performance indicators of the Chinese elite female volleyball players.

1.5 Research hypotheses

1) There are no significant correlations between the measured anthropometric

variables and the selected physical performance indicators of the elite Chinese female

volleyball players (Null hypothesis).

2) There are no significant differences in anthropometric characteristics between five

player positions, namely, the spiker, the second spiker, the setter, the second setter and

the libero (Null hypothesis).

26

3) There are no significant differences in physical performance between the five player

positions, namely, the spiker, the second spiker, setter, the second setter and the libero

(Null hypothesis).

1.6 Research outline

In this study, we recruited 100 elite female volleyball players in China. We established

anthropometric profiles for the players’ and measured their physical performance

variables. We chose 31 anthropometry variables, which were according to the

characteristics of volleyball, and through these 31 anthropometry variables, we got 22

derived variables for a better understanding of the physique characteristics of Chinese

elite women volleyball players. Furthermore, according to the characteristics of

volleyball, we also chose four physical performance measurements for an

understanding of the correlations between the anthropometric characteristics and

physical performance of female volleyball players. The four physical performance

variables are commonly used by the China Volleyball Association.

1.7 Limitations of the research

Some participants were unwilling to expose certain areas of their body for

anthropometric measurements that resulted in missing data in some cases. Best effort

was made to collect all data with respect to participants’ privacy and dignity.

As a team sport, it was difficult to validate indicators for performance in competitions

for each individual athlete. The analysis of the data was under the assumption that

athletes from these eight top teams were of the same calibre and the substitute players

possessed similar status as those who were more frequently seen on court.

Due to time constraints, only four physical performance measurements were taken in

this study that might not have reflected all determining factors in elite performance and

27

in selection of potential athletes.

It would be ideal to collect the same set of data from lower ranked adult teams and

junior teams for comparisons that would allow identification of the differences

between elite and lower ranked teams, and best indices in selection of talented

volleyball players. This study was to set the initial bench marks for future research in

this area, however would not be able to investigate players from other levels of teams

due to time constraint.

Due to injury, some players were unable to participate in the measurement of physical

performance. Therefore, only 87 athletes were involved in the performance

measurements whilst 100 participated in the anthropometric measurements.

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2. Chapter Two: Literature Review

2.1 Volleyball

Volleyball is a popular sport. It has become the second most popular sport next to

football in China, and with over 150 million participants in the world (International

Volleyball Federation, 2008).

2.1.1 Volleyball game

The volleyball court is a rectangle field with a size of 9×9 m on each half and a net of

2.24 m high in the middle. Two teams in the match, as opponents, will exercise various

skills and tactics to attack and to defend. To attack, they will try their best to make the

ball fall down onto the opposite side. To defend, they will prevent the ball from falling

down onto their own side. In a match each team has six players playing on the court.

They stand in two rows with three players in each. The players’ standing position on

the court will rotate clockwise except the libero, which means every player should be

able to serve, set, pass, spike and block. So it is essential for the players to possess the

physique and physical performance that allow them to play their roles most effectively

(Chen, 1989a). Especially, to make their attack and defence effective, the dominance

over the net becomes the most important factor. Therefore the height and abilities over

net are the decisive factor for victory (Huang, 1992).

To execute volleyball skills and tactics, players need high levels of physical

performance specifically in muscle strength, speed of movement, arm spiking, jump

with and without running up, stamina of movement, agility, and flexibility of shoulders,

waist, knees, and wrist, etc. (Chen, 2005). Among all the physical performance,

jumping ability, speed and explosive force are of the most important. Research by the

Japan Volleyball Association demonstrated a significant correlation between the

vertical jump and the ability in competitions of the volleyball players. It was found that

the jumping ability had a positive correlation with the number of spiking, and the

29

overall success rate of spiking, blocking and serving in a game (Tian, 2006).

2.1.2 The trend of development in the world women’s volleyball

The height-over-the-volleyball-net determines the domination in a game. The

height-over-net is determined by the player’s stature and jumping ability, usually

shown in blocking height and spiking height (Huang, 1992).

The stature and jumping ability of the players are among the most important factors in

winning volleyball games (Gladden and Colacino, 1978). Spiking height and blocking

height do not simply represent the jumping ability. They also reflect the athletes’

abilities in attack and defence. Therefore these measurements are often used as

important indices to evaluate the attacking and defending abilities of a team as a whole

(Ge, 2003; Heimer et al., 1988; MacLaren, 1990).

The attack and block represent 45% of the total actions in a game and are attributable

for 80% of the scores obtained in international matches (Voigt and Vetter, 2003). The

performance of these volleyball skills as well as the serves depend on the height that

the players can reach (Stanganelli et al., 2008).

The skills that are commonly used in men’s volleyball, such as higher attack, powerful

jumping-serve, attack from the back row and aggressive blocking, are now widely used

in women’s volleyball games. It brings forward a higher demand for the

anthropometric characteristics of women volleyball players (Gao, 2006).

The standing height alone can no longer warrant winning in a volleyball game. At

present, the women volleyball players who perform better appear to be “bigger and

stronger,” in contrast of the notion “thin and tall” in the past. Only the players who are

equipped with greater weight and strength in addition to height can meet the

requirement of fast developing techniques and tactics in modern volleyball sport (Jin et

al., 2007, Xing et al., 2006).

30

2.1.3 Summary

It can be summarized that the contemporary development of women’s volleyball sport

has demonstrated a trend of gaining the dominance over the net, players being taller

and having greater muscle strength and power, and the tactics and techniques used

being closer to that commonly seen in men’s volleyball.

Little information is found in the literature about the anthropometric characteristics and

their correlations with women volleyball players’ skills, and tactics, except some

limited information on stature and body mass. Therefore, it is suggested that to

evaluate the relationships between anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance in the elite women volleyball players, more comprehensive

anthropometric assessment is necessary.

2.2. Anthropometry and sports

2.2.1 Introduction

In this section, literature with a focus on the concept and the measurements of

anthropometry is reviewed.

2.2.1.1 Concepts of anthropometry

Anthropometry: Anthropometry like any other area of science depends upon

adherence to the particular rules of measurement as determined by national and

international standards bodies (Norton and Olds, 1996). There are two ways to appraise

anthropometry. One is to compare the absolute value of the data obtained through

anthropometric measurements, and the other is to transfer the measured data into

normalized indices for evaluation (Ye, 1995).

2.2.1.2 Introduction of ISAK anthropometry standards in China

Anthropometric measurements are not widely-used for athletes in China and there has

31

been no standardization of the measurement methods..For example, there were no

consensus on the landmarks for determination of measurement sites, measurement

skills and procedures. A lack of standardization not only cause discrepancies in

measurements, but also prevent valid and reliable comparisons of anthropometry data.

At present, the ISAK methods have not been commonly accepted and used in China.

This study was the first that applied ISAK standards in anthropometry research in

China. Adoption of the international standards will allow the data collected from

Chinese athletes to be directly comparable with those collected from other countries

where ISAK methods have also been adopted.

2.2.1.3 Derived anthropometric indices in relation to sports

Based on original anthropometric measurements, some indices have been derived.

These anthropometric indices can be divided into four categories: physique, length,

breadth and girth (Tan and Chou, 2003). Some commonly used indices are listed

below.

Length indices：upper limbs length/stature index, middle fingers span/stature index,

sitting height/stature index, forearm length/upper limb length index, lower limb

length/stature index, calf length plus feet length/lower limb length index, lower limb

length B minus calf length A/ calf length A index, and feet length/stature index. These

indices use the proportion of certain body segments’ length normalized to the stature

(or other reference body segments) to obtain the relative value of a particular body

segment’s length (Tan and Chou, 2003).

Breadth indices：Shoulder breadth/stature index, pelvis breadth/shoulder breadth

index, and hand breadth/stature index. These indices use the proportion of certain body

segments’ breadth normalized to the stature (or other reference body segments) to

obtain the relative value of a particular body segment’s breadth (Tan and Chou, 2003).

32

Girth indices：Chest girth/stature index, upper arm (in tension) girth/stature index,

upper arm (relaxed) girth/stature index, thigh girth/stature index, and calf girth/stature

index. These indices use the proportion of certain body segments girth normalized to

stature to get the relative value. The greater the index, the stronger the body segments

(Tan and Chou, 2003).

Physique indices: They are calculated from two or more anthropometry measurements.

It involves the proportion and inherent relationship between different segments of the

body. Sometimes it requires comparison of the absolute values of a body segment,

while in other occasions it requires to evaluate the proportion of the body segment to

the stature. For instance, lower limbs length is an absolute value, whereas the derived

index of lower limb length is a relative value calculated from the formula “lower limbs

length/stature×100%”.

Katoly index: It is index for the ratio of a person's mass to height. The Katoly index is

calculated from the formula of “body mass (kg)/stature (cm)×1000”. Through the

relationship between body mass and stature, it denotes the body mass per centimetre

height, reflecting the girth, breadth, thickness and tissue density of the human body.

The Katoly index reflects the proportion of height and weight in the process of growth,

and has been used as one of the basic anthropometric evaluations for athletes. Its

rationale lies in the fact that height is under the control of heredity, whereas weight is

greatly influenced by environmental factors, nutrition and training. The Katoly index is

suggested to reflect muscle strength and power (Li, 2004).

Body mass index (BMI): It is calculated by “body mass (kg)/stature (m2) (Malousarisa

et al., 2008). It has been one of the most commonly utilised indices in the assessment

of body mass to height ratio.

2.2.1.4 Anthropometric measurements in sport

Evaluation of anthropometric characteristics can be performed with two methods,

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namely direct evaluation and indirect evaluation. Direct evaluation adopts absolute

values of the anthropometric data, while indirect evaluation is achieved through

converting the anthropometric data into corresponding derived indices (Tan and Chou,

2003).

In sports related research, anthropometric methods are widely applied in the

recruitment of potential athletes. Different sports have different anthropometric

characteristics, therefore specific anthropometric variables should be used for talent

identification in different sports.

For the recruitment of juvenile volleyball players, the commonly used anthropometric

variables include stature, arm span minus height, lower limb length (iliospinale height)

/stature×100, length of Achilles’ tendon/calf length plus foot arch height×100, breadth

of biiliocristal/biacromial×100 (Zeng, 1992).

There have been numerous studies that attempt to answer the questions on whether

player’s physique is a precondition to gain high performance; whether different sport

events have special requirements on player’s physique; and whether there is correlation

between player’s physique and the development of physical performance. However,

there has been limited information on the anthropometry profile of elite volleyball

players in China.

2.2.2 Anthropometric characteristics of elite volleyball players

2.2.2.1 Anthropometric characteristics and physical performance

Physique mainly includes body constitution, body composition, body type, body

carriage, and bone age. It is usually used to study the human body’s external condition

covering body shape, growth and build. Volleyball sport demonstrates unique

anthropometry characteristics that are different from other sports. Volleyball players’

physique characteristics are mainly reflected by stature, body mass, Katoly index and

some other typical physique indices, which are associated with specific physical

34

performance like jumping ability, agility and strength, etc. Coaches and researchers

have recognized the importance of the anthropometric conditions in early identification

of the athletes with over-net dominance and developing potentials of specific physical

performance (Tan and Chou, 2003).

Stamm (2003) utilized a number of tests for female volleyball players’ physical

performance. These tests included: jumping ability (standing vertical jump and reach

and running vertical jump and reach); maximum aerobic endurance (20 m shuttle run);

trunk strength (sit-up test); flexibility test (the extent of bending forward from sitting

position); agility and speed (a zigzag run test); and upper body and arms strength

(medicine ball throwing test), and reported that four of these tests showed a significant

correlation with game proficiency (See Table 2-1). The aerobic endurance was

measured by 20 m shuttle run, flexibility was measured by the extent of bending

forward from sitting position, agility and speed of movement was measured by a

zigzag run test, and upper body strength was measured by the medicine ball throwing

test. The upper body and arms strength was found to contribute to 22% of the

efficiency of attack. Table 2-1 Physical ability tests significantly correlated with proficiency in the game No Variables

(N=32) Mean SD Min Max Partial correlation with

efficiency of game element Reception feint attack

r r r PA3 Endurance

386.3 86.7 135 515 -0.526 0.426

PA5 Flexibility (cm)

16.3 6.2 5 32.5 0.457

PA6 Speed

27.8 1.6 24.7 33 -0.587

PA7 Medicine ball throw (cm)

304.5 48.3 210 400 0.468

Note: PA3: maximum aerobic endurance was measured by 20 m shuttle run

PA5: flexibility test measured the extent of bending forward from sitting position

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PA6: agility and speed of movement was measured by a zigzag run test

PA7: upper body and arms strength were measured by the medicine ball throwing test

(Stamm et al., 2003).

Stamm et al. (2000) reported statistically significant correlations between

anthropometric variables. As for the tests of physical ability, six out of the eight

variables were also significantly correlated to each other. As the tests of physical

abilities were correlated with many anthropometric variables, it was proved possible to

predict the physical abilities of the volleyball players from age and anthropometric

characteristics.

From the analyses of the literature, it is clear that there is a relationship between

volleyball players’ anthropometric profile and physical performance. Grgantov et al.

(2007) indicated that a greater body height would allow the ball contact occurring at a

greater height above the net; a greater ankle diameter would ensure a greater stability

and facilitate landing and taking off in spike and block; an increased wrist diameter

would contribute to the ball shooting strength on spike and serve; and increased trunk

and thigh muscle strength would contribute to the efficacy in all techniques, especially

those involving jump (Grgantov et al., 2007).

Yuan (1982) suggested some other anthropometric characteristics for juvenile

volleyball players identification, such as longer toes (especially the second toes),

longer hands and feet, narrower pelvis and ankles, high flexibility, and the growth

showing a promising taller height (Yuan, 1982).

Qu (2007) measured the anthropometric profile of women volleyball players in the 26th

Olympic Games, and made a comparison between the Chinese players and players

from other countries (Qu, 2007). The results of the comparisons are shown in Table

2-2.

36

Table 2-2 A comparison of anthropometric indices between the players from

China and three other countries (Mean ± SD)

Indices China Cuba Brazil Russia

Stature(cm) 183.0±3.4 179.8±6.3 182.5±5.3 185.8±4.5

Body mass

(kg)

73.4±3.3 72.7±4.4 70.4±6.6 74.4±3.0

Katoly index 372.4±33.9 366.9±29.3 389.2±14.9 369.4±20.9

Qu (2007) also collected data for the anthropometric variables of 287 women players

in the 15th World Women Volleyball Tournament as shown in Table 2-3.

Table 2-3 The physical characteristics of 287 players in the 15th World Women

Volleyball Tournament.

Indices America

(n=96)

Europe

(n=95)

Africa

(n=36)

Asia

(n=60)

Stature(cm) 182.1±7.5 184.4±7.7 177.6±4.8 180.1±7.6

Body mass(kg) 70.1±7.6 70.1±6.0 69.4±6.2 68.5±5.9

Katoly index 384.8±36.2 379.9±25.2 390.6±31.1 380.2±22.7

Several other studies reported the mean age, height, and weight for selected groups of

female volleyball players (Conger and Macnab, 1967, Gladden and Colacino, 1978,

Hosler et al., 1978, Kovaleski et al., 1980). The first group was composed of 10 college

women volleyball players (age 19.4 years, height 166 cm and weight 59.8 kg (Conger

and Macnab, 1967). The second group was composed of 88 players who participated in

a U.S. Volleyball Association National Tournament (21.9 years, 172.2 cm and 65.8 kg,

respectively) (Gladden and Colacino, 1978). The third group comprised of 180 college

players who participated in a major college tournament (19.5 years, 169.0 cm and 65.1

kg) (Hosler et al., 1978). The fourth comparative group was composed of 19 college

players (19.9 years, 172.2 cm, and 64.1 kg) (Kovaleski et al., 1980). The U.S. training

37

team was older (23-24 years), taller (177.8 cm), and heavier (67.2 kg) than any of the

other four groups reported.

It is obvious that elite volleyball players have their specific anthropometric

characteristics, such as stature, the length of arm, palm, fingers, and Achilles’ tendon,

the girth of ankle, calf, thigh, forearm and upper arm. For example, the elite volleyball

players in China usually have longer Achilles’ tendons and smaller ankle girth, and this

contributes to a comparatively smaller value of the index “ankle girth/Achilles’

tendons×100”. The ankle girth/Achilles’ tendons index of volleyball male players were

92.8, male swimmers were 102.3 and male gymnasts were 105.7. The ankle

girth/Achilles’ tendons index of volleyball female players was 95.8, female swimmers

was 108.3 and female gymnasts was 101.2. Therefore the volleyball players had a

longer Achilles’ tendon and smaller ankle girth than that of other athletes. Similarly,

the average calf length index of the volleyball players is obviously longer than those of

the swimmers. The average calf length index of the male volleyball players was 99.7,

the swimmers were 90.3. The average calf length index of the female volleyball

players was 100.5, the swimmers were 95.3. These anthropometric characteristics have

been considered to be very important in talent identification of volleyball players

(Zeng, 1992).

All these anthropometric characteristics would have an impact on their physical

performance. Therefore a greater attention should be paid to the anthropometric

characteristics of elite athletes and the relationship between the anthropometry

characteristics and performance indicators. These may be helpful in identifying

potential players with promising future, and making the training more effective.

The literature review revealed that, though most of the researchers had made detailed

descriptions of the volleyball players’ basic anthropometric characteristics, their studies

were mainly confined to a few typical indices, which are hardly possible to ensure a

complete and systematic quantitative analysis. Instead, they were mainly qualitative.

38

Based on the registration data in some international games, which may or may not be

accurate, some scholars have used different analyses on the anthropometric

characteristics of volleyball players from different countries, and have obtained some

quantitative results. Most of these reports were just comparative analyses on the

limited basic indices, such as stature, body mass, age and Katoly index. Nevertheless,

few of them have involved the measurements, the comparisons, or the analyses on

volleyball players’ length, breadth, girth and the proportional relationships following

common measurement protocols such as those suggested by ISAK.

2.2.2.2 The stature of volleyball players

Body height has been reported to be a discriminating factor between successful and

non-successful teams in a collegiate tournament (Morrow et al., 1979), correlating

significantly with the final standings of an open national tournament (Gladden and

Colacino, 1978). The intensive competition in modern volleyball games always focuses

on the dominance over the net. The most effective way to win the dominance over the

net is to recruit tall players therefore stature becomes an important index in the

identification of potential volleyball players (Xing et al., 2006). It has been reported

that the average height of the women volleyball players in the 27th and 28th Olympic

Games was respectively 1.82 m and 1.83 m. While in the 29th Olympic Games, the

average height of players was 1.84 m. The stature in the top four teams holds the equal

average that is higher than other teams. It reflects the tendency of increased stature of

the elite world women volleyball players (Gao, 2006).

2.2.2.3 Body mass characteristics

Li (2004) investigated 36 players from three top teams in 2002 World Women’s

Volleyball Championship, including Italy, Russia and USA, and 12 players of the

China Women’s Volleyball Team. It was concluded that the body mass of China

Women’s Volleyball team members was significantly lighter and their Katoly index

was significantly lower than that of the other teams (P<0.05. Table 2-4) (Li, 2004).

39

Table 2-4 A comparison of four anthropometric indices between Chinese and

Italian, Russian and USA women’s volleyball teams.

Indices Top teams in the world Team of China

Stature (cm) 186.2 士 7.67 183.8 士 5.06

Body mass (kg) 74.1 士 6.33 71.9 士 4.29

Katoly index 39.8 士 2.79 39.1 士 1.94

Spiking height(cm) 308.1 士 9.47 315.8 士 7.91

2.2.2.4 Limb lengths

The growth rate of arm length is slower than that of the body height, so the arm span of

an infant is usually shorter than the height (He, 1992). Zeng (1992) reported that the

average difference between arm span and stature in Chinese volleyball players was

much smaller than that of the players in some other countries. For instance, the average

arm span of Cuba women volleyball players was 13.4 cm more than the stature, while

the average arm span of Chinese women volleyball players was only 5.4 cm longer

than the stature (Zeng, 1992).

For the dominance over the volleyball net, Jin et al. (2007) emphasized the importance

of standing reach height in the recruitment of players. Generally, standing reach height

is well correlated to the body height. When vertical jump remaining the same, higher

standing reach height always means higher spiking height and higher blocking height.

Among young women volleyball players in China, the average standing reach height is

235.9 cm, and the utmost goes to 245 cm (Jin et al., 2007).

To a great extent, stature depends on the lower limbs length, and iliospinale height/

stature×100 is a commonly used index. The ratio of lower limb length to stature varies

in different races. For example, the women volleyball players of Cuba and China

shared almost same stature, but as for lower limb length, the average proportion of

Cuba players was 58.5%, while that of the Chinese players was 55.2% (Zeng, 1992).

40

The index of “(trochanterion height - calf length)/calf length×100” reflects the

proportion between thigh length and calf length. There has been plenty of evident that

if the value of the calf length plus the feet height is longer than the thigh length, the

players will be propitious for the sport giving priority to jumping ability. For example,

the average of the index “(trochanterion height－calf length)/calf length×100” of the

elite volleyball players is obviously smaller than those of the swimmers, and athletes in

field and track events (Table 2-5) (Zeng, 1992).

Table 2-5 A comparison of “(trochanterion height - calf length)/calf length ×100”

Male Female

Setters 100.5±2.43 100.7±3.93

Chief spikers 99.2±1.85 99.1±3.00

Second spikers 99.4±2.82 101.6±2.53

Gymnasts 99.5 ±2.62 99.9±3.17

Swimmers 90.3±2.49 95.3±2.30

Source: (Zeng, 1992)

The index of “Achilles’ tendon length/calf length ×100” is often used in talent

identification. This index reflects not only the proportion of Achilles’ tendon to calf

length, but also indirectly the backward pulling strength of the triceps. The Achilles’

tendon length of elite players is always longer than those of non-players. It has been

found that elite volleyball players demonstrate a greater “Achilles’ tendon/calf length

×100” index than elite gymnasts (Table 2-6) (Zeng, 1992).

41

Table 2-6 Average value of the index of “Achilles’ tendon/calf length ×100” in

gymnasts and volleyball players (mean ± SD)

Sports Male Female

Gymnasts 45.4±3.74 47.8±4.07

Volleyball players 46.8±3.28 49.3±3.96


The Achilles’ tendon length of non-athletes are generally shorter than the ankle girth,

and this makes the index “ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon ×100” larger than 100. However,

the elite athletes usually have longer Achilles’ tendon that results in a comparatively

smaller value of the index “ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon ×100”, in the events including

volleyball, basketball, track events and high jump, etc. (Table 2-7) (Zeng, 1992)

Table 2-7 A comparison of the index “ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon×100” in

different sports (mean ± SD)

Sports Male Female

Volleyball players 92.8±9.65 95.8±12.35

Gymnasts 105.7±1.74 101.2±9.76

Swimmers 102.3±1.68 108.3±1.36


The aforementioned reports emphasized the importance of upper limbs length in that it

was essential for volleyball players to be able to learn and improve their skills.

However, few follow up studies were found in relation to women volleyball players’

upper limbs length and performance, therefore further investigations are needed (Zeng,

1992).

It is widely accepted that stature is mainly determined by lower limbs length. The data

shown in Tables 2-4 to 2-6 are some comparative analyses on lower limbs length, calf

42

length and Achilles’ tendon length. From these data it can be seen that women

volleyball players have particular features on the lower limb lengths. For example, the

indices for the ankle girths and Achilles’ tendon length in volleyball players are smaller

than those of gymnasts and swimmers, which means women volleyball players have

longer Achilles’ tendon. Does this reveal that Achilles’ tendon length is related to

volleyball players’ jumping ability? Should we pay more attention to the

anthropometric characteristics features of lower limbs in talent identification? This

research intended to answer these questions.

2.3 Somatotype

This section presents the literature on somatotype, with its definition, classification,

and evaluation. The Introduction will focus on the widely-used Heath-Carter method.

2.3.1 Introduction

2.3.1.1 Concept of somatotype

The technique of somatotyping is used to examine anthropometric characteristics and

body composition. The resulting somatotype gives a quantitative summary of the

physique. It is defined as the quantification of the present shape and composition of the

human body. It is presented in a three-number rating representing endomorhy,

mesomorphy and ectomorphy components respectively, always in the same order

(Norton and Olds, 1996).

In particular, along with the fast development of modern technology, the

anthropometric technologies and methods have also had significant improvements.

Besides the traditional manual measurements, there are high-tech photogrammetry,

three-dimensional photography and laser scanning methods. Photogrammetry is to use

optical technology to analyze human body digital photograph. According to the results

of indirect measurements taken from the non-contact measurement method,

43

photogrammetry can obtain measurement data and derived indices (Ge and Liu, 2007).

In three-dimensional photography, two cameras at positions will photograph the human

body simultaneously. The relationship between the two pictures of a same point on the

surface of human body is analyzed and then through the principle of geometric optical

triangulation, the three-dimensional coordinates of the imaged point will be figured out

and be applied in the analyses of anthropometric characteristics. This approach is

consistent with human visual characteristics, but is comparatively more difficult in the

measurement of human body surface and the accuracy is not guaranteed (Li et al.,

2001).

In whole-body laser scanning methods, three-dimensional images are obtained through

laser scanning triangulation. The entire scanning process is computerized and

completion of a scan takes only a few seconds. The scanned images can be integrated

to build up a complete human body model (Li et al., 2001).

Although the modern approaches, like three-dimensional photography and laser

scanning, offer accurate ways for anthropometric measurements, the drawbacks are

high cost and requirements of a high level of expertise. As a result, the traditional

manual measurements are still widely applied for direct anthropometric measurements

(Ge and Liu, 2007). Heath and Carter method is simple, accurate and inexpensive for

assessment of somatotypes, therefore it is a frequently used method.

Heath and Carter (1999) defined somatotype as the current physical characteristics of

the concerned individual and it is an explicit shape characteristic without the concern

of the body size. The method was developed from Sheldon’s work and established a

more objective method for somatotype classification. The Heath-Carter anthropometric

somatotype method has been regarded as the most useful method for somatotype

evaluation (Carter and Heath, 1990).

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2.3.1.2 The Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotyping method

The Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotyping method uses taxonomy of somatotype

created by American scholars B. H. Heath and J. E. L. Cater in 1967. It utilizes

multiple regression analysis of somatotype composition so that the problem of

subjectivity is overcome, and it also gives an unequivocal scientific definition of

somatotype. It is important to recognize that the somatotype is a general descriptor of

physique and does not answer more precise questions regarding specific body

dimensions. The Heath-Carter method of somatotyping is the most commonly used

today (Liang and Nie, 2001, Norton and Olds, 1996, Zhu et al., 1998).

For implementation of this method, 10 anthropometric measurements are used. These

include standing height, body weight, four skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, suprailiac,

and medial calf), two breadths (biepicondylar femur breadth, biepicondylar humerus

breadth) and two girths (upper arm girth in flexed and tensed and calf girth) (Carter,

1980).

The technique of somatotyping is used to appraise anthropometric characteristics and

composition. The somatotype of a human body can be categorized into three types,

endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy. Endomorphy represents the relative

content of body fat, mesomorphy represents the relative level of musculo-skeletal

development, and ectomorphy represents the relative level of slenderness and thinness

(Norton and Olds, 1996).

Through anthropometric measurements and calculation, the Heath-Carter method uses

three numbers, that are separated by hyphens, to represent the extent of anthropometric

characteristics in endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy, respectively (Jiang et al.,

2007, Norton and Olds, 1996).

While the first attempt at classifying human bodies is attributed to Hippocrates and his

contemporaries, a systematic approach did not emerge until the twentieth century. Of

45

these pioneering research efforts, W.H. Sheldon (1940) described a genotypic

classification seeking relationships between human physique and personality that

remains the best known and most controversial (Sheldon et al., 1940). His tri-polar

somatotype was later revised by Heath and Carter in the 1960’s into a phenotypic

method based on calculations made from 10 anthropometric measurements. The Heath

and Carter method is still in use today and is one of the most commonly applied

techniques in somatotyping and related areas (Carter and Heath, 1990, Heath and

Carter, 1967).

There are three ways to calculate the Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype:1) enter

the data onto a somatotype rating form; 2) enter the data into equations derived from

the rating form; or 3) enter the data into a computer programs such as Life-size (Norton

and Olds, 1996).

The somatotype is divided into sectors by three axes which intersect at the center of the

“triangle”. These sectors and the somatotypes in them are named according to the

relative rank or dominance of the components of the somatotype. In the order of

endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy, a somatotype is described by three

numbers. The dominance of a component is ranked from zero (minimum) to

theoretically indefinite, with four as neutral. For example, 4-4-4 is a perfect central;

3-5-2 is called an endo-mesomorph because mesomorph is dominant, with endomorph

second in dominance. A 1-6-3 is called an ecto-mesomorph, a 2-3-5 a meso-ectomorph,

a 2-4-4 an ectomorph-mesomorph, and a 2-5-2 a balanced mesomorph, and so on

(Carter, 1970).

Heath-Carter somatotyping method can be divided into 13 categories and this is based

on areas of the somatochart, see Table 2-8.

46

Table 2-8 Categorization of somatotype methods based on Heath-Carter

measurement

Central No component differs by more than one unit from the other two, and consists of 2,3 or 4

Ectomorphic endomorph Endomorphy is dominant and ectomorphy is greater than mesomorphy

Balanced endomorph Endomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy and Ectomorphy are equal (do not differ by more than one-half unit)

Mesomorphic endomorph Endomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy is greater than ectomorphy

Mesomorph-endomorph Endomorphy and mesomorphy are equal (do not differ by more than one-half unit), and ectomorphy is smaller

Endomorphic mesomorph Mesomorphy is dominant and endomorphy is greater than endomorphy

Balanced mesomorph Mesomorphy is dominant and mesomorph and ectomorph are equal (do not differ by more than one-half unit)

Ectomorphic mesomorph Mesomorphy is dominant and ectomorph is greater than endomorphy

Mesomorph-ectomorph Mesomorph and ectomorph are equal (do not differ by more than one-half unit) and endomorphy is lower

Mesomorphic ectomorph Ectomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy is greater than endomorphy

Balanced ectomorph Ectomorphy is dominant; endmorphy and mesomorphy are equal and lower (or do not differ by more than one-half unit)

Endomorphic ectomorph Ectomorphy is dominant, and endomorphy is greater than mesomorphy

Endomorph-ectomorph Endomorphy and ectomorphy are equal ( or do not differ by more than one-half unit), and mesomorphy is lower

(Carter and Heath, 1990, Heath and Carter, 1967, Norton and Olds, 1996)

The 13 categories can be further grouped into four larger categories:

Central: no component differs by more than one unit from the other two.

47

Endomorph: endomorphy is dominant, mesomorphy and ectomorphy are more than

one-half unit lower.

Mesomorph: mesomorphy is dominant, endomorphy and ectomorphy are more than

one-half unit lower.

Ectomorph: Ectomorphy is dominant, endomorphy and mesomorphy are more than

one-half unit lower ( Carter and Heath, 1990, Heath and Carter, 1967, Norton and Olds,

1996).

2.3.2 Implications of somatotyping

2.3.2.1 Somatotype of general population

The study of somatotype aims to evaluate the different human anthropometric

characteristics (Ye, 1995). Because the conditions of muscles and bones and the

content of body fat are the keys to determine somatotype, so anthropology, medicine

and nutrition are always related with the research on somatotype. The somatotype

changes with sex, age, race, living environment, and the nutritional status. Research on

the somatotype in ordinary people is aimed to understand what factors may affect

anthropometric characteristics in relation to health, nutrition, ageing and other aspects

of life.

The purpose of the investigation on athletes’ somatotype is to offer reference for talent

identification, which aims to identify and forecast the developing tendency of the

athelets’ stature, body mass, body fat, muscles and bones in different growth stages,

and to understand the specific anthropometric characteristics for different sports. Such

information would be essential to set the criteria for the recruitment of players as well

as for the improvements of players’ competence.

The literature presented below summarizes the somatotypes of the people with

different sex, age, race and living environment that contributes to our understanding of

the somatotypes of athletes in different sports including volleyball. The previous

studies have also provided reference data for comparison of somatotypes in women

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volleyball players from different countries.

2.3.2.2 Somatotypes of athletes

● Somatotypes of athletes in different sports

Plenty of evidence supports that the ideal somatotype for athletes varies as a function

of the sport or event (Carter and Heath, 1990, Duquet and Carter, 1996). Although

ideal body size and shape are not the only elements necessary for an athlete to excel,

they may represent important prerequisites for successful performance in a sport.

Indeed, it can be assumed that a player’s anthropometric characteristics can in some

way influence his/her level of performance, and at the same time can help to determine

a suitable physique for a certain sport. Therefore, somatotype analysis can provide a

descriptive picture of the anthropometric characteristics of the high-level players. In

this sense, the somatotyping method is believed to yield better results than simple

linear anthropometric measurement (Rienzi et al., 1999), since it combines adiposity,

musculo-skeletal robustness and linearity into a somatotype rating (Gualdi-Russo and

Zaccagni, 2001b).

Neni et al. (2007) reported the somatotypes of adult Indonesian, in particular of male

athletes in a number of sports. The athletes were from badminton, soccer, and

volleyball, aged in their 20’s. Non-athlete undergraduate students were also studied as

a control group. The following findings were obtained: the mean somatotype of the

badminton players was ‘central’ (3.3-3.7-3.7), that of the soccer players was ‘balanced

mesomorph’ (2.7-4.9-3.0), that of the volleyball players was ‘mesomorph-ectomorph’

(2.4-3.5-3.7), and that of the students were ‘ectomorphic mesomorph’ (2.7-5.2-3.8).

Compared with international data, the Indonesian players were shorter and lighter in

each of the sports. The mean somatotype of the Indonesian badminton players was

‘central’, contrasting with the more mesomorphic South Australian players. The

somatotypes of the international volleyball groups were divided into ‘mesomorphic

ectomorph’ and ‘ectomorphic mesomorph’. The Indonesian volleyball players belong

to the latter group (Neni et al., 2007).

49

Athletes of a specific sport event may be characterized by a particular somatotype. The

literature has shown that high-level female volleyball players have a common

somatotype, mesomorphy. This indicates that the top-level female volleyball players

have more muscles and less adipose tissue (Papdopoulou et al., 2002. See Table2-9).

Table 2-9 Results of female volleyball players somototype

Items Total National team

Major A1 Major A2 National league

P

Endomorphy 4.48±1.19 4.25±1.09 4.36±1.16 4.48±1.22 4.64±1.22 0.449

Mesomorphy 2.49±1.20 2.22±1.11 2.19±1.23 2.81±1.21 2.57±1.11 0.016

Ectomorphy 2.14±0.96 2.22±0.99 2.39±0.94 1.95±0.89 2.03±1.00 0.045

It was found that Polish athletes from a population of students (age 19-21)

demonstrated a somatotype of 3.5-4.3-3.0 which was close to the “median build”. The

somatotype of rowers (2.9-4.3-2.9) was similar to that of students. Light weight rowers

and volleyball players were more slender as their ectomorphy exceeded the

mesomorphy. Wrestlers, judoiosts and karate players were solid build, with a high

score of mesomorphy and a very low score of ectomorphy. Boxers were in the middle.

It should be emphasized that the within-group variability of individual factors was

relatively low, smaller than that in the control group (Krawczyk et al., 1997).

Guo (2001) investigated 45 male teenage sprint athletes in Gansu province. The results

showed that the average somatoype value of those elite athletes was “1.2-3.92-3.65”.

Guo claimed that every sport event had its own ideal somatotype, or “favorite

somatotype” and this determined the significance of somatotype indices in talent

identification. Guo had also found that most of the coaches interviewed in his research

had referred to practical anthropometric results (Guo, 2001).

Zeng (1985) had investigated the somatotype value of 103 Chinese athletes in track

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and field, swimming, weight lifting and gymnastics. He found that the elite gymnasts’

somatotype scores were “1.3-6.2-2.4”, and the athletes with better performance were

always with a larger mesomorphy value. The weight lifting athlete had very large

mesomorphy value, and the heavier the body mass, the larger the mesomorphy value.

As for the jumpers, better performance always associated with larger ectomorphy value.

The author suggested that it was significant to investigate whether the somatotype

condition of a teenage athlete would alter with years of training and growth that would

be close to the “favorite somatotype” (Zeng et al., 1985).

Deng and colleagues (1999) had made an investigation on the somatotypes of 119

water ballet athletes in the national water ballet championship and found that their

average somatotype value was “3.14-2.45-3.74”. It was revealed that the athletes with

larger mesomorphy value would have better performance. It was also found that the

somatotype of elite water ballet athletes tend to suggest an “optimal somatotype” and

this meant that somatotype could be used as a reference in talents identification (Deng

et al., 1999).

Gao and associates (2001) had measured the somatotypes of the top athletes of

different classes in the national kickboxing tournament in 1977 (a total of 30 athletes).

The average somatotype values of elite Chinese kickboxing athletes were

“2.12-4.41-3.18”. It was revealed that the athletes’ somatotype changed from

mesomorphic- ectomorph to mesomorphy with the increase of body mass. The authors

concluded that the somatotypes of the kickboxing athletes were similar, and this would

offer theoretical basis for future talents identification (Gao et al., 2001).

● Somatotype of volleyball players

The somatotypes of volleyball players differ according to their positions and levels of

performance (e.g., state, national) and depending on the technical and tactical demands

placed on the players. Among the junior volleyball players of the UK, setters exhibited

higher ectomorphic and lower mesomorphic scores than the centers. The mean (SD)

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somatotype scores for setters and centers were 2.6(0.9)–1.9(1.1)–5.3(1.2) and

2.2(0.8)–3.9(1.1)–3.6(0.7) respectively (Duncan et al., 2006). Italian male volleyball

players had somatotype scores of 2.4(0.7)–4.5(0.9)–2.8(0.8) for setters,

2.0(0.6)–4.0(1.0)–3.5(0.8) for centers, 2.2(0.6)–4.3(0.9)–3.0(0.7) for spikers and

2.2(0.6)–4.3(0.9)–3.1(0.8) for opposites (Duncan et al., 2006, Gualdi-Russo and

Zaccagni, 2001a).

Many studies have suggested that differences exist in somatotypes between various

sports, and at different performance levels (from professional Olympic players to

amateurs), for example for volleyball (Papadopoulou et al., 2002; Viviani and Baldin,

1993) and handball players (Carter, 1981b, Eiben, 1981). However, few of them have

examined the whole spectrum of morphological characteristics within each sport

(Bayios et al., 2006). In addition, there has not been enough information about the

players’ somatotypes and their roles in games in the literature, especially about

volleyball players. From the information available to us, the mean somatotypes of non

elite Chinese women volleyball players were compared with those of Italian female

amateur players (4.7-3.9-2.3) (Viviani and Baldin, 1993). There was a higher value in

endomorphic and mesomorphic components and a lower value in ectomorphy in the

Chinese volleyball players as compared to the amateur Italian players (Gualdi-Russo

and Zaccagni, 2001b).

Bayios et al. (2006) discovered that in both the varsity and the junior varsity groups,

endomorphy was the dominant somatotype, and mesomorphy value was greater than

ectomorphy. Thus, the groups of varsity and junior varsity women volleyball players

were characterized as mesomorphic endomorphs. The mean somatotype for the groups

of varsity and junior varsity was 4.2-3.7-3.3 (endomorphic-mesomorphic-ectomorphic)

(Bayios et al., 2006. Table 2-10).

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Table 2-10 Somatotypes of ten varsity and nine junior varsity women

intercollegiate volleyball players

Items Endomorphic* Mesomorphic Ectomorphic

Varsity 3.65±0.84 3.45±0.82 3.20±0.93

Junior Varsity 4.50±0.78 4.27±1.00 2.61±0.61

Combined 4.20±1.10 3.67±1.22 3.25±1.65

*Based on a scale of 12 for endomorphy and 9 for ectomorphy and mesomorphy, P<

0.05 between varsity and junior varsity.

Although the mesomorphy used to be the primary component of competitive female

volleyball players’ somatotype in the last two decades, recent studies indicated a trend

toward ectomorphy (Malousarisa et al., 2008).

It is well known that the lack of appropriate anthropometric characteristics might result

in poor performance in top-level volleyball. Although some of these characteristics can

be improved through training, the basic ones required for the sport of volleyball may

be essentially inherited. These basic anthropometric features include body height and

appendage lengths. It is of paramount importance for coaches to understand the

significance of taking into account these basic body characteristics for initial selection

of young players. Inappropriate initial selection of young female players without

considering anthropometric features could become an obstacle for future developments

for becoming top-level players (Papadopoulou, 2002).

In sport research, one of the main criteria used to assess the relationships between

function and structure is the performance level. For somatotype, for example, it is well

established that, within a particular sport activity, physique varies according to the

performance level. The higher the level, the higher the tendency to conform the body

characteristics (Carter and Heath, 1990, Carter, 1980).

53

In the literature specific to volleyball it is found that female volleyball players’

somatotype exhibit diachronic variations: they could be reasonably ascribed both to

changes in athletic selection which have occurred in the last decades, and to

wide-spread and generalized culturally-determined tendency towards a lower degree of

endomorphism for women (Viviani and Baldin, 1993).

In another report, volleyball players were the tallest and had the lowest value of body

fat compared with basketball and handball, and were characterized as balanced

endomorph (3.4-2.7-2.9). It was because that volleyball players showed higher

homogeneity in somatotype, most probably reflecting the stricter selection process and

the higher “professionalism” of these athletes who exerted greater effort in keeping up

with the suggested instructions regarding training and diet (Bayios et al., 2006).

In summary, the current research on the somatotype is mainly based on the

Heath-Carter method. However, in China, most of the somatotype research has focused

on general public rather than on athletes in specific sports, even less on volleyball

players. So far, no literature has been found on Chinese women volleyball players’

somatotype.

The literature suggests that men’s somatotype changes with growth periods, nutrition

conditions and physical exercises. In addition, there are great differences between

somatotypes of athletes and non-athletes. Evidence shows that athletes are lower in

endomorphy, but higher in mesomorphy, indicating that athletes have comparatively

lower body fat content but stronger muscles and bones.

It has been an interesting question that whether elite athletes in particular sports

possess unique anthropometric characteristics and anthropometrical characteristics. It

has been repeatedly stressed that the height over the net is a key factor in volleyball.

However, height might not be the only factor to be considered in selection of talented

players, but what other anthropometric parameters need to be included requires further

study. For instance, previous studies have shown that volleyball players have a

54

somatotype with dominance in mesomorphy, which means they are tall and muscular.

However, recent finding indicates that they are trend toward ectomorphy. In addition,

little is known for the anthropometric and somatotype characteristics of volleyball

players at different playing positions.

2.3.3 Summary

Based on the literature review in the area of anthropometry and physical performance,

the following are summarised.

It has been an interesting question that whether elite athletes in particular sports posses

unique body shape and anthropometrical characteristics. It is evident that the volleyball

players are tall, and their somatotype appears to be different to some other sports such

as football, basketball and handball. It has been repeatedly suggested that the height

over the net is a key factor in volleyball. However, the height might not be the only

factor to be considered in selection of talented players. What other anthropometric

parameters needs to be included requires further studies. For instance, early studies

have shown that volleyball players have a somatotype with a dominance in

mesomorphy, that means they are generally tall and muscular. However, recent finding

indicates that they lean more toward ectomorphy. In addition, little is known for the

anthropometric and somatotype characteristics of players at different positions in

volleyball.

It is known that the physique and physical performance are among the essential factors

for elite performance in many sport events. However, there is a paucity of information

about the physique and its relationship with performance in volleyball. Chinese

women’s volleyball teams have demonstrated a high level of achievements. However,

there have been no published reports on the anthropometric characteristics of Chinese

elite female volleyball players. In addition, the description of volleyball players’

physique is lack of the specific and quantitative standard.

55

2.4 Physical performance

This section mainly introduces volleyball players’ physical performance in two areas: 1)

physical performance and the sport; 2) physical performance and positions. The former

focuses on the differences between volleyball and other sports. The latter focuses on

the specific physical performance of players on different playing positions.

2.4.1 Physical performance and sport

Athletic competence refers to the integrated physical performance necessary for

techniques and tactics enhancement and excellence in all kinds of physical exercises.

The integrated physical performance involves anthropometric characteristics,

physiological function, health and physical performance, among which physical

performance is the most important athletic competence, while anthropometric

characteristics, physiological function and health form a good basis for an ideal

physical performance (Guo, 1999).

Physical performance can be defined as human body competence in strength, speed,

endurance, agility and flexibility in playing sport. The performance is related not only

with anatomical and physiological characteristics, but also with training level and

nutritional condition. Physical performance is a basis of mastering and the improving

sports skills and achievements (Ye, 1995). Physical performance is virtually an

integration of various body activity abilities for playing sport. The evaluation of

physical performance involves a variety of aspects which can be mainly divided into

general physical performance and specific physical performance (Yuan, 1982). In

physical performance assessment, specific equipment or apparatus are needed and

environmental conditions are also considered (Yuan, 1982).

Physical performance forms the basis of sport skills. The improvement of

sport-specific physical performance depends not only on the level of coaching, but also

on the talent of the players. Liu (2006) pointed out that, as a criterion for physical

56

conditioning and sport competence, physical performance on one hand relates with the

muscle efficiency, and on the other hand reflects the function of various organ systems

(Liu, 2006).

Strength refers to the physical ability of muscle system in overcoming resistance.

Muscle strength is the power source for a variety of actions. There are many factors

may influence the strength, such as anthropometric characteristics and heredity (the

size of muscle and the proportion of fast and slow muscle fibers), neural control and

motor skills (Zhang, 2006).

Speed is the body competence in fast movements. According to different contexts, it

can be divided into reacting speed, acting speed and moving speed, which are all

influenced by the process of nerve excitability, muscle flexibility, muscle relaxation

and biochemical factors (Tian, 2006).

Endurance refers to the capacity of retaining performance quality in particular duration.

The performance of endurance attributes to the central nervous system function,

maximum oxygen uptake and the body's energy reserves and utilization.

In several ballgames, skills, anthropometric characteristics and physical performance

of an individual player are the most important factors that contribute to the competitive

success of a whole team. With respect to the physical performance the endurance

requirements of volleyball and basketball seem to be rather similar (Hakkinen, 1989,

Viitasalo et al., 1987). However, volleyball belongs to aerobic sport with a high alactic

anaerobic power productions which need a fairly long recovery periods (Viitasalo et al.,

1987), therefore differs from the anaerobic lactic metabolic requirements of basketball

(Hakkinen, 1989).

Well-developed physical performance is essential for volleyball sport. Strength in

extending shoulders and elbows extension and flexion and in gripping hands is

favorable for spiking, serving and setting in the game. Strength in knee extension is

57

critical to jumping. Swift reaction with high frequency and high vertical jump ensures

strong explosive force and absolute force (Pu et al., 1989).

2.4.1.1 Importance of physical performance in volleyball

Physical performance is essential in building up the specific competence of both men

and women volleyball players. Volleyball is an intermittent sport that requires players

to compete in frequent short bouts of high-intensity exercise, followed by periods of

low-intensity activity (Kuenstlinger et al., 1987, Viitasalo et al., 1987). The

high-intensity bouts of exercise, with the total duration of the match around 90 minutes,

requires players to have well-developed aerobic and anaerobic alactic (ATP-CP)

energy systems (Hakkinen, 1993, Viitasalo et al., 1987). Considerable demands are

also placed on the neuromuscular system during the various sprints, jumps (blocking

and spiking), and high-intensity movement that occurs repeatedly during competition

(Hakkinen, 1993). As a result, volleyball players require well-developed speed, agility,

upper-body and lower-body muscular power, and maximal aerobic power (VO2max)

(Gabbett and Georgieff, 2006).

Hertogh and Hue (2002) suggest that power output is an essential component of

success in many sports. For volleyball players, exercises aimed at increasing strength

are advocated to improve power output and thus maximal jump height (Hertogh and

Hue, 2002). Stamm (2003) suggested that it is essential for a successful volleyball

player to possess greater speed and endurance, arms and upper body strength, and

flexibility (Stamm et al., 2003).

2.4.1.2 Constitution of volleyball players’ physical performance

A variety of physical performance may reinforce or restrict one another. For example,

jumping ability is a specific physical performance for volleyball players. However, it

should be complemented by other physical performance including speed, agility, and

flexibility, etc. (You, 1985).

58

In many experts' opinion volleyball should be considered as a power sport (Stech and

Smulsky, 2007). High performance of elite volleyball players is mostly dependent on

the efficacy of jump actions, in particular, the explosive power of the lower extremity

muscles (Harman et al., 1991). Vertical jump is one of the significant indicators of

power (speed-force) (Young, 1995, Young et al., 1999a, Young et al., 1999b).

Pu et al. (1989) has suggested that physical performance requirements for volleyball

include high levels of strength in shoulder, elbow and hands, which will be favorable

for spiking, serving and saving ball; strength in knee extension, which will be

favorable of jumping; and quick reaction time (Pu et al., 1989).

In conclusion, physical performances such as, strength, speed, agility and jumping

ability are all very important to volleyball players. This is because they need to change

their playing positions in turn (except for liberos). In a volleyball game, all players

must be able to attack and block in the front line, and defend and serve in the back line.

It requires the players to have all-round physical performance.

2.4.1.3 Physical performance measurements for volleyball players

Numerous methods have been used to test volleyball players’ physical fitness in

different countries. Some examples as found in the literature are listed below. The

objectives of these tests were to assess athletes.

The anthropometric variables of the United States Women’s National Volleyball

Training Team includes age (years), weight (kg), height (cm) and reach (cm). The four

motor ability tests were taken from a motor performance battery developed by Disch et

al. (Disch et al., 1977). The four tests included vertical jump, triple hop, agility run,

and 20-yard dash (Spence et al., 1980).

Huang et al. (1985) utilized 10 measurement items to assess the physical performance

59

of juvenile volleyball players, including 100 metre and 60 metre sprints; running

vertical jump with two feet, running vertical jump with one foot, and standing

three-step forward jump; badminton shuttlecock throwing; sit-ups; 800 metre and 1500

metre races; and touching depth when bending down forward for flexibility. There was

also a combined test of moving along the net and then jumping to block (3 metres×5

times). The above items involved almost all the main required physical performance

for volleyball players, and were theoretically supported, therefore, adopted by most of

the coaches (Huang et al., 1985).

Gabbett and Georgieff (2007) measured physical performance to junior national, state,

and novice volleyball players. The measurements included height, standing reach

height, skinfold thickness, lower-body muscular power, agility, and estimated maximal

aerobic power (Gabbett and Georgieff, 2007). Stamm (2003) administered physical

performance tests to female volleyball players, including jumping ability, maximum

aerobic endurance, trunk strength, speed, upper body and arms strength tests (Stamm et

al., 2003).

Yuan (1982) adopted different methods to determine the physical performance for

talent identification. The methods included tests for reaction and speed: to start, move,

run and stop after seeing or hearing the given signals; for agility and flexibility: to

stand up from lying position (four directions), run through hurdles, jump over elastic

band, and finally move under the net; and combined abilities: to run after hearing the

given signal, “Z” running, middle distance race, vertical jump, and medicine ball etc.

(Yuan, 1982).

Japanese Volleyball Association has stipulated the following testing items for

volleyball players’ fitness competence: for muscle strength: grip force, pull-ups,

basketball throw, back force, sit-ups, vertical jump, standing three-step jump; for

agility: 9-metre double trip, 20-metre race, rolling race; for stamina: 800-metre race,

steps jump (50cm height for men, 40cm height for women); for flexibility: forward

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stoop, backward bend; and for body control: handstand (Zhong and Huang, 1989).

In the evaluation of the specific athletic competence for volleyball, Zhang (1996)

designed eight testing items, including: vertical jump, standing 3-step jump, 2-step

running-up vertical jump (for jumping ability); badminton shuttlecock throw (for

explosive force); 3 “V” movement (for agility); 30-metre ran (for speed); sit and bend

forward (for flexibility); 800-metre race (for stamina). Since 1996, China Volleyball

Association has made arrangements for the test of athletic competence among the

players in national volleyball league matches, and the testing items include running up

jump with two feet, five times continuous running up jump with two feet (for spikers),

6-metre×16 times movements under the net (for setters) and 800-metre race (Zhang,

1996).

As for the specific physical performance of juvenile volleyball players, Feng (2003)

utilized nine testing items for the second rank group and nine testing items for the first

rank group. The former included: running-up vertical jump, standing long jump,

30-metre race, “v”-route movement, medicine ball (1.5 kg) throw, V sit-up, prone to

lift up (two body ends up) and rope skipping; the latter included: running-up vertical

jump, for consecutive cross-step running-up vertical jump, standing 3-step frog-leap,

30-mater race, “v” route movement, medicine ball (2 kg) throw, sit-up (two body ends

up), prone to lift up (two body ends up) and rope skipping. The testing items for the

libero in the first rank group are: “米” route movement with intermittent rope skipping,

6-metre double trip fish-leap (boys), 6-metre double trip rolling (girls), forward stoop,

400-metre race (Feng, 2003).

In the “Volleyball Training and Education Outline” by Huang and Lu (1991), 12

physical performance items were used with percentile scores for the evaluation of

juvenile male and female volleyball players. They are: 100-metre sprint, 60-metre

sprint, 800-metre run, 1500-metre run, 36-metre movement (not sure what do you

mean), running-up vertical jump, consecutive jump, standing 3-step forward jump,

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badminton shuttlecock throw, V sit up and agility test. Percentage table of evaluation is

also adopted in the physical performance testing for China volleyball league matches

(Huang and Lu, 1991).

Jin et al. (2007) stated that Chinese Volleyball Association had set a rule in 1996 that

players for National Leagues must pass the physical performance tests as a

pre-requisite. There are four volleyball-specific tests, including spike jump, five

vertical jumps in 20 seconds, 6 m ×16 sprint beneath the net, 800 m running race (Jin

et al., 2007).

In a study by Stamm and associates, in order to evaluate the girls’ general physical

performance, the following generally recognized tests were used: reach height with

outstretched hand, standing vertical jump and running vertical jump. Two Euro Fit tests

were used: endurance test and stomach muscles strength test. In addition, flexibility

test from sitting position, speed test (zigzag run touching medicine ball) and medicine

ball throw from behind one’s back in a sitting position with outstretched legs were used

(Stamm et al., 2000).

The ability to generate high levels of upper-body muscular power during spiking and

serving is an important attribute of volleyball players. Upper-body muscular power

was estimated using an overhead medicine-ball throw (Osbornk, 2002). Medicine ball

throwing, shuttlecock throwing and barbell bench pressing are usually applied in the

testing of upper limbs strength. Among them, medicine ball throwing is widely used.

Volleyball players require high levels of lower-body muscular power to perform the

spiking, blocking, and jumping tasks that are frequently executed during a match.

Lower-body muscular power was estimated by means of the vertical-jump test and the

spike-jump test (Osbornk, 2002). Running vertical jump, successive vertical jump, frog

jump, squat with barbell load and rope skipping are often used methods for the testing

of jumping ability and strength of lower limbs strength. Among them, running vertical

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jump is the most generally applied approach.

Volleyball players require the ability to rapidly accelerate, decelerate, and change

direction. The agility of subjects was evaluated using a T-shuttle run agility test

(Hoffman et al., 1991). Agility test times were measured to the nearest 0.01 second,

with the fastest value obtained from two trials used as the agility score. Besides,

T-shuttle run agility test, V-route movement, 米 -route movement and 6-metre

movement under net are also used to testing volleyball players’ agility.

Based on the review of literature, a wide range of tests has been used for the testing

volleyball players’ physical performance. However, some commonly used tests include

the strength of lower limb, waist and abdomen muscles, jumping ability and agility.

Therefore in this thesis, we adopted running-up vertical jump, medicine ball throw,

sit-up timing and T-shuttle run agility test for testing elite women volleyball players’

physical performance.

2.4.1.4 Implications of physical performance assessments in volleyball

Previous research demonstrated that a team’s average vertical jumping distance had a

significant correlation with a team’s final standing in a women’s open national

championship tournament in the United States (Gladden and Colacino, 1978). Song

(1982) studied the relationship between the defensive movements and physical

performance among the players in Class “A” women’s volleyball teams in China. From

the regression analysis, he found that the defensive movements were significantly

related with speed. It was suggested that the physical performance testing should

include items for 3-metre swift movement, 4 × 6 metre transversely movement, v

sit-ups, 5-step frog-leap and 30 metre sprint (Song, 1982). Gabbett and Georgieff

(2007) indicated that significant differences (p < 0.05) were detected among junior

national, state, and novice volleyball players for height, standing reach height, skinfold

thickness, lower-body muscular power, agility, and estimated maximal aerobic power,

with the physiological and anthropometric characteristics of players typically

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improving with increases in playing level (Gabbett and Georgieff, 2007).

In summary, there have been numerous investigations on the importance of physical

performance, the selection of physical performance tests, the correlation among

different physical performance tests and the relationship between players’ performance

and physical performance. However, there has been scarcely any literature concerning

the relationship between players’ anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance. So far there haven’t been any data that indicate whether players’ physical

performance is under the influence of their anthropometric characteristics, or whether

some specific physical performance may impact players’ anthropometric

characteristics. Moreover, there have rarely any studies that compared physical

performance of the volleyball players in different playing positions.

2.4.2 Correlations between anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance

There are a considerable number of factors that affect players’ performance and

achievements in competitions, including technical skills, experience in games,

psychological characteristics, and conditioning status, etc. There have been some

reports on investigations on the relationships between anthropometric characteristics

and physical performance and sport performance.

Stanganelli (2008) suggested that the vertical jump capacity was critical for success in

volleyball (Stanganelli et al., 2008). You and Huang (2000) found that, with the rapid

development of world’s volleyball games, the requirements for physical capacity of

elite players are elevated. These include anthropometric characteristics, physiological

function, and physical performance. Research has demonstrated that physical capacity

is partly determined by genetic factors.

Chen (1999) examined the influence of non-technical factors such as anthropometric

characteristics and physical performance on the competition results and suggested that

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anthropometric characteristics and physical performance are closely correlated to each

other (Chen, 1999).

2.4.2.1 The relationships between anthropometry and physical performance in

sports

Optimal anthropometric characteristics have been considered to be a pre-requisite for

good performance in sports. As a result, studies (Carter, 1970, Hirata, 1966) have

identified particular body type that is likely to lead to success in selected sport events

(Sharma and Dixit, 1985). Xu and Chen (2000) reported that the main anthropometric

factors which were highly correlated to the performance of elite female aerobics

athletes in China were stature and arm length. The main physical performance tests

that were correlated to sport performance were chin-up and standing long jump. This

study suggests that the performance of aerobics is highly correlated with the indices of

anthropometry and physical performance, such as stature, arm length, chin-up, and

standing long jump (Xu and Chen, 2000). Previous studies have also documented the

physical performance and anthropometric characteristics of sub-elite and elite rugby

league players to provide insight into the factors that are likely to limit and contribute

to high performance (Gabbett et al., 2005, Gabbett, 2006, Meir et al., 2001, O'Connor,

1996). When it comes to the relation among anthropometric characteristics, physical

performance and achievement of 100 m sprinters, it has been reported that

anthropometric characteristics, such as stature, length of trochanterion-tibiale laterale

and girth of thigh have significant contributions to the achievements, whereas body

mass and calf girth has no significant relationship with the achievement (Gabbett et al.,

2005, Gabbett, 2006, Meir et al., 2001, O'Connor, 1996). For physical performance of

100 meter sprint athletes, the vertical jump, and vertical jump/ thigh girth are

significantly correlated to players’ accomplishment, while lower body muscular power,

vertical jump/length of trochanterion-tibiale laterale and vertical jump/girth of calf

have no significant correlations to the achievement (Wang and Zhang, 2003). Yin

(1999) pointed out that the performance of heel-to-toe walking race lies on the stride

length and frequency. In the condition of coequality, the players who have higher

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stature and longer lower limbs can dominate in the race. Therefore, attention must be

paid to the factor of lower limbs length when selecting potential athletes. At the same

time, it is propitious to have wide shoulder and narrow biiliocristal for heel-to-toe

walkers, because these may improve stride frequency. In addition, slim thigh and thick

calf can benefit performance (Yi, 1999).

The above literature indicates that, in the sport events like aerobics, walking race, and

sprint, athletes’ anthropometric characteristics and physical performance interact with

each other. The previous studies on the athletes of some sport events have enlightened

us to put forward the hypothesis that there are certain correlations among volleyball

players’ anthropometric characteristics, physical performance and achievement.

2.4.2.2 The correlations among the anthropometric characteristics, physical

performance and achievement in volleyball

Several studies have documented the physiological and anthropometric characteristics

of volleyball players (Fleck et al., 1985, Hascelik et al., 1989, Hosler et al., 1978,

Spence et al., 1980) and reported that the physical performance of players increases as

the playing level is increased (Smith et al., 1992, Thissen-Milder and Mayhew, 1991).

Smith et al. (1992) compared physical, physiological, and performance characteristics

of national-level and college-level volleyball players and found significantly higher

block and spike jumps, 20-m speed, and VO2max in the national-level players (Smith

et al., 1992). Fleck and associates (1985) compared the 1980’s U.S. Women’s National

Volleyball Teams with 1979’s team for their age, height, weight, body composition

determined via hydrostatic weighing and vertical jump height. Significant differences

(p<0.05) were found in age (23±2.6 yr. and 21.5±0.7 yr.), percentage of body fat

(11.7±3.7% and 18.3±3.4%), and vertical jump distance (52.4±4.5 cm and 45.5±6.4

cm). These results indicate that training of elite (national and international caliber)

women volleyball players should consider reduce percentage of body fat so as to

increase vertical jump distance (Fleck et al., 1985).

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Gao (2006) made a correlative analysis between the ranked volleyball places in the 27th

and the 28th Olympics Games and the players’ seven physical performance indices. The

results revealed that the ranked places were significantly correlated with the players’

stature. According to the ranked places in women’s volleyball in the 27th and the 28th

Olympics Games, the 12 teams were divided into 3 groups (the top four teams made

the first group, the 5th to 8th teams made the second group, and the 9th to 12th teams

made the third group). Gao (2006) then applied analysis of variance (ANOVA) to

compare the seven indices among the players. The results showed that the first group

had the highest stature, which was 1.84 m, while the second group was 1.82 m and the

third group was 1.80 m, with significant differences between the first, the second & the

third groups. The results indicated that the players’ performance in competition are

significantly related with the players’ stature, which involves four indices for the

height-over-the-net, namely, spiking height, blocking height, the difference between

spiking height and stature, the difference between blocking height and stature (2006).

In modern volleyball games, intense confrontations are mostly reflected by the contest

of the height-over-the-net. Therefore, the taller players with better jumping ability

would be an advantage (Gao, 2006).

The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and physical performance has

been shown in a number of studies on volleyball players. For example, Stamm et al.

(2003) suggested that anthropometric characteristics had a significant impact on

performing all technical-tactical elements in volleyball, particularly in spike and block.

You and Huang (2000) claimed that the length of hand is closely correlated to all

volleyball technical skills, especially in the process of hitting. To make full use of the

speed gained when waving arms, players with long arms would have an advantage.

The length of hand plays an important role in blocking and defense. Long hands allow

players to reach higher when they are blocking and controlling broader space in

defense (You and Huang, 2000).

Liu (2006) suggested that the waist girth was related to the abdominal muscle function

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in volleyball players. The waist girth was negatively correlated to the abdominal

muscle strength. The index of (waist girth/stature) x 100 also related the abdominal

muscle strength. Zeng (1992) found that Achilles’ tendon length was correlated to

players’ jumping ability. A longer Achilles’ tendon length relates to faster contraction

speed and higher power of the calf muscle. The index of (Achilles’ tendon length /calf

length A) × 100 reflects not only the strength of the calf muscle, but also players’

jumping and moving ability. The index of (Sitting height/Stature) × 100 reflects the

comparative length of player’s trunk, and greater index of sitting height will usually

mean a longer trunk, shorter lower limbs and lower center of gravity. This may be

propitious to fast and agile movement, but it will not help in jumping. Hu (1999)

reported that longer calves, shorter thighs and smaller ankle girths were among the

anthropometric characteristics of elite volleyball players. Zhang (2007) found that the

difference between the tensioned and the relaxed upper arm girths reflected the

maximum tensioning and relaxing capacity of the upper arm muscles. The upper arm

muscle strength will determine volleyball players’ swing speed and spiking force

therefore would directly affect the player’s performance in spiking.

When compared with the players of Korea and Japan, Chinese women volleyball

players showed higher scores in body mass, stature and touching height of vertical

jump. When compared with the volleyball players from Europe and America, Chinese

players showed no significant difference in these indices, except that standing reach

height was lower than that of the Cuban volleyball players (Chen, 1999). Chen (1999)

also compared four indices (age, body mass, stature and touching height of vertical

jump) for the 108 female volleyball players from the top nine teams in the 26th

Olympics Games (Cuba, China, Brazil, Russia, Holland, Korea, U.S.A., Germany, and

Japan) (Chen, 1999). The results are listed in Table 2-11.

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Table 2-11 Statistics of four indices of female volleyball players from top 9 teams

in the 26th Olympics Games

Items N Mass (kg) Stature (cm) Running vertical jump (cm)

Asian (3 teams) 36 68.6 178.6 301.7

American (3) 36 73.0 181.8 312.8

European (3) 36 72.6 184.1 307.3

In conclusion, in international women volleyball games, the winners have distinct

advantages both in the anthropometric indices including stature, standing reach height

and body mass, as well as in the physical performance indices like jumping ability.

Asian women volleyball players did have a history of beating the European and

American teams by virtue of well-developed techniques and fighting spirit. However,

recently, most of the Asian women volleyball teams seldom get the chance to win the

games. There is an exception though. China women volleyball players can still win six

champions in high-level world women volleyball games, and this might be because

their anthropometric characteristics and physical performance conditions were close to

those of top European and American players. The above mentioned statistic data has

given evidence to the fact that good achievement attributes to the volleyball players’

favorable anthropometric characteristics and physical performance conditions.

2.4.3 Summary

The nature of volleyball competition requires the players to be well equipped with

skills and tactics. Moreover, they should also have good physical performance. All

these can possibly work together to win the dominance in a game. Physical

performance is the base of high-level volleyball performance. If there is no highly

developed physical performance, it will be impossible for volleyball players to master

outstanding skills, advanced tactics, and satisfying achievements. Volleyball players

should never be satisfied with their overall outstanding physical performance, and

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especially, they should develop the specific physical performance for the volleyball

game, which mainly include jumping ability, moving speed, arm-waving speed, agility

on the court, stamina for a match and flexibility. As for the testing indices of physical

performance for volleyball players, though different coaches and experts have different

ideas, most of their suggestions are: running up vertical jump, movement in various

styles, short distance race, medicine ball throw (or badminton throw), sit up, long

distance race.

The above-listed measurements can well reflect players’ physical performance, and

statistical analyses have shown good correlations between these measurements and the

players’ anthropometric indices.

In China, no systematic study has fully covered the relationship between the

anthropometric characteristics and the specific physical performance of female

volleyball players. Whether some specific anthropometry characteristics would

contribute to the development of the corresponding physical performance still needs to

be revealed. There is also a lack of research on the key anthropometry and physical

performance factors in relation to high-level performance for women volleyball

players.

In recent years, scholars have showed more interests in studying the relationship

between physical performance and anthropometric characteristics, and its influence on

players’ performance. Volleyball sports have been involved in these researches, but the

existing literature is restricted within the individual index of performance and

anthropometric characteristics. If we want to get an accurate evaluation of the

influences from physical performance and anthropometric characteristics, a complete

picture is needed.

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2.5 The recruitment based on anthropometry

From the existing literature in China, it is found that a great attention has been paid to

the talent identification based on anthropometric characteristics. The research is mainly

carried out along genetics and anthropometry approaches. The former focuses on

children’s growth and genetic characteristics, while the latter is concentrated on the

measurements and evaluation of anthropometric characteristics.

2.5.1 The importance of anthropometric profile in recruitment of players

The fast development in modern sports pushes coaches and sport organizations to pay

increased attention to talent identification which is based on not only experience, but

also scientific approaches. Among these scientific approaches, anthropometric

measurements always play an important role (Xing, 1992). Li (1992) has suggested

that a scientific identification of potential players relies on precise and reliable

anthropometric measurements and mathematical modeling of the characteristics of

outstanding players (Li, 1992).

It has been suggested that a successful athlete relies on a combination of genetic and

environmental factors (Tian, 2006). It is estimated that genetic factors account for 92%

of stature, 85% of sitting height, 87% of arm length, 92% of thigh length, 82% of foot

length, 70% of biacromiale length, 60% of arm girth, 55% of waist girth and 78% of

lean mass (Xie et al., 2005). It has also been estimated that heredity is attributable to

86% of reaction time, 64% of relative strength, 75% of anaerobic endurance and 86%

of aerobic endurance. In principle, if contribution of heredity is lower than 50% in an

attribute it should not be taken as an indicator for talent identification (Xie et al.,

2005).

In the past 10 years, the average age of players in top volleyball teams is usually in the

range from 23 to 25 years. It normally needs 8 to 10 years to build up a champion team

or to cultivate an elite player. Therefore, the best age for talent identification is around

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13 years for girls and 15 years for boys (Zeng, 1992). To date the talent identification

of volleyball players has been mainly based on the experience of coaches. To some

extent, the improvement volleyball sport is restricted when the prediction of the stature

of the young players is based on the experience (Huang, 1992).

Olympic women volleyball players possess certain body characteristics which have

been reported as a discriminating factor between high and lower level players (Fleck et

al., 1985).. The viewpoints of the researchers converge on the fact that the ideal

physique for a sport is not the sole factor of excellence in this sport. Nevertheless, the

lack of optimum anthropometric characteristics can become an obstacle for an athlete

capable of achieving elite performance (De Garay et al., 1974, Tanner et al., 1964).

2.5.2 Selection of anthropometric measurements

2.5.2.1 Anthropometric selection in sports

There is no doubt that the technical skills in volleyball are essentially determined by

the players’ age, body build and physical ability (Buck and Harrison, 1990, Dufek and

Zhang, 1996, Malina, 1994, Thissen-Milder and Mayhew, 1991). Studies of the

players’ body build have laid emphasis on a few most essential measurements and

characteristics of body composition. Thus, height and weight (Malina, 1994), height,

weight and lean body mass (Hascelik et al., 1989), fat skinfolds (Smith et al., 1992),

weight, thigh and arm girths and estimation of body fat content on the basis of

skinfolds have been applied (Hakkinen, 1993).

The anthropometric assessment indices for female adolescent volleyball players in Rio

de Janeiro study included the following variables: body mass, stature, girths of arms,

abdomen, hip, thigh, and the skinfolds of triceps, biceps, chest, subscapular, suprailiac,

abdominal and thigh (de Almeida and Soares, 2003).

Successful competition in sports has been associated with specific anthropometric

characteristics, body composition and somatotype (Carter and Heath, 1990, Claessens

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et al., 1991, Ebersole, 2002). For instance, the importance of tall stature in team sports

athletes is universally accepted as it is well known that body height influences

positively all body segment lengths and, in turn, athletic performance (Alexander

Marion, 1976, Apostolidis et al., 2004, Carter and Heath, 1990, Fleck et al., 1985).

Thus, there is a wealth of empirical evidence and a longstanding scientific interest

regarding the existence of structural differences among athletes in various sports

(Carter, 1981, Carter, 1984, Eiben, 1981, Gualdi Russo et al., 1992, Gualdi-Russo and

Graziani, 1993). An athlete’s anthropometric characteristics and physical

characteristics may represent important prerequisites for successful participation in any

given sport (Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b), and can in some way influence

his/her level of performance, at the same time helping to determine a suitable physique

for a certain sport (Carter and Heath, 1990, Rienzi et al., 1999).

Identification of specific characteristics of physique that may contribute to success in

sports as well as the possible structural differences among athletes in various sports has

been a subject of high interest for sport scientists and coaches. However, although

studies have examined the anthropometric and physiological profiles of athletes from a

variety of sports (Gabbett, 2000a, Rienzi et al., 1999, Zabukovec and Tiidus, 1995b), it

appears that few studies have examined the anthropometric or physiological profile of

volleyball players, particularly in relation to their positional role in the games

(Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b). Within a team sport, certain positions may

require more specific physique characteristics based on the physiological demands set

on the players during the game. Therefore, the investigation in this thesis aimed to

provide novel information in this field.

From the above mentioned previous research we have learnt that, in anthropometric

investigation for the players in different sports events, the selected measurements are

not always the same. For instance, for walking race athletes, the key measurements are

at waist, coax, thighs, and calves; for rowers, upper limbs, shoulders and chest are the

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areas of focus. These mean that different sports have different requirements for their

athletes’ anthropometric characteristics.

2.5.2.2 Selection of anthropometry measurements in volleyball

The anthropometry measurements included body weight, height in standing position,

sitting height, height with one arm raised, height with two arms raised and arm span. In

addition, the lengths of the upper limb, forearm, hand, lower limb, thigh and foot were

measured as well as the girths of shoulder, chest, biceps, forearm, wrist, waist,

abdomen, hip, thigh, calf and ankle. The skinfolds measured were those of the triceps,

subscapular, abdomen and thigh (Papadopoulou et al., 2002).

Li (2006) analyzed the anthropometric characteristics of Chinese junior female

volleyball players. He recommended five indices like stature, standing reach

height/stature, abdominal skinfold and body mass/stature can be taken as essential

indicators for the selection of junior female volleyball players in China (Li, 2006).

To improve the volleyball players talent identification, the Chinese national

organization of volleyball conducted a specific research and had brought forward some

reference indices for the volleyball players’ anthropometric characteristics, including:

stature, finger distance-height, iliospinale height/stature×100, length of Achilles’

tendon /calf length plus foot arch height×100, breadth of biiliocristal/biacromial

breadth×100 (Zeng, 1992).

To sum up, the previous investigation on volleyball players’ anthropometric

characteristics all take the basic indices including stature, body mass, standing reach

height and sitting height. They tend to focus on the length of lower limbs, Achilles’

tendon and calf, and ankle girth, which are related with jumping ability, and the index

of biiliocristal breadth/biacromial breadth×100, which may influence players’ agility.

However, it is also found that these scholars have not made complete selections for

volleyball players’ anthropometric measuring positions and therefore can not present a

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full picture of volleyball players’ anthropometric characteristics conditions.

2.5.3 Anthropometry characteristics of volleyball players at specific positions

The literature review in this section introduces the concept of specific volleyball

positions in volleyball sport. The physical performance and the anthropometric

characteristics required for the players at specific positions are also reported.

2.5.3.1 Anthropometry characteristics of players at different positions in team

sports

Researchers have investigated the physical qualities of different playing positions

based on which they developed performance standards and normative data for these

players (Gabbett et al., 2005, Gabbett, 2006, Gabbett and Georgieff, 2006, Meir et al.,

2001).

Gabbett (2006) compared the physiological and anthropometric characteristics of

specific playing positions and positional playing groups in sub-elite rugby league. The

results of his study demonstrated that few physiological and anthropometric differences

exist among individuals playing positions in sub-elite rugby league, although props are

taller, heavier, have a greater skinfold thickness, than other positional playing groups.

The adjustables and outside backs were shorter, lighter, leaner, faster, and had higher

maximal aerobic power than hit-up forwards (Gabbett, 2006).

Ostojic et al. (2006) described structural and functional characteristics of elite Serbian

basketball players and evaluated whether players in different positional roles had

different physical and physiological profiles. The results of this study showed that

there were differences in physical and physiological characteristics in different

positional roles of elite basketball players that might be due to genetic factors or

training, or both. The demands of the different positional roles appeared to be unique,

thus training as well as recruiting should reflect the differences. Coaches can use this

information to determine what type of profile is needed for specific positions and to

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design training programs to maximize physical performance development in their

players and to achieve success in basketball. The study also revealed a strong

relationship between body composition, aerobic physical performance, anaerobic

power, and positional roles in elite basketball players (Ostojic et al., 2006).

Hencken and White (2006) investigated a squad of Premiership soccer players (n=24)

using ISAK (International Society of Advancement of Kinanthropometry) suggested

methods, with a total of 39 anthropometry measurements. A multivariate analysis of

variance revealed no differences between the stature and body mass between strikers,

midfielders, defenders, and goalkeepers. In his study, within-position variation was

quite large in some cases, which could indicate that a team that did not have the

opportunity to select players based on anthropometric characteristics might be at a

disadvantage (Hencken and White, 2006).

Specific positional roles in soccer and volleyball require distinct technical skills and

therefore further research is essential to detect whether the positional variation of

Indian soccer and volleyball players relates to any difference in their morphological

characteristics (Bandyopadhyay, 2007).

In summary, it has been speculated that, in team sports, the players at different tactical

positions may have distinct anthropometric profiles. However, from the above review

of literature it is clear that, except the anthropometric differences shown in different

sport events, elite basketball, lacrosse and soccer players may not always shown

significant differences in their anthropometric profiles among different positions.

Further study is also required for volleyball players. We therefore proposed a Null

Hypothesis that there were no differences among the anthropometric profiles of the

women volleyball players at different tactical positions.

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2.5.3.2 Physical performance and anthropometry for volleyball players at


It appears that for liberos the primary requirement is certainly not height, since their

role during the game is to defend their court playing close to the ground, for which

they need to have good technical skills, strategy and reaction time. Their high value in

mesomorphy with the low fat mass are indicative of a good muscular system necessary

for playing good defence. Setters also need high speed and agility as well as technical

and organizational skills to serve their role in the game, whereas body size is not so

crucial. Opposites exhibit strong tendency for higher ectomorphy compared to spikers,

reflecting their different duties during the game. The opposites, being the main spikers

of the team, attack and block the opposing team’s attacks over the net and therefore

have to be tall with long arms and legs. Spikers have significant contribution in the

game, playing over the net (attacking and blocking) but also close to the ground, in

receiving the ball. Therefore, technical skills in receiving the ball and effective

attacking combined with good jumping (Malousarisa et al., 2008).

● The roles of players at volleyball positions

The chief spikers should be able to make breaks through the blocking defense of the

opponent. In matches, the chief spikers are supposed to be in charge of the aggressive

and powerful attacks usually at the No. 4 position. Therefore, the chief spikers are

demanded to meet higher spiking requirements for height, strength, skill, route and

precision (Chen, 1989b).

In an elite volleyball team, the second spikers are indispensable for their fast attacks,

passes, serves, blocks and the cooperation with teammates. Their most important

function is to make effective group movements and build a two or three persons block.

They are always smart in the application of time difference and position shift, skillful

in fast attacking skills and tactics, and cooperative in teaming up effective attacks and

blocks, especially with the chief spikers and the second setters (Wu, 1996).

77

Setters usually make the second pass, which is the turning point from defense to attack.

Therefore, they are the key factors for the realization of both defending and attacking

tactics (Chen, 1989b).

As for the second setters, their responsibilities have changed a lot in modern volleyball

games. Their previous function in the second pass decreased, their attacking function

has otherwise increased. In the current world level women volleyball games, second

setters has come up to be the core of the whole attacking tactics (Chen, 1999).

The position of “Libero” was established by International Volleyball League in 1998.

The player in this position can be called libero defensive player. The duty of this player

is to make the first pass and defense on the back row. A good libero can enhance the

defense of the back row and make other players be more dedicated for attacking

buildup. At present, libero becomes such a crucial role that the application and the

talent identification of the libero players require serious consideration (Li, 2006).

● Current research on physical characteristics of elite volleyball players

Each of the six players in the volleyball court has specific roles in the games.

Therefore, the anthropometric characteristics required for these positions would be

different. Spikers are always expected to give forceful attack at No.4 position which is

chief spiker and therefore they should have high stature and strong muscles, while

Liberos are devoted to receive the spiked or the served ball in the backfield, and they

are not allowed to spike or block in the front field.

Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni (2001) suggested that the volleyball players had

significantly different anthropometric characteristics in relation to their game roles.

They indicated that the setters were the lightest, the shortest, and the fattest; the spikers

were the heaviest; and the second spikers were the tallest (Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni,

2001b). The research of Malousaris et al. (2008) indicated that the liberos had smaller

body size than the rest of the players. In addition, the setters were shorter and had

lower body mass and fat free mass than the centers (Malousarisa et al., 2008).

78

There are arguments about whether there is a significant difference in Katoly index for

female volleyball players at different volleyball positions. For example, Li (2004)

undertook the anthropometry indices for the female volleyball players (n=287) in the

14th World Volleyball Championship in 2002. He conducted one-way ANOVA and

found that there were significant differences in Katoly index among the spikers, second

spikers, setters, second setters and liberos (Li, 2004).

Ling (2007) has also suggested that players at different volleyball positions may have

unique anthropometric characteristics. Among the world top women volleyball players,

the average stature of setters is 180-185 cm, chief spikers 185-190 cm, second spikers

190-200 cm, second setters 185-195 cm (Ling, 2007b). Table 2-12 shows some of the

anthropometric characteristics and performance measurements of female volleyball

players at different volleyball positions in the top six female teams in the 26th

Olympics Games (Zhang, 1998b).

Table 2-12 Anthropometric characteristics of elite female volleyball players at


Items Spiker Second

spiker

Setter Second

setter

Mean

Body mass (kg) 70.8 73.9 68.4 72.2 71.3

Stature (cm) 180.5 184.8 175.9 181.3 180.6


(cm)

307.6 309.9 295.3 307.6 305.1

Source: (Zhang, 1998a)

To make a clear understanding of the anthropometric characteristics between Chinese

elite women volleyball players and the world elite women volleyball players, we have

made comparative analyses among the 287 elite women volleyball players from 24

79

teams in the 15th World Championships in 2006. The comparative indices include:

stature, body mass and Katoly index. The data has been collected from the official

website of the 15th World Championships (http://sports.sina.com.cn/z/

wwcvolleyball06/) and the research results on the anthropometric characteristics of the

elite women volleyball players in the 15th World Championships (Qu, 2007). Through

X2 test on the results, Qu (2007) found that there were significant differences among

the stature indices and the body mass indices of spikers, second spikers, setters, second

setters and liberos (Tables from 2-13 to 2-17), but there was no significant difference in

the Katoly indices (Qu, 2007).

Table 2-13 The anthropometric characteristics of the spikers in 15th World


Items America

(n=24)

Europe

(n=21)

Africa

(n=11)

Asia

(n=18)

Stature (cm) 184.7±7.1 187.1±4.9 178.6±4.7 181.2±6.0

Body mass (kg) 70.1±9.6 71.4±5.2 72.5±5.6 67.8±5.6

Katoly index 379.1±46.3 381.4±24.8 405.8±29.4 373.7±23.2

Table 2-14 The anthropometric characteristics of the second spikers in 15th World


Items America

(n=26)

Europe

(n=30)

Africa

(n=7)

Asia

(n=15)

Stature (cm) 186.7±4.4 188.1±5.9 180.1±5.2 185.7±4.6

Body mass (kg) 73.6±6.0 71.7±5.7 71.3±5.1 71.6±4.7

Katoly index 394.1±30.0 381.0±24.3 395.4±20.2 385.5±21.4

80

Table2-15 The anthropometric characteristics of the setters in 15th World


Items America

(n=18)

Europe

(n=16)

Africa

(n=6)

Asia

(n=10)

Stature (cm) 177.3±5.1 178.9±4.8 176.2±3.8 175.6±8.1

Body mass (kg) 68.8±4.6 68.6±5.0 61.5±3.3 68.5±6.6

Katoly index 388.1±28.0 383.7±28.6 349.1±17.1 389.4±23.5

Table 2-16 The anthropometric characteristics of the second setters in 15th World


Items America

(n=16)

Europe

(n=18)

Africa

(n=8)

Asia

(n=10)

Stature (cm) 183.6±4.1 186.94±6.4 178.6±2.9 180.7±5.9

Body mass (kg) 70.5±7.2 71.2±5.1 71.0±5.8 69.2±5.6

Katoly index 383.8± 38.0 380.6±22.2 397.5±32.0 382.6±22.1

Table 2-17 The anthropometric characteristics of the liberos in 15th World


Items America

(n=12)

Europe

(n=10)

Africa

(n=4)

Asia

(n=7)

Stature (cm) 171.8±7.3 171.7±5.5 170.3±0.5 170.4±6.9

Body mass (kg) 64.0±6.4 63.1±6.5 66.3±2.4 63.0±5.1

Katoly index 372.4±33.9 367.0±29.3 89.2±14.9 369.4±20.9

Based on the analyses Qu (2007) pointed out that there were no significant differences

in the average age, body mass and Katoly index of the players from America, Europe,

Africa and Asia. However, there was a significant difference in the average stature.

Although there were no significant differences among the average of age and Katoly

index, the average of stature and body mass were significantly different among the

81

players at different tactical positions. The players from America, Europe, Africa and

Asia, at different tactical positions, showed specific anthropometric characteristics and

the height-over-the-net as well.

There were significant difference among the mean statures of the players from America,

Europe, Africa and Asia, but there was no significant difference among the age, body

mass, and Katoly index. The average stature of the European players was the tallest

(184.4 cm), followed by the players from the America (182.1 cm), Asia (180.0 cm),

and Africa (177.6 cm). The average body mass was 69.7 kg. European players’ average

body mass is the heaviest (70.1 kg), the next goes to the American and African players

(69.4 kg), and the lightest was the players from Asia (68.5 kg). However, these

differences were not statistically different. The players’ average Katoly index was

383.0. The average values, from the highest to the lowest, were in the order of

European, Asian, American and African players, although these differences were not

statistically significant.

As for the anthropometric characteristics and height over the net, the players from

different continents or from different tactical positions may have their own features.

For example, for the position of spikers, there were no significant differences among

the averages of age and body mass of the players from different continents, but there

existed significant differences in the averages of stature and Katoly index. At the

position of second spikers, significant difference was found between the continents in

the average stature, while no significant differences were found in the averages of age,

body mass and Katoly index. The setters from different continents had significantly

different body mass and Katoly index, but their other indices showed no significant

difference. The second setters from different continents had significantly different

averages of stature, but there was no significant difference among their age, body mass

and Katoly index. For liberos, there was no significant difference among the players

from different continents.

82

Liberos were shorter and lighter (p < 0.01) than spikers, centers and opposites, while

centers and opposites were taller than setters and spickers. In respect of body mass and

fat free mass, significant differences (p < 0.01) were observed between centers and

liberos, centers and setters, as well as between spikers and liberos. With regard to

somatotype, spikers and setters are characterized as balanced endomorphs (3.5-3.0-2.7

and 3.6-2.5-3.0, respectively), centers and opposites as endomorph—ectomorphs

(3.4-2.4-3.1 and 3.4-2.4-3.5, respectively) and liberos as mesomorph—endomorphs

(3.1-3. 3-2.6). In general, A1 opposites were leaner than all other positions and all A2

players (A1：national team of Greek; A2: national league of Greek). In A1 division,

spikers (3.3-2.5-3.3), centers (3.2-2.2-3.2), and setters (3.4-2.2-3.2) were characterised

as endomorph-ectomorphs, opposites as balanced ectomorphs (2.6-2.4-3.9) and liberos

as centrals (3.2-3.3-2.8). In A2 division, spikers (3.6-3.3- 2.4) and liberos (3.0-3.3-2.4)

were characterized as mesomorph—endomorphs, centers (3.6-2.7-3.1) and setters

(3.7-3.0-2.7) as balanced endomorphs, and opposites (4.1-2.5-3.2) as ectomorphic

endomorphs (Malousarisa et al., 2008)

Figure 2-1 Somatochart for Greek female players from different competition

level

(V1: mean somatotype of A1 volleyball division; V2: mean somatotype of A2

83

volleyball division) by playing position (H1: mean somatotype of A1 spikers, C1:

mean somatotype of A1 centres; O1: mean somatotype of A1 opposites; S1: mean

somatotype of A1 setters; L1: mean somatotype of A1 liberos; H2: mean somatotype

of A2 spikers; C2: mean somatotype of A2 centres; O2: mean somatotype of A2

opposites; S2:mean somatotype of A2 setters; L2: mean somatotype of A2 liberos)

(Malousarisa et al., 2008)

2.5.4 Summary

As an important factor for successful cultivation, talent identification has aroused

increasing attention of coaches. Nowadays, some anthropometric indices have been

adopted by some coaches in the talent identification of volleyball players. However,

further research is needed to validate talent identification criteria for specific groups of

players.

The talent identification criteria of volleyball players can be divided into several kinds,

including anthropometry, energy, physical performance, and psychology, etc. Though

different specialists may hold different opinions for the selection of the indices, they

share the tendency of using stature, arm span, lower limbs length and Achilles’ tendon

length as anthropometry indices, and fast movement, running-up vertical jump,

arm-waving speed and the strength of waist and abdomen muscle as physical

performance indices. Yet, there is a paucity of specific research on these indices.

There has been literature on physical characteristics of players in volleyball positions

in team sports, such as volleyball, rugby, soccer, and lacrosse, however the results on

the differences between positions have been equivocal.

In volleyball, due to the different responsibilities at volleyball positions, spikers,

second spikers, setters, second setters and liberos differ in their roles and required

different skills and tactics in the competition. Therefore, differences are expected in

their physical performance and anthropometric characteristics.

84

As for the different anthropometric characteristics of the women volleyball players at

volleyball positions, very limited information is available in the literature. Previous

studies are limited to measurements of stature, body mass, arm span and Katoly index.

Further investigations on a more complete anthropometry profile for volleyball players

at different positions is necessary in validation of talent identification criteria.

2.6 Summary of the Literature Review

Based on the analysis of over 200 reports in the filed of anthropometry and sports, with

a focus on volleyball players, the following can be summarised.

1) Previous findings have revealed that anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance are the foundation for skills and tactics. Selections based on the “optimal”

characteristics may be an important pre-requisite in setting up a high performance

team.

2) Very limited information is available in the literature regarding the anthropometric

characteristics of elite female volleyball players.

3) No systematic research has been found in the literature on the correlations between

anthropometric measurements and physical capacity, and neither has any study

demonstrated the significance of anthropometric characteristics of a particular body

part may contribute to the development of the corresponding physical capacity in

female volleyball.

4) No literature has reported the relationship between the performance of female

volleyball players in different playing positions and their specific physique and

physical performance.

5) Particularly, there has been a paucity of information on the anthropometric

characteristics of elite Chinese female volleyball players, although the Chinese team

has been among the world top teams for more than 20 years.

85

3. Chapter Three: Methods

3.1 Participants

Volleyball players from the top eight teams of the 2007-2008 Chinese Women’s

Volleyball Tournament were invited to participate in the study (Table 3-1).

Table 3-1 The top eight teams of the 2007-2008 Chinese Women’s

Volleyball Tournament

Rank Team Rank Team

1 Tianjin 5 Sichuan

2 Bayi 6 Jiangsu

3 Shanghai 7 Shandong

4 Liaoning 8 Zhejiang

One hundred (100) players, including 27 chief spikers, 25 second spikers, 15 setters,

18 second setters and 15 liberos, completed all anthropometry measurements. The

participants’ age was in the range of 18 to 30 years old as registered at the 2007-2008

National Volleyball Tournament. Their mean age (±SD) was 22.3±3.65 years and they

had participated in volleyball training for 9.67±3.98 years on average. Due to injury,

13 players were absent form the measurement of physical performance. Hence the

total number of players involved in the physical performance measurements was 87.

The statistics of general information for all volleyball players are presented in Table

3-2. Statistics of general information for each of the five volleyball players’ positions

are presented in Table 3-3.

86

Table 3-2 The general information for all volleyball players

N Minimum Maximum Mean SD

Age (year) 100 18.0 30.8 22.3 3.65

ATFT (year) 100 7.1 16.9 12.6 1.80

YPVT (year) 100 4.2 20.7 9.7 3.98

YBEV (year) 100 0.7 15.0 5.6 3.47

Body mass (kg) 100 51.6 103.9 70.5 7.60

Stature (cm) 100 156.0 198.0 183.6 5.77

Sitting height

(cm) 100 84.2 107.0 95.7 3.53

SRH(cm) 100 207.6 256.5 236.7 7.81

Katoly index 100 306.3 546.8 383.6 37.04

Abbreviations：ATFT: Age of training volleyball in the first time；YPVT: Years of

participating in volleyball training; YBEV: Years of becoming elite volleyball player

(who joined in her own team, which is one of the national top 8 teams); SRH: Standing

reach height.

Table 3-3 General information for the five players’ positions

N Age (year) YBEV (year) YPVT (year)

Chief spikers 27 23.0±3.78 6.0±3.45 10.2±4.25

Second spikers 25 21.9±3.78 5.2±3.54 9.1±3.82

Setters 15 22.1±3.54 5.7±3.65 9.5±3.77

Second setters 18 22.6±3.69 5.8±3.90 9.7±4.41

Liberos 15 21.5±3.49 5.0±2.98 9.8±3.82

Total 100 5.6±3.47 9.7±3.98

Abbreviations: YBEV: Years of becoming elite volleyball player; YPVT: Years of

participating in volleyball training. Data presented are mean±SD.

87

3.2 Research design

This study used a cross-sectional design and was descriptive in nature. Selected

anthropometry and physical performance data were collected from the current top

eight women’s volleyball teams and the national team in China. Anthropometry

measurements and statistical analyses were performed to determine the physical

characteristics of the volleyball players, and comparisons were made between the

players of different volleyball positions. Correlation analyses were also performed to

examine the relationships between the anthropometry characteristics and physical

performance.

To collect the data, the researchers traveled to the training camps of the volleyball

teams. The data was collected during the period of November 2008 to February 2009.

During this period, some teams (n=5) participated in the measurements during the pre

tournament preparation phase, while other teams (n=3) were measured during the

gaps between games.

The anthropometry measurements included 29 items, of which 26 were accordance of

ISAK manual (Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a) and three were additional measurements

following the protocol of Zeng (1992). Based on the collected original data, 20 derived

anthropometry indices were calculated and the somatotypes were determined using the

Heath-Carter method (Carter and Heath, 1990, Heath and Carter, 1967, Norton and

Olds, 1996).

Four physical performance tests were selected with consideration of their specificity to

volleyball. These tests included overhead medicine ball throwing (for upper-body

muscular power), running vertical jump (for lower-body muscular power), T-shuttle

run agility test and timed 20 sit-ups (for muscular endurance). The physical

performance of each player was measured according to the stated methods issued by

88

the China Volleyball Association (Jin et al., 2007).

All of the anthropometry measurements were taken by the same (female) researchers

who obtained ISAK level 1 and level 2 anthropometrist certificates. The physical

performance tests were also performed by the same researchers. The anthropometry

measurements were taken in the morning while the measurements of physical

performance were taken in the afternoon. All measurements for one volleyball team

were completed within one day.

Statistical analyses were performed when all the anthropometry and physical

performance data had been collected, after consultation with a statistician.

3.3 Ethical considerations

All participants were screened using the pre-participation health status questionnaire

(Appendix 2) to ensure no contraindications to participation. Participants were

provided with information at their level of comprehension about the purpose, methods,

demands, risks, inconveniences, discomforts, and possible outcomes of this research. A

copy of the information sheet and the consent form (all in Chinese) are attached in

(Appendix 3). Informed consent was obtained from each participant prior to the

commencement of the measurements. The experimental procedure had obtained

approval by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Southern Cross University

(ECN-08-142). However, there was no requirement for ethical approval for conducting

this project by the relevant authorities and sport teams in China. The research has

obtained approval by the China Volleyball Administration Center and the coaches of

the teams.

89

3.4 Equipment

For the anthropometry measurements, Rosscraft (Rosscraft Innovations Company,

Canada) anthropometry equipment was used, including Campbell 20 (54 cm) wide

sliding caliper with AP branches, Campbell 10 (18 cm) small bone caliper,

segmometer, head square, Slim Guide skinfold calipers, and steel anthropometric tapes.

A weighing scale (accurate to 100 grams) was used to record body mass. For the

measurement of stature, a steel tape measure was fixed to a wall, and the head square

was used to get the height (Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a). This tape measure was also

used for standing reach height and vertical jump. The measurements were taken in a

room with protection of privacy.

All the measurements of the physical performance were taken at an indoor volleyball

court. The Medicine ball (2000 gram) (Guan You KB-178, China) which was specially

used in national fitness test for high school students was used in the throwing tests. The

timing for T-shuttle run agility test used a Casio stopwatch (Casio Company, Japan).

The timed 20 sit-ups was performed on a gym mat.

3.5 Procedures

On the day of testing, the researchers met the athletes in the morning. Before the

measurements, the team officials and coaches explained to the participants the

significance of the research and encouraged them to cooperate with the researchers.

The anthropometry measurements were executed according to the ISAK procedures.

Each item was measured twice with the assistance of a recorder. If the variation

between the two measurements was out of the limit set by ISAK (i.e. >5% for skinfolds

and >1% in all other measurements), a third measure was taken. When two

measurements were taken, the average value of the two was used in statistical analysis.

If a third measure was taken the medium number was used in statistical analysis. The

physical performance tests were performed twice for each player.

90

3.5.1 Procedures of anthropometric measurements

No warm-up was required. During the measurements, the room temperature was not

specifically controlled, but was around 25o C degrees. When taking the measurements,

two anthropometrists together to measure the four basic variables, including: stature,

body mass, standing reach height and sitting height. Then all the skinfolds and girths

were measured by one anthropometrist. After this, the lengths and breadths were

measured by another anthropometrist.

3.5.1.1 The items of anthropometric measurements

Considering the characteristics of volleyball and the time required in measurements, 26

items were selected from the ISAK full anthropometric profile (39 items)

(Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a). Moreover, three additional measurements, standing reach

height, hand breadth and Achilles' tendon length, were included, as described below.

The sites of anthropometric measurements are shown in Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1 The sites of anthropometric measurements (the full names of the

items as labeled are found in Table 3-4)

91

The full list of the items measured is presented in Table 3-4.

Table 3-4 The items of anthropometric measurements Type Number

of items

Name

Base

measurement

4 Stature, body mass, sitting height, standing reach height

Skinfold 4 Triceps, subscapular, supraspinale, medial calf

Girth 9 Arm(relaxed, flexed an Arm (relaxed, flexed and tensed)

(N), forearm(O), wrist (P), waist (Q), gluteal (R),

mid-thigh (S), calf (T), ankle (U)

Length 6 Acromiale-radiale (B), radiale-stylion radiale (A),

iliospinale height (E), tibiale laterale height (F),

midstylion-dactylion (D), Achilles' tendon (G)

Breadth 6 Biilocristal (I), biacromial (H), transverse chest (J),

biepicondylar humerus (K), biepicondylar femur (L),

hand (M)

Derived

variables

2 Arm flexed and tensed girth minus arm-relaxed girth,

Acromiale-dactylion length (C)

Total 31

The capital letters in the brackets correspond to the labels shown in Figure 3-1.

After collection of the anthropometric data as described above, further anthropometric

indices were derived. Based on the 31 direct anthropometric measurements, 22 indices

were derived (Table 3-5).

92

Table 3-5 The derived indices from the anthropometric data Height

indices

2 Sitting height index = sitting height / stature×100

Standing reach height index = standing reach height / stature×100

Length

indices

6 Forearm length index = radiale-stylion radiale length / stature×100

Forearm/upper limb length index = radiale-stylion radiale

length/(acromiale-radiale length+radiale-stylion radiale length+

midstylion-dactylion length)×100

Upper limb length index = (acromiale-radiale length+radiale-stylion

radiale length+hand length)/stature×100

Calf length index = ibiale-laterale length/stature×100

Lower limb length index = iliospinale height/stature×100

Ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon length index = ankle girth/Achilles’

tendon length×100

Breadth

indices

5 Biacromial breadth index = biacromial breadth/stature×100

Biiliocristal breadth index = biiliocristal breadth/stature×100

Biiliocristal/biacromial breadth index=biilocristal/biacromial breadth×

100

Transverse chest breath index = transverse chest breath/stature×100

Hand breadth index = metacarpals breadth/stature×100

Waist

indices

6 Waist girth index = Waist girth/stature×100

Arm flexed and tensed girth index = Arm flexed and tensed girth/

stature×100

Arm relaxed girth index = Arm relaxed girth/stature×100

Mid-thigh girth index = Mid-thigh girth/stature×100

Calf girth index = Calf girth/stature×100

Ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon length index = Ankle girth/Achilles’

tendon length×100

Nutritional

indices

3 Katoly index = body mass/stature×1000

Body mass index = body mass(kg)/stature(m2)

Sum of 4 skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, supraspinale and medial calf)

Total 22

(Ye, 1995)

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3.5.1.2 The method and process of measurements

The anthropometric measurements were performed according to the ISAK manual

(Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a) by two anthropometrists who had taken part in ISAK

Level 2 anthropometrist training, with two recorders who assisted in recording of the

data.

Body mass

The participant wore minimal clothing. The scale was reset to zero. The participant

stood on the centre of the scale without support and with the weight distributed

evenly on the two feet.

Stature

The participant was asked to stand with the heels together, and the heels, buttocks

and upper part of the back touching the wall. Positioning the head in the Frankfort

plane was achieved by placing the tip of the measurer’s thumb on the orbitale, and

the index finger on the tragion of each side of the participant, then horizontally

aligning the two points. Having positioned the head in the Frankfort plane, the

measurer relocated the thumbs posteriorly towards the participant's ears, and far

enough along the line of the jaw of the participant to ensure that upward pressure,

when applied, is transferred through the mastoid processes. The participant was then

instructed to take and hold a deep breath and while keeping the head in the Frankfort

plane, the measurer applied gentle upward lift through the mastoid processes. The

recorder placed the headboard firmly down on the vertex, compressed the hair as

much as possible. The height was read to the nearest 0.1 centimeter.

Sitting height

The participant was seated on a measuring box or a level platform. The participant

was instructed to take and hold a deep breath and while keeping the head in the

Frankfort plane the measurer applied gentle upward lift through the mastoid

processes. The recorder placed the headboard firmly down on the Vertex, crushing

94

the hair as much as possible. Care was taken to ensure the participant did not contract the

gluteal muscles nor push with the legs.

Standing reach height

This was measured as the vertical distances from the ground to highest point of finger

tip, while the participant stood upright with the right side of the body against the wall,

stretched the right arm as high as possible and not to lift up any heel. The measurer

stood on a chair at the right side of the participant and took the vertical distance from

the top of the middle finger of the stretched arm to the ground (Zeng, 1992).

Triceps skinfold

The participant assumed a relaxed standing position. The landmark of

mid-acromiale-radiale and the site for the triceps skinfold were made according to

the ISAK Manual (Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a). The right arm should be relaxed

with the shoulder joint externally rotated to the mid-prone position and elbow

extended by the side of the body. The skinfold was taken parallel to the long axis of

the arm at the triceps skinfold site.

Subscapular skinfold

Subscapular skinfold site was in 2 cm along a line running laterally and obliquely

downward from the subscapulare landmark at a 45o angle. The participant assumes a

relaxed standing position with the arms hanging by the sides. The skinfold

measurement taken with the fold running obliquely downward at the subscapular

skinfold site. The line of the skinfold was determined by the natural fold lines of the

skin.

Supraspinale skinfold

The point at the intersection of two lines: the line from the marked iliospinale to the

anterior axillary border, and the horizontal line at the level of the marked iliocristale,

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was marked. The skinfold measurement taken with the fold running obliquely and

medially downward at the marked supraspinales skinfold sites.

Medial calf skinfold

The maximal girth of the calf was determined by trial and error. The level of the

maximum girth is determined by trial and error. Participant's right foot was placed on

a box with the calf relaxed．The fold was parallel to the long axis of the leg.

Arm relaxed girth

The participant assumed a relaxed position with the arms hung by the sides. The

measurement was taken at the level of mid-acromiale-radiale site, perpendicular to

the long axis of the arm.

Arm relaxed and tensed girth

The circumference of the arm perpendicular to the long axis of the arm at the level of

the peak of the contracted biceps brachii, when the arm was raised anteriorly to the

horizontal. The participant assumed a relaxed standing position with the left arm hung

by the side. The participant's right arm is raised anteriorly to the horizontal with the

forearm supinated and flexed at about 45-90o to the arm. The measurer stood to the

side of the participant and with the tape loosely in position. The participant was asked

to partially tense the elbow flexors to identify the probable peak of the contracted

muscles. The participant was encouraged to contract the arm muscles as strongly as

possible and hold it while the measurement was made at the peak of the biceps

brachii.

Forearm girth

The participant assumed a relaxed standing position with the left arm hung by the

side. The participant's right arm was slightly flexed at the shoulder and the elbow was

extended. The participant held the palm up (ie. forearm supinated) while relaxing the

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muscles of the forearm. Using the cross-hand technique, the measurer moved the tape

measure up and down the forearm and made serial measurements in order to correctly

locate the level of the maximum girth．

Wrist girth

It was measured as the minimal circumference of the wrist perpendicular to the long

axis of the forearm, distal to the styloid processes. The participant assumed a relaxed

standing position, with the right arm is slightly flexed at the elbow, the forearm

supinated and the hand relaxed. Manipulation of the tape measure was required to be

sure the minimal girth was obtained. The tissues were not be compressed by

excessive tension.

Waist girth

The anthropometrist stood in front of the participant who abducted the arms slightly

allowing the tape to be passed around the abdomen. The participant was asked to

breathe normally and the measurement was taken at the end of a normal expiration

(end tidal) at the narrowest point. If there was no obvious narrowing the measurement

was taken at the mid-point between the lower costal (10th rib) border and the iliac

crest.

Gluteal (hip) girth

The participant assumed a relaxed standing position with the arms folded across the

thorax, the feet put together and the gluteal muscles relaxed. The anthropometrist

passed the tape around the hips from the side. The stub of the tape and the housing

are then both held in the right hand while the anthropometrist used the left hand to

adjust the level of the tape at the back to the adjudged level of the greatest posterior

protuberance of the buttocks.

Mid-thigh girth

The circumference of the thigh was measured at the level of the

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mid-trochanterion-tibiale laterate site, perpendicular to its long axis. The

anthropometrist passed the tape between the lower thighs and then slides the tape up

to the correct plane. The stub of the tape and the housing are both hold in the right

hand while the anthropometrist used the left hand to adjust the level of the tape to the

target level.

Calf girth

The participant usually stood in an elevated position. The anthropometrist passed the

tape around the calf and then slid the tape to the correct plane. The tape was moved

up and down perpendicular to the axis of the leg to find the maximal girth.

Ankle girth

The participant stood in an elevated position. The anthropometrist passed the tape

around the ankle and manipulated it up and down this region to ensure that the

minimum girth was obtained.

Acromiale-radiale length

The participant assumed a relaxed standing position with the arms hung by the sides.

The right forearm should be pronated. One branch of the caliper or segmometer was

held on the acromiale while the other branch was placed on the radiale. If the

branches of the segmometer were too short to allow clearance of the deltoids, a large

sliding caliper was used．The segmometer or caliper measurement scale was

paralleled to the long axis of the arm.

Radiale-stylion length

The participant assumed a relaxed position with the arms hanging by the sides. The

right forearm was in the mid-pronated position. This measurement represented the

length of the forearm. It was the distance between the previously marked radiale and

stylion landmarks. One caliper (or segmometer) branch was held against the radiale

and the other branch was placed on the stylion landmark.

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Midstylion-dactylion length

The participant assumed a relaxed standing position with the left arm hung by the

side. The right elbow was partially flexed, forearm supinated, and the fingers

extended (but not hyperextended). This measurement represented the length of the

hand. One branch of the caliper or segmometer was placed on the marked dactylion

line while the other branch was positioned on the dactylion.

Iliospinale height

The participant assumed a standing position with the feet together and the arms hung

by the sides. The base of the anthropometer or fixed branch of the segmometer was

placed on the floor. The anthropometer or segmometer was oriented vertically with

the moving branch positioned at the marked iliospinale site. The vertical distance from

the iliospinale site to the standing surface was measured.

Tibiale laterale height

The participant assumed a standing position with the feet together or slightly apart

and the arms hung by the sides. This measurement represented the length of the leg.

It was usual practice to have the participant stand on an anthropometry box while the

base of the anthropometer or fixed branch of the segmometer was on the top of the

box and the moving branch was placed on the marked tibiale laterale site. The

anthropometer or segmometer was held in the vertical plane. The height from the

tibiale laterale to the top of the box was then measured.

Achilles’ tendon length

Participant stood naturally, facing the wall with their feet slightly separated and both

hands on the wall to support the body. The participant was asked to lift up the heals to

tense the calf muscles. The measurer made a mark at the lateral head of the

gastrocnemius of the right leg. The participant was then asked to return to the natural

standing position and another mark was made by the measurer at the top point on the

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calcaneus of the foot. The linear distance between the two marks was measured using a

segmometer (Zeng, 1992).

Biacromial breadth

This distance was measured with the branches of the large sliding caliper placed on

the most lateral surface of the acromion processes (below the marked acromiale

landmark). The participant stood with the arms hanging at the sides, and the measurer,

stood behind the participant, should bring the caliper branches in to the acromion

process at an angle of about 30° pointing upwards. Pressure should be applied to

compress the overlying tissues, but did not move the shoulders.

Biiliocristal breadth

The measurer stood in front of the participant and the branches of the anthropometer

are kept at about 45° pointing upwards. Firm pressure was applied by the

anthropometrist to reduce the effect of overlying tissues.

Transverse chest breadth

The participant assumed a relaxed standing or seated position with the arms abducted

sufficiently to allow the caliper branches to be positioned at the lateral borders of the

ribs. The measurer stood in front of the participant. The breadth of the thorax was

measured perpendicular to its long axis when the scale of the caliper was at the level of

the mesosternale, and the blades were positioned at an angle of 30° downward from the

horizontal.

Biepicondylar humerus breadth

The participant assumed a relaxed standing or seated position. The right arm was

raised anteriorly to the horizontal and the forearm was flexed at right angles to the

arm. The measurer gripped the small sliding caliper and used the middle fingers to

palpate the epicondyles of the humerus, starting proximal to the site. The bony point

first felt was the epicondyles. The measurer placed the caliper faced on the

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epicondyles and maintained n strong pressure with the index fingers until the value

was read.

Biepicondylar femur breadth

The participant assumed a relaxed and seated position with the hand clear of the knee

region. The measurer used the middle fingers to palpate the epicondyles of the

femur beginning proximal to the site. The bony point first felt was the epicondyles.

The measurer placed the caliper faced on the epicondyles and maintained strong

pressure with the index fingers until the value was read.

Hand breadth

The participant assumed a relaxed standing position, the right elbow was partially

flexed and made a fist. The measurer hold the small bone caliper pointing the branches

downwards at a 45o angle, palpated the metacarpale laterale and metacarpale mediale

landmark with the third finger then applied the face of the caliper with firm pressure

but not to the extent of compressing the width. The distance between the metacarpale

laterale and metacarpale mediale was measured (Ross et al., 2003).

3.5.3 Selected physical performance tests

There are a number of methods available for the test of volleyball players’ physical

performance, In this research, we selected medicine ball throwing, T-shuttle run agility

test, timed 20 sit-ups and running vertical jump tests, based on a thorough literature

review over more than 50 related papers and books and a survey from senior volleyball

coaches and academics in volleyball. The main references included “The Regulation

for the Training of Volleyball Players’ Physical performance” (2004) and “The

Regulation for the Testing of Volleyball Players’ Physical performance in the National

League matches in 1996”(1996) issued by China Volleyball Association, “A General

Outline for Teaching Volleyball (in China)” (Huang, 1991), “The Testing Content of

American National Volleyball Players’ Physical Performance” (translated by Yang,

1995), “The Testing Items for the Physical performance of Volleyball Players in the

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Japanese Volleyball Association” (Zhong, 1986), “The Evaluation Handbook for Elite

Players’ Physical Competence” (Pu, 1989), “The Testing Items for Chinese Juvenile

Female Volleyball Players (Feng, 2003), “Evaluation and Measurement in Sports” (Ye,

1995) and “Principle and Methods in Sport Science” (Chen, 2001), and some research

publications in the literature, eg. Gabbett and Georgieff (2007) and Anderson, et al.

(2006). The four physical performance indices selected in the investigation are among

commonly adopted testing methods for volleyball players at different athletic levels in

China.

In addition, a survey was conducted using a questionnaire designed by the researcher,

titled "Experts’ Opinion on Physical Performance, Training and Testing for Elite

Women Volleyball Players”. The questionnaire was distributed to 16 experts on

volleyball (10 senior volleyball coaches, 6 physical education professors with specialty

on volleyball), and 15 responses were received. The response in relation to the physical

performance test is summarized in the Table 3-6 below.

Table 3-6 Results of the survey on physical performance tests

Question Yes Not always

No Total

Do you think “Medicine ball throwing， T-shuttle run agility test，Timed 20

sit-ups ，Running vertical jump

test” can together reflect elite

volleyball players’ basic physical

performance?

13 1 1 15

% 86.6 6.7 6.7 100

The results of the survey also indicated that our testing methods for the players’

physical performance were supported by the experts (93.8% of the returning rate, with

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the approval rate 86.6%).

Based on the tests of the four selected physical performance indices, we expect an

understanding of both the common physical performance characteristics of Chinese

elite women volleyball players and the specific physical performance characteristics of

the players at different tactical positions (spikers, second spikers, setters, second setters

and liberos). Through analysis of the correlations between the anthropometric profile

and the physical performance indices, better methods may be developed for talent

identification.

In our investigation, we applied two times the testing method to verify the reliability of

the methods over players’ physical performance. The results demonstrated that all of

these tests had a high level of test-retests reliability (Table 3-7). The correlation

coefficients at 95% confidence interval all showed significant P (bilateral) values at or

less than 0.001.

Table 3-7 Test-retest reliability of four physical performance tests

Physical performance

Medicine ball throwing


test


Timed 20 sit-ups

Pearson

Correlation

Coefficient

.983** .959** .971** .994**

Significance

(bilateral)

.000 .000 .000 .000

3.5.3 Procedures of physical performance tests

The tests of physical performance were taken during 2:30 pm to 6:00 pm on the same

day of the anthropometry measurements. Before the tests, participants were required to

do warm-ups of 10 minutes (jogging and gymnastics) led by the captain of each team.

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Every participant was asked to perform the movements properly and only those whose

movements met the criteria were admitted to participate in the testing. Each participant

was tested twice, and the better testing result was recorded as the result to be used in

further analysis. Each participant had about three to five minutes rest before taking the

second test. During the testing, two personnel were needed to conduct the

measurements and two assistants to record the results.

Four tests were selected in this study, including medicine ball throwing, running

vertical jump, T-shuttle run agility test and timed 20 sit-ups. The order of the

measurements was as follows: medicine ball throwing, running vertical jump, T-shuttle

run agility test, followed by the timed 20 sit-ups. Arranging measurements in such

order aimed at making the amount of exercise progressively increased.

3.5.3.1 Medicine ball throwing

Participant was required to hold the ball with two hands and over her head, and then

tried her best to throw the ball forward with two arms (see Figure 3-2). The distance

was measured to the nearest centimeter and to the second place of decimals (ie. to cm).

Each participant was asked to throw the ball twice with a resting interval of 2-3

minutes and the better distance of the two trials was used in statistical analysis.

Figure 3-2 The medicine ball throwing test

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3.5.3.2 Running vertical jump

Participants were required to run up three steps, jump on two feet, and touch as high as

she could with a right hand. Three trials were measured with a resting interval of 2-3

minutes. The height was measured to the nearest centimeter (ie. to cm). The best

performance of the three trials was used in further analysis.

Net jump height was calculated as the height of running vertical jump minus the

standing reach height. As for the height of running –up touch, the researcher mounted a

calibrated chart vertically on a basketball board. Participants put some powder of

colored chalk on the middle finger and then run up two or three steps and used the

middle finger to make a mark on the board. The recorder stood on a ladder to measure

the height of running jump (Zeng, 1992). The measurement method of running vertical

jump is shown in Figure 3-3.

Figure 3-3 The running vertical jump test

3.5.3.3 T-shuttle run agility test

Three lines were marked on the floor with a distance of five meters between them, and

labeled as “A”, “B”, “C” and “D” respectively as shown in Figures 3-4 and.3-5. The

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participant started from point “A” (a timer was started), then moved fast to point “B”,

after touched the ball at “B” with a single hand she returned to point “A”. Then, the

participant run from point “A” to point “C”, after touching the ball at “C” with a single

hand then run back to point “A”. Finally, the participant moved from point “A” to point

“D”. When all movements completed the timer was stopped, and total the time spent

was recorded. Each participant attempted the test twice with an interval of 2-3 minutes

and the better time of the two trials was used in statistics.

Figure 3-4 The route of T-shuttle run agility test

Figure 3-5 The T-shuttle run agility test

3.5.3.4 Timed 20 sit-ups

Participant was required to do two time trials for 20 sit-ups. Participant started with

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supine position with her legs straight, raised the torso to a sitting position, touched both

feet face with two hands, and then returned to the initial position. Two sets of timed 20

sit-ups, with a resting interval of 2-3 minutes, were performed, and the better time of

the two was taken for further analysis (Zeng, 1992). Figure 3-6 shows the method of

timed 20 sit-ups.

Figure 3-6 The timed 20 sit-ups test

3.5.4 Somatotype

Somatotype was predicted using the method described by Norton and Olds (1996).

3.6 Statistical analysis

SPSS statistic software package (SPSS Company, America, version 16.0) was used in

statistical analysis for the anthropometry and physical performance measurements.

Descriptive report was given to all measured and derived variables. Comparisons of

mean values between the five volleyball positions used independent group T test. α

value of 0.05 was set for statistical significance. Pearson Product Moment correlation

(two tailed) test was used to analyze correlations between anthropometry and

performance variables. Multiple regression analysis was performed to identify the

factors that contributed to the height over net. The R method was employed in

selecting representative variables from a number of anthropometric measurements and

indices.

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4. Chapter Four: Results

This Chapter presents the results of statistical analysis of all the collected variables. In

addition, the data collected from 100 players in this study were compared with those

reported in the Chinese and English literature.

The descriptive analysis presented in this Chapter included the maximum, minimum,

mean values, standard deviation, standard error, and coefficient of variation of the

measured variables. Further statistical results include Pearson Product Moment

correlation coefficients, cluster analysis and regression models.

4.1 Results for anthropometric variables and physical performance measurements

4.1.1 Anthropometric variables

This study collected the physique measurement data of 100 female volleyball players.

The descriptive data of the measured anthropometric variables are presented in Table

4-1. The statistic analyses on the 4 basic measurements (list them here) indicate that,

except the sitting height, the other three indices have comparatively larger variability

(see Appendix 6).

Table 4-2 presents the somatotype scores obtained from the volleyball players. The

means scores indicated that the average physique of elite Chinese women volleyball

players is 3.7-2.9-4.0 that belongs to endomorph-ectomorph. Table 4-3 presents the

descriptive data of the physical performance tests.

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Table 4-2 Somatotype values for elite Chinese women volleyball players

Items N Minimum Maximum Mean SE SD Coefficient of Variance

Endomorphy 100 2.0 6 3.7 0.10 0.99 27.05%

Mesomorphy 100 2.0 5.8 2.9 0.10 1.04 36.49%

Ectomorphy 100 1.1 7.3 4.0 0.11 1.11 27.48%

Table 4-3 Physical performance testing data for elite Chinese women volleyball

players


Medicine ball throwing (cm) 87 840 1220 1050 8.64 80.62 7.68%

Running vertical jump (cm) 87 52.5 91.0 71.2 0.04 6.97 9.79%

T-shuttle run agility test (s) 87 8.2 10.3 9.1 0.19 0.40 4.39%

Timed 20 sit-ups (s) 87 15.4 24.4 18.2 0.75 1.80 9.91%

4.1.2 Derived anthropometry indices

Twenty-two indices were derived from the anthropometric measurements in relation to

height, length, breadth, and girth, and two indices were derived in relation to body

composition. The descriptive results of these derived indices are presented in Table

4-4.

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Table 4-4 Derived anthropometric indices of elite Chinese women volleyball

players

Items N Min Max Mean SE SD Coefficientof Variance

Sitting height index 100 46.7 56.3 52.1 0.17 1.65 3.17% Standing reach height index 100 121.7 136.4 128.9 0.22 2.22 1.72% Forearm length index 100 11.9 15.9 14.0 0.07 0.65 4.64% Forearm/Upper limb length index 100 29.1 36.8 32.3 0.10 1.04 3.22%

Upper limb length index 100 38.1 47.4 43.5 0.14 1.44 3.31% Calf length index 100 23.8 28.1 26.0 0.09 0.86 3.31% Lower limb length index 100 50.4 59.7 56.6 0.14 1.38 2.44% Achilles’ tendon/calf length index 100 46.3 78.5 58.5 0.53 5.31 9.08%

Biacromial breadth index 100 15.9 23.1 21.1 0.10 0.96 4.55% Biiliocristal breadth index 100 14.3 18.6 16.2 0.08 0.82 5.06% Biilocristal/biacromial breadth index 100 67.7 101.4 77.0 0.44 4.41 5.73%

Transverse chest index 100 13.5 17.6 15.2 0.08 0.76 4.99% Hand breadth index 100 3.9 4.8 4.3 0.02 0.21 4.91% Waist girth index 100 33.3 52.4 39.3 0.31 3.08 7.83% Arm flexed and tensed girth index 100 12.8 18.7 15.6 0.11 1.10 7.03%

Arm relaxed girth index 100 11.9 18.3 14.8 0.11 1.11 7.52% Thigh girth index 100 24.5 33.7 28.9 0.19 1.93 6.67% Calf girth index 100 16.4 23.5 20.0 0.13 1.27 6.34% Ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon length index 100 52.7 106.5 77.8 0.98 9.75 12.54%

Katoly index 100 306.3 546.8 383.6 3.70 37.04 9.66% Sum of four skinfolds* 100 26.2 90.0 49.6 1.34 13.42 27.07% Body mass index 100 11.6 28.9 19.95 0.36 3.65 18.30%

* Sum of four skinfolds included triceps, subscapular, supraspinale and medial calf.

Here, the statistics of height indices indicate that the sitting height and standing reach

height both have relatively small variability. This means that the sitting height and the

standing reach height of elite China women volleyball players are almost at the same

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level. The statistical analyses on the seven length measurements indicate that the

lengths of the upper limbs and lower limbs have larger variability among the teams,

and the other five indices have smaller variability. This suggests that the variability on

upper limbs and lower limbs be related with the comparatively larger variability of

standing reach height. That is to say, the distributing otherness of standing reach height

determines the variability of both upper limbs length and lower limbs length. The

statistic analyses on the six breadth measurements indicate that these indices are all

with little variability, and with little influence from age, stature and tactical positions.

The statistic analyses on the 10 girth measurements indicate that seven indices of them

(e.g. the girth of tensioned upper limbs) have comparatively smaller variability, while

the indices (waist girth, gluteal girth and thigh girth) with larger variability belong to

same kind and are related with body fat content, and this obviously rest with the body

mass requirement for the women volleyball players at different tactical positions. The

statistic analyses on the four skinfold measurements indicate that, except the

comparatively larger variability on supraspinale indices, the other three indices are all

with comparatively smaller variability. This reflects that these eight teams have almost

the same nutrition conditions and same training intensity as well.

The statistics of length indices indicate that, except comparatively larger variability at

Achilles’ tendon/calf index, the other five indices are with comparatively smaller

variability. Achilles’ tendon/calf indices are mainly determined by the length of

Achilles’ tendon. This means that there are comparatively larger differences at the

length of Achilles’ tendon of the players in the eight women volleyball teams.

The statistics of breadth indices indicate that, except the comparatively larger

variability at the shoulder breadth/pelvis breadth ratio, the other four indices are with

comparatively smaller variability. The shoulder breadth/pelvis breadth ratio lies on

pelvis breadth and the results reflect comparatively larger differences at pelvis breadth.

The statistics of girth indices indicate that, except comparatively larger variability at

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ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon indices, the other five indices are with comparatively

smaller variability. The past researches prove that ankle girth and Achilles’ tendon are

both related with jumping ability.

Katoly indices depend on the absolute value of body mass and stature, and the body

mass index takes dominant position. In our investigation, the comparatively larger

variability of Katoly index reveals greater differences among the women volleyball

players in the eight teams.

The statistics of four skinfolds indicate comparatively larger variability. This obviously

is related with the players’ body fat content and the greater difference among their

body mass.

4.2. Correlations between the anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance

4.2.1 Correlations between anthropometric variables and physical performance

We selected “medicine ball throw, T-shuttle run agility test , timed 20 sit-ups, and

running vertical jump” to test basic physical fitness (performance) of women volleyball

players, and they respectively reflect upper body strength, moving speed and agility,

muscle strength at the waist and the abdomen, and jumping ability, which are all

requisites in volleyball sport. The medicine ball throw is different from the other three

physical fitness indices and has comparatively larger variability, which reflects the

great differences among the upper limbs strength of the players in those eight women

volleyball teams. Tables 4-5 to 4-8 (see Appendix 6) present the correlation coefficients

between the anthropometric measurements (except for four skinfolds) and physical

performance measurements (four items).

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4.2.2 Correlations between the derived anthropometric indices and physical

performance

Tables 4-9 to 4-12 (see Appendix 6) present the correlation coefficients between the

derived anthropometric indices and the four physical performance indices. The

statistical results indicated that, among the anthropometric indices, there were only

three indices being significantly correlated with the testing result of medicine ball

throwing. More specifically, the midstylion-dactylion length and the arm flexed and

tensed girth demonstrated respectively correlation coefficient of 0.35 and 0.32 with the

physical fitness of medicine ball throwing. These reveal that the players with longer

palms and stronger arms are usually equipped with more powerful upper limb strength

and better throwing ability. Moreover, the Achilles’ tendon/calf length index is with the

correlation coefficient of 0.30 with the physical fitness of medicine ball throwing, and

all the other indices are with correlation coefficient less than 0.30. From the

perspective of Sports Anatomy, the length of the Achilles’ tendon is related with the

player’s jumping ability and the flexibility, which is what medicine ball throwing needs

as well, and this is why the Achilles’ tendon/calf length index is correlated with the

physical fitness of medicine ball throwing.

4.2.3 Correlations among BMI, sum of four skinfolds and physical performance

The statistical results show the BMI demonstrated a significant correlation (P<0.01)

with the running vertical jumping height. The sum of four skinfolds showed a

significantly negative correlation with the T-shuttle run agility test performance. The

medial calf skinfold demonstrated a significantly negative correlation with the running

vertical jump (Tables 4-13 to 4-14).

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Table 4-13 Correlations between BMI and physical performance

Items N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

Medicine ball throwing (cm) 87 0.2 0.078

Running vertical jump (cm) 87 0.4 0.000**

T-shuttle run agility test (s) 87 0.0 0.669

Timed 20 sit-ups (s) 87 -0.1 0.352

** P<0.01 level

Table 4-14 Correlations between sum of four skinfolds and physical performance

Items N Pearson

Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

Medicine ball throwing (cm) 87 0.1 0.506

Running vertical jump (cm) 87 -0.0 0.884

T-shuttle run agility test (s) 87 -0.2 0.030*

Timed 20 sit-ups (s) 87 -0.2 0.087

Sum of four skinfolds included triceps, subscapular, supraspinale and medial calf. *

P<0.05 level

4.2.4 Correlations between the somatotype values and physical performance

The results indicated that, only the endomorphy values had a significantly negative

correlation with the T-shuttle run agility test performance, and no significant

correlations were found between other somatotype values and physical performance

(Table 4-15).

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Table 4-15 Correlations between somatotype values and physical performance

Items Somatotype N Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

Medicine ball

throwing (cm)

Endomorphy 87 0.05 0.648

Mesomorphy 87 0.11 0.329

Ectomorphy 87 -0.04 0.702

T-shuttle run agility

test (s)

Endomorphy 87 -0.26 0.017*

Mesomorphy 87 0.01 0.892

Ectomorphy 87 0.11 0.300

Timed 20 sit-ups

(s)

Endomorphy 87 -0.20 0.057

Mesomorphy 87 -0.14 0.208


Running vertical

jump (cm)

Endomorphy 87 -0.02 0.877

Mesomorphy 87 -0.03 0.751


* P<0.05 level

4.3. Anthropometric characteristics of the players at the five volleyball positions

4.3.1 Variance analyses of anthropometric indices of the players at different

positions (Single factor)

One-way ANOVA was used for detecting the differences among the anthropometric

indices of the players at different tactical positions. The statistic results are listed in

Table 4-16 to Table 4-19.

As shown in Table 4-16 (see Appendix 6), in the 27 anthropometric indices, there exist

significant difference in all the four basic indices and the seven length indices. As for

the six breadth indices, only one index (metacarpals breadth) is without significant

difference (P>0.05), the other five indices are all with significant difference. In terms

of the 10 girth indices, only three of them are without significant difference (P>0.05),

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the other seven indices are all significantly different.

As shown in Table 4-17 (see appendix 6), in the 20 evaluation indices of

anthropometric profile, only four length indices (forearm length, forearm/upper limb

length, upper limb length, calf length) without significant difference, the other indices,

altogether 16 indices including height, breadth girth and nutritional indices, all express

significant difference.

Table 4-18 indicates that, as for the women volleyball players at different positions,

there isn’t any significant difference at the body composition indices including triceps

skinfold and iliac crest skinfold. However, there exist significant differences at the

body composition indices of subscapular skinfold and medial calf skinfold.

Table 4-18 One-way ANOVA for body composition anthropometric indices of


Skinfold (mm) Chief spikers

Second spikers

Setters Second setters

Liberos F P

Triceps 15.93 13.10 15.08 13.48 14.73 2.11 0.085

Subscapular 14.19 10.80 12.75 11.66 13.13 3.38 0.013 *

Supraspinale 13.21 10.68 12.19 10.34 12.27 1.80 0.135

Medial calf 11.82 9.15 11.2 9.18 10.67 3.15 0.018 *

*. P<0.05 level (2-tailed); **. P<0.001 level (2-tailed)

Table 4-19 suggests that, as for the players at different positions, the two body

composition indices of “the sum of 4 skinfolds” and “body mass (%)” all reveal


116

Table 4-19 One-way ANOVA for body composition evaluation indices of


Items Chief

spikers

Second

spikers

Setters Second

setters

Liberos F P

Sum of four skinfolds 55.34 43.62 51.32 46.44 51.15 3.07 0.002 *

Body mass index 21.37 18.26 20.62 19.15 20.47 3.01 0.002 *

*. P<0.05 level (2-tailed)

4.3.2 Multiple comparisons for anthropometric profile differences among the

players at different positional groups

After the analyses through one-way ANOVA, we applied LSD method to make

multiple comparisons over the anthropometric indices of the players at different

positional groups. As for details, please refer table 4-20 to 4-24 (see Appendix 6).

In Table 4-20, it is clear that, among basic anthropometric indices, there are 15 indices

without significant difference and 25 indices with significant difference, in which the

basic anthropometric indices of “attaker vs libero” group are all significantly different.

Table 4-21 shows that 31 length indices have nonsignificant difference, the other 39

length indices have significant differences (some even with extremely significant

differences), among which the length indices in the groups of “attaker vs libero”,

“second attaker vs libero” and “setter vs libero” are all significantly different.

Table 4-22 tells that 36 breadth indices have no significant differences, the other 24

breadth indices have significant differences (some even with extremely significant

differences). And it is found that the breadth indices in “attaker vs libero” group are

with significant differences, while the breadth indices in the groups of “second attaker

vs setter”, “second attaker vs second setter” and “setter vs second setter” are all

without significant difference.

117

Table 4-23 to Table 4-24 indicate that, in the girth indices, 69 of them are with

nonsignificant difference, 31 of them are with significant differences (some even with

extremely significant differences). And it is revealed that the girth in the groups of

“second attaker vs setter”, “second attaker vs second setter”, “setter vs second setter”,

“setter vs libero” and “second setter vs libero” are all without significant difference.

4.3.3 Multiple comparisons for derived indices among the players at different

positional groups

Table 4-25 to 4-34 (see Appendix 6) indicate that, among the derived indices of

different groups, 141 of them are with no significant difference, 59 of them are with

significant differences (some even with extremely significant differences). And it is

revealed that the derived indices in the group of “setter vs second setter” have no

significant difference. Moreover, to different groups, the derived indices of “forearm

length, forearm / upper limb length, calf length, Achilles tendon/calf length and

biilocristal / biacromial breadth” are all without significant difference.

4.3.4 Multiple comparisons for evaluation indices of body composition among the


As shown in Table 4-35, among the body composition indices of different groups, 30

of them had no significant difference between the positional groups, 10 of them were

with significant differences. Among the these indices, the body composition indices

between the spikers and the second spikers groups were significantly different.

Moreover, the body composition indices of spikers vs setter, spikers vs libero, second

spikers vs second setter, setter vs libero and second setter vs libero were all without


118

Table 4-35 Multiple comparisons for anthropometric indices of body composition


Items Triceps

skinfold (mm) P

Subscapula

r skinfold

(mm)

P

Supraspinal

e skinfold

(mm)

P

Medial calf

skinfold (mm)

P

Chief spikers vs

Second spikers

15.93:13.10

0.029*

14.19:10.80

0.003*

13.21:10.68

0.046*

11.81:9.15

0.004*

Chief spikers vs

Setters

15.93:15.07

0.526

14.19:12.75

0.312

13.21:12.19

0.523

11.81:12.75

0.573

Chief spikers vs

Second setters

15.93:13.48 0.062

14.19:11.66 0.042*

13.21:10.34 0.044*

11.81:9.18 0.009*

Chief spikers vs

Liberos

15.93:14.73 0.405

14.19:13.13 0.452

13.21:12.27 0.578

11.81:10.67 0.339

Second spikers

vs Setters

13.10:15.07 0.109

10.80:12.75 0.057

10.68:12.19 0.198

9.15:12.75 0.031*

Second spikers

vs Second

setters

13.10:13.48

0.740

10.80:11.66

0.294

10.68:10.34

0.726

9.15:9.18

0.974

Second spikers

vs Liberos

13.10:14.73 0.212

10.80:13.13 0.024*

10.68:12.27 0.223

9.15:10.67 0.190

Setters vs

Second setters

15.07:13.48 0.118

12.75:11.66 0.274

12.19:10.34 0.135

12.75:9.18 0.040*

Setters vs

Liberos

15.07:14.73 0.772

12.75:13.13 0.763

12.19:12.27 0.961

12.75:10.67 0.657

Second setters

vs Liberos

13.48:14.73 0.276

11.66:13.13 0.142

10.34:12.27 0.171

9.18:10.67 0.235

*. P<0.05 level (2-tailed) **. P<0.001 level (2-tailed)

119

Table 4-36 Multiple comparisons for evaluation indices of body composition


Items Sum of 4 skinfolds Mean value P Body Mass(%)

Mean value P

Chief spikers vs

Second spikers

55.34:43.62 0.004* 21.37:18.26 0.006*

Chief spikers vs

Setters

55.34:51.32 0.004* 21.37:20.62 0.533

Chief spikers vs

Second setters

55.34:46.44 0.044* 21.37:19.15 0.060

Chief spikers vs

Liberos

55.34:51.15 0.392 21.37:20.47 0.476

Second spikers

vs Setters

43.62:51.32 0.041* 18.26:20.62 0.031*

Second spikers

vs Second setters

43.62:46.44 0.425 18.26:19.15 0.395

Second spikers

vs Liberos

43.62:51.15 0.069 18.26:20.47 0.059

Setters vs Second

setters

51.32:46.44 0.199 20.62:19.15 0.154

Setters vs

Liberos

51.32:51.15 0.969 20.62:20.47 0.890

Second setters vs

Liberos

46.44:51.15 0.276 19.15:20.47 0.247


We made 20 analyses over the correlation of the corresponding evaluation indices of

body composition in different positional group. For the detail, please refer to Table

4-36, thereinto, 14 of them were with no significant difference, six of them were with

significant differences (some even with extremely significant differences). Importantly,

120

comparisons of the indices of body composition between the groups of spiker vs

second spiker and second spiker vs second setter were significantly different, while the

same indices in the groups of spiker vs libero, second spiker vs second setter, second

spiker vs libero, setter vs second setter, setter vs libero and second setter vs libero were

all without significant difference.

4.4 Physical performance of the five volleyball position groups

From Table 4-37, we find that, at a same physical fitness index, there was little

difference among the women volleyball players at different tactical positions. The three

indices of medicine ball throwing, T-shuttle run agility test and timed 20 sit-ups were

without significant difference（P>0.05）, and significant difference only exists at

running vertical jump（P<0.05）. These mean that the physical fitness of the women

volleyball players at different tactical positions are generally the same except the

jumping ability.

Table 4-37 One-way ANOVA for physical fitness of players at different tactical

positions

Items Chief spiker

Second spiker


Liberos F P

Medicine ball

throwing (cm) 1062.3 1048.2 1063.2 1031.5 1041.0 0.47 0.757

T-shuttle run

agility test (s) 9.16 9.19 9.05 9.16 8.97 0.81 0.522

Timed 20

sit-ups (s) 18.12 18.26 18.29 18.23 17.83 0.15 0.963

Running

vertical jump

(cm)

72.08 71.18 67.06 74.87 69.81 2.88 0.028*


121

To investigate whether there is significant difference among the physical fitness of the

players at different positions, we made corresponding analyses between the positions

and physical fitness. For details, please refer to Table 4-38.

Only two physical fitness indices are found to be significantly different, and they are

both from the index of “running vertical jump height”, which are consistent with the

previous results.

In the above analyses, we only knew the index of “ jump height” demonstrated

significant difference, but we were not sure at which tactical positions there existed the

significant difference. Through the difference analyses over the indices of “running

vertical jump height” among different positional groups, we can now be confirmed that

the significant differences only existed between the groups of “spiker vs setter” and

“setter vs second setter”.

Virtually, for the sake of powerful spikes and effective blocks, volleyball sport put

higher requirement of jumping ability to the spiker, second spiker and second setters,

and lower requirement to the setters and liberos. This might be the main reason for the

larger dispersion of “ankle/ Achilles’ tendon length” index among the women

volleyball players at different tactical positions.

122

Table 4-38 Multiple comparisons for physical fitness among the players at


Items

Medicine ball

throwing (cm)

P T-shuttle run agility test

P Timed 20 sit-ups (s)

P Running vertical

jump (cm) P

Chief

spikers vs

Second

spikers

1062.32:

1048.19

0.572 9.16:9.19 0.794 18.12:18.26 0.800 72.08:71.18 0.591

Chief

spikers vs

Setters

1062.32:

1063.19

0.976 9.16:9.05 0.476 18.12:18.29 0.796 72.08:67.06 0.036*

Chief

spikers vs

Second

setters

1062.32:

1031.50

0.329 9.16:9.16 0.982 18.12:18.23 0.865 72.08:74.87 0.148

Chief

spikers vs

Liberos

1062.32:

1041.00

0.464 9.16:8.97 0.120 18.12:17.83 0.669 72.08:69.81 0.230

Second

spikers vs

Setters

1048.19:

1063.19

0.546 9.19:9.05 0.375 18.26:18.29 0.958 71.18:67.06 0.120

Second

spikers vs

Second

setters

1048.19:

1031.50

0.542 9.19:9.16 0.799 18.26:18.23 0.958 71.18:74.87 0.101

Second

spikers vs

Liberos

1048.19:

1041.00

0.754 9.19:8.97 0.086 18.26:17.83 0.447 71.18:69.81 0.539

123

4.5 Somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball players

4.5.1 The somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball players

In this study, we analyzed the somatotypes of elite female volleyball players. The

distribution of the somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball players is presented

in Table 4-39. The most is Endomorphic ectomorph (29.0%), the second is Balanced

ectomorph (14.0%), the less is Mesomorphic ectomorph (0%).

The results showed that Liaoning team belonged the type of Central. Tianjin team,

Shanghai team and Shandong team were the type of Endomorph-ectomorph. Bayi team,

Sichuan team and Jiangsu team were the type of Endomorph-ectomorph. Zhejiang

team belonged Balanced-ectomorph. The average somatotype index of Chinese elite

women volleyball players was the type of balanced “ectomorph-endomorph” (Tables

4-40).

Setters vs

Second

setters

1063.19:

1031.50

0.334 9.05:9.16 0.538 18.29:18.23 0.929 67.06:74.87 0.013*

Setters vs

Liberos

1063.19:

1041.00

0.420 9.05:8.97 0.598 18.29:17.83 0.500 67.06:69.81 0.379

Second

setters vs

Liberos

1031.50:

1041.00

0.761 9.16:8.97 0.159 18.23:17.83 0.552 74.87:69.81 0.056

124

Table 4-39 Distributions of the somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball

players

Serial number Somatotyping N %

1 Ectomorphic endomorph 5 5.0

2 Balanced Endomoph 11 11.0

3 Mesomorphic endomorph 6 6.0

4 Mesomorph-endomorph 4 4.0

5 Endomorphic mesomorph 2 2.0

6 Balanced Mesomorph 4 4.0

7 Ectomorphic mesomorph 1 1.0

8 Mesomorph-ectomorph 3 3.0

9 Mesomorphic ectomorph 0 0.0

10 Balanced ectomorph 14 14.0

11 Endomorphic ectomorph 29 29.0

12 Endomorph-ectomorph 9 9.0

13 Central 12 12.0

Total 100 100

Table 4-40 Somatotype distributions in the eight women volleyball teams

Volleyball teams Endomorphy Mesomorphy Ectomorphy Classification

Tianjin 4.0 3.1 4.0 Endomorph-ectomorph

Bayi 3.4 2.5 4.5 Endomorphic ectomorph

Shanghai 4.2 2. 8 3. 8 Endomorph-ectomorph

Liaoning 4.0 3.2 3.6 Central

Sichuan 3.2 2.3 4.5 Endomorphic ectomorph

Jiangsu 3.7 2.8 4.2 Endomorphic ectomorph

Shandong 3.7 3.2 3.7 Endomorph-ectomorph

Zhejiang 3.1 2.9 4.2 Balanced-ectomorph

Mean 3.7 2.9 4.0 Endomorph-ectomorph

125

4.5.2 Comparisons of somatotypes between the five volleyball positions

Tables 4-41 to 4-44 show the comparisons of somatotype at the five volleyball

positions. For the women volleyball players at different positions, there were

significant differences in the endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy indices. The

endomorphy and mesomorphy values were the largest in chief spikers and liberos,

followed by the setters and second setters, and the second spikers showed the smallest.

In respect of ectomorphy, the second spikers had the largest value, while the chief

spikers, setters and second setters had the medium values and the liberos had the lowest

values (Tables 4-41).

Table 4-41 ANOVA for somatotype value of the players at different tactical

positions

Items Chief

spikers

Second

spikers

Setters Second

setters

Liberos F P

Endomorphy 4.00 3.16 3.83 3.47 3.94 3.23 0.002**

Mesomorphy 3.31 2.14 2.86 2.63 3.45 7.10 0.000**

Ectomorphy 3.59 4.86 3.85 4.42 3.23 9.54 0.000**

**. P<0.01 level **. P<0.001 level (2-tailed)

Table 4-42 Comparisons of somatotype data at the five volleyball positions (see

Appendix 6).

Table 4-43 Comparisons of statistics of percentage of somatotyping between players

at the five volleyball positions (see Appendix 6).

As for the characteristics of the women volleyball players’ somatotypes, the chief

spikers and liberos shared a same type, both belonging to the “central”. The second

spikers and second setters shared the same type, both belonging to the “endomorphic

ectomorph”, and the setters belonging to the “endomorph-ectomorph” (Tables 4-44).

126

Table 4-44 Comparisons of somatotypes between players at the five volleyball

positions

Items N Mean Somatotyping

Chief spikers 27 4.0-3.3-3.6 Central

Second spikers 25 3.2-2.1-4.9 Endomorphic ectomorph

Setters 15 3.8-2.9-3.9 Endomorph-ectomorph

Second setters 18 3.5-2.6-4.4 Endomorphic ectomorph

Liberos 15 3.9-3.5-3.2 Central

100 3.7-2.9-4.0 Endomorph-ectomorph

4.5.3 Somatotype values of the five volleyball positional groups

Table 4-45 indicates that, among the somatotype values of different groups, 18 of them

were with no significant difference, 12 of them were with significant differences.

Importantly, significant differences were found in all the somatotype values of the

groups of “spikers vs second spikers” and “second spikers vs liberos”. Meanwhile, in

the groups of “spikers vs second spikers”, “spikers vs liberos”, “second spikers vs

second setters” and “setters vs second setters”, the somatotype values were all without

significant differences (see Appendix 6).

4.6 Clustering analyses for anthropometric profile of elite Chinese women

volleyball players

The R clustering analysis was used to identify the anthropometric characteristics of

players at different positions. Based on regression formula, the R matrix was calculated

for correlation coefficient. The serial number for the anthropometric indices and the

correlation coefficient (R) distribution after clustering are respectively listed in Tables

4-46 and Table 4-47 (see Appendix 6).

127

Based on the correlation coefficient (R) distribution of the anthropometric indices,

R=0.646 was used as the clustering standard. There were eight classes as shown in

Figure 4-1.

R=0.646

Figure 4-1 Clustering pedigree chart for anthropometric indices

128

The Statistical table of R-model cluster for typical indices showed eight indexes were

most important anthropometric characteristics indexes, they were: Body mass,

Biacromial breadth , Stature, Sitting height, Subscapular skinfold, Ankle girth, Forearm

girth and Achilles’ tendon length, listed in Table 4-48.

Table 4-48 Statistical table of R-model cluster for typical indices

Stage Typical indices Measuring indices

1

Body mass 1. Body mass 9. Arm flexed and tensed girth 10. Arm relaxed girth 14. Gluteal girth 13.Waist girth 16. Calf girth 27. Transverse chest breadth 15. Thigh girth 26. Biilocristal breadth 29. Biepicondylar femur breadth 12. Wrist girth 30. Hand breadth 28. Biepicondylar humerus breadth

2 Biacromial breadth 25. Biacromial breadth

3

Stature 2. Stature 22. Iliospinale height 4. Standing reach height 18. Acromiale-radiale length 21. Acromiale-dactylion length 19. Radiale-stylion length 23. Tibiale-laterale length 20. Midstylion-dactylion length

4 Sitting height 3. Sitting height

5 Subscapular skinfold 6. Subscapular skinfold 7. Supraspinale skinfold 5. Triceps skinfold 8. Medial calf skinfold

6 Ankle girth 17. Ankle girth

7 Forearm girth 11. Forearm girth

8 Achilles’ tendon length 24. Achilles’ tendon length

129

4.7 Regression analysis and prediction of physical performance

Stepwise regression analysis was performed to eliminate the non-significant

anthropometric indices to build up a regression equation for prediction of physical

performance.

4.7.1 Regression prediction of medicine ball throwing based on anthropometric

indices

In this study regression prediction analysis between the results of medicine ball

throwing and anthropometric indices was performed for female volleyball players. The

results are shown in Table 4-49 and Table 4-50.

Table 4-49 Summary of regression prediction of medicine ball throwing with


Model R R Square Adjusted R Square

Std. Error of the

Estimate

1 0.350a 0.12 0.11 75.97

2 0.427b 0.18 0.16 73.76

3 0.476c 0.23 0.20 72.15

4 0.514d 0.26 0.23 70.83

a. Prediction constant, Achilles’ tendon length

b. Prediction constant, Achilles’ tendon length, Arm flexed and tensed girth

c. Prediction constant, Achilles’ tendon length, Arm flexed and tensed girth,

Forearm/upper limb length index

d. Prediction constant, Achilles’ tendon length, Arm flexed and tensed girth,

Forearm/upper limb length index, Radiale-stylion length, Ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon

length index

130

Table 4-50 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of medicine ball throwing with


Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

T Sig. Beta Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 774.560 80.485 9.624 0.000

Achilles' tendon length index 9.928 2.884 0.350 3.442 0.001

2 (Constant) 505.785 133.619 3.785 0.000


Arm(relaxed, flexed and

tensed) girth index

11.107 4.479 0.252 2.480 0.015

3 (Constant) 1036.310 275.650 3.760 0.000



tensed) girth index

10.230 4.400 0.232 2.325 0.023

Forearm/upper limb length index -15.956 7.299 -0.212 -2.186 0.032

4 (Constant) 1405.011 325.834 4.312 0.000



tensed) girth index

12.925 4.518 0.293 2.860 0.005

Forearm/upper limb length index -16.989 7.183 -0.226 -2.365 0.020

Ankle girth index -2.676 1.317 -0.316 -2.031 0.045

a. Dependent variable vs medicine ball throwing

131

Stepwise regression equation：

Medicine ball throwing=1405.011－2.676 X1 ＋12.925 X2 －16.989 X3 ＋1.279X4

X1：Radiale-stylion length, ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon length index

X2：Arm flexed and tensed girth

X3：Forearm/upper limb length index

X4：Achilles’ tendon length

4.7.2 Regression prediction of running vertical jump based on anthropometric

indices

In this study regression prediction analysis between the results of running vertical jump

and anthropometric indices was performed for female volleyball players. The results

are shown in

Table 4-51 and Table 4-52.

Table 4-51 Summary of regression prediction of running vertical jump with



Std. Error of the

Estimate

1 0.506a 0.256 0.247 6.0458

2 0.543b 0.294 0.278 5.9234

3 0.600c 0.359 0.336 5.6776

a. Prediction constant, sitting height index

b. Prediction constant, sitting height index, biepicondylar fumur breadth

c. Prediction constant, sitting height index, biepicondylar fumur breadth, calf girth

132

Table 4-52 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of running vertical jump with


Model


Standardize

d

Coefficients

t Sig. Beta Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 267.964 36.375 7.367 0.000

Standing reach

height index -1.527 0.282 -0.506 -5.411 0.000

2 (Constant) 245.824 37.119 6.623 0.000

Standing reach

height index -1.570 0.277 -0.520 -5.663 0.000

Biepicondylar

femur breadth 2.819 1.322 .196 2.133 0.036

3 (Constant) 253.629 35.681 7.108 0.000

Standing reach

height index -1.547 0.266 -0.513 -5.821 0.000

Biepicondylar

femur breadth 5.538 1.575 0.385 3.516 0.001

Calf girth -1.023 0.352 -0.318 -2.903 0.005

a. Dependent variable vs running vertical jump height


Running vertical jump height =253.63－1.547 X1 ＋5.538 X2－1.023 X3

X1：Standing reach height index

X2：Biepicondylar femur breadth

X3：Calf girth

133

4.7.3 Regression prediction of T-shuttle run agility test based on anthropometric

indices

In this study regression prediction analysis between the results of T-shuttle run agility

test and anthropometric indices was performed for female volleyball player. The results

are shown in Table 4-53 and Table 4-54.

Table 4-53 Summary of regression prediction of T-shuttle run agility test with



Std. Error of the

Estimate

1 0.288a 0.083 0.072 0.3845

a. Predictors vs (Constant), subscapular skinfold

Table 4-54 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of T-shuttle run agility test with


Model


Standardized

Coefficients

T Sig. Beta Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 9.550 0.161 59.357 .000

Subscapula

r skinfold -0.035 0.013 -0.288 -2.769 .007

a. Dependent variable vs T-shuttle run agility test


T-shuttle run agility test =9.550－0.035 X

X：Subscapular skinfold

134

4.7.4 Regression prediction of timed 20 sit-ups based on anthropometric indices

The regression prediction analysis between the results of timed 20 sit-ups and

anthropometric indices was performed for female volleyball player. The results are

shown in Table 4-55 and Table 4-56.

Table 4-55 Summary of regression prediction of timed 20 sit-ups with



Std. Error of the

Estimate

1 0.238a 0.057 0.046 1.7605

2 0.376b 0.141 0.121 1.6897

3 0.439c 0.192 0.163 1.6484

4 0.485d 0.235 0.198 1.6138

a. Prediction constant, gluteal girth

b. Prediction constant, gluteal girth, forearm girth

c. Prediction constant, gluteal girth, forearm girth, radiale-stylion length

d. Prediction constant, gluteal girth, forearm girth, radiale-stylion length, ankle

girth/Achilles’ tendon length index

135

Table 4-56 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of timed 20 sit-ups with


Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

T Sig. Beta Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 27.347 4.071 6.717 0.000

Gluteal girth -0.095 0.042 -0.238 -2.259 0.026

2 (Constant) 23.387 4.143 5.645 0.000

Gluteal girth -0.152 0.045 -0.380 -3.375 0.001

Forearm girth 0.384 0.134 0.324 2.877 0.005

3 (Constant) 17.742 4.731 3.750 0.000

Gluteal girth -0.159 0.044 -0.399 -3.626 0.000

Forearm girth 0.340 0.132 0.286 2.583 0.012

Forearm length

index 0.291 0.127 0.232 2.295 0.024

4 (Constant) 14.671 4.848 3.026 0.003

Gluteal girth -0.159 0.043 -0.398 -3.693 0.000

Forearm girth 0.251 0.136 0.211 1.852 0.068

Forearm length

index 0.366 0.129 0.291 2.833 0.006

Ankle

girth/Achilles’

tendon length

index

0.042 0.020 0.224 2.144 0.035

a. Dependent variable vs timed 20 sit-ups

136


Timed 20 sit-ups =14.671-0.159 X1 + 0.251 X2 + 0.366 X3 + 0.042X4

X1：Gluteal girth

X2：Forearm girth

X3：Radiale-stylion length

X4：Ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon length index

In summary, the results of this study showed that the medicine ball throwing was

correlated to three measured anthropometric variables, including the

midstylion-dactylion length, the arm flexed and tensed girth, and the Achilles’

tendon/calf length index, with the correlation coefficient of 0.35, 0.32, and 0.30,

respectively (all p<0.05).

The running vertical jump test was correlated to the standing reach height index with

the correlation coefficient of 0.30. The T-shuttle run agility test was not correlated to

any measured anthropometric variables. The timed 20 sit-ups also had correlations

with forearm/upper limb length index, forearm length index and Achilles’ tendon/calf

length index (all p<0.05). However, significant correlation coefficients were not found

between the physical performance indices and most somatotype variables.

The results revealed that the players at different tactical positions had significantly

different anthropometric characteristics. Among the derived indices of different groups,

141 of them showed no significant difference, while 59 of them showed significant

differences. We also discovered that there were significantly difference in running

vertical jump performance between the spikers and setters, and between the setters and

second setters (P<0.05).

In respect of somatotypes, the elite Chinese women volleyball players showed an

average score of 3.7-2.9-4.0, which belongs to endomorph-ectomorph. The mean

somatotype of the spikers and the liberos shared the same type “central”, the second

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spikers and the second setters were found to be “endomorphic ectomorph”, and the

setters appeared to be “endomorph-ectomorph”.

As for the correlations between the volleyball players’ anthropometric profile and the

physical performance testing results, our investigation did not detect any significant

correlation coefficients.

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5. Chapter Five: Discussion

5.1 Analysis on anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women volleyball

players

5.1.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the analysis on the anthropometric data of elite Chinese women

volleyball players. The discussion focused on the correlation between anthropometric

and performance variables, the difference of anthropometric and performance variables

between volleyball positions, the somatotypes of the players, and the anthropometric

variables that might be useful in recruitment of potential players.

5.1.2 Anthropometric characteristics in elite Chinese women volleyball players

Chinese women volleyball team is one of the top teams in the world. These

achievements can be attributed to perfect competitive tactics and skills, excellent

psychological states, and also the anthropometric characteristics. High-level

performance in volleyball is determined by specific physiological, kinesiological and

psychological factors, along with appropriate anthropometric characteristics.

It is established that body build plays an important role in achievements in many sport

since it provides a basis for the formation and improvement of movement techniques,

specific physical performance. Furthermore, the combination of somatometry and

natural mechanical abilities of a volleyball player partly determines successful

competition in volleyball. These two features are basic factors, which can limit the

technical and tactical level of an opponent team during the game (Papadopoulou et al.,

2002, Papdopoulou et al., 2002). In addition, Olympic women’s volleyball players

possess certain body characteristics which have been reported as a discriminating

factor between high and low level players (Fleck et al., 1985). The viewpoints of the

researchers converge on the fact that ideal physique for a sport is not the sole factor of

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excellence in this sport. Nevertheless, the lack of optimum anthropometric features can

become an obstacle for an athlete in achieving higher levels of performance (Carter,

1984, De Garay et al., 1974, Tanner et al., 1964).

For the elite China women volleyball players, their average stature, body mass, sitting

height and standing reach height are respectively are 183.6 cm, 70.5 kg, 95.7 cm, and

236.7 cm. From the analyses of the data, we found that the elite Chinese women

volleyball players possessed the following anthropometric characteristics: lean figure,

long limbs, short sitting height, and long forearm, hand palm, calf and Achilles’ tendon

length; moderate body weight and strong skeleton (especially femur); narrow

biilliocristal width, small biilliocristal/biacromiale index breadth ratio, and

barrel-shaped trunk; big relax-contraction difference of upper arm girth, small wrist

and ankle girth, and small ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon length radio; and thin skinfolds.

These results were in line with anthropometric characteristics of volleyball players

presented in some previous studies (Huang and Lu, 1991, Tian, 2006).

5.1.3 Anthropometric comparisons between women volleyball players from China

and other countries

In this study, the elite world women volleyball players’ data, obtained from 287 players

in 24 teams participated in the 15th World Women Volleyball Tournament in 2006, was

compared with the data of 100 elite Chinese women volleyball players from the top

eight teams in Chinese Women Volleyball Tournament in 2007-2008. The comparison

results are list in Table 5-1.

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Table 5-1 Comparison of anthropometric data between top women volleyball

teams in China and in the world

China America Europe Asia Africa Average

N=100 N=96 N=95 N=60 N=36 N=387

Stature

(cm) 183.6±5.77 182.1±7.48 184.4±7.69 180.1±7.65 177.6±4.81 181.5±6.68

Body mass

(kg) 70.5±7.60 70.1±7.56 70.1±5.96 68.5±5.89 69.4±6.18 69.7±6.64

Katoly

index 383.6±37.0 384.8±36.2 380.0±25.2 380.2±22.7 390.6±31.1 383.8±30.5

Source: The data of Chinese women volleyball team are from the data collected in this study. The data of the world women volleyball teams are from the statistical data in 15th World Women Volleyball Tournament (Qu, 2007).

From Table 5-1, we can find that except the Katoly index, all indices concerned to

body height and weight in elite Chinese women volleyball players are higher than the

world average level. The absolute value of elite Chinese women volleyball players’

height is between those of American and European teams, and far above those of Asian

and African teams. As for the absolute value of body weight, the average value in elite

Chinese women volleyball players is slightly higher than that of the American and

European teams, and above the Asian and African teams. In respect of the Katoly

index, Chinese women volleyball players showed a lower value than the American and

African teams, and above the Asian and European teams. These differences and

similarities in anthropometry characteristics may have contributed to the performance

of these teams.

5.2 Analyses of anthropometric characteristics between different volleyball

positions

Specific anthropometry characteristics that may contribute to success in sports have

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been a hot subject for sport scientists and coaches. Within a team sport, however,

certain positions may require more specific anthropometric characteristics based on the

physiological and biomechanical demands during the game (Malousarisa et al., 2008).

In this study, we compared the anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women

volleyball players between different volleyball positions, using directly measured

variables and derivative variables. The study on the anthropometric characteristics

among the players of different volleyball positions is to confirm the general suitability

of a unified talents-selecting model. However, the results showed that there were

significant differences in the players’ anthropometric characteristics between different

volleyball positions, which indicates that the existing unified talents-selecting model

may not serve the purpose well.

5.2.1 Anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women volleyball players at

different volleyball positions

The anthropometric results showed that, except hand breadth, arm flexed and tensed-

arm relaxed girth, forearm girth, thigh girth, all other anthropometric variables were

confirmed to be significantly different between the five volleyball positions, especially

in stature, body mass, standing reach height, upper limb length, forearm length,

midstylion-dactylion length, lower limb, calf length, biacromial breadth, biilocristal

breadth, transverse chest breadth and waist girth.

The analysis on derivative variables showed that, different from the measured

anthropometric variables, there were no significant differences in the length variables,

except the thigh length, between different volleyball positions. Significant differences

were also found in girth and breadth variables, especially in Katoly index, biacromial

breadth index, transverse chest breadth index, waist girth index, arm flexed and tensed

girth index, arm relaxed girth index and calf girth index, and only with an exception of

hand breadth. It means that the differences of anthropometric variables between

different volleyball positions are mainly expressed in the condition of bones and

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muscles.

5.2.1.1 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics in chief spikers

Chief spikers play a crucial role in attacks, whose competence can be a major

determinant in a team for success (Zhong and Huang, 1989). A chief spiker can break

out opposite blocks and to spike for scores through many ways, in them the most

important one is to give a hard attack, and to make the defender impossible to receive

the ball. Therefore, the strength and the speed of a spiking are the determinants for

chief spikers to win the dominance. Moreover, the tactics of ‘high attack’ require the

spikers possess advantageous stature and strength.

The elite Chinese women volleyball chief spikers can be characterized as higher stature,

heavier body mass, bigger Katoly index, stronger muscles and higher body fat in

anthropometric variables. The average values of stature, body mass, sitting height, and

standing reach height respectively is 185.1 cm, 75.6 kg, 96.0 cm and 239.8 cm. Among

the players at five different volleyball positions, the chief spikers’ anthropometric

characteristics were with the strongest and thickest bones and limbs.

Based on the actual anthropometric profile measured for each position, we can

predispose some player to the specific position. The results of the anthropometric

profile measured in this study underscore the expectations.

5.2.1.2 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics in second spikers

Second spikers are mainly in charge of fast attacks in a team, usually attacking at No. 3

position. They are the core of tactical attacks, with fast, variable and flexible attacks to

break blocking. Therefore, second spikers are required to be skillful with different

styles of fast spiking and covertures. Meanwhile, they are also active members in

blocking tasks. The blocking ability is also regarded as an important competence for

them (Chen, 1989b). Second spikers are those who jump and move most, as they keep

moving between No.3 and No.2 positions to make fast spiking or covering teammates’

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attacks ceaselessly. Different from the chief spikers’ attack at No. 4, the second spikers

do not rely on the strength in their spiking, but on the speed, the changes and the height

of their spiking. These require the second spikers not only to be taller, but also faster in

moving, turning, running up and starting jump. In addition, the second spikers keep

moving between No.4 and No.2 position to block, and thereby they are supposed to

have good jumping capacity for a wider blocking space. All the above mentioned tasks

require the second spikers to be equipped with special anthropometric characteristics.

Elite Chinese women second spikers appeared to have following anthropometric

characteristics: relatively higher stature, lighter body mass, and smaller Katoly index.

Their average stature was 188.0 cm, body mass 70.3 kg, sitting height 97.5 cm and

standing reach height 241.1 cm. Among the players at five different volleyball

positions, the second spikers’ anthropometric characteristics were with the highest

stature, thinnest body, and smallest skinfolds.

5.2.1.3 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics in setters

In a volleyball game, setters play a key role in initiating tactical attacks and they are

the soul for the realization of tactical intention. The tactical level of a volleyball team is

mainly relied on the tactics and skills of setters. Statistical data reveal that setters are

the players with the most movements to cover all the positions on the court, trying to

set up a good first pass to make a powerful and successful attack. Setters should be

competent in fast movements, fast start-up, fast stop, fast turn and fast twist after

landing. So for a good agility, setters are usually comparatively shorter. However, as

setters’ blocking positions are opposite to the spikers at No.4 position of the opponent

team and this requires high blocking capacity of the setters. Therefore, setters’ stature

should not be too short but within the range between spikers and liberos (Gualdi-Russo

and Zaccagni, 2001b). In general, the setters are the lightest, the shortest, the fattest

and have the lowest values of humeral and femoral diameters: they differ from the

other three forward roles. Setters are the least homogeneous (Gualdi-Russo and

Zaccagni, 2001b).

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Elite Chinese women setters appeared to have the following anthropometric

characteristics: well-balanced stature, relatively lighter body mass, and smaller Katoly

index. Their average stature was 181.3 cm, body mass 68.5 kg, sitting height 95.1 cm

and standing reach height 235.7 cm. Among the players at five different volleyball

positions, setters’ anthropometric characteristics were well-balanced.

5.2.1.4 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics in second setters

In modern volleyball games, second setters’ main functions have gradually shifted

from assistance in setting up attacks to assistance in performing attacks. This accounts

for the reason why most of the best scorers in recent world series are second setters.

Because of the role changes, second setters’ anthropometric characteristics have shown

great changes as well. Especially, their stature is only shorter than the second spikers.

Currently, the second setters’ chief tasks are to move between No.2 and No.3 positions

and help the second spikers to put tactics into practice. To cope with the tasks, the

second setters are supposed to be swift in moving, turning and jumping.

Anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women second setters were found to be:

relatively higher, thinner and well-balanced stature. Their average stature was 184.1

cm, body mass 68.2 kg, sitting height was 95.2 cm and standing reach height was

236.8 cm. Their bodies almost shared the same anthropometric characteristics with the

second spikers.

5.2.1.5 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics in liberos

Liberos are free defenders and can take the place of any players in the back row of the

court. The position of liberos is for a better defense to make defense and attack more

balanced, in order to enforce the previous comparatively weaker defense, providing a

more intense and attractive competition (Chen, 2005). The major task of liberos is to

receive ball in back court, and never be allowed to spike. Therefore liberos’ body

figure should characterize as lower centre of gravity and shorter legs, and with good

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physical performance speed, reaction time, and agility, etc.

Elite Chinese women liberos were found to have the following anthropometric

characteristics: relatively shorter stature, moderate body mass, shorter-thicker thigh

and larger girth indices. Liberos had greater skinfolds than the players at other

positions. Their average stature was 175.1 cm, body mass 66.2 kg, sitting height 93.1

cm and average standing reach height was 224.5 cm. Among the players at five

different volleyball positions, liberos’ anthropometric characteristics were the most

different from others’. They were the shortest, with comparatively shorter limbs and

perhaps more body fat.

5.2.2 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics at different volleyball positions

between players from China and overseas

5.2.2.1 Comparisons on stature

From Table 5-2, it is clear that, to meet stature requirements at different volleyball

positions, the second spikers should be the tallest, followed by the spikers, second

setters, setters and liberos. The women volleyball players in China and abroad shared

the same pattern. It is worth noticing that the stature of the Chinese players at different

volleyball positions was all relatively higher than the stature of the players from other

world top teams, especially far above the average level of Asian teams. For details,

please refer to Table 5-2.

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Table 5-2 Comparison of stature between top women volleyball teams in Chinese

and world

N Chief spikers

N=101

Second spikers

N=103

Setters

N=65

Second

setters

N=70

Liberos

N=48

China 100 185.1±3.15 188.1±3.87 181.3±1.95 184.1±3.63 175.1±6.97

America 96 184.7±7.06 186.7±4.41 177.3±5.09 183.6±4.05 171.8±7.28

Europe 95 187.1±4.88 188.1±5.87 178.9±4.85 186.9 ±6.36 171.7±5.46

Asia 60 181.2±6.01 185.7±4.64 175.6±8.13 180.7±5.90 170.4±6.88

Africa 36 178.6±4.74 180.1±5.21 176.2±3.82 178.6±2.88 170.3±0.50

Average 387 183.3±5.17 185.7±4.80 177.9±4.77 182.8±4.56 171.9±5.42

Source: The data of Chinese women volleyball team were collected in this study. The data of world women volleyball teams are from the statistical data in 15th World Women Volleyball Tournament (Qu, 2007).

5.2.2.2 Comparisons on body mass

From Table 5-3, it is shown that body mass of Chinese women volleyball players is

found to be the largest in chief spikers, followed by the second spikers, setters, second

setters and liberos. This order is quite different from those of other world top teams. In

addition, the body mass variations of Chinese women volleyball players at different

volleyball positions, except liberos, were all larger than those of the players in world

top teams. It was noticeable that the body mass of Chinese chief spikers, and setters

were all higher than those of world top teams. For details, please refer to Table 5-3.

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Table 5-3 Comparison of body mass between top women volleyball teams in

Chinese and world

kg±SD N

Chief

spikers

N=101

Second spikers

N=103

Setters

N=65

Second

setters

N=70

Liberos

N=48

China 100 75.6±7.89 70.3±6.69 68.5±4.28 68.2±6.33 66.2±8.20

America 96 70.1±9.65 73.6±6.02 68.8±4.60 70.5±7.21 64.0±6.38

Europe 95 67.8±5.61 71.7±5.71 68.6±4.96 71.2±5.12 63.1±6.52

Asia 60 71.4±5.17 71.6±4.70 68.5±6.64 69.2±5.57 63.0±5.13

Africa 36 72.5±5.57 71.3±5.09 61.5±3.27 71.0±5.83 66.3±2.36

Average 387 71.5±6.78 71.7±5.64 67.2±4.75 70.0±6.01 64.5±5.72

Source: The data of Chinese women volleyball team were collected in this study. The

data of world women volleyball teams are from the statistical data in 15th World

Women Volleyball Tournament (Qu, 2007).

5.2.2.3 Comparisons on Katoly index

Table 5-4 shows that in the world’s top women volleyball teams the Katoly index value

decreases in the order of chief spikers, second spikers, second setters, setters and

liberos while in the Chinese team, the order was chief spikers, setters, liberos, second

spikers and second setters. There is a large difference between the two orders.

Furthermore, the distributions of the Katoly indices of Chinese women volleyball

players at different volleyball positions, except setters, were all larger than other top

team counterparts. The Katoly indices of Chinese women spikers, setters and liberos

were all higher than those of the players in world top teams. Table 5-4 presents a

comparison of the indices.

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Table 5-4 Comparison of the Katoly indices between top women volleyball teams

in China and in the world

N

Chief

spikers

N=101

Second spikers

N=103

Setters

N=65

Second

setters

N=70

Liberos

N=48

China 100 408.3±40.52 373.6±33.57 377.9±21.11 370.5±33.70 376.9±35.15

America 96 379.1±46.27 394.1±29.96 388.1±28.02 388.1±28.02 372.4±33.94

Europe 95 373.7±23.18 381.0±24.31 383.7±28.58 383.7±28.58 367.0±29.31

Asia 60 381.4±24.81 385.5±21.40 389.4±23.51 389.4±23.51 369.4±20.94

Africa 36 405.8±29.37 395.4±20.24 349.1±17.10 349.1±17.10 389.2±14.90

Average 387 389.6±32.83 385.9±25.80 377.7±23.66 376.2±26.18 375.0±26.85

Source: The data of Chinese women volleyball team were collected in this study. The

data of world women volleyball teams are from the statistical data in 15th World

Women Volleyball Tournament (Qu, 2007).

In summary, compared with the players in other world top teams, elite Chinese women

volleyball players demonstrated advantages in stature and body mass, and were in the

middle for Katoly index. On specific positions, the anthropometric characteristics of

Chinese women Chief spikers and setters were higher than the average level of the

world’s top teams, suggesting Chinese women volleyball players at attacking positions

have advantages in terms of anthropometric characteristics.

5.2.2.4 The differences in the somatotype between different volleyball positions

The results revealed that there were significant differences in somatotypes of the

women volleyball players between paying positions, indicating the distribution of the

somatotypes at different volleyball positions is uneven. The results show that

volleyball players at different volleyball positions have different characters of physique

and it is due to the different roles on the volleyball court. Therefore, this character

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should be considered for volleyball players’ talent identification.

In summary, the results of our study indicated that players at different volleyball

positions possessed different anthropometric characteristics. These differences agree

with the different technical and tactical demands on players at these positions

(Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b). This suggests that position-specific

anthropometric measurements should be considered and a unified talents-selecting

model may not suit the purpose.

5.3 The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance

Physical performance is regarded as a combination of inborn genetic quality and the

persistently physical work capacity acquired through specific training. It is defined as

an athlete’s basic ability in doing physical exercise (Chen, 2005). It is an important part

of competitive sport ability. In a broad sense, it includes physiologic function, physical

fitness, and skills. In a narrow sense, physical performance usually refers to the

performance in specific testing tasks (Tian, 2006). To assess physical performance, the

following areas are often measured: strength, speed, stamina, agility, flexibility and

balancing (Liu, 2006). The mastery of sport techniques are closely related with players’

physical performance. Only with good physical performance players can reach to a

high level in skills and tactics (Zeng, 1992).

A competent volleyball player needs a high level of strength in waist, legs, and arm

muscles; high speed in reaction, movement, jump, and arm-waving; high jumping

ability; good endurance in movement, jump, speed, and competition; good agility,

including the coordination between legs, hands, waist, and torso movements; and good

flexibility of shoulders, waist, knees, and wrists joints (Chen, 2005).

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Various tests have been utilized in assessments for the physical performance of

volleyball players. For example, Gabbett and colleagues have used following items to

measure physical performance of volleyball players: lower-body muscular power

(vertical jump, spike jump), upper-hody muscular power (over-head medicine-hall

throw), speed (5- and 10-m sprint), agility (T-test), and maximal aerobic power

(multistage fitness test) (Gabbett, 2006).

5.3.1 Physical performance of the elite Chinese women volleyball players

To assess the volleyball players’ physical performance and the relationship between

physical performance and the anthropometric characteristics, this study focused on four

testing items, namely, medicine ball throwing, T-shuttle run agility test, timed 20

sit-ups and running vertical jump.

5.3.1.1 Medicine ball throwing

Medicine ball throwing is an often used method in volleyball training because its

movement mechanics is similar to those of spiking and serving in volleyball. The

distance in “medicine ball throwing” associates with the explosive force of the muscles

on waist, abdomen and upper limbs. Larger physiological cross-sectional area of

muscle correlates with greater absolute strength of the muscle.

The statistical results of this study indicated that the longest distance in the “medicine

ball throwing” testing for elite Chinese women volleyball players was 1220 cm, the

shortest was 840 cm, and the mean was 1050 cm. Chief spikers and setters showed the

best performance, followed by the second spikers, and liberos. The results suggest that

the Chinese women volleyball players’ upper body muscle strength was not

homogeneous. However, it should be noted that the performance of “medicine ball

throwing” is also related with the throwing techniques.

5.3.1.2 T-shuttle run agility test

In a volleyball game, players should try their best to prevent the ball from touching the

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ground, and this requires players to be quick in reaction and swift in movements. A

player’s moving speed is affected by many factors, including her reacting speed, the

lower limbs’ strength, explosive force and agility (Zhong and Huang, 1989).

T-shuttle run agility test is not only a test for a player’s moving speed, but also for the

player’s agility at stopping and turning in movement, which is a necessary skill for

volleyball players. T-route movement is also an often adopted training for the

improvement of moving speed and agility.

The test results of the T-shuttle run agility test indicated that the fastest speed was 8.2

seconds, the slowest was 10.3 seconds, and the average was 9.2 seconds. Among the

players at different positions, liberos were the fastest and their average speed was 8.9

seconds, the next was the setters. The second spikers were the slowest because of their

highest stature, highest barycenter and longest lower limbs.

5.3.1.3 Timed 20 sit-ups

Timed 20 sit-ups is a simple but valid index for the testing of a player’s muscle

strength on waist and abdomen. Waist and abdomen muscles play an important role in

agility, swiftness and jumping. Especially in jumping, waist and abdomen muscle

strength can improve the starting speed of a jump and is vital not only for the hanging

ability, but also for the speed and the power of a spike. Therefore, the training of the

muscles on waist and abdomen is usually emphasized in the physical training of

volleyball players.

The test results of sit-up indicated that the fastest speed for 20 sit-ups was 15.4 seconds,

while the slowest speed was 24.4 seconds, and the average was 18.2 seconds. Among

the players at different positions, liberos were the fastest and their average speed was

17.8 seconds, this reflects the fact that liberos always move fast and turn fast to defense

back row or to receive the served ball. It shows the importance of the muscle strength

on waist and abdomen for the control of body actions. Chief spikers were the next and

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this indicates that, when spiking, spikers will rely on their muscle strength in waist and

abdomen for a favorable time in space and a powerful spike.

5.3.1.4 Running vertical jump

Volleyball requires a lot of jumping. The players jump to spike and block in the game,

so jumping is a very important physical performance (Zhong and Huang, 1989). To

some extent jumping ability determines the overall competence of a volleyball player.

A player’s jumping ability is decided by the explosive force of the muscles on lower

limbs, waist and abdomen. Three steps running-up jump is not only the key for a spike,

but also an often used method for the test of players’ jumping ability. As for the net

jump height, it is measured by a player’s running-up jump height minus her standing

reach height.

The test results showed that the highest runnig vertical jump height among the players

was 91 cm, the lowest was 52.5 cm, and the average was 71.2 cm. Second setters had

the highest average, 74.9 cm, followed by spikers and second spikers. Such finding

explains why second setters can reach the highest success rate for spike even though

they are usually shorter than spikers and second spikers.

5.3.2 Relationship between anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance

Volleyball sport has high requirements in both anthropometric characteristics and

physical performance of the players. Therefore, talent identification lays much

importance on them. One of the aims of this study was to determine the relationship

between anthropometric characteristics and physical performance of the players.

Our analyses of the anthropometric and testing results indicated that most of the

anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women volleyball players were not

significantly correlated with their physical performance. This means that there were

many other factors that might have contributed to the seleted physical performance and

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the decisive contributors were not the anthropometric characteristics. The proportion of

significant correlations between anthropometric variables and physical performance

was lower than we expected, and was only 12% of the total anthropometric variables.

5.3.2.1 The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and upper limb

muscle strength

The correlation analyses indicated that the performance in medicine ball throw was

mainly correlated with the girth of the limbs, the hand palm and forearm and the

breadth of chest. Other study also indicated that medicine ball throwing test correlated

with the general size of the body, upper extremities length, muscle strength of the trunk

and extremities and there was, however, no correlation with body fat (Stamm et al.,

2002). Larger girths of limbs indicate stronger muscles. Longer hand palm and

forearms mean longer force moment for the waving arm. However, the correlation

between the upper limb strength and anthropometry measurements was not significant,

suggesting for volleyball players, the swaying strength and the explosive force of upper

limbs were not significantly determined by the anthropometric characteristics. Instead,

it is mainly improved through training.

5.3.2.2 The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and moving

agility

The correlation analyses revealed that the T-shuttle run agility test had no significant

correlation with anthropometric characteristics, except the negative correlation with the

intrinsic factor of endomorphy. Stamm’s study (2002) indicated that the results of the

speed test were worse in volleyball players with higher body fat content (Stamm et al.,

2002). Intrinsic factor reflects the body fat content and suggests that the players with

less body fat can move faster. The non-significant correlation between anthropometric

characteristics and moving agility indicates that they are not the major contributers to

the performance in T-shuttle run agility test (Stamm et al., 2000).

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5.3.2.3 The relationship between anthropometric characteristic and muscle

strength on waist and abdomen

There was no other significant correlation between the variables of anthropometric

characteristics and timed 20 sit-ups results. Because the timed 20 sit-ups was used to

assess the muscle strength on waist and abdomen, the exception suggests that players

with less body fat will have stronger muscle strength on waist and abdomen. There are

many factors that may influence the muscle strength on waist and abdomen, and the

sit-up test itself might not be sufficient to represent all of them.

5.3.2.4 The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and jumping

ability

Our analyses revealed that there was no any significant correlation between players’

anthropometric characteristics and the vertical jump height. This means that women

volleyball players’ jumping abilities are influenced by many factors and players’

anthropometric characteristics does not make significant influence on the jumping

ability. This seems not consistent with the previous findings. In recruitment for

volleyball players, the jumping ability is often the first concern, and the corresponding

anthropometric characteristics of lower limbs are considered critical, especially on the

length of lower limbs, the length of Achilles’ tendon and the girth of ankles. However,

our analyses revealed that the relationship between these two variables was not

significant.

In conclusion, correlation analyses showed that very few anthropometric variables

were significantly correlated with the four selected physical performance test results.

This suggests that the improvements of volleyball players’ physical performance are

not significantly related to these anthropometric characteristics.

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5.4 The differences in physical performance between different volleyball positions

You and Huang (2000) have indicated that volleyball players need to be physically

competent in areas such as strength (jumping ability, explosive force), and speed

(reaction speed, running speed, action speed). In addition, agility, flexibility and

stamina also play important roles (You and Huang, 2000).

The specific training for volleyball players is mainly on upper limbs, abdomen, back

and lower limbs, which are the more critical muscle groups for performance. For

example, to complete a spiking, a player sways the upper arm to make a powerful spike.

To stay longer in the air and keep body balanced during spiking and blocking, the

strength of trunk muscles play an important role (Xue, 2004).

The present study analyzed the difference of physical performance variables among the

women volleyball players at different volleyball positions. The statistical results

suggest that physical performance variables for specific positions can hardly be

adopted as generally suitable indices.

The results indicated that, in all the four physical performance tests, differences were

only found in the variable of running vertical jump height, and mostly the differences

were not significant. Only 5% of the anthropometry variables were significantly

correlated with performance. In addition, in the physical performance of different

positional groups, there were significant differences only between the chief spikers and

the setters, second setters and setters.

Jumping ability is crucial for a volleyball player to be competitive. Setters usually take

a heavy blocking task in a contest, and good jumping ability is necessary for successful

blocks. In the training of Chinese women volleyball players, focus should be given to

the setters’ jumping ability to improve their attacking and defending ability. Fleck et al.

(1985) suggested that two of the aims of the physical conditioning of elite women

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volleyball players should be to decrease percent fat and increase vertical jumping

distance (Fleck et al., 1985).

5.5. Somatotypes

5.5.1 Introduction on somatotype

Heath and Carter defined somatotype as the current physical characteristics of an

individual. It is an explicit shape regardless of the body size. It describes the specific

body shapes and the comparative body components. Moreover, somatotype may

change.

Somatoype is determined as the characteristics of the exterior figuration and the

physique style. It is a precise summary and evaluation of the overall figuration features.

In other words, body shape type or somatotype is a general descriptor of physical

appearance and it is defined as the quantification of the quantification of the present

shape and composition of the human body. Extraordinary values have been revealed in

the studies about the relationships between somatotype and some diseases, somatotype

and nutrition, and somatotype and athletes recruitment. The variation in somatotypes

may be due to different genetic and environmental factors of various ethnic groups.

Such information offers useful reference for athletes’ recruitment, sports training,

nutrition, anthropology and medical jurisprudence, and also makes meaningful

reference for research on the relationships among different ethinic groups (Cui and Wu,

2004).

5.5.2 Somatotype of elite Chinese women volleyball players

Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, (2001) have found that somatotype differs in relation to

the different volleyball positions (Setters = 3.1-3.6-2.5, Chief spikers = 3.0-3.5-2.8,

Second spikers = 2.8-3.1-3.1, Second setters = 3.0-3.2-3.0). Table 5-5 shows the details.

The mesomorphic component is maximal in setters, while the ectomorphic component

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is maximal in chief spikers. Although high ectomorphic sores may be advantageous

because of the nature of game play in volleyball, in chief spikers, endurance of the

opposing attack is the primary concern, whereas the setters require more speed and

agility in terms of attack organization. Therefore a greater mesomorphy may be

advantageous in sustaining opposing attacks for centers, but, as speed of movement

and agility are more essential in the role of setter, high msesomorphy scores would not

be advantageous. The somatotype scores of spiker and opposites tend to be

intermediate between centers and setters (Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b).

Table 5-5 Somatotype characteristics for Italian female volleyball players in

different volleyball positions

Setters

(N=47)

Chief spikers

(N=85)

Second spikers

(N=85)

Second setters

(N=27)

Endomorphy 3.1 2.8 3.0 3.0

Mesomorphy 3.6 3.1 3.5 3.2

Ectomorphy 2.5 3.1 2.8 3.0

The deference in anthropometric characteristics agrees with the different technical and

tactical demands on players in different positions. An athlete’s anthropometric

characteristics can in some way influence her level of performance, at the same time

helping to determine a suitable physique for a certain sport. Therefore, somatotype

should be one of the characteristics considered in the success of athletes. Furthermore,

as somatotypes differ as a function of positional role in volleyball, sport scientists,

coaches and strength and conditioning professionals need to be aware of the specific

positional requirements in volleyball in terms of body type. Consideration of an

athlete’s body type when allocating resources, selecting playing position, and within

conditioning programs may be beneficial in increasing the effectiveness of players

within a team.

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The average somatoype indices of elite Chinese women volleyball players were

3.7-2.9-4.0. According to the principle for somatotype classification, Chinese women

volleyball players belong to endomorph-ectomorph. For the players at different

positions, the chief spikers and liberos shared the same type “central”, the second

spikers and second setters shared another type “endomorphic ectomorph”, and setters

belonged to “endomorph-ectomorph”.

Based on the correlation analyses between the players’ positions and somatoype

indices, we find that somatotype is closely related with different volleyball positions.

Different volleyball positions require varied tactical skills. Hence somatotype needs to

meet such positional requirements.

As for the distribution of somatotype scores of the elite Chinese women volleyball

players, the chief spikers and liberos had the largest endomorphy and mesomorphy, but

the ectomorphy was on the lower side. It means that the chief spikers and liberos had

well-balanced body shape with larger body mass, strong bones and muscles, and

possibly high percentage of fat. As for the second spikers, they have the largest

ectomorphy, but lowest endomorphy and mesomorphy, suggesting that the second

spikers have smaller fat content and thinner bones, and therefore being thin and tall.

The setters and second setters have moderate fat content and balanced bones and

muscles, and therefore make a slender physique. For the distribution of somatotypes of

elite Chinese women volleyball players at different volleyball positions, please refer to

Figure 5-1.

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A: Chief spikers X = -0.4 Y= -1 B: Second spikers X = 1.7 Y= -3.9

C: Setters X = 0.1 Y= -1.9 D: Second setters X = 0.9 Y= -2.7

E: Liberos X = -0.7 Y= -0.1

Figure 5-1 Distribution of somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball

players at different volleyball positions

5.5.3 Comparisons of the somatotype of Chinese and overseas elite women

volleyball players

Our literature shows the somatotype of the elite women volleyball players in 8

countries. The sample sizes are quite different. We therefore adopt weighted average

method to ensure the reliability of our statistical analyses. Table 5-6 has the details.

Elite Chinese women volleyball players’ average somatotype values are “3.7-2.9-4.0”,

ie. endomorph-ectomorph. Among the 13 somatotypes, 64% of elite Chinese women

volleyball players concentrate on four somatotypes, including endomorphic ectomorph

(29%), balanced ectomorph (14%), balanced endomorph (11%) and

ectomorph-endomorph (9%). The highest percentage goes to endomorphic ectomorph.

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Table 5-6 Statistics for Foreign women volleyball players’ somatotype

Source National

team

N Somatotype

value

Somatotype

(Kovaleski et

al., 1980)

America 19 4.2-3.7-3.3 Central

(Gualdi-Russo

and Zaccagni,

2001b)

Italy 244 3.0-3.3-2.9 Central

(Bayios et al.,

2006)

Greece 163 3.4-2.7-2.9 Central

(Neni et al.,

2007)

Indonesia 66 2.4-3.5-3.7 Mesomorphic-ectomorph

(Papdopoulou

et al., 2002)

Greece 229 4.5-2.5-2.1 Mesomorphic endomorph

(Duncan et al.,

2006)

England 25 2.6-1.9-5.3 Endomorphic ectomorph

(Superlak,

2006)

Portland 28 2.2-3.3-4.1 Mesomorphic endomorph

In the national women volleyball teams of other countries, the average somatotype

value is “3.4-2.9-2.9”, mainly covered five somatotypes of all 13 somatotypes. Their

somatotypes are central (53.3%), mesomorphic endomorph (28.7%), mesomorphic-

ectomorph (11.4%). While the other two types of mesomorphic ectomorph (3.5%) and

endomorphic ectomorph (3.1%) are neglected because of the small sample sizes

(Bayios et al., 2006, Duncan et al., 2006, Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b,

Kovaleski et al., 1980, Neni et al., 2007, Papadopoulou et al., 2002, Papdopoulou et al.,

2002, Superlak, 2006).

Comparative analysis shows that the endomorphy and the ectomorphy scores of

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women volleyball players in other countries are smaller, yet that of the mesomorphy

are larger. These indicate that they have comparatively lower body fat content, stronger

bones and muscles, and a body with moderate linearity. On the contrary, the scores of

the endomorphy and the ectomorphy of Chinese women volleyball players are larger,

but the mesomorphy are smaller, indicating Chinese women volleyball players have

higher body fat content, weaker bones and muscles, a thinner body with higher

linearity.

The distribution of somatotype of Chinese women volleyball players are more

dispersing. There are 12 somatotypes among them, while other women volleyball

players in the world centralized on only four somatptypes. The distribution of Chinese

and foreign elite women volleyball players’ somatotype are shown in Figure 5-2.

A: America X= -0.9 Y= -0.1 B：Italy X= -0.1 Y= 0.7

C：Greece X= -0.5 Y= -0.9 D：Indonesia X= 1.3 Y= 0.9

E：England X= 2.7 Y= -4.1 F：Poland X= 1.9 Y= 0.5

G：Chinese X=0.3 Y=-1.9

Figure 5-2: Distribution of Chinese and foreign elite women volleyball players’

somatotype

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5.6 Typical anthropometric characteristics of volleyball players

Volleyball has very high requirements on the anthropometric characteristics, especially

on stature, the length of limbs, thighbones and Achilles’ tendon, the girth of ankles and

the breadth of biiliocristal. In this study, it was found that elite Chinese women

volleyball players started very early in their volleyball careers. 17% of them started

volleyball training before the age of 10, 33% of them started between the age of 11-12,

44% of them between the age of 13-14, 6% of them between the age of 15-16. As

between 10 to 16 years old is exactly the growing period for juvenile, the

anthropometric characteristics are of great importance for talent identification.

Due to that heredity plays a significant role in somatotypes, it is proposed that the

selection of the female athletes should consider somatotypes at a young age. Many

investigators support that the somatotypes of top young female athletes do not

substantially differ from the respective top adult athletes’ somatotype (Malina and

Shoup, 1985, Papadopoulou et al., 2002). Somatotype, then, should be one of the

characteristics considered in the success of female athletes.

The so-called “R” type cluster analysis means calculating the correlation coefficient or

the distance coefficient of the variables and categorize similar variables or individuals

together. We adopt the cluster analysis when there is a need to select several

representative variables out of many of them (Wang, 2008).

There are many anthropometric variables that can be measured for the volleyball

players. However, it is not practical to measure each of these variables because of the

time required to complete the tests. Therefore, it is necessary to make cluster selection

to find out the more critical variables and to build new indices system for the women

volleyball talent identification. So we perform cluster analyses and based on the

correlations among the grouped variables, we gradually obtain the clustering structure

of all the anthropometric variables, and thus are able to get the typical variables for the

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talent identification of women volleyball players.

From the clustering pedigree, the hierarchy relations among the variables are very clear.

Based on these results, we selected correlation coefficient at R=0.646 and used eight

variables and identified several typical anthropometric variables groups (Wang, 2008).

The results revealed eight close relationships between these anthropometric variables

groups. They were: body mass, stature, biacromial breadth，sitting height, subscapular

skinfold, ankle girth, forearm girth and Achilles’ tendon length. Table 4-48 and Figure

5-2 show the details.

Anthropometric assessment includes stature, total body mass, sitting height and

circumferences of arms, abdomen, hip, thigh, and the skinfolds triceps, biceps, chest,

subscapular, supraspinale, abdominal, and thigh.

Stature and body mass are the required basic anthropometric variables in talent

identification for women volleyball players. Height and body mass have been reported

to be discriminating factors between successful and non-successful teams in a

tournament, so these two factors should be taken into account when selecting female

volleyball athletes. MacLaren (1990) suggested that national team coaches must

consider the height and weight of the athletes to be selected, as success in volleyball is

associated with body height and body weight (MacLaren, 1990). Sitting height gives

an indication of the relative length of the legs. Shoulder breadth is related to the bone

growth in the upper body and can also indirectly reflect the strength of trunk and

shoulder girdle. The biacromiale breadth to biiliocristal breadth ratio also reflects the

overall trunk shape and relates to the agility of the body. Subscapular skinfold reveals

the thickness of the players’ fat layer and therefore indirectly reveals the body fat

content. Forearm girth indicates the muscle size of the players’ upper limbs. In

volleyball games, the acceleration of spiking and serving are determined by the

strength of forearms and wrist, therefore, forearm girth should be seriously considered

in talent identification, though it has never been mentioned in the previous studies.

164

Zeng (1992) research revealed that players who have longer Achilles’ tendon and

smaller ankle girth usually show better jumping ability (Zeng, 1992). The ankle girth to

Achilles’ tendon length ratio is also an important index for volleyball talent

identification, which is supported by our findings.

5.7 Regression model for anthropometric characteristic and physical performance

of elite Chinese women volleyball players

To further understand the relationships between the anthropometric characteristics and

physical performance of elite Chinese women volleyball players, we conducted

stepwise regression analyses between the anthropometric variables (including

measurement indices and evaluation indices) and physical performance variables

(including medicine ball throwing, running vertical jump height, T-shuttle run agility

test and timed 20 sit-ups). The statistical results revealed that, in four physical

performance variables, only medicine ball throwing and vertical jump height closely

associated with anthropometric characteristics, as indicated by a higher correlation

coefficient (R>0.50） while the T-shuttle run agility test and timed 20 sit-ups had lower

correlation coefficient (R<0.50) with the anthropometric variables. Since our study

only analyzed the anthropometric factors among multiple factors that may have

influenced physical performance, thus it is not surprising to find lower correlation

coefficients. The purpose of stepwise regression analysis is to identify the most

important physical performance variables (among the tests we performed) for coaches

that can be used in talent identification.

Because of the low correlation between anthropometric characteristics with T-shuttle

run time and sit-up performance, only the regressions for medicine ball throwing and

vertical jump height are discussed here. The regression models for specific physical

performance of elite Chinese women volleyball players are shown in Table 5-7.

165

Table 5-7 Summary of the regression models for specific physical performance to

anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women volleyball

players

Dependant variable Regression equation and independent variable Physical

performance

Runnig vertical jump

height

253.63－1.547 X1 ＋5.538 X2－1.023 X3 X1：Standing reach height X2：Femur breadth， X3：Calf girth，

Jumping ability

Medicine ball throw

1405.011－2.676 X1 ＋12.925 X2 －16.989 X3 ＋

1.279 X4

X1：Ankle girth X2：Arm(flexed and tensed) girth X3：Forearm length/Upper limb length×100 X4：Achilles' tendon length

Upper limbs

strength


9.550－0.035 X X：Subscapular skinfold

Moving speed and

agility

Timed 20 sit-ups

14.671-0.159 X1 + 0.251 X2 + 0.366 X3 + 0.042X4 X1：Gluteal girth X2：Forearm girth X3：Forearm length X4：Ankle girth

Strength of lumbar

and abdominal

muscle

The regression analysis on vertical jump height showed that the jump height was

correlated with the standing reach height, the calf girth and the biepicondylar femur

breadth. A bigger calf girth usually means stronger calf muscle strength and power,

which may directly influence the jumping height. The femur bone breadth indicates

stronger and well-developed bones in lower limbs, and correspondingly leads to more

powerful explosive force of lower limbs, which may also directly influence the

jumping height.

From the regression equation for medicine ball throwing, it can be seen that the

performance is determined by tensed arm girth and forearm length-upper limbs length

ratio. Here, tensed arm girth reflects the condition of upper limb muscles and their

strength, while the forearm length-upper limbs length ratio relates to the torque and the

166

acceleration of the waving arms.

Therefore, in the talent identification for women volleyball players, we may adopt the

above predictive models to identify the players with favorable jumping ability and

strength.

Table 5-8 Test of regression equation for specific physical performance of elite

Chinese women volleyball players

Dependant variable Results of regression equation

Average of the field

measurements N R P

Runnig vertical jump height 71.2 cm 71.2 cm 87 0.600 0.000

Medicine ball throw 1050.2 cm 1050.2 cm 87 0.514 0.000

T-shuttle run agility test 9.12 s 9.12 s 87 0.288 0.007

Timed 20 sit-ups 18.14 s 18.16 s 87 0.485 0.000

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6. Chapter Six: Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research

6.1 Conclusions

Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions have been drawn.

1) It was found that except the Katoly index, all indices concerned to body height and

weight in elite Chinese women volleyball players are higher than the world average

level. The absolute value of elite Chinese women volleyball players’ height is between

those of American and European, and far above those of Asian and African. As for the

absolute value of body weight, the level in elite Chinese women volleyball players is

slightly higher than American and European level, and above the Asian and African

level. While, the Katoly index, Chinese women volleyball athletes’ is lower than the

American and African level, and above the Asian and European level. The

comparisons above conclude that the main body anthropometric variables, such as

stature, body mass and Katoly index, aren’t obviously different between elite Chinese

women volleyball players and the world players.

2) It was revealed that the medicine ball throwing distance was significantly correlated

to the circumferences of upper arm and calf, the length of forearm and hand, and the

transverse width of chest. The running vertical jump showed no significant correlation

with most of the anthropometric variables except the breadth of biepicondylar femur,

and the girth and length of the calf. The performance in T-shuttle run agility test and

the timed 20 sit-ups demonstrated no significant correlation to any of the

anthropometry variables.

In the past, the jump ability was believed to be the most important factor in selection of

volleyball players. Therefore the anthropometric indices utilized mainly focused on the

variables that were thought to be closely correlated with the jump ability, such as

length of lower limb, length of Achilles’ tendon, and circumference of ankle, etc.

However, the present results showed that there was no significant correlation between

168

the vertical jump performance and above mentioned variables, but to the standing

reach height, the breadth of biepicondylar femur, and the circumference of the calf.

The results partially rejected the Null Hypothesis that there would be no correlation

between the anthropometric variables and the selected performance characteristics in

elite female volleyball players.

3) The anthropometric results show that, except palm breadth, relax-contraction

difference of upper arm girth, forearm girth, thigh girth, the other anthropometric

variables are confirmed to be significantly different between playing positions,

especially in stature, body mass, standing reach height, upper limb length, forearm

length, palm length, lower limb, calf length, shoulder breadth, pelvis breadth, chest

breadth and waist circumference (up to P<0.001). The analysis on the derived

anthropometric indices showed that, different from the measured anthropometric

variables, there were no significant differences in the length indices, except the thigh

length indices, between volleyball positions. Among different volleyball positions,

significant differences were found in girth and breadth indices, especially in Katoly

index, shoulder breadth index, chest breadth index, waist girth index, upper limb

contracting girth index, and calf girth index (P<0.05 to 0.001), only with an exception

of hand breadth. These indicated that the differences in anthropometric indices among

volleyball positions were mainly related to the relative sizes of bones and muscles.

This conclusion rejected the Null Hypothesis that there would be no differences in

anthropometric characteristics between volleyball positions of volleyball game.

4) The present results showed no significant differences between the five volleyball

positions in the most of the selected physical performance measurements, except the

running vertical jump height. The differences in the net jumping height was found only

between the chief spikers vs the setters, and the second setters vs the setters (P<0.05).

The results suggested that, although volleyball players played different roles in a game,

they all possessed similar physical performance. The results generally approved the

Null Hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in the selected physical

169

performance, except the running jump height, between volleyball positions.

5) This study utilized a stepwise regression analysis for the correlations between the

selected anthropometric and physical performance variables. Predictive equations for

the four physical performance were developed as

Running jump height = 253.63－1.547 (Standing reach height) ＋ 5.538 (Femur

breadth) － 1.023 (Calf girth)

Medicine ball throw = 1405.011－2.676 (Ankle girth) ＋ 12.925 (flexed and

tensed arm girth) － 16.989 (Forearm length / Upper limb length × 100) ＋1.279

(Achilles' tendon length).

However, the prediction equations for the T-shuttle run agility test and the timed 20

sit-ups demonstrated a lower correlation coefficient with the anthropometric variables,

therefore were regarded as not valid. It should be stressed that physical performance is

affected by multiple factors, thus it was not surprising to find lower correlation

coefficient. The purpose of the stepwise regression analysis was to identify the most

relevant anthropometry variables that would be most important to each of the selected

physical performance. The information provides new references for talent

identification in volleyball.

6.2 Suggestions for future research

Based on our investigation, eight measurements were identified as significant

contributors to build the anthropometric profile of elite Chinese women volleyball

players. The effectiveness of these measurements in the talent identification practice

needs to be further validated. It will be recommended to the China Volleyball League

and to the coaches of China juvenile women volleyball teams, to trial on these

anthropometric indices in recruitment of potential high performance athletes.

Our research revealed that elite women volleyball players at different tactical positions

170

have distinctive characteristics. We expect to make a comparison between our research

results and the practical condition of the juvenile women volleyball players, and then

to set up a talent-identifying model for different tactical positions.

Further studies should also include collection of anthropometric and performance data

of teams of different ranks and from different countries, so that comparisons between

the elite and non-elite Chinese volleyball players and players from different countries

and/or levels can be made.

171

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8. Appendices

Appendix 1: Definition of terms

Physique

Physique mainly includes body constitution, body composition, body type, body

carriage, and bone age. It is usually used to study human body’s external condition

covering body shape, body configuration, body growth and body build (Tan and

Chou, 2003).

Anthropometry Profile

Anthropometry profile includes the measurements of body constitution and body type

and is an important method for quantified research of the external characteristics of

human body (Jin, 2003, Ye, 2002). The anthropometric data have significant values

in the research of body growth, body constitution, nutrition and health conditions.

Especially, in the field of sports, the anthropometric data can provide valuable

information in the recruitment of athletes, the training of physical capacities and the

improvement of performance.

Heath-Carter method

For the evaluation of somatotypes, the method developed by Heath-Carter is one of

the most commonly used methods. According to this method, the somatotype is

expressed by three numbers in the order of endomorphy, ectomorphy and

mesomorphy. The endomorphy value is used to show the comparative fat content in

the body; the mesomorphy value exposes the comparative development of bone and

muscle; and the ectomorphy value tells the relative boy shape (Carter and Heath,

1990, Heath and Carter, 1967).

Physical performance

It is a collection of basic elements in performing physical activities, particularly in

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relation to sport performance, including strength, power, speed, endurance, agility,

and flexibility, etc. (Chen, 1989b). Body mass Mass is the quantity of matter in the body. Mass is calculated through the measurement of weight, i.e. the force that the matter exerts in a standard gravitational field. Stature The perpendicular distance between the transverse planes of the vertex and the inferior

aspects of the feet. Sitting height The perpendicular distance between the transverse planes of the vertex and the inferior

aspects of the butocks when seated(Zeng, 1992).

Triceps skinfold

The participant assumed a relaxed standing position. The landmark of

mid-acromiale-radiale and the site for the triceps skinfold were made according to the

ISAK manual (Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a). The right arm should be relaxed with the

shoulder joint externally rotated to the mid-prone position and elbow extended by the

side of the body. The skinfold measurement taken parallel to the long axis of the arm at

the triceps skinfold site.

Subscapular skinfold

Subscapular skinfold site was in 2 cm along a line running laterally and obliquely

downward from the subscapulare landmark at a 45o angle. The participant assumes a

relaxed standing position with the arms hanging by the sides. The skinfold

measurement taken with the fold running obliquely downward at the subscapular

skinfold site. The line of the skinfold was determined by the natural fold lines of the

skin.

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Supraspinale

The point at the intersection of two lines: the line from the marked iliospinale to the

anterior axillary border, and the horizontal line at the level of the marked iliocristale,

was marked. The skinfold measurement taken with the fold running obliquely and

medially downward at the marked supraspinales skinfold sites.

Medial calf

The maximal girth of the calf was determined by trial and error. The level of the

maximum girth is determined by trial and error. Participant's right foot was placed on a

box with the calf relaxed.The fold was parallel to the long axis of the leg. The skinfold

measurement taken vertically at the medial calf skinfold site.

Arm relaxed girth

The circumference of the arm at the level of the mid-acromialeradiale site,

perpendicular to the long axis of the arm.

Arm flexed and tensed girth

The circumference of the arm perpendicular to the long axis of the arm at the level of

the peak of the contracted Biceps brachii, when the arm is raised anteriorly to the

horizontal.

Forearm girth

The maximal circumference of the forearm perpendicular to its long axis, distal to the

humeral epicondyles.

Wrist girth

The minimal circumference of the wrist perpendicular to the long axis of the forearm,

distal to the styloid processes.

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Waist girth

The circumference of the abdomen at its narrowest point between the lower costal

(10th rib) border and the top of the iliac crest, perpendicular to the long axis of the

trunk.

Gluteal (hip) girth

The circumference of the buttocks at the level of their greatest posterior protuberance,

perpendicular to the long axis of the trunk.

Mid-thigh girth

The circumference of the thigh measured at the level of the mid-trochanterion-tibiale

laterale site, perpendicular to its long axis.

Calf girth

The circumference of the leg at the level of the medial calf skinfold site, perpendicular

to its long axis.

Ankle girth

The minimal circumference of the ankle superior to the medial malleolus,

perpendicular to the long axis of the leg.

Acromiale-radiale length

The linear distance between the acromiale and radiale sites.

Radiale-stylion radiale length

The linear distance between the radiale and stylion sites.

Midstylion-dactylion length

The linear distance between the midstylion and dactylion sites.

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Iliospinale height

The vertical distance from the iliopinale site to the standing surface.

Tibiale laterale height

The vertical distance from the tibiale laterale site to the standing surface.

Biacromial breadth

The linear distance between the most lateral aspects of the acromion processes.


The linear distance between the most lateral points of the iliac crests. Transverse chest breadth

The breadth of the thorax perpendicular to its long axis when the scale of the caliper is

at the level of the mesosternale, and the blades are positioned at an angle of 30°

downwards from the horizontal. Biepicondylar humerus breadth

The linear distance between the most lateral aspect of the lateral humeral epicondyle

and the most medial aspect of the medial humeral epicondyle.


The linear distance between the most lateral aspect of the lateral femoral epicondyle

and the most medial aspect of the medial femoral epicondyle. (Marfell-Jones et al.,

2006a) Standing reach height The vertical distance from the ground to highest point of finger tip when the right arm

is raised vertically (Zeng, 1992).

189

Hand breadth

The distance between the metacarpale laterale and metacarpale mediale (Ross et al.,

2003).

The length of Achilles tendon

The vertical distance from sphyrion of calf gastrocnenius to point of calcaneus (Zeng,

1992).

Arm flexed and tensed－arm-relaxed

The girth of arm flexed and tensed minus the girth of arm-relaxed. Upper limb length

The linear distance between the acromiale and dactylion sites.

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Appendix 2: Health status assessment

HEALTH STATUS ASSESSMENT PRIOR TO ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENT

Department of Exercise Science & Sport Management

School of Health and Human Sciences Southern Cross University

_____________________________________________________________________ This form is used as a pre-participation health and risk factor screening device and should be completed prior to the commencement of an anthropometric measurement The information obtained in this screening will be kept as CONFIDENTIAL. Only the responsible staff member and the medical practitioner may access to the information. Client’s Surname (Mr., Mrs., Ms.) : ______________________________________ Given Names: _______________________________________________________ Date of Birth: ________________________________________________________ Place of Birth: _______________________________________________________ Home Address: ______________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ Postcode: __________ Contact Telephone: (Home) _______________ (Work/Mobile) _______________

191

(1) PAST MEDICAL HISTORY Have you suffered any of the following conditions at any time: (Please tick the appropriate column)

No Yes Details

Rheumatic or scarlet fever

Heart trouble or murmur

Heart palpitation

High blood pressure

Heart attack

Chest pain/Angina

Stroke

Disease of arteries or veins

Undue limiting shortness of breath with exercise

Fainting or blackout

Loss of consciousness or fainting with exercise

Epilepsy

Lung or bronchial disease

Asthma

Hay fever

Anaemia

Diabetes

Thyroid disease

Arthritis, rheumatism or gout spondylitis, disc trouble or back injury

Serious accident or injury

Surgical operation

Congenital abnormality

Other serious illness (or conditions that may affect exercise)

For female only: Having normal/regular periods

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(2) PRESENT MEDICAL CONDITIONS Are you currently suffering or have you in the recent past suffered any of the following conditions (Please tick the appropriate column):

Initial Exam Second Exam

Yes No Yes No

Cough

Stuffy nose or sore throat

Tonsillitis, glandular fever

Hepatitis

Diarrhoea/vomiting

Headaches

Shortness of breath

Pain in chest, left arm or neck at rest, or during physical activities

Heart palpitations

Cramp in legs

Abnormal loss of blood

Insomnia

Indigestion or constipation

Swollen, stiff or painful joints

Backache

Sports injury or other injury

Other symptom or illness, or surgery

Any skin infections or diseases

Any deterioration in training or competitive performance

Any other conditions that may contraindicate to exercise or affect exercise capacity

For female only: Currently in pregnancy

If yes, provide details

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(3) SPORTS TRANING HISTORY When did you start volleyball (or other sport) training: _________________________ How long time you have been in this team: __________________________________ Achievements in the sport: _______________________________________________ Current training (full time, part time, no training due to injuries): ____________________________________________________________________ I attest that the information provided by me in completing this form is to the best of my knowledge a true and accurate reflection of my current health status. In the event that I display symptoms of illness at any point during my participation in this exercise test I will advise the testing staff immediately. Signed: ________________________ Name: _________________________ Date: __________________________

194

Appendix 2: Health status assessment (Chinese)

测量前身体健康状况评价表

南十字星大学运动科学与运动管理系

_______________________________________________________________________________ 这张表是作为测量前了解被测量者的身体健康状况和风险因素的问卷，此表在进行测量前完

成。本问卷所了解的信息是保密的，只有相关的研究人员和医生有权了解这些信息。 _______________________________________________________________________________ 被测测量者的姓（先生、女士、小姐）: ______________________________________ 被测测量者的名: _______________________________________________________ 出生年月: ________________________________________________________ 地址: ____________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________邮编: __________ 联系电话（家） ____________________ （办公电话/手机）____________________

195

(1) 家庭病史. 你的亲戚患有下列疾病的，请在相应的栏目中标出，兄弟（B）、姐妹（S）、父亲（F）、母亲

（M）、祖父母（GP）。

无有关系年龄备注/细节

中风

先天性心脏病

风湿性心脏病

心脏手术

心绞痛

心肌梗塞

猝死

高血压

高胆固醇

动脉梗塞

哮喘

肺病

支气管炎、肺气肿

花粉热

糖尿病

痛风

关节炎

196

(2) 本人病史你是否曾经患有下列疾病，请在相应的栏目中画勾。

无有细节

猩红热

心脏病或心脏杂音

心悸

高血压

心肌梗塞

心绞痛

突发心脏病

动脉疾病

运动中呼吸受限

昏晕

运动中昏厥

癫痫

呼吸系统疾病

哮喘

花粉热

贫血

糖尿病

甲状腺疾病

关节炎、风湿病、痛风、椎间盘突出或背

部损伤

严重的意外事故

外科手术

先天性畸形

其它严重的疾病（或影响运动的问题）

仅限女性填写月经周期

197

(3)运动训练经历什么时候你开始参加排球训练（或其它体育运动）：_________________________ 你在本队多长时间了： __________________________________ 你队的运动成绩如何：: _______________________________________________ 目前训练情况（专职训练、业余训练、因运动损伤停止训练）： ____________________________________________________________________ 我证明我在此问卷中提供的信息是真实的，能够反映我目前的健康状况。在参加测试活动中

如出现我所患疾病的征兆，我将立即告知测试人员。签名: ________________________________ 姓名: _________________________ 日期: __________________________

198

Appendix 3: Information sheet

INFORMATION SHEET

Name of Project: An Investigation on the Anthropometry Profile and Its Relationship

with Physical Capacity of Elite Chinese Women Volleyball Players

Researcher Yuyi Zhang Master of Science candidate Department of Exercise and Sports Management Southern Cross University Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia Email: [email protected] Telephone: + 8613828880906 Supervisors Associate Professor Shi Zhou PhD; Department of Exercise and Sports Management, Southern Cross University Associate Professor Qin Zhang PhD; Department of Physical Education, Shenzhen University You are invited to participate in a research that examines the anthropometric characteristics of elite volleyball players. Volleyball players in the top eight teams of the 2008 Chinese Women’s Volleyball Tournament and the National Women’s Volleyball team will be invited to participate in the study. The research will be conducted by researchers from Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Southern Cross University, Australia. If you have met these criteria and are interested in participating in this project, or want to know more about it before making the decision, you are welcome to discuss with us. What is the research about This study will be the first one in China to systematically analyse the anthropometric

199

characteristics, and their relationship with physical performance for elite female volleyball players. The outcomes of the study will contribute to validation of key anthropometric indicators that are meaningful in selection of talented athletes, and physical characteristics required for different positions in a volleyball team. Aims of the research The aims of this study are: to examine the somatotypes and proportions of body parts and their correlations to four selected physical performance indicators of the athletes, and to determine the somatotypes and proportions of body parts and their correlations to selected physical performance indicators, particularly the jumping ability.

What will be involved This study will measure 29 anthropometry variables and 4 physical performance, including: Base index (4): stature, sitting height, body mass, standing reach height Skinfold (4): triceps, subscapular, supraspinale, medial calf Girth(9): arm(relaxed, flexed and tensed), forearm, wrist, waist, gluteal, thigh, mid-thigh, calf, ankle Length (6): arm, forearm, thigh, calf, hand, Achilles' tendon Breadth (6): biacromial, biiliocristal, transverse chest, humerus, femur, palm Physical performance: Medicine ball throwing, running-assisted jump, “T-shape” route fast movement and the time for 20 sit-ups. The researcher will need to know the current health status of potential participants. The testing procedure would require approximately 60 minutes of time to complete. Possible Discomforts and Risks Potential risks of anthropometric measurements are very low in this study. Proper clothing, preferable two-piece swimwear, should be worn in anthropometry measurements. Proper warm-up exercise should be done before the performance tests, that may minimize the risk of injury. Responsibilities of the Researcher The researcher will provide all necessary information to participants. In respect of privacy, any sensitive personal information that is obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with their permission. The original data collected will have to be retained for at least seven years by the researcher as required by the University. In the matter of dressing in anthropometry measurements, researcher should always be sensitive to the cultural beliefs and traditions of the participants. Responsibilities of the participants

200

It is important that the participants disclose all current health conditions and discuss with the researcher if there is any concern. For measurements to be made as quickly and efficiently as possible, the participants should be asked to present themselves in minimal clothing. Swimming costumes (two-pieces for females) are ideal for ease of access to all measurement sites. Freedom of Consent Your participation in this research is totally voluntary. It is your decision on participation. If you decide to participate, you are free to withdraw your consent and to discontinue participation at any time. Your withdrawal from the project will not result in any penalty. However, we would appreciate you letting us know your decision. Inquiries If you have any questions, we expect you to ask us. If you have any additional questions at any time please talk to the researchers, Associate Profess Shi Zhou, Associate Professor Qin Zhang and Ms. Yuyi Zhang who will be happy to answer any queries you may have.

Associate Professor Qin Zhang Normal College, Room No. 424 Building Shenzhen University Nanshan District Postcode 518060 Work phone number: +86 (075) 5265 58497 Email: [email protected] Email for Prof Shi Zhou: [email protected] Email for Yuyi Zhang: [email protected]

The ethical aspects of this study have been approved by the Southern Cross University Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC). The Approval Number will be confirmed. If you have any complaints or reservations about any ethical aspect of your participation in this research, you may contact the Committee through the Ethics Complaints Officer: Ms Sue Kelly Ethics Complaints Officer and Secretary HREC Southern Cross University PO Box 157 Lismore, NSW, 2480 Telephone (02) 6626-9139 or fax (02) 6626-9145 Email: [email protected]

201

All complaints, in the first instance, should be in writing to the above address. All complaints are investigated fully and according to due process under National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans and this University. Any complaint you make will be treated in confidence and investigated, and you will be informed of the outcome.

202

Appendix 3: Information sheet (Chinese)

招募信息表

项目名称: 中国高水平女排运动员身体形态与身体素质相关性的研究

邀请你参加一项身体形态测量的研究。该研究需要一批身体健康的志愿者：中国排球

联赛前 8 名的女排运动员 (18-28 岁)。本研究由澳大利亚南十字星大学运动科学与运动管理

系（里斯莫尔校区）承担。如果你符合标准并有意参加本研究项目，或者在做出决定前想

了解更多的信息，请与我们联系。

关于研究项目

本研究的目的是通过身体形态和身体素质测量，了解中国高水平女排运动员身体形态和

身体素质方面的相关性以及不同位置女排运动员之间身体形态和身体素质方面的差异。为女

排运动员的选材提供相应的依据。身体形态指标是少年女排运动员选材的重要的指标，然而，

这方面的研究十分薄弱。本研究将测量 29 个部位，包括：体重、身高、坐高、指高、肱三头

肌皮褶、肩胛下皮褶、髂前上棘上皮褶、小腿内侧皮褶、上臂围 (放松)、上臂围(屈肘用力)、

前臂围、

手腕围、腰围、臀围、大腿围、小腿围、踝围、上臂长、前臂长、大腿长、小腿长、

掌长、跟腱长、肩宽、盆骨宽、胸宽、肱骨宽、股骨宽和手掌宽等。四项身体素质测试：实

心球投掷、助跑双脚起跳摸高、T 字形计时移动和仰卧起坐计时等。

关于测量过程

本项目研究人员将了解欲参加者的身体健康状况并且向参加者详细介绍测量过程及细

节。每一个人的测量过程约用时 30 分钟左右，在身体形态测量过程中，参加者可能被要求变

换身体姿势。在身体素质测量过程中，参加者根据研究人员的安排分别进行测试。可能存在的不舒适及风险

203

本研究主要是身体形态和身体素质测量，风险很少。研究者的责任

研究者必须向参加者详细介绍所有信息，尊重参加者的个人隐私，对所获得的参加者的

个人资料保密（除非本人同意）。本研究所收集的原始数据将在南十字星大学保存 7 年。然后，

个人数据将被销毁，以保护参加者的个人隐私。

参加者的责任

参加者向研究人员介绍自己的身体健康状况并与研究人员共同讨论注意事项是很重要的。

为了使测量快速有效的进行，为了方便测量人员测量各个部位，测量过程中，要求参加者着

装尽可能少，穿两件式游泳衣最为理想。身体素质测试程中，参加者应尽全力完成动作。

自愿参加协议

你参加本研究项目是完全自愿的，是你自己的决定。你有权随时退出本项目，并不会受

到任何处罚。我们希望知道你的决定。

咨询

如果你有任何问题，请向我们咨询。如果你还有额外的问题，研究人员周石教授、张雨

沂很乐意回答你的任何问题。

周石教授、张雨沂小姐

南十字星大学运动科学与运动管理系

邮编：157, 里斯莫尔，新南威尔士州 2480

办公电话 r: (02) 66203991 (周石教授), 0061-13828880906 张雨沂小姐)

邮件: [email protected], [email protected]

此项研究已经南十字星大学人类研究道德伦理委员会(HREC)批准,编号待批。如对该项研究在

道德伦理方面有任何意见，参加者可与伦理道德委员会负责人联系：

Sue Kelly 女士

道德伦理委员投诉办公室秘书

南十字星大学

邮局：157

里斯莫尔, 新南威尔士州，邮政编码：2480

电话：(02) 6626-9139 or fax 或 (02) 6626-9145

204

电子邮件：: [email protected]

所有的投诉应以书面的方式寄往以上的地址。所有的投诉将会被彻底调查。你提出的任

何投诉将会被处理并会告知投诉人处理结果。

205

Appendix 4: Informed consent form

Informed Consent to Participation Name of Project: An Investigation on the Anthropometry Profile and Its Relationship with Physical Capacity of Elite Chinese Woman Volleyball Players Researcher Yuyi Zhang Department of Exercise and Sports Management Southern Cross University Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia Email: [email protected] Telephone: Supervisors Associate Professor Shi Zhou Department of Exercise and Sports Management, Southern Cross University Associate Professor Qin Zhang Department of Physical Education, Shenzhen University I have been provided with information at my level of comprehension about the purpose, methods, demands, risks, inconveniences, discomforts, and possible outcomes of this research (including any likelihood and form of publication of results). I agree to participate in the above project. I have read and understand the details contained in the Information Sheet. I have had the opportunity to ask questions about the study and I am satisfied with the answers received. I understand that any personal information which may identify me will be de-identified at the time of analysis of any data. Therefore, I, or information I have provided, cannot be linked to my person.

206

I understand that neither my name nor any identifying information will be disclosed or published, except with my permission. I understand that all information gathered in this research is confidential. It is kept securely and confidentially for 7 years, at the University. I understand that I am free to discontinue participation at any time. I have been informed that prior to data analysis, any data that has been gathered before withdrawal of this consent will be destroyed. I am aware that I can contact the Supervisor or other researchers at any time with further inquiries, if necessary. The ethical aspects of this study have been approved by the Southern Cross University Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC). The Approval Number is (ECN-08-142) If you have any complaints or reservations about any ethical aspect of your participation in this research, you may contact the Committee through the Ethics Complaints Officer Ms Sue Kelly Ethics Complaints Officer and Secretary HREC Southern Cross University PO Box Lismore 2480 Telephone (02) 6626-9139 or fax (02) 6626-9145 Email: [email protected]

All complaints, in the first instance, should be in writing to the above address. All complaints are investigated fully and according to due process under the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans and this University. Any complaint you make will be treated in confidence and you will be informed of the outcome. I understand that I will be given a copy of this consent form for my records. The researcher will also keep a copy. I have read the information above and agree to participate in this study. I am over the age of 18 years. Name of Participant:

207

Signature of Participant: Date: I certify that the terms of the Consent Form have been verbally explained to the participant and that the participant appears to understand the terms prior to signing the form. Name & Contact Detail of Witness: Signature of Witness: Date: NOTE： The witness should be independent of the research, where possible. If this is not possible at the place of consent, please inform the researcher and state a reason below. Reason： Name and signature of the researcher (contact details are at the top of this document): Date:

208

Appendix 4: Informed consent form (Chinese)

知情同意书

项目名称：中国高水平女排运动员身体形态和身体素质的研究

研究人：张雨沂 (澳大利亚南十字星大学，硕士研究生)

指导教师: 周石教授 (南十字星大学), 张勤教授 (深圳大学)

在我的理解范围内，我对于这项研究的目的, 方法.要求,风险,麻烦,不便之处

和可能的研究结果(包括研究结果以任何可能的形式发表与出版) 已经知晓。

我同意参加上述的项目。我已阅读并了解了测试过程介绍的细节。我也有机

会询问有关问题并对所得到的答案感到满意。

我知晓我的一些个人信息将会在数据分析中被使用，但是除非经得我的许可，

我的名字和我身份信息不得被披露或被发表。

我了解本研究所收集的数据将在南十字星大学保存 5 年。

我参加此项研究纯属自愿。我知道我可以按自己的意愿随时停止参与该项研

究。如在数据分析前我停止参与该项研究，这份知情同意书将会被撤回并销毁。

我知道，如果有必要，我可以随时与科研人员或其指导教师联系，咨询与实

验有关的问题。

此项研究已经南十字星大学人类研究道德伦理委员会批准。批准编号是(ECN

08-142)。

如对该项研究在道德伦理方面有任何意见，参加者可与伦理道德委员会负责

人联系：

209

Sue Kelly 女士

道德伦理委员投诉办公室秘书

南十字星大学

邮箱：157

新南威尔士州，里斯莫尔市，澳大利亚，邮政编码：2480

电话：+612 66260-9139 或者传真：+612 6626-9145

电子邮件：[email protected]

所有的投诉应以书面的方式寄往以上的地址。所有的投诉将会被彻底调查。

所有你提出的任何投诉将会被处理并会告知投诉人处理结果。

我了解我将会保留一份知情同意书的副本。研究人员也将会保留一份副本。

我已阅读过上述的信息并同意参加这项研究。我年龄已满 18 岁以上。（未满 18

岁者应由其父母或监护人签名）

参加人的姓名：

参加人的签名：

日期：

证人的详细联系方式：

证人的签名：

日期：

注意：

如有可能，证人应该在这项研究里保持中立。如果这不可能，请告知研究人

员并写明理由。理由：

我保证知情同意书的有关条款在这份表格签字以前就已经向参加人员解释。

研究人员的姓名及签字（详细联系方式在这份文件的上部）：日期：

210

Appendix 5: Expert Questionnaires

Results Statistics of the Expert Questionnaires

Question Yes Not

always

No

Do you think “Medicine ball throwing，T-shuttle run agility test，Timed 20 sit-ups ，Running vertical jump test” can together reflect elite volleyball players’ basic physical performance?

《中国优秀女排运动员身体素质训练测量指标》专家问卷

问题内容同意不一定不同意

你认为“助跑摸高、T 字形移动计时、实心球投掷、

仰卧起坐计时”4 项指标是否可以代表高水平女排运

动员身体素质测量指标？

211

Appendix 6: Tables for results

Table 4-1 Anthropometric variables for elite Chinese women volleyball players


Stature (cm) ( )

100 156.0 198.0 183.6 0.58 5.77 3.14%

Body mass (kg) 100 51.6 103.9 70.5 0.76 7.60 10.79%

Sitting height (cm) 100 84.2 107.0 95.7 0.35 3.53 3.69%

Standing reach height (cm) 100 207.6 256.5 236.7 0.78 7.81 3.30%

Acromiale-radiale length (cm) 100 20.0 29.9 25.7 0.14 1.44 5.59%

Radiale-stylion length (cm) 100 24.6 39.5 34.1 0.20 2.04 5.98%

Acromiale-dactylion length (cm) 100 66.4 90.1 79.8 0.36 3.63 4.55%

Midstylion-dactylion length (cm) 100 16.5 22.2 19.9 0.09 0.94 4.72%

Iliospinale height (cm) 100 86.3 115.5 103.9 0.47 4.74 4.56%

Tibiale-laterale length (cm) 100 39.9 52.6 47.8 0.23 2.26 4.73%

Achilles’ tendon length (cm) 100 21.3 38.6 27.9 0.29 2.86 10.24%

Biacromial breadth (cm) 100 28.5 43.5 38.7 0.19 1.92 4.96%

Biilocristal breadth (cm) 100 25.2 33.7 29.8 0.16 1.60 5.38%%

Transverse chest breadth (cm) 100 24.8 32.4 27.9 0.14 1.43 5.12%

Biepicondylar humerus breadth ( )

100 5.5 7.5 6.5 0.03 0.33 5.06%

Biepicondylar femur breadth ( )

100 8.6 11.1 9.8 0.05 0.47 4.78%

Hand breadth (cm) 100 6.8 8.7 7.9 0.04 0.36 4.59%

Arm flexed and tensed girth (cm) 100 23.5 35.0 28.7 0.20 1.96 6.82%

Arm relaxed girth (cm) 100 22.2 34.7 27.1 0.20 1.95 7.21%

Corrected Arm relaxed girth(cm) 21.4 32.1 25.6 0.16 1.55 4.45%

Arm flexed and tensed girth minus arm relaxed girth

100

0.3

4.2

1.7

0.07 0.72

43.37%

Forearm girth (cm) 100 21.1 33.1 24.6 0.15 1.51 6.13%

Wrist girth (cm) 100 13.2 18.0 15.7 0.08 0.80 5.10%

Waist girth (cm) 100 61.1 99.5 72.2 0.58 5.76 7.98%

212

Gluteal girth (cm) 100 87.0 115.3 97.3 0.50 4.95 5.09%

Mid-thigh girth (cm) 100 45.9 64.1 53.1 0.35 3.45 6.50%

Calf girth (cm) 100 30.9 44.6 36.7 0.23 2.28 6.21%

Corrected Calf girth (cm) 30.5 42.4 35.7 0.20 1.94 2.98%

Ankle girth (cm) 100 18.5 33.0 21.5 0.17 1.73 0.08%

Triceps skinfold (mm) 100 7.6 26.0 14.6 0.40 3.99 27.57%

Subscapular skinfold (mm) 100 6.4 26.0 12.5 0.37 3.70 29.58%

Supraspinale skinfold (mm) 100 5.4 27.4 11.8 0.43 4.29 36.45%

Medial calf skinfold (mm) 100 4.4 22.0 10.4 0.34 3.37 32.34%

213

Table 4-5 Correlations between anthropometric profile and medicine ball

throwing

Items N Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

Body mass (kg) 87 0.14 0.199

Stature (cm) 87 0.19 0.078

Sitting height (cm) 87 0.19 0.077

Standing reach height (cm) 87 0.21 0.048 *

Radiale-stylion length (cm) 87 0.23 0.033 *

Acromiale-radiale length (cm) 87 0.01 0.912

Acromiale-dactylion length (cm) 87 0.18 0.103

Midstylion-dactylion length (cm) 87 0.35 0.001 **

Iliospinale height (cm) 87 0.18 0.090

Tibiale-laterale length (cm) 87 0.19 0.086

Achilles’ tendon length (cm) 87 0.18 0.096

Biacromial breadth (cm) 87 0.17 0.125

Biilocristal breadth (cm) 87 0.11 0.318

Transverse chest breadth (cm) 87 0.21 0.047 *

Biepicondylar humerus breadth (cm)

87 0.11 0.303

Biepicondylar femur breadth (cm) 87 0.09 0.428

Hand breadth (cm) 87 0.12 0.288

Arm relaxed girth (cm) 87 0.22 0.038 *

Arm flexed and tensed girth (cm) 87 0.32 0.002 **


87 0.23 0.031 *

Forearm girth (cm) 87 -0.03 0.780

Wrist Girth (cm) 87 0.05 0.656

Waist Girth (cm) 87 0.19 0.083

214

Gluteal girth (cm) 87 0.24 0.025 *

Thigh girth (cm) 87 0.26 0.014 *

Calf girth (cm) 87 0.22 0.045 *

Ankle girth (cm) 87 -0.03 0.767

* P<0.05 level ** P<0.01 level

215

Table 4-6 Correlations between anthropometric profile and T-shuttle run agility

test

Items N Pearson

Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

Body mass (kg) 87 0.05 0.669

Stature (cm) 87 0.15 0.158


Standing reach height (cm) 87 0.20 0.066

Radiale-stylion length (cm) 87 -0.060 0.581

Acromiale-radiale length (cm) 87 0.081 0.453


Midstylion-dactylion length (cm) 87 -0.007 0.948





Biilocristal breadth (cm) 87 -0.04 0.688

Transverse chest breadth (cm) 87 -0.02 0.864

Biepicondylar humerus breadth (cm) 87 0.16 0.139



Arm relaxed girth (cm) 87 0.00 0.962

Arm flexed and tensed girth (cm) 87 0.04 0.704

Arm flexed and tensed girth minus

arm relaxed girth

87 0.10 0.358

Forearm girth (cm) 87 0.08 0.441

Wrist Girth (cm) 87 0.06 0.571

216

Waist Girth (cm) 87 0.04 0.743

Gluteal girth (cm) 87 -0.05 0.646

Thigh girth (cm) 87 0.06 0.584

Calf girth (cm) 87 0.06 0.553

Ankle girth (cm) 87 0.06 0.550

217

Table 4-7 Correlations between anthropometric profile and timed 20 sit-ups


Sig. (2-tailed)

Body mass (kg) 87 -0.100 0.352

Stature (cm) 87 0.000 0.970


Standing reach height (cm) 87 -0.050 0.618


Acromiale-radiale length (cm) 87 0.230 0.035 *






Biacromial breadth (cm) 87 -0.040 0.694

Biilocristal breadth (cm) 87 -0.130 0.221

Transverse chest breadth (cm) 87 -0.030 0.770

Biepicondylar humerus breadth (cm) 87 -0.080 0.438

Biepicondylar femur breadth (cm) 87 -0.091 0.403


Arm relaxed girth (cm) 87 -0.121 0.260

Arm flexed and tensed girth (cm) 87 -0.152 0.173


87 -0.070 0.537


Wrist girth (cm) 87 -0.050 0.636

Waist girth (cm) 87 -0.050 0.619

Gluteal girth (cm) 87 -0.240 0.026 *

Thigh girth (cm) 87 -0.110 0.327

Calf girth (cm) 87 -0.140 0.194

Ankle girth (cm) 87 0.080 0.441

* P<0.05 level

218

Table 4-8 Correlations between anthropometric profile and running vertical jump


Sig. (2-tailed)

Body mass (kg) 87 -0.02 0.872

Stature (cm) 87 0.10 0.335


Standing reach height (cm) 87 -0.17 0.119


Acromiale-radiale length (cm) 87 -0.16 0.147

Acromiale-dactylion length (cm) 87 -0.10 0.379


Iliospinale heigh (cm)t 87 -0.03 0.785

Tibiale-laterale length (cm) 87 -0.09 0.390



Biilocristal breadth (cm) 87 0.07 0.518

Transverse chest breadth (cm) 87 0.02 0.844

Biepicondylar humerus breadth (cm) 87 -0.01 0.919


Hand breadth (cm) 87 -0.03 0.781

219

Arm relaxed girth (cm) 87 -0.08 0.457

Arm flexed and tensed girth (cm) 87 0.03 0.807


87 0.22 0.038 *


Wrist Girth (cm) 87 -0.08 0.463

Waist Girth (cm) 87 -0.08 0.444

Gluteal girth (cm) 87 -0.05 0.633

Thigh girth (cm) 87 0.05 0.653

Calf girth (cm) 87 -0.12 0.259

Ankle girth (cm) 87 -0.04 0.722

* P<0.05 level

220

Table 4-9 Correlations coefficients between the derived anthropometric indices

and medicine ball throwing

Items N Pearson

Correlation

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Sitting height index 87 0.07 0.13

Standing reach height index 87 0.13 0.228

Forearm length index 87 -0.08 0.455

Forearm/upper limb length index 87 -0.22 0.040 *

Upper limb length index 87 0.11 0.305

Calf length index 87 0.13 0.242

Lower limb length index 87 0.16 0.131

Achilles’ tendon/calf length index 87 0.31 0.004

**

Biacromial breadth index 87 0.09 0.433

Biiliocristal breadth index 87 0.03 0.807

Biilocristal/biacromial breadth index 87 -0.04 0.700

Transverse chest index 87 0.12 0.283

Hand breadth index 87 0.02 0.852

Waist girth index 87 0.12 0.278

Arm flexed and tensed girth index 87 0.25 0.020 *

Arm relaxed girth index 87 0.13 0.215

Thigh girth index 87 0.17 0.109

Calf girth index 87 0.13 0.219

Ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon length

index

87 -0.33 0.002

**

Katoly index 87 0.17 0.119


221

Table 4-10 Correlations between the derived anthropometric indices and T-shuttle

run agility test

Items N Pearson

Correlation

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Sitting height index 87 -0.05 0.642

Standing reach height index 87 0.08 0.478

Forearm length index 87 -0.01 0.902

Forearm/upper limb length index 87 0.08 0.469

Upper limb length index 87 -0.10 0.363



Achilles’ tendon/calf length index 87 -0.10 0.335

Biacromial breadth index 87 -0.08 0.465

Biiliocristal breadth index 87 -0.15 0.172


Transverse chest index 87 -0.13 0.223


Waist girth index 87 -0.04 0.684

Arm flexed and tensed girth index 87 -0.04 0.732

Arm relaxed girth index 87 -0.08 0.452

Thigh girth index 87 -0.02 0.837

Calf girth index 87 -0.02 0.843


index

87 0.03 0.805

Katoly index 87 0.00 0.977

222

Table 4-11 Correlations between the derived anthropometric indices and timed 20

sit-ups

Items N Pearson

Correlation

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Sitting height index 87 0.15 0.158

Standing reach height index 87 -0.12 0.286

Forearm length index 87 0.27 0.011 *

Forearm/upper limb length index 87 0.29 0.007 **

Upper limb length index 87 0.09 0.395



Achilles’ tendon/calf length index 87 -0.23 0.031 *

Biacromial breadth index 87 -0.05 0.620

Biiliocristal breadth index 87 -0.14 0.185







Thigh girth index 87 -0.10 0.340



index

87 0.19 0.085

Katoly index 87 -0.11 0.307


223

Table 4-12 Correlations between derived anthropometric indices and running

vertical jump

Items N Pearson

Correlation

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Sitting height index 87 -0.02 -0.510

Standing reach height index 87 0.858 0.000 **

Forearm length index 87 -0.27 0.012 *

Forearm/upper limb length index 87 -0.15 0.169

Upper limb length index 87 -0.24 0.028 *

Calf length index 87 -0.24 0.028 *

Lower limb length index 87 -0.11 0.300

Achilles’ tendon/calf length index 87 -0.14 0.181

Biacromial breadth index 87 0.01 0.928

Biiliocristal breadth index 87 0.01 0.939

Biilocristal/biacromial breadth index 87 0.00 0.950


Hand breadth index 87 -0.10 0.363




Thigh girth index 87 0.00 0.955


Ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon length index 87 0.11 0.330

Katoly index 87 -0.05 0.659


224

Table 4-16 One-way ANOVA for anthropometric indices of players at different

positions

Items Chief spikers

Second spikers


Liberos F P

Stature (cm) 75.60 70.27 68.53 68.19 66.16 5.91 0.000**Body mass (kg) 185.09 188.04 181.26 184.09 175.09 25.99 0.000**Sitting height (cm) 96.00 97.51 95.11 95.22 93.08 4.51 0.002 *Standing reach height (cm) 239.76 241.10 235.67 236.82 224.50 23.18 0.000**

Acromiale-radiale length (cm) 34.52 34.99 33.90 33.98 32.45 4.52 0.002 *

Radiale-stylion length (cm) 26.09 26.15 25.66 25.84 24.35 5.20 0.001**

Acromiale-dactylion length (cm) 48.35 48.96 47.57 47.76 44.97 11.38 0.000**

Midstylion-dactylion length (cm) 20.30 20.24 19.75 19.90 18.92 7.90 0.000**

Iliospinale height (cm) 104.91 107.20 102.51 105.10 96.79 23.71 0.000**

Tibiale-laterale length (cm) 48.35 48.96 47.57 47.76 44.97 11.38 0.000**

Achilles’ tendon length (cm) 28.13 29.32 28.15 27.29 25.83 4.29 0.003 *

Biacromial breadth (cm) 39.86 38.76 38.63 38.54 36.76 8.12 0.000**

Biilocristal breadth (cm) 30.77 29.54 29.19 29.74 28.86 5.18 0.001**

Transverse chest breadth (cm) 28.88 27.80 27.43 27.72 27.26 5.12 0.001**

Biepicondylar humerus breadth (cm)

6.66 6.52 6.45 6.55 6.26 4.19 0.004 *

Biepicondylar femur breadth (cm) 10.10 9.74 9.81 9.77 9.59 3.86 0.006 *

Hand breadth (cm) 7.97 7.88 7.78 7.82 7.69 1.69 0.160 Arm relaxed girth (cm) 29.87 28.24 28.11 28.23 28.46 3.70 0.008 *

Arm flexed and tensed girth (cm) 28.13 26.63 26.78 26.33 27.16 3.30 0.014 *

Arm flexed and tensed girth minus 1.74 1.61 1.33 1.89 1.63 1.42 0.232

225

arm relaxed girth Forearm girth (cm) 25.21 24.31 24.49 24.67 24.14 1.75 0.145 Wrist girth (cm) 16.10 15.68 15.55 15.63 15.25 3.31 0.014 * Waist girth (cm) 76.19 70.66 70.75 70.58 70.84 5.26 0.001 Gluteal girth (cm) 100.49 96.42 96.79 95.95 95.16 4.68 0.002 * Thigh girth (cm) 54.55 52.41 52.74 52.31 52.87 1.80 0.136 Calf girth (cm) 38.02 36.38 36.40 35.89 36.36 3.41 0.012 * Ankle girth (cm) 22.59 21.21 21.27 21.04 20.85 4.23 0.003 *


226

Table 4-17 One-way ANOVA for evaluation indices of players at different

positions

Items Chief spikers

Second spikers


Liberos F P

Sitting height index 51.87 51.87 52.47 51.73 53.18 2.39 0.006

Standing reach height

index

129.54 128.23 130.03 128.65 128.26

2.62 0.004

Forearm length index 14.10 13.91 14.16 14.04 13.90 0.58 0.068

Forearm/upper limb

length index 32.27 32.12 32.35 32.41 32.14 0.27 0.896

Upper limb length

index 43.72 43.28 43.76 43.31 43.23 3.28 0.008

Calf length index 26.12 26.04 26.24 25.94 25.68 1.00 0.411

Lower limb length

index 56.68 57.01 56.55 57.09 55.28 5.36 0.001**

Achilles’ tendon/calf

length index 58.23 59.89 59.14 57.14 57.50 0.93 0.451

Biacromial breadth

index 21.54 20.62 21.31 20.94 21.01 3.65 0.001**


index 16.63 15.72 16.11 16.16 16.48 5.21 0.000**

Biilocristal/biacromial

breadth index 77.21 76.33 75.64 77.19 78.87 1.21 0.031 *

Transverse chest

index 15.61 14.79 15.13 15.06 15.57 5.70 0.000**

Hand breadth index 4.31 4.19 4.29 4.25 4.40 2.64 0.004

Waist girth index 41.17 37.57 39.03 38.34 40.47 6.75 0.000**

Arm flexed and 16.16 15.02 15.50 15.34 16.25 6.11 0.000**

227

tensed girth index

Arm relaxed girth

index 15.20 14.17 14.77 14.31 15.52 6.59 0.000**

Thigh girth index 29.47 27.87 29.09 28.43 30.20 5.05 0.000**

Calf girth index 20.54 19.35 20.08 19.51 20.77 5.97 0.000**

Ankle girth/Achilles’

tendon length index 80.68 72.88 76.51 78.29 81.40 2.99 0.004 *

Katoly index 408.30 373.58 377.98 370.48 376.92 4.90 0.000**


**. P<0.001 level (2-tailed)

228

Table 4-20 Multiple comparison for basic anthropometric difference among the


Items Stature (cm) Body mass (kg)

Sitting height (cm)

Standing reach height (cm)

Chief spikers 185.09 75.60 96.00 239.76

Second spikers

188.04 70.27 97.51 241.10

Mean difference -2.95 5.33 -1.51 -1.34

P 0.004 * 0.012 * 0.119 0.359

Chief spikers 185.09 75.60 96.00 239.76 Setters 181.26 68.53 95.11 235.67

Mean difference 3.83 7.07 0.89 4.09

P 0.000** 0.003 * 0.392 0.008 *

Chief spikers 185.09 75.60 96.00 239.76

Second setters 184.09 68.19 95.22 236.82

Mean difference 1 7.41 0.78 2.94

P 0.330 0.002 * 0.449 0.051

Chief spikers 185.09 75.60 96.00 239.76

Liberos 175.09 66.16 93.08 224.50


P 0.000** 0.001** 0.028 * 0.000**

Second spikers

188.04 70.27 97.51 241.10

Setters 181.26 68.53 95.11 235.67


P 0.000** 0.375 0.010 * 0.004 *

Second spikers

188.04 70.27 97.51 241.10

229

Second setters 184.09 68.19 95.22 236.82


P 0.002 * 0.311 0.016 * 0.017 *

Second spikers

188.04 70.27 97.51 241.10

Liberos 175.09 66.16 93.08 224.50

Mean difference 12.95 4.11 4.43 16.6

P 0.000** 0.092 0.001** 0.000**

Setters 181.26 68.53 95.11 235.67

Second setters 184.09 68.19 95.22 236.82

Mean difference -2.83 0.34 -0.11 -1.15

P 0.011 * 0.861 0.902 0.502

Setters 181.26 68.53 95.11 235.67

Liberos 175.09 66.16 93.08 224.50

Mean difference 6.17 2.37 2.03 11.17

P 0.003 * 0.329 * 0.110 0.000**

Second setters 184.09 68.19 95.22 236.82

Liberos 175.09 66.16 93.08 224.50


P 0.000** 0.427 0.099 0.000**


230

Table 4-21 Multiple comparison for length indices among the players at different

positional groups

Items Radiale -stylion length

Acromiale -radiale length

Acromiale-dactylion

length

Midstylion-dactylion

length Iliospinale

height

Tibiale -laterale length

Achilles’ tendon length

Chief spikers 26.09 34.52 48.35 20.30 104.91 48.35 28.13

Second spikers 26.15 34.99 48.96 20.24 107.20 48.96 29.32

Mean difference -0.06 -0.47 -0.61 0.06 -2.29 -0.61 -1.19

P 0.878 0.430 0.180 0.795 0.011 * 0.180 0.073

Chief spikers 26.09 34.52 48.35 20.30 104.91 48.35 28.13

Setters 25.66 33.90 47.57 19.75 102.51 47.57 28.15

Mean difference 0.43 0.62 0.78 0.55 2.4 0.78 -0.02

P 0.207 0.369 0.135 0.038 * 0.006 * 0.135 0.981

Chief spikers 26.09 34.52 48.35 20.30 104.91 48.35 28.13

Second setters 25.84 33.98 47.76 19.90 105.10 47.76 27.29

Mean difference 0.25 0.54 0.59 0.4 -0.19 0.59 0.84

P 0.507 0.435 0.295 0.091 0.833 0.295 0.297

Chief spikers 26.09 34.52 48.35 20.30 104.91 48.35 28.13

Liberos 24.35 32.45 44.97 18.92 96.79 44.97 25.83

Mean difference 1.74 2.07 3.38 1.38 8.12 3.38 2.3

P 0.000** 0.010** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.003 *

Second spikers 26.15 34.99 48.96 20.24 107.20 48.96 29.32

Setters 25.66 33.90 47.57 19.75 102.51 47.57 28.15

Mean difference 0.49 1.09 1.39 0.49 4.69 1.39 1.17

P 0.246 0.022 * 0.011 * 0.082 0.000** 0.011 * 0.222

231

Second spikers 26.15 34.99 48.96 20.24 107.20 48.96 29.32

Second setters 25.84 33.98 47.76 19.90 105.10 47.76 27.29

Mean difference 0.31 1.01 1.2 0.34 2.1 1.2 2.03

P 0.489 0.053 0.042 * 0.174 0.050 * 0.042 * 0.025 *

Second spikers 26.15 34.99 48.96 20.24 107.20 48.96 29.32

Liberos 24.35 32.45 44.97 18.92 96.79 44.97 25.83 Mean

difference 1.8 2.54 3.99 1.32 10.41 3.99 3.49

P 0.001** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** Setters 25.66 33.90 47.57 19.75 102.51 47.57 28.15

Second setters 25.84 33.98 47.76 19.90 105.10 47.76 27.29

Mean difference -0.18 -0.08 -0.19 -0.15 -2.59 -0.19 0.86

P 0.653 0.867 0.779 0.620 0.012 * 0.779 0.462

Setters 25.66 33.90 47.57 19.75 102.51 47.57 28.15

Liberos 24.35 32.45 44.97 18.92 96.79 44.97 25.83

Mean difference 1.31 1.45 2.6 0.83 5.72 2.6 2.32

P 0.015 * 0.020 * 0.003 * 0.024 * 0.001** 0.003 * 0.039 *

Second setters 25.84 33.98 47.76 19.90 105.10 47.76 27.29

Liberos 24.35 32.45 44.97 18.92 96.79 44.97 25.83

Mean difference 1.49 1.53 2.79 0.98 8.31 2.79 1.46

P 0.010 * 0.025 * 0.002 * 0.004 * 0.000** 0.003 * 0.146


232

Table 4-22 Multiple comparison for breadth indices among the players at


Items Biacromial

breadth Biilocristal

breadth

Transverse chest

breadth

Biepicondylar humerus breadth


Chief spikers 39.86 30.77 28.88 6.66 10.10

Second spikers 38.76 29.54 27.80 6.52 9.74

Mean difference 1.1 1.23 1.08 0.14 0.36

P 0.012 * 0.001 0.006 * 0.130 0.006 *

Chief spikers 39.86 30.77 28.88 6.66 10.10

Setters 38.63 29.19 27.43 6.45 9.81 Mean

difference 1.23 1.58 1.45 0.21 0.29

P 0.011 * 0.001 0.002 * 0.064 0.036 * Chief

spikers 39.86 30.77 28.88 6.66 10.10

Second setters 38.54 29.74 27.72 6.55 9.77

Mean difference 1.32 1.03 1.16 0.11 0.33

P 0.003 * 0.034 * 0.009 * 0.294 0.041 *

Chief spikers 39.86 30.77 28.88 6.66 10.10

Liberos 36.76 28.86 27.26 6.26 9.59

Mean difference 3.1 1.91 1.62 0.4 0.51

P 0.000** 0.001** 0.001** 0.001** 0.001**

Second spikers 38.76 29.54 27.80 6.52 9.74

Setters 38.63 29.19 27.43 6.45 9.81

Mean difference 0.13 0.35 0.37 0.07 -0.07

P 0.794 0.331 0.381 0.389 0.577

Second spikers 38.76 29.54 27.80 6.52 9.74

233

Second setters 38.54 29.74 27.72 6.55 9.77

Mean difference 0.22 -0.2 0.08 -0.03 -0.03

P 0.616 0.635 0.845 0.761 0.812

Second spikers 38.76 29.54 27.80 6.52 9.74

Liberos 36.76 28.86 27.26 6.26 9.59

Mean difference 2 0.68 0.54 0.26 0.15

P 0.006 * 0.175 0.199 0.006 * 0.006 *

Setters 38.63 29.19 27.43 6.45 9.81

Second setters 38.54 29.74 27.72 6.55 9.77

Mean difference 0.09 -0.55 -0.29 -0.1 0.04

P 0.832 0.286 0.534 0.330 0.833

Setters 38.63 29.19 27.43 6.45 9.81

Liberos 36.76 28.86 27.26 6.26 9.59

Mean difference 1.87 0.33 0.17 0.19 0.22

P 0.026 * 0.593 0.699 0.104 0.104

Second setters 38.54 29.74 27.72 6.55 9.77

Liberos 36.76 28.86 27.26 6.26 9.59

Mean difference 1.78 0.88 0.46 0.29 0.18

P 0.020 * 0.184 0.320 0.011 * 0.310


234


different positional groups (A)

Items Arm flexed and tensed

girth

Arm relaxed girth

Arm flexed and tensed girth minus arm relaxed

girth

Forearm girth Wrist Girth

Chief spikers 29.91 28.13 1.74 25.21 16.10

Second spikers 28.24 26.63 1.61 24.31 15.68

Mean difference 1.67 1.5 0.13 0.9 0.42

P 值 0.006* 0.011* 0.555 0.012* 0.062

Chief spikers 29.91 28.13 1.74 25.21 16.10

Setters 28.11 26.78 1.33 24.49 15.55

Mean difference 1.8 1.35 0.41 0.72 0.55

P 0.003* 0.019* 0.129 0.052 0.029*

Chief spikers 29.91 28.13 1.74 25.21 16.10

Second setters 28.23 26.33 1.89 24.67 15.63

Mean difference 1.68 1.8 -0.15 0.54 0.47

P 0.009* 0.004* 0.563 0.338 0.042*

Chief spikers 29.91 28.13 1.74 25.21 16.10

Liberos 28.46 27.16 1.63 24.14 15.25

Mean difference 1.68 0.97 0.11 1.07 0.85

P 0.048* 0.086 0.678 0.010* 0.002*

Second spikers 28.24 26.63 1.61 24.31 15.68

Setters 28.11 26.78 1.33 24.49 15.55

Mean difference 0.13 -0.15 0.28 -0.18 0.13

P 0.816 0.796 0.15 0.620 0.617

235

Second spikers 28.24 26.63 1.61 24.31 15.68

Second setters 28.23 26.33 1.89 24.67 15.63

Mean difference 0.01 0.3 -0.28 -0.36 0.05

P 0.980 0.626 0.159 0.531 0.842

Second spikers 28.24 26.63 1.61 24.31 15.68

Liberos 28.46 27.16 1.63 24.14 15.25

Mean difference -0.22 -0.53 -0.02 0.17 0.43

P 0.556 0.592 0.912 0.672 0.122

Setters 28.11 26.78 1.33 24.49 15.55

Second setters 28.23 26.33 1.89 24.67 15.63

Mean difference -0.12 0.45 -0.56 -0.18 -0.08

P 0.832 0.399 0.015* 0.790 0.737

Setters 28.11 26.78 1.33 24.49 15.55

Liberos 28.46 27.16 1.63 24.14 15.25

Mean difference -0.35 -0.38 -0.3 0.35 0.3

P 0.332 0.713 0.146 0.362 0.298

Second setters 28.23 26.33 1.89 24.67 15.63

Liberos 28.46 27.16 1.63 24.14 15.25

Mean difference -0.23 -0.83 0.26 0.53 0.38

P 0.544 0.329 0.231 0.451 0.158


236

Table 4-24 Multiple comparison for girth indices among the players at different

positional groups (B)

Items Waist Girth Gluteal

girth Thigh girth

Calf girth Ankle girth

Chief spikers 76.19 100.49 54.55 38.02 22.59

Second spikers 70.66 96.42 52.41 36.38 21.21

Mean difference 5.53 4.07 2.14 1.64 1.38

P 0.001* 0.002* 0.034* 0.014* 0.015*

Chief spikers 76.19 100.49 54.55 38.02 22.59

Setters 70.75 96.79 52.74 36.40 21.27

Mean difference 5.44 3.7 1.81 1.62 1.32

P 0.006* 0.013* 0.088 0.025* 0.060

Chief spikers 76.19 100.49 54.55 38.02 22.59

Second setters 70.58 95.95 52.31 35.89 21.04

Mean difference 5.61 4.54 2.24 2.13 1.55

P 0.006* 0.005* 0.035* 0.007* 0.018*

Chief spikers 76.19 100.49 54.55 38.02 22.59

Liberos 70.84 95.16 52.87 36.36 20.85

Mean difference 5.35 5.33 1.68 1.66 1.74

P 0.007* 0.003* 0.120 0.036* 0.016*

Second spikers 70.66 96.42 52.41 36.38 21.21

Setters 70.75 96.79 52.74 36.40 21.27

Mean difference -0.09 -0.37 -0.33 -0.02 -0.06

P 0.945 0.756 0.759 0.968 0.866

Second spikers 70.66 96.42 52.41 36.38 21.21

Second setters 70.58 95.95 52.31 35.89 21.04

Mean difference 0.08 0.47 0.1 0.49 0.17

237

P 0.964 0.737 0.928 0.482 0.633

Second spikers 70.66 96.42 52.41 36.38 21.21

Liberos 70.84 95.16 52.87 36.36 20.85

Mean difference -0.18 1.26 -0.46 0.02 0.36

P 0.898 0.404 0.691 0.981 0.361

Setters 70.75 96.79 52.74 36.40 21.27

Second setters 70.58 95.95 52.31 35.89 21.04

Mean difference 0.17 0.84 0.43 0.51 0.23

P 0.927 0.584 0.704 0.461 0.540

Setters 70.75 96.79 52.74 36.40 21.27

Liberos 70.84 95.16 52.87 36.36 20.85

Mean difference -0.09 1.63 -0.13 0.04 0.42

P 0.956 0.320 0.906 0.949 0.319

Second setters 70.58 95.95 52.31 35.89 21.04

Liberos 70.84 95.16 52.87 36.36 20.85

Mean difference -0.26 0.79 -0.56 -0.47 0.19

P 0.891 0.675 0.629 0.553 0.640


238

Table 4-25 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “spikers-second spikers”

Items Chief spikers

Second spikers

Mean difference

P

Sitting height index 51.87 51.87 0.00 1.000 Standing reach height index 129.54 128.23 1.31 0.014 * Forearm length index 14.10 13.91 0.19 0.285 Forearm/upper limb length index

32.27 32.12 0.15 0.650

Upper limb length index 43.72 43.28 0.44 0.294 Calf length index 26.12 26.04 0.08 0.712 Lower limb length index 56.68 57.01 -0.33 0.343 Achilles’ tendon/calf length index

58.23 59.89 -1.66 0.222

Biacromial breadth index 21.54 20.62 0.92 0.000 ** Biiliocristal breadth index 16.63 15.72 0.91 0.000 ** Biilocristal/biacromial breadth index

77.21 76.33 0.88 0.347

Transverse chest index 15.61 14.79 0.82 0.000 ** Hand breadth index 4.31 4.19 0.12 0.048* Waist girth index 41.17 37.57 3.6 0.000 ** Arm flexed and tensed girth index

16.16 15.02 1.14 0.001 **

Arm relaxed girth index 15.20 14.17 1.03 0.001 ** Thigh girth index 29.47 27.87 1.6 0.003 * Calf girth index 20.54 19.35 1.19 0.001 ** Ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon length index

80.68 72.88 7.8 0.002 *

Katoly index 408.30 373.58 34.72 0.002 *


239

Table 4-26 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “spikers-setter”

Items Chief spikers Setters Mean

difference

P

Sitting height index 51.87 52.47 -0.6 0.234

Standing reach height index 129.54 130.03 -0.49 0.478

Forearm length index 14.10 14.16 -0.06 0.725

Forearm/upper limb length

index

32.27 32.35 -0.08 0.830

Upper limb length index 43.72 43.76 -0.04 0.930

Calf length index 26.12 26.24 -0.12 0.650

Lower limb length index 56.68 56.55 0.13 0.720

Achilles’ tendon/calf length

index

58.23 59.14 -0.91 0.604

Biacromial breadth index 21.54 21.31 0.23 0.383

Biiliocristal breadth index 16.63 16.11 0.52 0.042*

Biilocristal/biacromial breadth

index

77.21 75.64 1.57 0.129

Transverse chest index 15.61 15.13 0.48 0.056

Hand breadth index 4.31 4.29 0.02 0.844

Waist girth index 41.17 39.03 2.14 0.039*


index

16.16 15.50 0.66 0.038*

Arm relaxed girth index 15.20 14.77 0.43 0.151

Thigh girth index 29.47 29.09 0.38 0.486

Calf girth index 20.54 20.08 0.46 0.216

Ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon

length index

80.68 76.51 4.17 0.183

Katoly index 408.30 377.98 30.32 0.010 *


240

Table 4-27 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “spikers vs second setter”

Items Chief

spikers

Second

setters

Mean

difference

P

Sitting height index 51.87 51.73 0.14 0.796

Standing reach height index 129.54 128.65 0.89 0.108

Forearm length index 14.10 14.04 0.06 0.766


index

32.27 32.41 -0.14 0.708

Upper limb length index 43.72 43.31 0.41 0.415

Calf length index 26.12 25.94 0.18 0.481

Lower limb length index 56.68 57.09 -0.41 0.238


index

58.23 57.14 1.09

0.499

Biacromial breadth index 21.54 20.94 0.6 0.015 *

Biiliocristal breadth index 16.63 16.16 0.47 0.076


breadth index

77.21 77.19 0.02

0.982

Transverse chest index 15.61 15.06 0.55 0.029 *


Waist girth index 41.17 38.34 2.83 0.009 *


index

16.16 15.34 0.82

0.018 *

Arm relaxed girth index 15.20 14.31 0.89 0.007 *


Calf girth index 20.54 19.51 1.03 0.016 *


length index

80.68 78.29 2.39 0.456

Katoly index 408.30 370.48 37.82 0.002 *


241

Table 4-28 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “attaker vs libero”

Items Chief

spikers

Liberos Mean

difference

P

Sitting height index 51.87 53.18 -1.31 0.034 * Standing reach height index

129.54 128.26 1.28 0.074

Forearm length index 14.10 13.90 0.2 0.340 Forearm/upper limb length index

32.27 32.14 0.13 0.733

Upper limb length index 43.72 43.23 0.49 0.374 Calf length index 26.12 25.68 0.44 0.104 Lower limb length index 56.68 55.28 1.4 0.004 * Achilles’ tendon/calf length index

58.23 57.50 0.73 0.644

Biacromial breadth index 21.54 21.01 0.53 0.141 Biiliocristal breadth index 16.63 16.48 0.15 0.589 Biilocristal/biacromial breadth index

77.21 78.87 -1.66 0.315

Transverse chest index 15.61 15.57 0.04 0.877 Hand breadth index 4.31 4.40 -0.09 0.118 Waist girth index 41.17 40.47 0.7 0.483 Arm flexed and tensed girth index

16.16 16.25 -0.09 0.795

Arm relaxed girth index 15.20 15.52 -0.32 0.350 Thigh girth index 29.47 30.20 -0.73 0.174 Calf girth index 20.54 20.77 -0.23 0.557 Ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon length index

80.68 81.40 -0.72 0.816

Katoly index 408.30 376.92 31.38 0.016 *


242

Table 4-29 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “second attaker vs setter”

Items Second

spikers

Setters Mean

difference

P


Standing reach height index 128.23 130.03 -1.8 0.020 *



index

32.12 32.35 -0.23 0.450


Calf length index 26.04 26.24 -0.2 0.462

Lower limb length index 57.01 56.55 0.46 0.243


index

59.89 59.14 0.75 0.682

Biacromial breadth index 20.62 21.31 -0.69 0.009 *

Biiliocristal breadth index 15.72 16.11 -0.39 0.050 *


breadth index

76.33 75.64 0.69

0.580

Transverse chest index 14.79 15.13 -0.34 0.121

Hand breadth index 4.19 4.29 -0.1 0.163

Waist girth index 37.57 39.03 -1.46 0.047 *


index

15.02 15.50 -0.48 0.124

Arm relaxed girth index 14.17 14.77 -0.6 0.051

Thigh girth index 27.87 29.09 -1.22 0.048 *

Calf girth index 19.35 20.08 -0.73 0.024 *


length index

72.88 76.51 -3.63 0.177

Katoly index 373.58 377.98 -4.4 0.651


243

Table 4-30 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “second spikers vs second

setter”

Items Second spikers

Second setters

Mean difference

P

Sitting height index 51.87 51.73 0.14 0.779

Standing reach height index 128.23 128.65 - 0.32 0.481



index

32.12 32.41 -0.29

0.369



Lower limb length index 57.01 57.09 -0.08 0.834


index

59.89 57.14 2.75

0.103

Biacromial breadth index 20.62 20.94 - 0.32 0.179

Biiliocristal breadth index 15.72 16.16 0.44 0.050 *


breadth index

76.33 77.19 - 0.86

0.477

Transverse chest index 14.79 15.06 -0.27 0.228

Hand breadth index 4.19 4.25 - 0.06 0.388

Waist girth index 37.57 38.34 -0.77 0.349


index

15.02 15.34 -0.32

0.360

Arm relaxed girth index 14.17 14.31 - 0.14 0.669

Thigh girth index 27.87 28.43 - 0.56 0.375

Calf girth index 19.35 19.51 - 0.16 0.681


length index

72.88 78.29 - 5.41

0.066

Katoly index 373.58 370.48 3.10 0.767


244

Table 4-31 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “second attaker vs libero”

Items Second

spikers

Liberos Mean

difference

P

Sitting height index 51.87 53.18 -1.31 0.024 *

Standing reach height index 128.23 128.26 -0.03 0.963


Forearm/upper limb length index 32.12 32.14 -0.02 0.958



Lower limb length index 57.01 55.28 1.73 0.001**


index

59.89 57.50 2.39

0.143

Biacromial breadth index 20.62 21.01 -0.39 0.290

Biiliocristal breadth index 15.72 16.48 -0.76 0.002 *

Biilocristal/biacromial breadth

index

76.33 78.87 -2.54

0.171

Transverse chest index 14.79 15.57 -0.78 0.000**

Hand breadth index 4.19 4.40 -0.21 0.001**

Waist girth index 37.57 40.47 -2.9 0.000**


index

15.02 16.25 -1.23

0.001**

Arm relaxed girth index 14.17 15.52 -1.35 0.001**

Thigh girth index 27.87 30.20 -2.33 0.000**

Calf girth index 19.35 20.77 -1.42 0.000**


length index

72.88 81.40 -8.52

0.003 *

Katoly index 373.58 376.92 -3.34 0.766


245

Table 4-32 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “setter vs second setter”

Items Setters Second setters

Mean difference

P

Sitting height index 52.47 51.73 0.74 0.098 Standing reach height index 130.03 128.65 1.38 0.092

Forearm length index 14.16 14.04 0.12 0.600 Forearm/upper limb length index 32.35 32.41 -0.06 0.854


Calf length index 26.24 25.94 0.3 0.349 Lower limb length index 56.55 57.09 -0.54 0.135

Achilles’ tendon/calf length index 59.14 57.14 2 0.359


Biiliocristal breadth index 16.11 16.16 -0.05 0.853

Biilocristal/biacromial breadth index 75.64 77.19 -1.55 0.254

Transverse chest index 15.13 15.06 0.07 0.772


Waist girth index 39.03 38.34 0.69 0.477 Arm flexed and tensed girth index 15.50 15.34 0.16 0.581

Arm relaxed girth index 14.77 14.31 0.46 0.105


Calf girth index 20.08 19.51 0.57 0.154 Ankle girth/Achilles’ tendon length index 76.51 78.29 -1.78 0.630

Katoly index 377.98 370.48 7.5 0.460

246

Table 4-33 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “setter vs libero”

Items Setters Liberos Mean

difference

P





index 32.35 32.14 0.21 0.489



Lower limb length index 56.55 55.28 1.27 0.025 *


index 59.14 57.50 1.64 0.440




breadth index 75.64 78.87 -3.23 0.153

Transverse chest index 15.13 15.57 -0.44 0.028 *

Hand breadth index 4.29 4.40 -0.11 0.139

Waist girth index 39.03 40.47 -1.44 0.071


index 15.50 16.25 -0.75 0.005 *

Arm relaxed girth index 14.77 15.52 -0.75 0.020 *


Calf girth index 20.08 20.77 -0.69 0.029 *


length index 76.51 81.40 -4.89 0.155

Katoly index 377.98 376.92 1.06 0.921


247

Table 4-34 Multiple comparison for derived indices of “second setter vs libero”

Items Second setters

Liberos Mean difference

P

Sitting height index 51.73 53.18 -1.45 0.020 *




index 32.41 32.14 0.27 0.438



Lower limb length index 57.09 55.28 1.81 0.001 **


index 57.14 57.50 -0.36 0.849

Biacromial breadth index 20.94 21.01 -0.07 0.871



breadth index 77.19 78.87 -1.68 0.421

Transverse chest index 15.06 15.57 -0.51 0.026 *

Hand breadth index 4.25 4.40 -0.15 0.035 *

Waist girth index 38.34 40.47 -2.13 0.031 *


index 15.34 16.25 -0.91 0.010 *

Arm relaxed girth index 14.31 15.52 -1.21 0.002 *


Calf girth index 19.51 20.77 -1.26 0.006 *


length index 78.29 81.40 -3.11 0.401

Katoly index 370.48 376.92 -6.44 0.596


248

Table 4-42 Comparisons of somatotype data at the five volleyball positions

Positions N Minimum Maximum Mean SD Variance

Chief spikers 27 1.8-1.6-1.1 6.1-5.8-5.9 4.0-3.3-3.6 0.2-0.2-0.2 1.4-1.1-1.1

Second

spikers 25 1.9-0.2-3.1 5.6-3.7-7.3 3.2-2.1-4.9 0.2-0.2-0.2 0.8-0.9-1.1

Setters 15 2.9-2.3-2.9 5.4-3.6-4.8 3.8-2.9-3.9 0.2-0.1-0.1 0.6-0.2-0.3

Second

setters 18 2.2-0.3-3.1 5.3-4.4-6.8 3.5-2.6-4.4 0.2-0.3-0.3 0.7-1.5-1.4

Liberos 15 2.6-2.7-1.7 6.2-4.7-3.9 3.9-3.5-3.2 0.2-0.1-0.2 0.8-0.3-0.4

Total 100 2.3-1.4-2.4 5.7-4.4-5.7 3.7-2.9-4.0 0.2-0.2-0.2 0.9-0.8-0.9

249

Table 4-43 Comparisons of statistics of percentage of somatotyping between

players at the five volleyball positions

Items Chief spikers Second spikers


Liberos

N % N % N % N % N %

Ectomorphic

endomorph

2 7.4 1 4.0 2 13.3 0 0.0 0 0.0

Balanced Endomoph 3 11.1 1 4.0 1 6.7 3 16.7 3 20.0

Mesomorphic endomorph

2 7.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 26.7

Mesomorph- endomorph

2 7.4 0 0.0 1 6.7 0 0.0 1 6.7

Endomorphic mesomorph

2 7.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

Balanced Mesomorph

2 7.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 11.1 0 0.0

Ectomorphic mesomorph

0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 6.7

Mesomorph- ectomorph

1 3.7 1 4.0 0 0.0 1 5.6 0 0.0

Mesomorphic ectomorph

0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

Balanced ectomorph 3 11.1 5 20.0 0 0.0 4 22.2 2 13.3

Endomorphic ectomorph

3 11.1 16 64.0 3 20.0 6 33.3 1 6.7

Endomorph- ectomorph

2 7.4 1 4.0 4 26.7 1 5.6 1 6.7

Central 5 18.5 0 0.0 4 26.7 1 5.6 2 13.3

Total 27 25 15 18 15

250

Table 4-45 Difference analyses for somatotype values of different positional

groups

Items Endomorphy P Mesomorphy P Ectomorphy P

Chief spikers vs Second spikers

4.00:3.16 0.005 * 3.31:2.14 0.000** 3.59:4.86 0.000 **

Chief spikers vs Setters 4.00:3.83 0.611 3.31:2.86 0.131 3.59:3.85 0.366

Chief spikers vs Second setters

4.00:3.47 0.102 3.31:2.63 0.054 3.59:4.42 0.017 *

Chief spikers vs Liberos 4.00:3.94 0.864 3.31:3.45 0.624 3.59:3.23 0.241

Second spikers vs Setters

3.16:3.83 0.021 2.14:2.86 0.008 * 4.86:3.85 0.000 **

Second spikers vs Second setters

3.16:3.47 0.243 2.14:2.63 0.141 4.86:4.42 0.205

Second spikers vs Liberos

3.16:3.94 0.010 * 2.14:3.45 0.000** 4.86:3.23 0.000 **

Setters vs Second setters

3.83:3.47 0.216 2.86:2.63 0.492 3.85:4.42 0.097

Setters vs Liberos

3.83:3.94 0.718 2.86:3.45 0.003 * 3.85:3.23 0.008 *

Second setters vs Liberos

3.47:3.94 0.125 2.63:3.45 0.021 * 4.42:3.23 0.002 *


251

Table 4-46 Numbering of anthropometry indices

Indices Numbering

Basic 1. Body mass 2. Stature 3. Sitting height 4. Standing reach height

Skinfolds 5. Triceps skinfold 6. Subscapular skinfold 7.Supraspinale skinfold 8. Medial calf skinfold

Girth 9. Arm flexed and tensed girth 10. Arm relaxed girth 11. Forearm girth 12.Wrist girth 13.Waist girth 14. Gluteal girth 15. Thigh girth 16. Calf girth 17. Ankle girth

Length 18. Acromiale-radiale length 19. Radiale-stylion length 20. Midstylion-dactylion length 21. Acromiale-dactylion length 22. Iliospinale height 23. Tibiale-laterale length 24. Achilles’ tendon length

Breadth 25. Biacromial breadth 26. Biilocristal breadth 27. Transverse chest breadth 28. Biepicondylar humerus breadth 29. Biepicondylar femur breadth 30. Metacarpals breadth

252

Table 4-47 Statistics table of R-model cluster coefficient

Stage Cluster Combined

Coefficients Cluster 1 Cluster 2

1 9 10 .888

2 2 22 .888

3 2 4 .850

4 18 21 .847

5 1 14 .828

6 18 19 .812

7 1 13 .803

8 2 18 .796

9 2 23 .788

10 1 9 .787

11 1 16 .779

12 1 27 .739

13 1 15 .727

14 6 7 .710

15 5 8 .706

16 2 20 .699

17 12 30 .677

18 1 26 .674

19 12 28 .656

20 5 6 .654

21 1 29 .651

253

22 1 12 .646

23 1 25 .598

24 1 2 .585

25 1 3 .581

26 1 5 .580

27 1 17 .570

28 1 11 .559

29 1 24 .477

254

Publication

Zhang, Y. Y., Chen, X. R., Zhang, Q., Li, L., & Zhou, S. (2009). An investigation on

the anthropometry profile and its relationship with selected physical performance

measurements of elite Chinese women volleyball players. Paper presented at The 8th

Annual Conference of the Society of Chinese Scholars on Exercise Physiology and

Fitness. Hong Kong.

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