Negative microfilm received from university 67-17,239
HUFFMAN, Franklin Eugene, 1934- AN OUTLINE OF CAMBODIAN GRAMMAR.
Cornell University, Ph.D., 1967 Language and Literature, linguistics
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
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AN OUTLINE OF CAMBODIAN GRAMMAR
A T h e s i s
P r e s e n t e d t o t h e F a c u l t y o f t h e G ra d u a te S c h o o l
o f C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y f o r t h e D egree o f
D o c to r o f P h i lo s o p h y
by
F r a n k l i n Eugene Huffman
1967
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
F r a n k l i n Eugene Huffman was b o rn in H a r r i s o n b u r g ,
V i r g i n i a , on J a n u a ry 2 8 , 193!+. In Ju n e , 1955 b e r e c e i v e d
t h e d e g re e o f B a c h e lo r o f A r ts from B r id g e w a te r C o l l e g e ,
B r id g e w a te r , V i r g i n i a , i n t h e f i e l d o f Romance L anguages
and L i t e r a t u r e s . He was em ployed by I n t e r n a t i o n a l V o lu n ta r y
S e r v i c e s , I n c . , W ash in g to n , D.C. a s a F re n c h i n t e r p r e t e r i n
Laos from 1956 t o 1958 . From 1958 t o I9 6 0 h e t a u g h t F re n c h
and h i s t o r y a t M idd le R iv e r H igh S c h o o l , A u g u s ta C oun ty ,
V i r g i n i a . I n S ep tem ber I9 6 0 h e e n r o l l e d i n t h e g r a d u a t e
s c h o o l o f C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y i n t h e f i e l d s o f g e n e r a l
l i n g u i s t i c s , s o c i a l a n th r o p o lo g y , and A sian s t u d i e s . From
June t o December 1961+. h e s t u d i e d t h e Cambodian la n g u a g e
a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f London S ch o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n¥
S t u d i e s , and from J a n u a r y 1965 t o J u l y 1966 h e g a t h e r e d
f i e l d d a t a on Cambodian i n T h a i la n d and Cam bodia. He i s a
member o f t h e L i n g u i s t i c S o c i e t y o f A m erica , t h e A s s o c i a t i o n
f o r A i s i a n S t u d i e s , and t h e Siam S o c i e t y .
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I w ould l i k e t o e x p r e s s my g r a t i t u d e t o my s p e c i a l
co m m ittee a t C o r n e l l — P r o f e s s o r s R o b e r t B. J o n e s , John
M. E c h o l s , and L a u r i s t o n S h a rp — f o r t h e i r en co u rag e m en t
and a d v ic e o v e r t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d o f my g r a d u a t e s t u d y .
Thanks a r e e s p e c i a l l y due t o my co m m ittee c h a irm a n and
t h e s i s a d v i s o r , P r o f e s s o r R o b e r t B, J o n e s , who g a v e u n
s t i n t i n g l y o f h i s t im e and c o u n s e l a t a l l s t a g e s o f my
w ork on t h i s s t u d y .
I am a l s o i n d e b t e d t o P r o f e s s o r F a n g - k u e i L i o f t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f W ash in g to n f o r t h e s u g g e s t i o n w h ich l e d to
t h e c h o ic e o f Cambodian a s t h e s u b j e c t o f t h i s s t u d y .
I owe a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e t o M rs. J u d i t h M. Ja c o b o f
t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f London S ch o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n
S t u d i e s , f o r h e r p a t i e n t i n s t r u c t i o n d u r i n g s i x m onths o f
i n t e n s i v e s t u d y o f Cam bodian, and f o r many i n s i g h t s i n t o
t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e l a n g u a g e , a s w e l l a s t o P r o f e s s o r
E u g e n ie J . A. H e n d e rso n , whose work on Cambodian p h o n o lo g y
i s t h e t o u c h s to n e o f l a t e r s t u d i e s i n t h e f i e l d .
I w ould l i k e t o e x p r e s s my th a n k s t o t h e N D E A -re la ted
F u l b r i g h t - H a y s R e s e a r c h F e l lo w s h ip Program and t h e L ondon-
C o r n e l l P r o j e c t f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t d u r i n g two y e a r s o f f i e l d
r e s e a r c h in L ondon, T h a i l a n d , and Cam bodia, and t o t h e
C o r n e l l S o u t h e a s t A s ia P rogram and t h e L o n d o n -C o rn e l l
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P r o j e c t f o r s u p p o r t d u r in g t h e acad em ic y e a r 1 9 6 6 -6 7 f o r
t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s . .
T hanks a r e a l s o due t o t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l
o f T h a i l a n d f o r t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e and s p o n s o r s h i p d u r i n g
t h e p e r i o d o f r e s e a r c h i n T h a i l a n d .
F i n a l l y , I m u s t ack n ow ledg e my d e b t t o some t h i r t y -
f i v e C am bodians who s e r v e d a s i n f o r m a n t s o v e r t h e p e r i o d o f
my r e s e a r c h i n L ondon, T h a i l a n d , an d Cambodia, and
e s p e c i a l l y t o ray p r i n c i p a l i n f o r m a n t f o r t h e Takeo d i a l e c t ,
Mr. C h a ran P rom chan , who, f o r f o u r h o u r s a day o v e r a
p e r i o d o f f i f t e e n m o n th s , p a t i e n t l y s u b j e c t e d h i m s e l f t o
t h e m y s t i f y i n g game o f l i n g u i s t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
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TABLE OP CONTENTS
0 . 0 I n t r o d u c t i o n .................... .................................................... ..................... • 1
0 .1 G e n e ra l ............ 1
0 .2 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n .................................... 1
0 . 3 H i s t o r y ...................................................................................................... 1+
. 0 . I|. R eview o f s o u r c e s ........................................................................ 8
0 . 5 P u rp o se an d sc o p e ................................................ 11
0 . 6 B a c k g r o u n d ....................................................................................................... 12
1 . 0 P h o n o l o g y ................................................................................................ 11+
1 . 1 Phonemes ............................................................................................... 11+
1 .1 1 S e g m en ta l phonemes ............ XI4.
1 .1 1 1 C la s s C-̂ phonemes ( c o n s o n a n t s ) ................... 15
1 .1 1 2 C la s s C2 phonemes ......................... 21
1 .1 1 3 C la s s C^ phonemes ................................................. 26
1.111+ C la s s and Y2 phonemes (v o w e ls ) ................. 27
1 .1 1 5 C la s s C^ phonemes ( f i n a l c o n s o n a n t s ) . . . . 35
1 .1 2 S u p ra s e g m e n ta l phonemes .............. 37
1 .1 2 1 S t r e s s phonemes ........................................................... 37
1 .1 2 2 J u n c t u r e phonemes ........................................... 38
1 .1 2 3 P h ra s e c o n to u r phonemes .............. 1+0%
1.121+ I n t o n a t i o n a l phonemes .................................. 1+3
1 . 2 P h o n o lo g ic a l w ords ............ .............................................................. .. • 1+1+
1 .2 1 M o n o s y l la b ic words ............................... 1+1+
1 .2 2 D i s y l l a b i c words .......................... 1+5
1 .2 3 P o l y s y l l a b i c words ................................. 1+6
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2 . 0 M o rp h o p h o n e m ic s ........................................... lj.8
2 . 1 F re e v a r i a t i o n .................................. lj-8
2 .1 1 F r e e v a r i a t i o n in u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s . . . . . . . l+S
2 .1 2 S t r e s s a l t e r n a t i o n s . ................................................... 5>1
2 .1 3 F re e v a r i a t i o n i n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s .................... 52
2 .2 P h o n o l b g i c a l l y ^ c o n d i t i o n e d . a l t e r n a t i o n . , ...............................52
2 .3 M o r p h o lo g ld a l ly '1 c o n d i t i o n e d , a l t e r n a t i o n .............................. 53
2 . 141 Vowel a b l a u t ..................... 56
2 . Ill S p o r a d ic a b l a u t ...................................................... 57
2 , 142 A u to m a tic a b l a u t ..................................... .. • 57
2 ,!i3 Vowel harm ony .......................... 58
3 .0 M o r p h o lo g y ................... 63
3 .1 M o r p h o lo g ic a l u n i t s ......................................... 63
3 .1 1 Morphemes ........... 63
3 .1 2 Lexemes .............................................. 6I4.
3*2 D e r i v a t i o n ............ 66
3 .2 1 P r e f i x e s . ....................................................................................... 69
3 .2 2 I n f i x e s .......... 91
■ 3 .2 3 S u f f i x e s .............................................................................. 106
3 .3 Compounds ........................ 107
3 .3 1 G o v e rn in g le x e m ic c o n s t i t u e n t s .............................. 107
3 .3 2 C e n te r e d compounds ................................................. 110
' 3 .3 3 C o o r d in a te compounds ..................................... l l l i
3 . 3U- U n c e n te re d c o m p o u n d s ............... 115
3 .3 5 A p p o s i t i v e compounds ....................................................... 117
3 .3 6 A s y n ta c t i c compounds ....................... 117
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3 .3 7 I d i o m a t i c c o m p o u n d s ' . . ................................................. 118
3 .3 8 N u m e r ic a l compounds ............ 119
3 . L+ Pseudo-com pounds .............. 120
3.1»1 Bo.und c o n s t i t u e n t s ......................... 120
3.1*2 F r e e c o n s t i t u e n t s .............................. 125
3 . 5 R e d u p l i c a t i v e s ............................................ 129
3 .5 1 C om plete r e d u p l i c a t i o n ........................... 129
3*511 R e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s ................. 129
3 .5 2 P a r t i a l r e d u p l i c a t i o n ....................................... 132
3 .5 2 1 A b la u te d r e d u p l i c a t i v e s ................... 132
3 .5 2 2 Rhyming r e d u p l i c a t i v e s ................................ 131+
3 .5 2 3 A l l i t e r a t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s ....................... 135
3 .5 3 In c o m p le te r e d u p l i c a t i v e s ................................... 137
3.51*- P s e u d o - r e d u p l i c a t i v e s .............................. 138
3 . 8 Sound s y m b o l i s m ................................................................................ 139
l+.O Lexeme c l a s s e s ................... 11*1
l+ .l I s o l a t i v e s ................ 11+2
l + . l l I n t e r j e c t i o n s .......................... 11+2
’ 1+.12 R e s p o n s iv e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11+3
1+.2 S u b s t a n t i v e s ........................ 11+1+
1+.21 Nouns .................................. 11+1+
1+.22 S p e c i f i e r s ............... . . . .................................................... 11+7
1+.23 P ronouns ........................................................................... l 5 l
i+. 21+ Q u a n t i f i e r s ........................................................... 157
1+.25 D e m o n s t r a t iv e s ................................. 163
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lj.,3 P r e d i c a t i v e s .................................... I 6I4.
1+.31 A d j e c t i v a l v e r b s ..................................................................... 161+
14..32 A c t iv e v e r b s ..................... . ........................................... . . . . 16$
ij..321 T r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ...................................... 16$
1+.322 I n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s ..................... 166
l+.33 Modal v e rb s ........................................... 166
14..3U- D i r e c t i o n a l v e r b s ....................................................... 170
14.. 3$ C o m p le t iv e v e r b s ................................. 171
l+. I4. A d v e r b i a l s ................ 175
l+.l+l G e n e r a l a d v e r b i a l s ............................................................... 175
i|..1)2 I n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b i a l s ................................... 177
1+.1+3 I n d e f i n i t e a d v e r b i a l s ......................................................... 178
lj.,$ A d j e c t i v e s ........................................... 179
14. . $1 G e n e r a l a d j e c t i v e s ................ 179
1+.52 I m i t a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s ........................................................... 181
14. . 53 O r d i n a l n u m e ra l a d j e c t i v e s .......................... l 8l
I4.,6 A u x i l i a r i e s ............................... 182
lj..6 l G e n e ra l a u x i l i a r i e s ................................................ 183
14. .62 P r e v e r b a l a u x i l i a r i e s ............ 181}.
1^,63 I n c i p i e n t a u x i l i a r y .................................................................18$
1|.,6I4. N e g a t iv e a u x i l i a r i e s ..................... 185
I4.*7 R e l a t o r s ............................. 186
1^.71 P r e p o s i t i o n a l r e l a t o r s ................ 186
14.. 72 S u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s .................... 189
1+. 73 G e n e ra l r e l a t o r s ................... 192
14.. 7I4. C o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s ............. 193
l+, 75 C o p u la t i v e r e l a t o r s ................................. 195
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[(-.8 P a r t i c l e s .................................... 196
1+.81 P i n a l s e n t e n c e p a r t i c l e s ..................... 196
1+.82 P a u se p a r t i c l e s .................................................................. 197
5 . 0 S y n t a x ........... . 1 9 8
5 . 1 U n c e n te re d c o n s t r u c t i o n s ................................................................ 200
5 .1 1 S u b j e c t - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ..................... 200
5 .1 2 P a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s ..................... 201
5*121 E q u a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5 .1 2 2 Topic-com m ent c o n s t r u c t i o n s ........... 202
5 .1 2 3 E x c la m a to ry c o n s t r u c t i o n s ............................. 203
5.121+ R e s p o n s iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s .................................. 20L+
5 .1 2 5 V o c a t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ....................................... 20I+.
5 .1 2 6 T e r m in a t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ...................... 205
5 .1 2 7 Embedded p a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s ........... 206
5 .1 3 O b j e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ..............206
5 . l i t - R e l a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s ..................... 207
5 .1 ! |1 P r e p o s i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s .................. 207
5 .1 I t2 S u b o r d in a te c o n s t r u c t i o n s .............. 208
1 5*15 C o m p le t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s .................................. 209
5 .2 C e n te r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n s .................................................................... 210
5 .2 1 P o s t - p o s e d a t t r i b u t e s .................. 210
5 .2 1 1 Noun p h r a s e s .................................... 210
5 .2 1 2 R e l a t i v e p ro n o u n p h r a s e s ..................... 216
5 .2 1 3 V erb p h r a s e s ............................... 217
5.211+ P o s t - p o s e d s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s 221
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5*22 P ro p o se d a t t r i b u t e s ................................ 221
5*221 A u x i l i a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n s ................... 221.
5 .2 2 2 Modal v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s .................... 222
5*223 A t t r i b u t e - c l a u s . e c o n s t r u c t i o n s . . . . 223
5.221+ S p e c i f i e r p h r a s e s ............................ 225
5*3 C o o r d in a te c o n s t r u c t i o n s ................................................................ 227
5 .3 1 C u m u la t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s .................................. 227
5 .3 2 A l t e r n a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s .............................. 230
5*33 A p p o s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ............................. 231
5.31+ I n c l u s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ..................................................... 232
5.1+ N u m e ric a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s ........................ 233
5.1+1 A d d i t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.1+2 M u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ............................ 233
5 . 5 Im m edia te c o n s t i t u e n t a n a l y s i s ................................................ 231+
6 . 0 S e n te n c e t y p e s .................................. 236
6 .1 M ajor s e n t e n c e s .............................................................. 236
6 .1 1 S im p le s e n t e n c e s ..................................................................... 236
6 .1 2 Complex s e n t e n c e s .......................................................... 237
■ 6 ,1 3 Compound s e n t e n c e s ................................................ 238
6 . 2 M inor s e n t e n c e s ........................................................... 238
6 . 3 S e n te n c e f r a g m e n ts .......................... 239
A ppend ix A* C om parison o f t h e Takeo D i a l e c t w i th S ta n d a r dC a m b o d ia n .......................... 21+0
B i b l i o g r a p h y .......................... 250
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0 .0 I n t r o d u c t i o n
0 .1 G e n e r a l
Cam bodian, a l s o known a s Khmer, i s sp o k e n by some
5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 * p e o p le i n t h e Kingdom o f Cam bodia, and m u tu a l ly .?i n t e l l i g i b l e d i a l e c t s a r e spoken by a p p r o x im a te ly Lj.0 0 ,0 0 0
i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e p r o v i n c e s o f B u r ira m , S u r i n , and S r i s a k e t
i n n o r t h e a s t e r n T h a i l a n d , and by a p p r o x im a te ly lj.50,000^
p e o p le i n t h e Mekong D e l t a r e g i o n o f S o u th V ie tn a m . T h ese
f i g u r e s e x c lu d e t h e h u n d re d s o f r e l a t e d d i a l e c t s s c a t t e r e d
o v e r m o st o f m a in la n d S o u t h e a s t A s i a , an’d r e p r e s e n t t h e
r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous l a n g u a g e c o m m u n ity .o f Cambodian
p r o p e r .
0 .2 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
Cambodian i s t h e m a jo r m odern r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e
e a s t e r n b r a n c h o f the--Mon-Khmer l a n g u a g e f a m i l y . U s u a l l y
i n c l u d e d w i t h Cambodian i n t h e Cambodian s u b - g r o u p o f
1 . D av id J . S t e i n b e r g , Cam bodia? I t s P e o p l e , I t s S o c i e t y , I t s C u l t u r e (New H aven, Human R e l a t i o n s A rea F i l e s , 1 9 5 9 ) .
2 . F o r t h i s f i g u r e I am i n d e b t e d t o W il l ia m A, S m a lle y , who v e r y k i n d l y g a v e me a p r e - p u b l i c a t i o n d r a f t o f h i s E t h n o l i n g u l s t i c S u rv e y o f N o r th e r n K hm er-S peak ing P e o p lein' N o r t h e a s t ‘T h a i la n d (F e b r u a r y ," 1 96I4. ) .
3 . B e rn a rd F a l l , Le p ro b le m s de l 1a d m i n i s t r a t i o n des m i n o r i t e s e t h n i q u e s • au Cambodge, au L a o s , . e t d a n s l e s deux zon es du Viet-Nani' (P a r 1 s ' 1961)* p . 10 .
1
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2
n
E a s t e r n Mon-Khmer a r e P e a r ( P o r ) , Sam re, S t i e n g , an d Chong,
a l l spo ken w i t h i n o r on t h e b o r d e r s o f C am bodia .^ S h o r t o ^
d i v i d e s S e b e o k 's 'Mon-Khmer p r o p e r ' i n t o Mon and E a s t e r n
Mon-Khmer, and r e d e s i g n a t e s S e b e o k 's Sa lw een B a s in Group
( P a la u n g , Wa, R ia n g , e t c . ) N o r th e r n Mon-Khmer.^
1 . H. L c S h o r t o , J u d i t h M. J a c o b , and E . H. S. Simmonds, B i b l i o g r a p h i e s . o f Mon-Khmer and T a l L i n g u i s t i c s (London, O xfo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 196 'jj""p.3*
2 . To t h e f o r e g o i n g g ro u p , M aspero [ H e n r i M asp ero , * 'L e pay s e t s e s h a b i t a n t s * l a n g u e s 5 ' i n Un e m p ire c o l o n i a lf r a n g a i s : 1 ' In do c h i n e . O uvrage p u b l ie " ” so u s l a d i r e c t i o n deM.""Georges M aspero ( P a r i s e t B r u x e l l e s , G, v an O e s t , 1929) Tome I , p . 61j.) a d d s A ngrak and Budeh, and P innow [H e in z - J u r g e n Pinnow , V e rsu c h e i n e r h i s t o r i s c h e n L a u t l e h r e d e r K h a r l a - S p ra c h e (W iesbaden ,- O t to H a r r a s s o w i t z , ’ 19^9)3 T n c lu d e s t h e l a t t e r two a s w e l l as Saoc and D ip . Thomas [D a v id D. Thomas, ' 'M on-K hm er S u b g ro u p in g s i n V i e t n a m ' ' , i n Norman H. Z id e , S t u d i e s i n C o m p ara tiv e A u s t r o a s i a t l c L i n g u i s t i c s (The Hague, Mouton and. C o. , 1 9 6 6 ) p , I 9 7 J in c lu d e s ' Budeh a n d -B u d lp [D ip ? ) u n d e r S t i e n g . A. G. H a u d r i c o u r t [ i n p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n s i n 1965) e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n io n t h a t P e a r , Chong, and Saoc a r e a l l d i a l e c t s o fSam re. T h is p o i n t o f v iew i s s u p p o r t e d by P .̂ T a i l l a r d[ ' *Les S a o c h ' ' , I n s t i t u t I n d o c h i n o i s p o u r 1 ' E tu d e de 1 ' Homme. B u l l e t i n s e t T rav a u x 5 (1914-2) pp . 'li3-i4-£T.
3 . S h o r t o , J a c o b , and Simmonds, 0£ . c i t . t p . 5 .
Thomas A. S eb eo k , ' 'A n E x a m in a t io n o f t h e A u s t r o a s i a t l c L anguage F a m i l y '1 , Language 18 (191+2) 3s 2 0 6 -1 7 .
5>. Thomas [o p . c i t . . p . 198] s u g g e s t s t h a t B a h n a r ic [ c o m p r i s in g B ahnaran and S t i e n g a n ] and K a tu ic [ c o m p r i s in g Brouan and K a tu an ] s h o u ld be p l a c e d on a l e v e l w i t h Mon and Khmer a s m a jo r s u b - d i v i s i o n s o f t h e Mon-Khmer f a m i l y ,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3
S c h m id t ’ s h y p o t h e s i s o f an A u s t r o a s i a t l c la n g u a g e f a m i ly
on th e S o u th e a s t A s ia n m a in l a n d ,^ i n c l u d i n g , b e s i d e s Mon,
E a s t e r n Mon-Khmer, and N o r th e r n Mon-Khmer, a l s o t h e Munda
l a n g u a g e s o f n o r t h e a s t e r n I n d i a , K h a s i i n Assam, t h e Cham
g ro u p i n S o u th V ie tnam and- Cambodia, N ic o b a r e s e , and Semang
and S a k a i i n t h e M alay p e n i n s u l a , i s u n w a r r a n te d by p r e s e n t
e v id e n c e , and h i s f u r t h e r g ro u p in g o f A u s t r o a s i a t l c w i th
t h e A u s t r o n e s i a n l a n g u a g e s o f i s l a n d S o u th e a s t A s ia t o form
an A u s t r l c s u p e r s t o c k i s even more s p e c u l a t i v e . ^
B e n e d ic t i n 191^7 ^ p ro p o s e d a d d in g Annamese-Muong t o
t h e I . . 'A u s t r o a s i a t l c 11 f a m i l y , and l i n g u i s t s a t t e n d i n g t h e
s p e c i a l A u s t r o a s i a t l c l a n g u a g e s s e c t i o n o f t h e C o n fe re n c e
on I n d o - P a c i f i c L anguages a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f London
S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s i n J a n u a r y , 19 6 £ ,
g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t V ie tn a m e se s h o u ld b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e
1 . P . W. S c h m id t , *’ Les p e u p le s mon-khmerj t r a i t d 'u n i o n e n t r e l e s p e u p le s de 1 ’A s ie c 'e n t r a l e e t de 1 ’A u s t r o n l s i e ’ 1, B u l l e t i n de l ’E c o le F r a n p a i s e d 1E x tr e m e - O r ie n t 7 (1907)■■■ A*! ** ...—— - »■ ■ ■■ »>■■" - — —————p p . 2 1 3 - 6 3 .
2 . On t h i s p o i n t s e e ¥ . F . H evesy , 11 On W. S c h m id t’ s Munda-Mon-Khmer Com parisons.- Does an A u s t r i c f a m i ly o f l a n g u a g e s e x i s t ? ’ ' , B u l l e t i n o f t h e S ch o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s 6 (1 9 3 0 ) p p . "”1 6 7 -2 0 0 , and Sebeok ,Xc~c. c i t .
3 . P . K. B e n e d ic t , ’ ’ L anguages and L i t e r a t u r e o f I n d o c h in a ’ ’ F a r E a s t e r n Q u a r t e r l y 6 J19I4.7 ) pp . 3 7 9 -8 9 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Wl.
A u s t r o a s i a t l c f a m i l y . How ever, t o p ro p o s e any w id e r a f
f i l i a t i o n f o r Mon-Khmer th a n S h o r t o 1s n u c l e a r Mon, E a s t e r n
Mon-Khmer, an d N o r th e r n Mon-Khmer g r o u p in g s i s p r o b a b ly
p r e m a tu r e , and m u s t a w a i t f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i v e work;*-
0 . 3 H i s t o r y
• S in c e Cambodian i s spoken i n t h e g e n e r a l r e g i o n o f
Funan , t h e f i r s t known I n d i a n i z e d kingdom i n S o u th e a s t
A s ia ( 1 s t c e n t u r y A.D, t o c . $$0 A .D . ) ^ , i t may w e l l be
a m odern r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f one o f t h e e a r l i e s t l a n g u a g e s
o f m a in la n d S o u t h e a s t A s ia . Cambodian i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e
among t h e e a r l i e s t n o n - I n d i c i n s c r i p t i o n s fo u n d i n S o u th
e a s t A s ia , and t h e o n ly v e r n a c u l a r i n s c r i p t i o n s fo u n d i n
t h e a r e a o f Funan a r e Cambodian. The e a r l i e s t Cambodian
i n s c r i p t i o n was fo u n d a t Angkor B o r e i i n T akeo p r o v i n c e i n
w h a t w ould h a v e been s o u t h e r n F unan , and i s d a t e d 611 A .D .3
The o n ly e a r l i e r v e r n a c u l a r i n s c r i p t i o n fo u n d i n S o u t h e a s t
A s ia i s t h e Cham i n s c r i p t i o n fo u n d a t T r a - k i e n i n t h e a r e a
1 . F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s o f l i n g u i s t i c a f f i l i a t i o n i n S o u t h e a s t A s ia , s e e Thomas A. S eb eo k , 11 The L anguages o f S o u t h e a s t A s i a 1 1, F a r E a s t e r n Q u a r t e r l y 2 (191+37 pp., 3U-9 G eorge C o edes , * *Les l a n g u e s de l 1I n d o c h i n e 1’ , C o n fe re n c e s de 1* I n s t i t u t de L i n g u i s t i q u e de l ^ n i v e r s i t e de P a r i s V I I I Tl9l+0-l+ti) p p . 5 3 - B l j H e n r i Mas p e r o^ ' 'L e s l a n g u e s mon-lchmer*1, i n L es l a n g u e s du mondo, A. M e i l l e t e t M. Cohen, ed . ( P a r i s , 1 9 5 2 ) pp . 6 0 9 -2 5 7 and J o s e p h H. G re e n b e rg , ' « H i s t o r i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s and U n w r i t t e n L a n g u a g e s11 in A. L. K ro e b e r , A n th ro p o lo g y Today (C h ic a g o , U n i v e r s i t y o f C h icago P r e s s ,19J3L2 . D. G. E, H a l l , A H i s t o r y o f S o u th - E a s t A s ia (London*, M acM illan and Co. L t d . , 19ol+T~p.33.3 . L . P. B r i g g s , The A n c ie n t Khmer Empir e ( P h i l a d e l p h i a ,The Am erican P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , 19^17 p . lf?> f n . 1 8 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
o f t h e fo rm e r k ingdom o f Champa, and d a t i n g from t h e f o u r t h
c e n t u r y A .D ,'1’ The t r a d i t i o n a l v ie w i s t h a t t h e i n h a b i t a n t s
o f Funan w ere o f t h e g e n e r a l A u s t r o n e s i a n o r M alay e t h n i c
s t o c k whose m i g r a t i o n from s o u th w e s t e r n C h in a p e o p le d m o s tP
o f S o u t h e a s t A s ia d u r i n g N e o l i t h i c t i m e s . But t h e d a n g e r s
o f a ssu m in g c o in c id e n c e o f e t h n i c and l i n g u i s t i c a r e a s a r e
w e l l known. ' C a d y ,^ w r i t i n g on F u n an , s a y s t h a t 11 t h e
l i t e r a t e e l i t e was- a p p a r e n t l y I n d o n e s i a n , an d la n g u a g e •
m o d u la t in g i n t im e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f O ld Khmer. The
p o p u l a t i o n a s a w hole was I n d o n e s ia n and N e g r i t o o r M e la -
n e s o i d . *1 The f i r s t s t a t e m e n t i s , o f c o u r s e , l i n g u i s t i c a l l y
u n t e n a b l e , and t h e s e c o n d i s b a s e d on t h e r e p o r t o f a C h in
e s e t r a v e l e r o f 2$0 A.D. t h a t d e s c r i b e d t h e F u n a n e se a s
• u g ly and b l a c k , t h e i r h a i r f r i z z y , t h e i r b o d i e s n a k e d above
t h e w a i s t , t h e i r f e e t b a r e . 1 The d e s c r i p t i o n c o u ld j u s t a s
w e l l be i n t e r p r e t e d a s s u p p o r t i n g H e i n e - G e ld e r n 1s t h e o r y o f
a p r e - M a la y m e s o l i t h i c A u s t r o lo id - V e d d o id e t h n i c s u b s t r a t u mII 9i n S o u t h e a s t A s i a . 4, H a l l^ s t a t e s c a t e g o r i c a l l y t h a t
1.# G. C o ed es , L es e t a t s h i n d o u l s e s de 1* In d o c h in e e t d* In d o n e s i a ( P a r i s . E c i i t io n s E. de B o card , 19614.) p . 96,'
2 . See B r ia n H a r r i s o n , S o u th - E a s t A s i a ? A. S h o r t H i s t o r y (London, M acM illan and Co. " L t d , , 1957") p . 5 , and H a l l , o p * c i t . . p . 7 .
3* John F . Cady, S o u t h e a s t A s i a ? I t s H i s t o r i c a l D evelopm en t (New Y ork , M cG raw -H ill, I 96I4) p . *>3"'•
I4, H a l l , o £ . c i t . , p . 6 - 7 .
5 . H a l l , o £ , c i t . . p . 25.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
6
• oc • - .
11 t h e F u n a n e se were* o f M alay r a t e ’ 1, b u t q u a l i f i e s t h i s i n•a . .
t h e f o o t n o t e : **> The word i s u s e d h e r e i n i t s w i d e s t e t h n i c1 - ' 2 s e n s e 11 . B o th B r ig g s . and H a r r i s o n assum e t h a t Cambodian
was t h e l a n g u a g e o f F unan , b u t t h e m ost u n e q u iv o c a l s t a t e
m ent comes from C o e d e s
11 The a b s e n c e o f any t e x t s i n t h e v e r n a c u l a r d a t i n g , f rom t h e F u -n an p e r i o d means t h a t we a r e u n f o r t u n a t e l y
l e f t i n ig n o r a n c e a s t o w hat l a n g u a g e was spo ken by i t s p e o p l e , and h e n c e we do n o t know t o w hat e t h n o - l i n g u i s - t i c g ro u p th e y b e lo n g e d , n e v e r t h e l e s s , we can assum e i t t o be h i g h l y p r o b a b le t h a t t h e F u n a n e se b e lo n g e d i n t h e m ain t o t h e Mon-Khmer g r o u p . The v e r y name o f t h e c o u n t r y g iv e n in th„e C h in e s e t e x t s ^ w o u l d seem t o i n d i c a t e t h i s , i f i t does in d e e d r e p r e s e n t t h e word bnam ’ m o u n ta in ’ , w h ich i s t y p i c a l l y Mo'n-Khmer. I t h a s m o reo v e r been* e s t a b l i s h e d th a t? t h $ Khmer la n g u a g e s p r e a d a lo n g t h e r o u t e s t h a t must h a v e b e e n f o l lo w e d by t h e c o n q u e r o r s o f Funan i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s d i f f u s i o n , v a r i o u s r e l a t e d d i a l e c t s a r e d i s p e r s e d a ro u n d t h e p e r i p h e r y o f p r e s e n t Cam bodia. T h ese d i a l e c t s show g r e a t s i m i l a r i t i e s , and a l s o h a v e f e a t u r e s i n common d i f f e r e h t i l t i n g them fro m Khmer, w h ich l e a d s t o t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e m odern v e r s i o n s p f the* .spoken la n g u a g e o f t h e p e o p le o f F u - n a n . ’ ’ -
However t h a t may b e , t h e f a c t t h a t Cambodian was t h e l a n g
u a g e o f Chen-La (550-802 A .D , ) , F u n a n ’ s s u c c e s s o r in t h e
Mekong V a l l e y , and o f t h e g r e a t k ingdom o f Angkor (80 2 -
11+31 A .D , ) , whose s u z e r a i n t y a t i t s h e i g h t e x te n d e d e a s t
w ard t o t h e s e a , n o r th w a rd t o T ong k ing and n o r t h e r n L a o s ,
w e s tw a rd t o Burma, and so u th w a rd t o M alay a , i s a t t e s t e d by
1 . B r i g g s , op . c i t . . p . 15 .
2 . H a r r i s o n , op . c i t . , p . 1 7 .
3 . G. C o ed es , The Making o f S o u th E a s t A s ia (London, R o u t». l e d g e an d .K eg an P a u l , 196(57 p . 62 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
an abundance o f s t o n e i n s c r i p t i o n s c o v e r in g t h e p e r i o d from
.the 7 th t o t h e 1 8 th c e n t u r i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e f a c t t h a t
p o c k e t s o f s p e a k e r s o f M o n -K h m e r-re la te d d i a l e c t s a r e fo u n d
a l l o v e r m a in la n d S o u th e a s t A s ia , s u c h a s t h e B ahn ar , Mnong
G ar , H a la n g , and S re o f Vietnam} t h e S t i e n g , B i e t , B rao ,
and Samre o f Cambodia^. the .K hm u?, L am et, S o u e i , and So o f
Laos} t h e Kuy, So, Chong, and Lawa o f T h a i la n d } t h e Mon,
P a la u n g , Wa, and R ian g o f Burma; and p o s s i b l y t h e SeraangP
and S a k a i o f M a la y s ia , seems t o i n d i c a t e t h a t Mon-Khmer i n
f a c t . r e p r e s e n t s a much o l d e r l i n g u i s t i c s u b s t r a tu m w hich
was l a t e r e n g u l f e d , p a r t i a l l y a s s i m i l a t e d , and p u sh e d i n t o
t h e h i l l s b y s u c c e e d in g m i g r a t i o n s o f V ie tn a m e se , T a i , and
Burm ese, A t any r a t e , t h e im p o r ta n c e o f Cambodian f o r t h e
l i n g u i s t i c h i s t o r y o f S o u th e a s t A s ia seems o b v io u s .
As f o r f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e on t h e l a n g u a g e , t h e Cam
b o d ia n s h a v e bo rrow ed much o f t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , j u d i c i a l ,
and l i t e r a r y v o c a b u la r y from S a n s k r i t . 3 W ith t h e a d v e n t o f
T h e ra v ad a Buddhism a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y ,
Cambodian began t o b o rrow P a l i w o rd s , and c o n t i n u e s t o u s e
1 . G eo rges M aspero , Grammaire de l a l a n g u e khmere ( P a r i s , I ra p r im e r ie N a t i o n a l e 7 191f?J p . 23 .
2 . F r a n k .M .L e B a r , G e r a ld D. H ic k e y , and John K. M usgrave , E th n i c G roups o f M ain lan d S o u th e a s t A s ia (New Haven,Human R e l a t i o n s A rea Files"," 196^ ) "pp7 2B'7-8.
3 . F. M a r t i n i , '* L a la n g u e cam bodgienne* *, F r a n c e - A s ie L|. (19U-9) p p . 9 0 1 -9 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
P a l i a s a m a jo r s o u r c e o f n e o lo g is m s t o d a y . * D u r in g t h e
p e r i o d o f F re n c h d o m in a t io n , many F r e n c h words w ere b o r
row ed i n t o t h e l a n g u a g e arid , h a v e become an i n t e g r a l p a r t
o f t h e c o l l o q u i a l l a n g u a g e , e s p e c i a l l y i n u r b a n a r e a s .
Review o f s o u r c e s
S in c e a c c u r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f m odern d i a l e c t s i s a
p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a c c u r a t e h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , i t i s
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t no modern s t r u c t u r a l grammar o f Cambodian,2su c h a s t h a t o f R ic h a r d B. Noss f o r T h a i , R o b e r t B. Jo n e s
f o r K a r e n ,^ and L a u re n c e Thompson f o r V ie tn a m e se ^ h a s b e en
p u b l i s h e d . The few s t u d i e s done by t r a i n e d l i n g u i s t s h a v e
b een c o n c e rn e d o n ly w i th p h o n o lo g y o f t h e l a n g u a g e , and
p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h t h e ' ' r e g i s t e r ' ' p ro b le m i n t h e Cambodian
vow el s y s te m , a s f i r s t d e l i n e a t e d by H en derson i n 1952 .
1 . On t h i s s u b j e c t , s e e F e M a r t i n i , ' 'D e l a c r e a t i o n a c t u e l l e d e s m ots en c am b o d g ien 1' , B u l l e t i n de l a S o c i e t e L l n g u i s t i q u e de P a r i s 57 (1962) p p . 161-71+j
2 . R i c h a r d B. N o ss , An O u t l i n e o f S iam ese Grammar (Ph.D . T h e s i s , Y a le U n i v e r s i t y ' , 1951+7 u n p u b l i s h e d ) . An expand ed v e r s i o n i s a v a i l a b l e i n h i s l a t e r T h a i R e f e r e n c e Grammar (W a sh in g to n , D .C . , F o r e ig n S e r v i c e I n s t i t u t e , 1961+71
3 . R o b e r t B. J o n e s , K aren L i n g u i s t i c S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s i n ’X i n g u i s t i ' c s 25 ( B e rk e le y and Los A n g e le s , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 ) . .
1}., L a u re n c e C. Thompson, A V ie tn a m e se Grammar ( S e a t t l e , U n i v e r s i t y o f W ash ing ton P re s s ' , 1 9 6 5 ) .
5 . E u g e n ie ’ J . A. H en d e rso n , ' 'T h e Main F e a t u r e s o f Cambodian P r o n u n c i a t i o n ' ' , B u l l e t i n o f t h e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s ll+ (1952) p p . **11+9-W e
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
9
The f i r s t o f t h e s e t o a p p e a r was t h a t o f M a r t i n i in 1 9 l |9 ,^
w h ic h i s a c o m p le te t r e a t m e n t o f t h e n o n - i n t o n a t i o n a l f e a
t u r e s o f Cambodian p h o n o lo g y , b u t whose p h o n e t i c s l e a d on e '
t o s u s p e c t t h a t h e was d e a l i n g w i t h a r a t h e r v a r i a n t d i a
l e c t . The m ost w id e ly q u o te d i s . H e n d e rso n * s a r t i c l e , w h ich
i s e x c e l l e n t d e s c r i p t i v e l y , b u t w h ich d e a l s w i t h a h i g h l y
fo r m a l and i d e a l i z e d v a r i e t y o f s p e e c h .^ The a r t i c l e a l s o
i n c l u d e s an i n t e r e s t i n g t h e o r y o f t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l s t r u c - - -
t u r e o f Cambodian w o rd s . The s t u d y i s c a s t i n t h e te rm s o f
t h e P i r t h i a n s c h o o l o f l i n g u i s t i c s , and d o e s n o t p u r p o r t
t o be a phonem ic a n a l y s i s . P innow ’ s two p a p e r s ^ a r e n o t
b a s e d on p r im a r y i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d f ro m n a t i v e infor*-. •
m a n t s , b u t a r e r a t h e r a c o m p a r iso n and s y n t h e s i s o f t h e
M a r t i n i and H en d erso n a n a l y s e s , on t h e b a s i s o f w h ic h , a lo n g
w i th i n f o r m a t i o n f ro m t h e w r i t i n g s y s te m , h e r e c o n s t r u c t s
an e a r l i e r s t a g e o f t h e l a n g u a g e . ^ The o n l y more o r l e s s
1 . F . M a r t i n i , * ’ A pergu p h o n o lo g iq u e du c am b o d g ie n * 1, B u l l e t i n de l a S o c i e t e L l n g u i s t i q u e de P a r i s lj2 (19l|2~i^>) p p . 1 1 2 -3 1 .2 . The t r e a t m e n t s o f b o t h M a r t i n i and H e n d e rso n w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n A ppend ix A.3 . H e in z - J u r g e n P innow , 1’ S p r a c h g e s c h i c h t l i c h e Erw agungen zum Phonem system d es Khmer*' , Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P h o n e t ik und & .llgem eine S p r a c h w is s e n s o n a f t 10 (19$7} )£; “ 3T 8 - 9 1 , and* *B em erkungen^zur S i l b e n - u nd W o r t s t r u k t u r d e s Khmer11, Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P h o n e t i k und a l l g e m e in e S p r a c h w is s e n s c h a f t I I (1958T”pp.I}.. I am i n d e b t e d t o P h i l i p N. J e n n e r o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f H aw a ii f o r E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e s e two a r t i c l e s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
c o m p le te grammar o f t h e Cambodian la n g u a g e so^faj? p u b l i s h e d
i s t h a t o f G eo rges M aspero^ . T h is r a t h e r th o r o u g h gram m ar,// u
p u b l i s h e d i n 1915 , s u f f e r s f rom t h e l i n g u a - c e n t r i c b i a s
t y p i c a l o f e a r l i e r g ram m ars , a t t r i b u t i n g t o t h e la n g u a g e
In d o -E u ro p e a n g ra m m a t ic a l c a t e g o r i e s . M asp e ro 1s t r a n s c r i p
t i o n i s more a t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n th a n a p h o n e t i c r e p r e s e n t s ! - -
t i c n o f t h e so u n d s o f t h e l a n g u a g e , a s a c o n se q u e n c e o f
w h ich t h e work c o u ld a lm o s t be c a l l e d a g ra p h e m ic a n a l y s i s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e book i s a v a l u a b l e s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t t h e l a n g u a g e , and c o n t a i n s a u s e f u l - l i s t o f d e r i v a t -
t i o n a l l y - r e l a t e d fo rm s , w h e th e r o r n o t t h e m echanism s a r e
f u n c t i o n a l i n p r e s e n t - d a y s p e e c h . I n a d d i t i o n t o M a sp e ro 1s
w o rk , s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s d e a l i n g v r i th s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s o f
Cambodian grammar h a v e b een p u b l i s h e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s by
M a r t i n i . 2
V a r io u s m an u a ls and t e x tb o o k s o f Cambodian w ere p u b
l i s h e d th r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d o f F re n c h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in
1 . G eo rges M aspero , o p . c i t .
2 . F . M a r t i n i , " L e s e x p r e s s i o n s de ‘ e t r e 1 en s i a m o is e t en c a m b o d g ie n 11, B u l l e t i n de l a S o c i e t e L i n g u i s t i q u e de P a r i 3 52 (19!?6) pp t 289-306* and 11 La d i s t i n c t i o n du p r e d i c a t de q u a l i t e e t de l ! e p i t h e t e en cam bodgien e t en s i a m o i s 11. B u l l e t i n de l a S o c i e t e L i n g u i s t i q u e de P a r i s 53 (1 9 5 7 -0 )PP. 295 - 3 0 5 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
11
Cambodia.'*’ However, t h e o n ly Cambodian la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g
m a t e r i a l s p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e w h ich a r e b a s e d on m odern
t e c h n iq u e s o f s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s a r e t h o s e o f Noss i n
19592 and 1 9 6 6 .3
0 . 5 P u rp o se and Scope
The p u rp o s e o f t h i s s t u d y w i l l be t o p r e s e n t a d e s c r i p
t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f Cambodian
gram m ar, a t a l l g r a m m a t ic a l l e v e l s , i n c l u d i n g p h o n o lo g y ,
m o rp h o lo g y , and s y n t a x . The t h e o r e t i c a l f ram ew ork w i l l b e
p r i n c i p a l l y t h a t o f t h e ’ ’ i te m and a r r a n g e m e n t ’ ’ ^ s c h o o l o f
c u r r e n t A m erican d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s , b u t w i t h i n s i g h t s
g a in e d from o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s , su c h a s t h o s e deve loped , by t h e
L ondon, P r a g u ia n , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l , an d t r a d i t i o n a l s c h o o l s
o f d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s .
1 . E t i e n n e F r a n g o i s A ym onier, Cours e l e m e n t a i r e de cambodg i e n (S a ig o n , C o l le g e d es A d m i n i s t r a t e u r s s t a g i a r e s “, l"8'77}. J . T a u p in , Cours de l a n g u e cam bodgienne ( P r o f e s s e au C o l le g e d e s I n t e r p r e t e s p a r J . T a u p in , M ars, 1 8 8 7 ) .R o lan d M eyer, C ours de cam bodgien e t l e c t u r e s c a m b o d g ie n n e s» N o u v e l le e d i t i o n (Phnom Penh , A. P o r t a i l , 1929*17 L . M anipoud, C ours de l a n g u e cam bodgienne (Phnom Penh, Im p r im e r ie R o y a le , I 9I4I ) •G a s to n C a m b e fo r t , I n t r o d u c t i o n au cam bodgien ( P a r i s , M aiso nneuv e , 1 9 5 0 ) .
2 . R ic h a r d B. N o s s ,a n d V anphut H, Phan , Cam bodian: B a s ic C o u r s e , U n i t s 1 -1 2 (W ash ing ton , D .C . , F o r e ig n S e r v i c e I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 5 9 ) .
3 . R ic h a rd ' B. Noss and Im Proum, w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o fD a le I . P u r t i e and Soraeth S u o s , Cambodian B a s ic C ourseVolume One, U n i t s 1-1^5 (W ash in g to n , D .C . , F o r e ig n S e r v i c eI n s t i t u t e , 1 9 6 6 ) .U-* See C h a r le s F. H o c k e t t , 11 Two M odels o f G ram m atica lD e s c r i p t i o n ’ ’ , Word. 10 (19 5^ ) pp. 2 1 0 -3 l | .
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1 2
0 .6 B ackground
The p r e s e n t w ork i s b a s e d on d a t a c o l l e c t e d from 3l\.
i n f o r m a n ts i n t h e c o u r s e o f two y e a r s 1 r e s e a r c h i n I t h a c a ,
London, Bangkok, and Phnom Penh .
A l th o u g h th e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e d a t a was c o l l e c t e d
i n Bangkok, d u r i n g s e v e r a l t r i p s t o Cambodia a d i a l e c t
s u r v e y was c a r r i e d o u t , b a se d on d a t a c o l l e c t e d from i n f o r - -
m ants from a l l o f t h e C a m b o d ian -sp ea k in g p r o v i n c e s o f t h e
c o u n t r y . In a d d i t i o n , t a p e r e c o r d i n g s w ere made o f c o n
v e r s a t i o n s i n s t a n d a r d Cam bodian, w h ich p r o v i d e d an im p or-~
t a n t means o f v e r i f y i n g t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d from t h e p r i n c i p a l
i n f o r m a n t , a s w e l l a s an i n v a l u a b l e s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n
on i n t o n a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s . F u r t h e r d a t a w ere p r o v i d e d by
m o n ito M p g r a d i o b r o a d c a s t s from Phnom P en h , and from
Cambodian la n g u a g e n e w s p a p e r s , b o o k s , and d i c t i o n a r i e s
p u rc h a s e d i n Cambodia.
S in c e t h e p r i n c i p a l i n f o r m a n t f o r t h e p r e s e n t work
was a n a t i v e o f Takeo p r o v i n c e i n s o u t h e r n Cam bodia, r e s i
d e n t i n Bangkok, t h i s w i l l be e s s e n t i a l l y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f
t h e Takeo d i a l e c t o f Cambodian. However, t h e Takeo d i a l e c t
d i f f e r s from s t a n d a r d spoken Cambodian o n ly on t h e phono
l o g i c a l l e v e l , and t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e d i s c u s s e d in
A ppend ix A, S ta n d a r d spoken Cambodian in t h i s work r e f e r s
t o t h e m ost w id e s p re a d spoken form o f t h e n a t i o n a l w r i t t e n
l a n g u a g e , and i s p r o b a b l y b e s t r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e d i a l e c t s
sp ok en in t h e p r o v i n c e s s u r r o u n d in g th e .p r o v in c e o f •
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13
1K an d a l , and a ro u n d t h e s o u t h e r n end o f t h e T o n le Sap*
1 . The d i a l e c t sp o k e n i n Phnom Penh and t h e im m e d ia te ly s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a o f K an d a l P r o v in c e d i f f e r s p h o n o l o g i c a l l y f ro m b o th t h e s t a n d a r d c o l l o q u i a l and t h e T akeo d i a l e c t d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w in g work - s e e A ppend ix A. See a l s o R ic h a r d B. N o ss , 11 The T re a tm e n t o f *-/R/ i n Two Modern Khmer D i a l e c t s ’ 1, i n Norman H, Z id e , e d „ , S t u d i e s i n C o m p a ra t iv e A u s t r o a s l a t i c L i n g u i s t i c s (The H ague, Mouton and C o . , 1966)- p p . &9-95.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 . 0 P h o n o log y
1 . 1 Phonemes
Cambodian u t t e r a n c e s a r e composed o f c o m b in a t io n s o f
m u t u a l l y c o n t r a s t i v e so u n d u n i t s , o r phonem es. 3. These '
phonemes f a l l i n t o two c l a s s e s :
1 . s e g m e n ta l phonem es, w h ich o c c u r in a te m p o ra l : ,
s e q u e n c e , and
2 . s u p r a s e g m e n ta l phonem es, w h ich o c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
w i t h , and may v a r y w i t h , d i f f e r e n t o c c u r r e n c e s o f
t h e same s e g m e n ta l phonem es,
1 .1 1 S e g m en ta l phonemes
S e g m e n ta l phonemes a r e d e f i n e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e
s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e , w h ich i s t h e minimum p h o n o l o g i c a l u n i t
w h ich o c c u r s a s t h e s e g m e n ta l c o n s t i t u e n t o f a c o m p le te
u t t e r a n c e . The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e can be
r e p r e s e n t e d . b y t h e fo r m u la (0^5 w i t h t h e .
l i m i t a t i o n t h a t i f Vg d o e s n o t o c c u r , t h e n Cj ̂ m ust o c c u r . ^
r e p r e s e n t s any c o n so n a n t , w h ich o c c u r s a s t h e i n i t i a l
phoneme o f a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e .
Cg r e p r e s e n t s any one o f a s u b - c l a s s o f C-̂ w h ich o c c u r
1 . Phonemes a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s a p p ro a c h s e e t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o W il l ia m A. S m a lle y , O u t l i n e o f Khmu9 S t r u c t u r e , A m erican O r i e n t a l S e r i e s E ssa y s ¥ 2 ( B a l t im o r e , A m erican O r i e n t a l S o c i e t y , I 9 6 0 ) .
2 , The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e i s d i s c u s s e d in t h e s e c t i o n on P h o n o lo g ic a l words ( 1 , 2 ) ,
Ik
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
I
IS
a f t e r c e r t a i n phonemes ( fo rm in g tw o - p la c e i n i t i a l
c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e s ) .
r e p r e s e n t s t h e phoneme / h / w hich may o c c u r a f t e r
c e r t a i n C-^Cg se q u e n c e s ( fo rm in g t h r e e - p l a c e i n i t i a l c o n
s o n a n t s e q u e n c e s ) .
r e p r e s e n t s any vow el w hich may o c c u r a f t e r C-̂
phonem es.
V2 r e p r e s e n t s any one o f a s u b - c l a s s o f V-̂ w h ich may
o c c u r a f t e r c e r t a i n phonem es.
r e p r e s e n t s any one o f a s u b - c l a s s o f w h ich may
o c c u r a f t e r V^ phonem es, o r a f t e r a se q u e n c e o f V^Vg.
1 .1 1 1 C la s s phonemes (c o n s o n a n t s )
Cambodian h a s 18 c o n s o n a n t phonem es, w h ich can be
a r r a n g e d d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y a s f o l l o w s :
L a b i a l D e n ta l P a l a t a l V e la r G l o t t a l
S to p s
V o ic e l e s s u n a s p . P t c k V
V o ic ed u n a s p . b d
S p i r a n t s
V o i c e l e s s ( f ) s h
C o n t in u a n t s
N a sa l ra n A#n 5
S e m iv o c a l ic w yL a t e r a l 1
T r i l l e d r
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16
Of th e above i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s , / f / i s r a r e ( o c c u r
r i n g o n ly i n a . f e w l o a n - w o r d s ) . A l l i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n ts a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g exam ples*
1 .1 1 1 1 P h o n e t ic d e s c r i p t i o n o f c o n s o n a n ts
A l l p o s i t i o n a l a l l o p h o n e s a r e d e s c r i b e d f o r e a c h
c o n s o n a n t . D i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l be d i s c u s s e d u n d e r s u c c e e d in g
c l a s s h e a d i n g s .
1 . V o i c e l e s s s t o p s
/ p t c k / fo rm an a l l o p h o n i c s e t . They a r e n o r m a l ly
f o r t i s i n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n , w i t h / c / h a v in g f r i c a t i v e r e
l e a s e i n i t i a l l y b u t n o t f i n a l l y . They a r e s l i g h t l y a s
p i r a t e d b e f o r e o t h e r v o i c e l e s s s t o p s ( e x c e p t / q / ) and
s o n o r a n t s ( e x c e p t / r / } . They a r e l e n i s b e f o r e / r s h / , .
and f o r t i s and r e l e a s e d b e f o r e / b d q / . They a r e l a b i a l
i z e d b e f o r e t h e v o w e ls / u e o e / . They a r e l e n i s and u n r e
l e a s e d a f t e r lo n g vov re ls , and f o r t i s and u n r e l e a s e d a f t e r
s h o r t v o w e ls , P i n a l s t o p a l l o p h o n e s f r e q u e n t l y i n v o lv e
/ p u u / • u n c l e ’
/ c u u / ’ t o be s o u r ’
/ b 8 y / ’ t h r e e '
/ q o o / ' O h!1
/ s o o / ' so u n d '
/ m e e t / ' s i z e '
/ f 3 e e t / ' r e l a t i v e '
/ w e e / ' 3 r d p e r s o n p ro n o u n '
/ l u e c / ' t o s t e a l '
/ t u u / 'c u p b o a r d '
/ k u u / ' p a i r '
/ d e y / ' e a r t h '
/ f o o i 3/ ' f l o c k , h e r d '
/ h o o / ' t o f lo w '
/ n e e t / 1 c h i e f
A ) e e y / ' t o be e a s y '
/ y a e y / 'g r a n d m o th e r '
/ r u e c / ' a l r e a d y '
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17
h o m o rg an ic p o s t - n a s a l i z a t i o n , a s in / s r o k / [ s r o ^ k S ] ‘ c o u n t r y ’ .
The p o s i t i o n a l v a r i a n t s may be s y m b o l iz e d a s f o l l o w s ,
u s i n g / k / a s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e g ro u p
[ k ‘ 3 ( s l i g h t l y a s p i r a t e d ) b e f o r e o t h e r v o i c e l e s s s t o p s
( e x c e p t / q / ) and s o n o r a n t s ( e x c e p t / r / ) .
[£ , 3 ( l e n i s ) b e f o r e / r s h / .
[k^3 ( f o r t i s r e l e a s e d ) b e f o r e / b d q / .
[k « ] ( l a b i a l i z e d ) b e f o r e / u e o e / ,
( l e n i s u n r e l e a s e d ) ~ [k$3 a f t e r lo n g v o w e ls .
[ 1c*13 ( f o r t i s u n r e l e a s e d ) ~ [kS3 a f t e r s h o r t v o v je ls ,
[ k 3 e l s e w h e r e .nI n a d d i t i o n , / k / h a s s t r o n g l y f r o n t e d a r t i c u l a t i o n [k<]
a f t e r t h e v o w e ls / i i ee a e / .
/ q / i s a g l o t t a l s t o p w h ic h i s f o r t i s [£3 i n i n i t i a l
p o s i t i o n and a f t e r s h o r t v o w e ls , and l e n i s b e f o r e / w / i n
/ q w e y / ’w h a t1 an d a f t e r lo n g v o w e ls .
2 , V o ic e d s t o p s
/ b d / a r e p r e v o i c e d f o r t i s v o i c e d s t o p s [& b], [A d ] ,
/ d / h a s a l v e o l a r a r t i c u l a t i o n .
3 . V o i c e l e s s s p i r a n t s
/ f / i s a l a b i a l i z e d v o i c e l e s s l a b i o - d e n t a l s p i r a n t [ f ^ 3 .
r i The p h o n e t i c sym bo ls u s e d h e r e a r e t h o s e o f G eorge L. T r a g e r , P h o n e t i c s t G l o s s a r y and T a b le s t S t u d i e s i n L i n g u i s t i c s O c c a s io n a l P a p e rs #6’ ( B u f f a l o , t J n i v e r s i t y o f B u f f a l o , 195>8).
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18
/ s / i s a f r i c t i o n l e s s v o i c e l e s s p o s t - d e n t a l g ro o v e
s p i r a n t [ s * 3 .
/ h / i s a . v o i c e l e s s s p i r a n t w h ich h a s p h a ry n g e a l
a r t i c u l a t i o n i n i t i a l l y , g l o t t a l a r t i c u l a t i o n a s se c o n d
member o f a s e q u e n c e , and p o s t - v e l a r a r t i c u l a t i o n f i n a l l y .
I t i s l e n i s a f t e r l o n g v o w e ls , f o r t i s e l s e w h e r e . The
a l l o p h o n e s may be r e p r e s e n t e d a s f o l l o w s :
[h ] ( f o r t i s p h a r y n g e a l s p i r a n t ) i n i t i a l l y .P\
[h ] ( f o r t i s g l o t t a l s p i r a n t ) a s Cg.
[^x] ( l e n i s p o s t - v e l a r s p i r a n t ) a f t e r lo n g v o w e ls .
[x ] ( f o r t i s p o s t - v e l a r s p i r a n t ) a f t e r s h o r t v o w e ls , n
ij.. N a s a ls
/m n n g / fo rm an a l l o p h o n l c s e t . They a r e f o r t i s ,
w i t h v o c a l i c o n s e t i n i t i a l l y , l e n i s and s h o r t a f t e r lo n g
v o w e ls , and f o r t i s and r e l a t i v e l y l o n g e r a f t e r s h o r t v o w e ls .
T hey a r e f r e q u e n t l y p r e c e d e d by h o m o rg an ic p l o s i o n i n f i n a l
p o s i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y / m / , a s i n / r o o m / [ r o : ^ m ] * t o s u r r o u n d 1.
They h a v e v o i c e l e s s o n s e t a s Cg a f t e r i n i t i a l v o i c e l e s s
s t o p s . The common a l l o p h o n e s o f t h e c l a s s may be shown a s
f o l l o w s , u s i n g / m / a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e c l a s s :
[Jvrn] ( v o i c e l e s s o n s e t ) a s Cg a f t e r v o i c e l e s s s t o p s ,
l^n ] ~ [£m] ( l e n i s ) a f t e r lo n g v o w e ls .
lm ] ~ [£ra] ( f o r t i s ) a f t e r s h o r t v o w e ls .r~ i t—. .
[™m] ( v o c a l i c o n s e t ) e l s e w h e r e .
In a d d i t i o n , / jo/ , l i k e / k / , i s s t r o n g l y f r o n t e d a f t e r / i i / ,
/ e e / , and / a e / .
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19
Sem ivow els
/ w / i s a l a b i a l sem ivow el w i th s l i g h t l a b i o - d e n t a l
c o n t a c t i n i t i a l l y , w i t h c o n s e q u e n t s p i r a n t i z a t i o n , and
p r o g r e s s i v e l a b i a l i z a t i o n . I t may be d e l a b i a l i z e d i n
f i n a l p o s i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r / o f o r / a / , a s i n / t o w /
[ t o <u|j 3 ! t o g o ’ and / q a a w / [ ’ a j ^ ] ' s h i r t 1, w i t h f i n a l
l a b i o - d e n t a l c o n t a c t i n e x tre m e c a s e s . ^ / w / , l i k e a l l
c o n t i n u a n t s w h ich o c c u r f i n a l l y , h a s c o m p e n sa to ry l e n g t h e n
in g a f t e r s h o r t v o w e ls . L ik e a l l c o n t i n u a n t s e x c e p t / r /
t h a t o c c u r a s Cg# i t h a s v o i c e l e s s o n s e t a f t e r v o i c e l e s s
c o n s o n a n t s . The a l l o p h o n e s can be shown as f o l l o w s :
[ aw] ( v o i c e l e s s o n s e t ) a s Cg a f t e r v o i c e l e s s c o n s o n a n t s ,
[u ^ ] ( d e l a b i a l i z e d ) a f t e r lo n g v o w e ls .
[uj: ] ( l e n g th e n e d and d e l a b i a l i z e d ) a f t e r s h o r t v o w e ls .
[v £ ] ( l a b i o - d e n t a l c o n t a c t ) e l s e w h e r e .
/ y / i s a p a l a t a l sem ivow el w i t h s l i g h t a f f r i c a t i o n
i n i t i a l l y , e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r h i g h v o w e ls , a s i n / y i - t t /
[;ly&*jL3 ' s l o w , s l u g g i s h ' , / y / t e n d s to w a rd l a b i a l i z a t i o n
f i n a l l y a f t e r b a ck v o w e ls , a s i n /q o Q k u y / [ ’ ogkuySf] ' t o s i t ' ,** Hnand / k r a o y / [Jk r a >o vy)!() ' b e h i n d ' . I t s a l l o p h o n e s can be
shown a s f o l lo w s :
1 . My in f o r m a n t a c t u a l l y ' ' t h o u g h t 1 ' h e was u s i n g a p a l a t a l sem iv o w el, su c h a s [ y ] , and w hich h e u s e d in d e s c r i b i n g t h e sound t o me, b u t w h ich n e v e r o c c u r r e d in h i s a c t u a l s p e e c h .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2 0
[ j |y 3 ( a f f r i c a t e d ) i n i t i a l l y .
[jify) ( v o i c e l e s s o n s e t ) a s Cg.
[y ^ ] a f t e r b a c k v o w e ls .
[ y ] a f t e r n o n -b a c k lo n g v o w e ls .
[ y :3 a f t e r n o n -b a c k s h o r t v o w e ls .
6 . L a t e r a l
/ l / i s an a l v e o l a r l a t e r a l w i t h t h e f o l lo w in g
a l l o p h o n e s *
[1 ] i n i t i a l l y .
[ ^ 1 ] ( v o i c e l e s s o n s e t ) a s C£.
[1 ] ( r e t r o f l e x e d ) , a f t e r lo n g v o w e ls .
[ 1*3 ( r e t r o f l e x e d and l e n g t h e n e d ) a f t e r s h o r t v o w e ls .
7 . T r i l l
/ r / i s an a l v e o l a r t r i l l w i th t h e a l l o p h o n e s :
tx*1 3 ( s i n g l e f l a p ) a s Gg,
[ f ! r 3 ( t r i l l w i t h v o c a l i c o n s e t ) ~ [® r '3 i n i t i a l l y .
1 .1 1 1 2 P rob lem s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
As m e n t io n e d a b o v e , t h e v e l a r c o n s o n a n ts / 13/ and / k /
h a v e s t r o n g l y f r o n t e d a l l p p h o n e s [^<3 and [k<] a f t e r
/ i i e e a e / . S in c e t h e /nsX) / and / c * k / c o n t r a s t s a r e
n e u t r a l i z e d a f t e r t h e s e t h r e e v ow els ( t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n i s
p h o n e t i c a l l y i n t e r m e d i a t e ) , one c o u ld a n a ly z e them a s / n /
and / c / j u s t a s w e l l . ’*’ However, s i n c e / n / and / c / do n o t
1 , As Noss i n f a c t does i n h i s C am bodian: B a s ic C o u r s e , 19f?9.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2 1
o c c u r a f t e r num erous o t h e r v o w e ls ( s e e 1 . 1 2 5 ) , t h e y a p p e a r
t o b e g e n e r a l l y d e f e c t i v e i n d i s t r i b u t i o n . On t h e o t h e r
h a n d , i f on e a s s i g n s t h e n a s a l a l l o p h o n e w h ich o c c u r s a f t e r
/ i i ee a e / t o / g / (and t h e h o m o rg an ic s t o p a l l o p h o n e t o
/ k / ) , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f / g / i s r e l a t i v e l y c o m p le te .
T h is a n a l y s i s i s f u r t h e r s u p p o r te d . by t h e f a c t t h a t when
[k< ] a f t e r / a e / u n d e rg o e s d o u b l in g in p o l y s y l l a b i c fo rm s ,
t h e d o u b le d a l l o p h o n e i s p h o n e t i c a l l y [k ] r a t h e r t h a n [ c ] ,
a s i n / q a e k k e r e e c / [ ’ a* e£k<k© re•©££,] 1 in d ep en d en ce* .*•
1 .1 1 2 C l a s s Cg phonemes
1 ,1 1 2 1 P ro b le m s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
s e q u e n c e s f a l l i n t o t h r e e p h o n e t i c c a t e g o r i e s
on t h e b a s i s o f t h e k i n d o f t r a n s i t i o n w h ich o c c u r s b e
tw een them*
1 ) R e l a t i v e l y c l o s e t r a n s i t i o n [C C ], w i th o n s e t o f
s t r e s s on t h e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t . T h is k i n d o f t r a n s i t i o n
o c c u r s i n s e q u e n c e s w here i s / p t c k / and Cg i s / r s h / ,
and i n s e q u e n c e s w here C^ i s / s / and Cg i s / p t k m n g
w 1 r / .
2 ) S l i g h t a s p i r a t i o n o f . [C 'C ] and i n i t i a l d e v o ic in g
o f a f o l l o w i n g c o n t i n u a n t ( e x c e p t / r / ) a s Cg, T h is k in d o f
t r a n s i t i o n o c c u r s i n s e q u e n c e s w here C^ i s a v o i c e l e s s s t o p
1 . A p u r e l y p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f t h e fo rm s i n q u e s t i o n a r e s p e l l e d |g k |i n t h e w r i t i n g s y s te m , so t h a t t o a n a ly z e them a s b e in gp h o n e m ic a l ly / n c / w ould p ro d u c e u n n e c e s s a r y c o n f u s i o n .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
22
/ p t c k / and Cg i s a n o th e r v o i c e l e s s s t o p o r a c o n t i n u a n t
o t h e r t h a n / r / , e x c e p t f o r t h e se q u e n c e / k g - / *
3 ) Weak i n t r u d e d v o c a l i s m o f a r a i d - c e n t r a l q u a l i t y
[C£C] b e tw een and Cg. T h is k in d o f t r a n s i t i o n o c c u r s
i n any s e q u e n c e w here Cg i s / b d q / , any s e q u e n c e w here
C>|_ i s /m 1 / , and i n t h e s e q u e n c e s / k g - / and / s n - / .
I t w ould seera p o s s i b l e (an d , i n some s c h o o l s o f
l i n g u i s t i c s , p r e f e r a b l e ) t o a n a ly z e c l a s s 1 s e q u e n c e s a s
/CC/ , c l a s s 2 s e q u e n c e s a s /C h C /, and c l a s s 3 s e q u e n c e s as
/C e C / . The d e c i s i o n t o a n a ly z e a l l t h r e e c l a s s e s a s b e in g
s t r u c t u r a l l y /C C / i s b a s e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s :
1 ) The t r a n s i t i o n a l a l l o p h o n e s o f t h e t h r e e c l a s s e s
n e v e r c o n t r a s t p h o n e ra ic a l ly . Thus t h e y c a n be a n a ly z e d as
t h r e e a l l o p h o n e s o f C-j_ i n c o m p lem e n ta ry d i s t r i b u t i o n w i th
r e g a r d t o Cg* [C] i n c l a s s 1
[C * 3 ( a s p i r a t e d ) i n c l a s s 2
[Cg) ( r e l e a s e d w i th v o c a l i s m ) i n c l a s s 3 .
2 ) The a l l o p h o n e s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e c l a s s e s 2 and 3 a r e
i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n in some i d i o l e c t s ; f o r exam ple , /k m e e g /
t k ’/Jm ejigc ) - tk^5^ne:^g<3 ’ c h i l d ’ . F u r th e r m o r e , t h e r e seems
t o b e a c o n tin u u m o f c l o s e n e s s o f t r a n s i t i o n from c l a s s 1
t o c l a s s 3 . - F o r exam ple , t h o s e s e q u e n c e s o f c l a s s 1 i n
w h ic h C^ i s / s / a r e n o t a s c l o s e i n t r a n s i t i o n a s t h e o t h e r
members o f t h e c l a s s , w h i l e t h e c l a s s 3 s e q u e n c e s / p i k l tw
k w / a r e c l o s e r i n t r a n s i t i o n th a n t h e o t h e r members o f t h e
c l a s s . T h ese f a c t s seem, t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
23
h a v e no s t r u c t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .
3 ) [ C* 3 i n c l a s s 2 s e q u e n c e s d i f f e r s from t h e . / C h /
s e q u e n c e s i n c l a s s 1 i n t h a t t h e d e g re e o f a s p i r a t i o n i s
w e a k e r , and t h e p o s i t i o n o f a r t i c u l a t i o n i a f r o n t e r , t h a n
i n / C h / s e q u e n c e s . F u r th e r m o r e , when a / C h / se q u e n c e i s
s p l i t by a d e r i v a t i o n a l i n f i x , / h / i s r e t a i n e d i n t h e
d e r i v a t i v e , e .g .*
/ k h e g / ' a n g r y ' > /koraheiQ/ ' a n g e r '
By c o n t r a s t , when c l a s s 2 s e q u e n c e s a r e s p l i t by an i n f i x ,
p h o n e t i c a s p i r a t i o n i s l o s t , e . g . ?
/ k l a g / [ k ' ^ l a ^ ] ' s t r o n g ' > / k o m l a g / [ k o m l a ^ ] ' s t r e n g t h *
I4.) A l th o u g h t h e v o c a l i s m w h ic h o c c u r s i n s e q u e n c e s o f
c l a s s 3 i s p h o n e t i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h e r e d u c e d shwa / © / ( [ £ ] )
w h ich o c c u r s i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s , [®3 i n u n s t r e s s e d
s y l l a b l e s i s a lw ays e x p a n d a b le i n c a r e f u l s p e e c h t o a f u l l
vow el /g/, / o/, /o /, o r / a / , and i n a r e a d i n g p r o n u n c i a t i o n
even t o / o o / , /o g /, o r / a a / , w h i l e t h e [£ ] o f c l a s s 3 s e
q u e n ce s i s n o t e x p a n d a b le t o a f u l l v o w e l . F o r ex am p le ,
t h e i n i t i a l s e q u e n c e s o f t h e fo rm s / i b o o g / ' t e s t ' and
/ l e b o o g / ' f e n c e ' a r e p h o n e t i c a l l y s i m i l a r , b u t t h e y c o n t r a s t
s t r u c t u r a l l y . The u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e / i s - / f u r t h e r a l t e r
n a t e s w i th / r e - / and / t o - / i n more c a r e f u l s p e e c h ( s e e 2 . 1 ) . ^
1 . I t w ould be c o n v e n ie n t t o a n a ly z e [ rS C - ] se q u e n c e s a l s o a s . / C C - / , s i n c e no * / r C - / o th e r w i s e o c c u r s . However, a l l su c h s e q u e n c e s a p p e a r t o be e x p a n d a b le t o / r o C - / , and in f a c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y o c c u r w i th / o / vow el q u a l i t y i n t h e s p e e c h o f my p r i n c i p a l i n f o r m a n t . T h is a d h e re n c e t o t h e c r i t e r i o n o f e x p a n d a b i l i t y n e c e s s i t a t e s some s p e c i a l m orphophonem ic r u l e s f o r / r / ( s e e 2 , 2 , i te m 3 ) .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
T h u s , w h i l e t h e a l lo m o rp h / l e b o o io / ’ fence* i s p h o n e t i c a l l y
s i m i l a r t o / l b q o g / on t h e p h o n e t i c l e v e l , t h e two fo rm s
c o n t r a s t on t h e phonem ic and m orphophonem ic l e v e l s *
P h o n e t ic l e v e l Phonem ic l e v e l M orphophonemic l e v e l
[ l f b o * ^ ] / l b o o g / / l b o o g / ' t e s t *
[ l S b o * ^ ] / l o b o o g / / r o b o o g / 'f e n c e *
F o r a l l o f t h e f o r e g o i n g r e a s o n s , a l l n o n -e x p a n d a b le
i n i t i a l s e q u e n c e s o f two c o n s o n a n ts a r e a n a ly z e d a s /C C / ,
How ever, i n v ie w o f t h e p e c u l i a r l y l o o s e t r a n s i t i p n i n a l l
s u c h s e q u e n c e s , t h e te r m ’ ’ s e q u e n c e * ' i s p r e f e r r e d t o
M c l u s t e r * ' , w h ich w ould im p ly c l o s e t r a n s i t i o n and r e l e a s e
o f C-̂ i n t o Cg i n a l l c a s e s ,
1 ,1 1 2 2 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Cp phonemes
The m em bersh ip and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f C^ c an b e s t be
shown i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r t :
°1 C2
P t c k q b d ra n n 43 w 7 1 r s h
/ p / 1 2 3 k 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
A / I k 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 2lf 25
A / 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 31+ 35 36 37 38
M 39 ko i+i 1+2 k l l4±l- 14-5 1̂ 6 k l W 1+9 50 51 52 53 51+
A / 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 61+ 65 66 67
/q / 68
A / 69
A / 70 71 72 73 7k 75 76 77 78 79
A / 80 81 82 83 814- 85 86 87
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
25
The num ber a s s i g n e d t o e a c h s e q u e n c e in t h e c h a r t c o r r e s
p o n d s w i t h t h e num ber o f i t s e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n i n t h e
f o l l o w i n g l i s t *
I . / p t e e h / ’house*
3 . / p k a a / ’ f l o w e r 1
5 . / p d e y / ’h u s b a n d ’
7 . / p n a e / ' t o s e n d '
9 . / p y u e / ' t o s u s p e n d ’
I I . / p r a e / ' t o u s e ’
1 3 . / p h o k / ’ t o d r i n k '
15> . / t k a e 33/ ’ i l l u s t r i o u s '
1 7 , / t b a a n / ’ t o w e av e ’
1 9 . / t n a m / 'm e d i c i n e '
2 1 . / t w e ©/ ’ do o r ’
2 3 . / t l e e q / ' t o f a l l '
25> . / t h a o k / ' t o be c h e a p '-
2 7 e / c k a e / 'd o g '
2 9 . / c b a h / ' t o be c l e a r '
3 1 . / c m a a / ' c a t '
3 3 . / c n a o / ' t o be w i l t e d ’
3 5 . / c w e e ia / ' l e f t ( s i d e ) '
3 7 . /c r» a © n / 'm u ch , m any’
3 9 « / k p u e h / ' t o be h i g h ' -
l p . , / k c 9y / ' t o b o r r o w 1
lj.3 , / k b a a l / ' h e a d '
l} 5 . /k m a e / 'K hm er'
l j .7 ./k n o m / ' I '
2 , / p c o e p / ' t o a t t a c h 1
I}., /p q a e m / ' t o b e s w e e t '
6 , /pnum/ 'mountain'
8 . /piQUut/ ' to bathe ( tr . )'
lO ./p le w / 'road, way'
12 ./p seeJ3/ ' to be d ifferen t*
l l | . . / t p o e l / 'cheek'
l6 . / t q o o n / ' t o whine, complain'
1 8 ,/tm e y / 'to be new'
2 0 . / t $ a y / 'day, sun'
2 2 . / t y u u $ / ' c h a r c o a l '
21}../ t r a y / ' f i s h '
2 6 , / c p u j o / ' t o i n h a l e ( v a p o r s ) '
2 8 . / c q o i3/ 'b o n e '
30. /c d a o / ' l in g o t '
. 3 2 ,/c n a ^ / 'p o t'
3 l + . / c g a a y / ’ t o b e f a r '
3 6 . / c lo o 3 o / ' t o c r o s s '
3 8 . / c h a a / ' t o f r y '
^ l+ O ./k te e h / ' s k i l l e t '
lj2 . / k q o o q / ' t o c o u g h '
Ij-ll,/kdaw/ ' t o be h o t '
l|.6 , / k n o g / ' i n '
lj.8 , / k ^ j a a / 'g o o s e '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
26
l j .9 . /k w a q / ‘ t o be b l i n d '
£ l , / k l e o n / ' t o be h u n g r y '
5 > 3 . /k s a c / ' s a n d '
53> . / s p i y / 'c a b b a g e '
f ? 7 . / s k o a l / ' a c q u a i n t e d w i t h '
5>9./sb©w/ ' t h a t c h *
6 1 , / s m a w / ' g r a s s , h a y '
6 3 . / s n a e n / ' t o f e a r , r e s p e c t '
65 > ./sw aa / 'm onkey '
6 7 . / s r © y / 'woman'
6 9 . / d b © t / ' s i n c e , b e c a u s e '
7 i . / m c u l / ' n e e d l e '
7 3 . /m d a a y / ' m o th e r '
75>./mnoom/ ' a s h e s '
7 7 . /mre©m/ ' f i n g e r '
7 9 . /m h o o p / ' f o o d '
8 l f / i k 4 k / ' n o i s i l y '
8 3 . / l b a e x ) / 'g a m e '
S ^ . / l g e e c / ' a f t e r n o o n '
8 7 , / l h o i a / 'p a p a y a '
1 .1 1 3 C la s s Cq phoneme
C^ i s / h / . I t o c c u r s
E x am p le s :
/ s t h a a n / ' p l a c e '
/ l k h a o n / 'd r a m a '
£ 0 . / k y o l / 'w in d , a i r '
5 2 , / k r a w / 'o u t s i d e *
5 1 | . / k h a e / 'm o n th '
5 6 , / s t i i o / ' r i v e r '
£ 8 . / s q a e k / 'tom orrow *
6 0 . / s d a p / ' t o l i s t e n '
6 2 , / s n a a / 'c ro ssb ow *
61| . / s ] 3i e m / ' s i l e n t , q u i e t '
6 6 . / s l a p / ' t o d i e '
6 8 , / q w e y / 'w h a t '
70, / m t e e h / *a pepper*
72, /m q o o p / ' a n h e r b '
7i4. /m n o 0h / 'p i n e a p p l e '
76 , / m l u p / ' s h a d e '
7 8 . /m s a w / ' f l o u r '
8 0 , / l p e n - l p o n / ' i r r e s p o n s i b l e '
8 2 , / l q o o / ' t o be good , p r e t t y '
8 lj../ lraoem / ' s u f f i c i e n t '
8 6 , / lw e e ^ ) / 'c o m p a r tm e n t '
o n ly a f t e r / s t - / and / l k - / .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
27
1 .11 'If. C la s s ^ and Vg phonemes (v o w e l s )
The vow el sy s te m o f t h e Takeo d i a l e c t o f Cambodian
can be shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y a s f o l lo w s * ^
Arrows r e p r e s e n t d i p h th o n g s . A l l s im p le v ow els o c c u r e i t h e r
l o n g o r s h o r t . The d ip h th o n g s / e 8 u e o e / o c c u r e i t h e r lo n g
o r s h o r t ? o t h e r d ip h th o n g s o c c u r o n ly l o n g .
l . l l i j l P rob lem s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
The p h o n e t i c l e n g t h s o f vow el n u c l e i c a n be r e p r e s e n t e d
a s f o l l o w s :
[V]
[W ]
tv, 3[V.V]
S h o r t v o w els and s h o r t d ip h th o n g s a r e s t r u c t u r a l l y e q u i
v a l e n t i n l e n g t h . S h o r t d ip h th o n g s l i k e w i s e p a t t e r n w i t h
s h o r t vo w els i n o c c u r r i n g o n ly b e f o r e C^, w h i l e lo n g vow els
and lo n g d ip h th o n g s o c c u r in b o t h open and c l o s e d s y l l a b l e s ,
S h o r t vow els
S h o r t d ip h th o n g s
Long vow els
Long d ip h th o n g s
} S h o r t n u c l e i
Long n u c l e i
1 . See A ppend ix A f o r a c o m p a r iso n w i t h s t a n d a r d Cam bodian.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
S in c e e v e r y s h o r t vow el / V / h a s a l o n g vow el c o u n t e r -
S h o r t d ip h th o n g s can b e a n a l y z e d a s / V e / , and lo n g d ip h th o n g s
a s / V W / . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s c an be shown a s f o l l o w s :
T h is s o l u t i o n i s t h e m o st e l e g a n t , a s w e l l a s t h e m ost
e c o n o m ic a l , r e s u l t i n g i n an i n v e n t o r y o f o n ly e i g h t vow el
phonem es. T h is i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s o l u t i o n a d o p te d h e r e ,
b u t i n o r d e r t o e m p h a s ize t h e p a r a l l e l i s m i n l e n g t h and
d i s t r i b u t i o n be tw een t h e lo n g v o w els and l o n g - d i p h th o n g s ,
t h e l o n g d ip h th o n g s a r e r e w r i t t e n s im p ly / W / # S h o r t d i p h
th o n g s a r e th e n w r i t t e n w i t h a b re v e / t f e / t o d i s t i n g u i s h
them from t h e lo n g d i p h th o n g s , and a r e t r e a t e d a s o c c u r
r e n c e s o f V^. The fo llox-ring d i s t r i b u t i o n r e s u l t s :
An a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n w ould be t o a n a ly z e t h e e i g h t
lo n g v o w els a s n o rm a l v o w e ls / V / , w i t h a p a r a l l e l sy s te m o f
as s h o r t c o u n t e r p a r t s o f t h e lo n g d ip h th o n g s w ould t h e n be
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e l o n g - s h o r t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw een t h e
p a r t , l o n g v ow els can b e a n a ly z e d a s g e m in a te c l u s t e r s ' / W / .
Long n u c l e i
S h o r t n u c lcs h o r t v o w e ls / V /
s h o r t d ip h th o n g s / V e /
lo n g v o w e ls / W /
lo n g d ip h th o n g s / V W /
’ > { v«{
s h o r t vow els / V /
s h o r t d ip h th o n g s / V e /
lo n g v o w e ls /V V /
lo n g d ip h th o n g s /V V /
e i g h t s h o r t v o w e ls / V / . The a n a l y s i s o f t h e s h o r t d ip h th o n g s
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
29
s im p le v o w e ls . Such an a n a l y s i s , h o w e v e r , w ou ld i n c r e a s e
t h e t o t a l i n v e n t o r y o f v o w e ls t o 1 9 , and w ould n o t r e f l e c t
t h e s t a t i c t . u r a l e q u iv a l e n c e i n l e n g t h be tw een t h e l o n g
v o w e ls and l o n g d ip h th o n g s , s i n c e t h e y would be r e p r e s e n t e d
r e s p e c t i v e l y / V / and /VV/.'*’
A t h i r d p o s s i b l e a n a l y s i s w ould be t o p o s t u l a t e e i g h t
c a r d i n a l vow el .phonemes and a phoneme o f l e n g t h / * / . S h o r t
v o w e ls c o u ld t h e n be r e p r e s e n t e d / V / , s h o r t d ip h th o n g s /V V /,
l o n g v o w e ls / V * / , a n d lo n g d ip h th o n g s /V a V /. T h is s o l u t i o n
p o s e s t h e p ro b le m o f t h e phonem ic s t a t u s o f t h e phoneme / a / ,
1 .3X l|2 I l l u s t r a t i o n o f n u c l e i
The 2 ? n u c l e i w hich o c c u r a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e
f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s : •
/ i / a / c i h / * t o r i d e ’ / i i / a / c i i k / ' t o d i g ’
/ e / a / c e h / ’ t o knovr' / e o / : / c e e h / ' t h r e a d '
/ i / a / r i t / . ' t o t i g h t e n ’ / i i / ; / r i i t / ' t o k n e a d '
/© /a / t e g / ’ t o be t a u t ’ / p p / a / c e e g / ' f o o t , l e g '
/ a / a / d a y / 'h a n d ' ■ / a a / ; / s d a a y / ’ t o p i t y ’
/ u / ; / l u h / 'w h en ' / u u / t /m u u h / ' a f l y '
/ o / a / k o n / ' f i l m ' / o o / a / k o o n / ' c h i l d '
/ o / a / c o g / ' t o w is h ' / o o / a / c o o g / ' t o t i e '
1 , T h is s o l u t i o n , ho w ever , i s p e rh a p s more s u i t a b l e f o r m ost o t h e r d i a l e c t s o f Cam bodian, i n w h ich t h e r e a r e l a r g e r i n v e n t o r i e s o f lo n g th a n o f s h o r t v o w e ls .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
30
/ i e / « / c i © h / • t o a v o i d 1
/ e © / : / p e e q / 1 t o wear* / e © / : /p e © q / •w ord '
A © / : / r& e io / ' s to ry *
/ a e / : / h a e t / • rea so n *
/ a © / : / h a e y / ' a lre a d y *
/ a o / s / d a o y / •b y , with*
/ u e / : / l u s h / • t o r e p a y 1 / u © / : / l u e h / ' w i r e '
/ o e / : /k o e m / ' t o s u p p o r t 1 /o © / : /k o e m / •hunchback*
X* 1X14-3 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f V-̂
C la s s V-̂ i s f i l l e d by any s h o r t vowel o r s h o r t d i p h
t h o n g . . Whan V-̂ i s n o t f o l l o w e d by, C^' m u s t o c c u r .
/e© u e o© / o c c u r o n ly b e f o r e Cj^, and do n o t o c c u r a f t e r
/ b d q f s h / . / £ 0 a u o 0/ havo f a i r l y g e n e r a l d i s
t r i b u t i o n b e f o r e Cj^, w h i l e / i e e© u e o©/ a r e s h a r p l y
l i m i t e d , / i e / o c c u r o n ly b e f o r e / q h / , w i t h one o c c u r
r e n c e o f / - e y / , / e e / an d / o © / c o n t r a s t o n ly b e f o r e / h / ,
/ e © / o c c u r r i n g b e f o r e / q 13 h / o n ly , and /o © / o n ly b e f o r e
/ p t m n 1 h / . / u © / o c c u r s o n ly b e f o r e / t q n 13 h / .
l .H 'l^ l - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Vp
Any V , e x c e p t /V © / may f o l lo w i t s e l f a s V^.
I f Vg i s / © / , V1 i s n o t / o / .
I f V2 i s / e o / , i s / a / .
T h e re a r e few l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f lo n g
vo w e ls a f t e r c o n s o n a n t s , w i t h t h e f o l lo w in g e x c e p t i o n s :
/ i i / and / u u / do n o t o c c u r a f t e r / b d / .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
31
/ e a / d o e s n o t o c c u r a f t e r / b q s / ,
/ o a / does n o t o c c u r a f t e r / b q / .
W ith r e g a r d t o C[^, lo n g v o w e ls a r e g e n e r a l l y
c o m p a ra b le i n d i s t r i b u t i o n , w i t h / a a e a / h a v in g t h e w i d e s t
r a n g e o f o c c u r r e n c e , and / 4 4 4 a / t h e m ost l i m i t e d .
1 , 1114.^ P h o n e t i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f vow els
1 , A l lo p h o n ic s e t s
1 ) A l l h i g h and m id v o w els ( / i e 4 a u o / ) have lo w e r
a l l o p h o n e s a s s i n g l e v o w e ls t h a n as g e m in a te s .
2 ) A l l vow els h a v e a h i g h f r o n t g l i d e b e f o r e / c n / .
2 . S im ple vow els
/ i / H igh f r o n t u n ro u n d e d v o w e l.
S i n g l e : [ i ] b e f o r e / h / .
[ i v 3 b e f o r e / q / and i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s .
D o u b le : [ i ; ] a s i n / m i i f l / [ J P ra i :^ ] ' a u n t 1.
As V i i n d ip h th o n g : [ i « ] b e f o r e / a / .
/ e / H ig h e r -m id f r o n t u n ro u n d e d v ow el.
S i n g l e : [ e] b e f o r e / h / ,
[ e v ] b e f o r e / q / and i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s .
D o u b le : [ e : i l b e f o r e / k g / , a s i n / d e e k / ' [ ^ d e ; i k < ]
' t o l i e d o t m ' .
[ e « ] ( s h o r t e n e d ) b e f o r e / h / , a s i n / c e e h /
[S e* ^ ] ' t h r e a d ' , w h ich n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e
lo w e r and s h o r t e r a l lo p h o n e o f s i n g l e / e / b e f o r e / h / , a s i n
/ c e h / [5 e x l ' t o k n o w ', n n[e : ;J e l s e w h e r e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
As Y l i s d ip h th o n g : [ e A*3 b e f o r e /& /, a s in. / p e o q /
[ p e A«o?] 'w o r d 1.n
As Vg i n d ip h th o n g :
[ e ] a f t e r / a / , a s i n / k m a e / [k'JSJraae • e] ’Khmer*.
[ e ] a f t e r / a / and b e f o r e / k $ / , a s i n / q a e k /
[£ a e * e ik < ] ’ f i r s t ’ .
/ k / H igh b a c k u n ro u n d e d v o w e l.
S i n g l e ; [* « ] ( lo w e re d and f r o n t e d ) b e f o r e / c n / , a s i n
/ p i l e / [ p ' i l i ^ c s j ' t o f o r g e t * and / t m i n / [ t ’^ m ^ r p ’ t o o t h ' .
In t h e s e p o s i t i o n s i t a p p ro a c h e s t h e q u a l i t y o f / e / . The
a l l o p h o n e i s a s s i g n e d t o / k / b e c a u s e su c h an a n a l y s i s g i v e s
/ k / a d i s t r i b u t i o n p a r a l l e l w i t h o t h e r w id e ly d i s t r i b u t e d
v o w e ls , w h i l e / i / and / e / fo rm a s u b - s y s t e m from t h e s t a n d
p o i n t o f d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
[ 4 ] . e l s e w h e r e .
D o u b le : [4 :3
As V-l i n d ip h th o n g :
[4 » ] a s i n / r 4 o Q / [gr4*oi^3 ' s t o r y ' ,
/ e / M i d - c e n t r a l u n ro u n d e d v o w e l .
S i n g l e : [ ©< 3 b e f o r e / p n l / , a s i n / h e p / [ h a ^ ] ' b o x ’ .' A rn
[ o vi ] b e f o r e / c n / , a s i n / d o n / [<Jd9vi n |] 'c h a s e *
[0 3 e l s e w h e r e .
D o u b le : [ o : i 3 b e f o r e / c n / , a s i n / k h o o n / [ k h o j i n ] ’ s e e
[© •] b e f o r e / h / , a s i n / r a o h / [^roos^l ' s e a r c h * .
[ o : A] e l s e w h e r e , a s i n / c o o g / [ t f e :AQ3 ' f o o t ' .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
33
As Vg i n d i p h th o n g s :
[ e A3 a f t e r / a / , a s i n / k a e t / [ k a * © ^ ] ' t o h a p p e n ' ,
[e*^ a f t e r / i / , a s i n / t i © n / [ t i * © ^ ] ' c a n d l e ' .
[©I:] b e f o r e / c n / , a s i n / s a e c / [s= a»© £c3 ' t o l a u g h 1,
[ e ] e l s e w h e r e , a s i n / t e © n / [ t e A*©riJ ' g i f t ' .
/ a / H ig h e r - lo w f r o n t e d c e n t r a l u n ro u n d e d v o w e l .
S i n g l e ; [ a ^ ] b e f o r e / c n / , a s i n / b a n / [S b a<^ 3
' t o s h o o t ' .
la"1] e l s e w h e r e , a s i n / k a t / [k 'a 'H ] ' t o c u t ' .
D o u b le : Ca*<^3 b e f o r e / c n / , a s i n / t b a a n / [ t g b a i ^ n }
' t o w e a v e ' .
Ea*< 3 b e f o r e / h / t a s i n / c a a h / ' p o l i t e
r e s p o n s e u s e d by w om en', c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h t h e s h o r t e r a l l o
phone o f / a / i n / c a h / [ ^ a <x 3 ' t o b e o l d ' .
[a.s< 3 e l s e w h e r e , as i n / k a a t / t k a : ^ ! 'm a p ' .
As Vi i n d i p h t h o n g s :
[ae *] b e f o r e / e / , a s i n / k m a e / [k '^xnse*e3 'K hm er*,
[ a *3 b e f o r e / © / , a s i n / k a s t / [ka»©t,] ' t o h a p p e n ' .
[ a* > 3 b e f o r e / o / , a s i n /q & o y / [£ a » >ovy3 ' t o g i v e 1.
/ u / H igh b a c k ro u n d e d v o w e l .
S i n g l e t [ u i ] b e f o r e / c n / , a s i n / m u c / [ffmu^c;] ' t o d i v e ' .
[ u v3 e l s e w h e r e . ..r
D o u b le t t u t *3 b e f o r e / c n / , a s i n / i j u u c / [ SiDut^c,!
' t o b a t h e ' .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
t u . ] b e f o r e / h / , a s in /m u u h / [2?mu»4xi] ’h o u s e f l y ' ,
i n c o n t r a s t w i t h / n u h / [Snu^x] ' t h a t 1.r">
[u*.] e l s e w h e r e .
As Vi i n d i p h th o n g :
[u » ] b e f o r e / © / , a s in / l u e c / [ l u * e i c ,3 ' t o s t e a l ' .
/ o / Mid b a c k ro u n d e d vow el.
S i n g l e :
[ o l'*3 b e f o r e / c n / , a s i n / h o c / [h o v£ c 3 ' t o e x te n dA r>
[ 0*̂ 3 b e f o r e / w / , as i n / t o w / [ t o ^ : ] ' t o g o ' .
[ o ^ ] e l s e w h e r e , a s i n / t o k / [ t o v3ik] ' t a b l e ' .n r*a
D o u b le :
[5 * 1 ] b e f o r e / c n / , a s i n / t o o c / ' s m a l l ' .
[ o . ^ 3 b e f o r e / h / , a s i n / q o o h / [ ’ o ^ ^ x ] ' t o d r a g '*• lj
[ o : 3̂ ] e l s e w h e r e .
As ^ i n d ip h th o n g :
[ 0 • < 3 b e f o r e / © / , a s i n ./po©:g/ [ p p ^ e ^ } ' e g g ' .
As V2 i n d ip h th o n g :
[ o v 3 a f t e r / a / , a s i n / k r a o m / [ k r a » >ov nj] ' u n d e r ' .
/ o / Low f r o n t e d - b a c k h a l f - r o u n d e d v o w el.
S i n g l e :
i n ’u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s .
[o"5] e l s e w h e r e , a s i n / k o t / [ k o ^ ] ' t o j o t d o w n '.
D o u b le :
[ o : < 3, a s i n / c o o t / [ < t ,3 ' t o m o o r ' ,9 t l L J
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3 . S h o r t d i p h t h o n g
/ e © / i s a s h o r t f a l l i n g d ip h th o n g w h ich g l i d e s from a
lo w e r-m id f r o n t u n ro u n d e d p o s i t i o n t o a m id c e n t r a l
u n ro u n d e d p o s i t i o n [ e § ] , a s i n / n e e q / [S n e?£ ] ‘ p e r s o n 1,
/ u © / i s a s h o r t d ip h th o n g w h ich g l i d e s f rom a l o w e r - h i g h
b a c k ro u n d e d p o s i t i o n t o a m id c e n t r a l u n ro u n d e d
p o s i t i o n . I t i s som etim es f a l l i n g [t/ £ ] and som etim es
r i s i n g [Y©], w i th no a p p a r e n t c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c t o r .
B e fo re / h / t h e c e n t e r i n g g l i d e may d i s a p p e a r , so t h a t
/ p u e h / [p'Kvx] ‘ s n a k e ’ c o n t r a s t s w i t h / p u h / [ p u vx ] ' t o• m n ri r i
b o i l ' p r i m a r i l y i n te rm s o f vow el h e i g h t (a s w e l l a s ,
i n t h i s exam ple , in t e r m s o f t h e l a b i a l i z e d a l l o p h o n e
o f s t o p s b e f o r e / u © / and / o s / ) ,
/ o © / i s a s h o r t d ip h th o n g w h ich g l i d e s f rom a lo ty e r -m id
b a c k ro u n d e d p o s i t i o n t o a m id c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n . I t •
may be e i t h e r f a l l i n g [o£ ] o r r i s i n g [ 2 o ] , F o r ex am p le ,
in / k o a t / ' h e ' i t i s u s u a l l y f a l l i n g [k)?o® t], w h i le i n
/ t o o l / ' u n t i l ' i t i s u s u a l l y r i s i n g [ tJ ? S © lr ] , a l t h o u g h
e i t h e r s e q u e n c e may o c c u r i n e i t h e r fo rm ,
1 ,1 1 5 C la s s Cj ̂ phonemes ( f i n a l c o n s o n a n t s )
i s any c o n s o n a n t e x c e p t / b d f r / , w i th t h e f o l l o w
i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s *
1 ) / p t ra n 1 h / seem t o o c c u r a f t e r a l l v o w e ls . Such
random g aps as do o c c u r i n t h e d a t a a r e p r o b a b l y due t o
i n s u f f i c i e n t d a t a .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
36
2 ) / c n / fo rm a s e t i n t h a t t h e y do n o t o c c u r a f t e r
/ i e o ee u© o© i i e e 34 oo i© ae o© /.
3 ) / k / an d / q / c o n t r a s t o n ly a f t e r / u / , . / k / o c c u r r i n g
o n ly a f t e r / £ © u o ee ee u u oo a e a© ao o© /, and / q / o n ly
a f t e r / i e a u o ee u© aa oo i© e© 4© u e / ,
l\.) The sem ivow el / w / o c c u r s o n ly a f t e r /© a o i i e e a a
i© e© a e / ,
$ ) The sem iv o w el / y / d o e s n o t o c c u r a f t e r / i o e© u© oe
i i ee 34 u u i© a e / ,
6 ) / s / o c c u r s i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n o n ly i n a h i g h l y
p e d a n t i c r e a d i n g p r o n u n c i a t i o n , b e in g r e p l a c e d by / h / i n
a l l o t h e r l e v e l s o f fo r m a l and c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h ,
P i n a l c o n t r a s t s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w in g
e x a m p le s :
/ k o m / ’ d o n ’ t
/ k o n / ’ f i l m ’
/ k o n / ’ t o be d e n s e , t h i c k '
/koiQ/ ' t r i c k ’
/ t r © w / ' t o be c o r r e c t ’
/ t r e y / ’ f i s h ’
/ s e l / ' s k i l l '
/ k a p / ' t o h a c k ’ .
/ k a t / ' t o c u t ’
/ k a c / ' t o b r e a k '
/ c e k / ' t o b i t e '
/ c a q / ' t o p i e r c e '
/ b a r a Q s a e s /* ’ 'F r e n c h '
/ c a h / ' t o be o l d '
1 , / b a r a g s a o h / i n n o rm a l s p e e c h (a s o p p o se d t o t h e r e a d i n g p r o n u n c i a t i o n c i t e d a b o v e ) .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
37
1*12 S u p ra s e g m e n ta l phonemes
S u p ra s e g m e n ta l phonemes a r e phonemes w h ich o c c u r
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h , and may v a r y w i t h , d i f f e r e n t o c c u r r e n c e s
o f t h e same s e g m e n ta l phonem es. The s e q u e n c e o f s e g m e n ta l
phonemes w i th w h ich a c l a s s o f s u p r a s e g m e n ta l phonemes
o c c u r s , and t h e u n i t t h u s d e f i n e d , i s t h e dom ain o f t h e
c l a s s . The dom ain o f s t r e s s phonemes i s t h e s y l l a b l e
n u c l e u s . The dom ain o f j u n c t u r e phonemes i s t h e s y l l a b l e .
The dom ain o f p h r a s e c o n t o u r s i s t h e l a s t s y l l a b l e o f a
p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e . The domain o f i n t o n a t i o n a l phonemes
i s t h e u t t e r a n c e .
1 ,1 2 1 S t r e s s phonemes
S t r e s s i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h c o n t r a s t i v e d e g re e s o f
lo u d n e s s and p i t c h i n s y l l a b l e n u c l e i . F ou r d e g re e s o f
s t r e s s a r e p o s t u l a t e d .
1 , / / unm arked , o r z e r o , s t r e s s . I t c o - o c c u r s w i t h ,
and d e f i n e s , u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s , a s / p i / i n / p i s a a / ' t o
e a t ' , / p r o / i n / p r o t e e h / ' c o u n t r y ' . I t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
b y lo w n u c l e u s volum e and p i t c h .
2 , / ' / s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s . I t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
n u c l e u s volum e and p i t c h w hich i s h i g h e r t h a n z e r o s t r e s s ,
b u t lo w e r th a n p r im a r y s t r e s s . I t ' t y p i c a l l y o c c u r s i n
c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h w i th f u n c t i o n w ords su c h a s p ronouns
and a u x i l i a r i e s . I t a l s o o c c u r s w i th t h e f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t
o f many compounds whose se c o n d c o n s t i t u e n t c a r r i e s p r im a r y
s t r e s s , a s in /d a e m - c h o o / ' t r e e ' , and w i th t h e se co n d
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
38
1 c o n s t i t u e n t o f a s m a l l c l a s s o f compounds whose f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t c a r r i e s p r im a r y s t r e s s , a s i n / c e h - t a e / 'a lw a y s * .
3 , / ' / p r im a r y s t r e s s . P r im a ry s t r e s s i s t h e d e g re e o f
volume and p i t c h w hich c o - o c c u r s w i t h a l l p r im a r y o r c o n t e n t
words i n an u t t e r a n c e , su c h a s n o u n s , v e r b s , and a d j e c t i v e s ,
a s w e l l a s w i th s y l l a b l e s c i t e d i n i s o l a t i o n . I t i s th u s
r e g a r d e d a s n o rm a l o r c a r d i n a l s t r e s s .
I4.. / ' / c o n t r a s t i v e s t r e s s . I t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
g r e a t e r volum e th a n p r im a r y s t r e s s , and u s u a l l y by e x t r e m e
l y h i g h o r f a l s e t t o p i t c h . I t t y p i c a l l y o c c u r s w i th i n t e r
j e c t i o n s , b u t i s d e f i n e d by i t s c o n t r a s t w i t h p r im a r y s t r e s s
i n c o n t r a s t i v e u t t e r a n c e s .
C o n t r a s t s !
/ / / p i s a a / ' t o e a t '
/ * / / d a e m - c h e e / . ' t r e e '
/ V / b a a t l . / ' y e s '
1 ,1 2 2 J u n c t u r e phonemes
J u n c t u r e phonemes a r e c o n t r a s t i n g m an ners o f t r a n s i t i o n
b e tw een s y l l a b l e s i n an u t t e r a n c e . The t r a n s i t i o n from one ■
s e g m e n ta l phoneme t o a n o th e r w i t h i n a s y l l a b l e i s d e f i n e d
■as n o rm a l t r a n s i t i o n , and i s n o t a phoneme. The f o u r
j u n c t u r e phonemes a r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h , and d e f i n e d by , f o u r
c o n t r a s t i n g d e g r e e s o f s y l l a b l e d u r a t i o n . S y l l a b l e d u r a t i o n
i s d e f i n e d a s t h e t o t a l t im e e l a p s e d b e tw een t h e b e g in n in g
o f t h e s y l l a b l e i n q u e s t i o n and t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e
f o l lo w in g s y l l a b l e .
t / ' / / p l i - s a a / 'b e c a u se *
t / V / p t e e h ch e e / 'w ooden h o u s e '
t / * / / ' b a a t l . / ' o f c o u r s e ! '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
39
1 . / + / c lo .se - j u n c t u r e . The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e h a s
s h o r t d u r a t i o n . I t t y p i c a l l y o c c u r s a f t e r bound s y l l a b l e s
w i t h z e ro o r / ' / s t r e s s .
2 . / - / medium j u n c t u r e . The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e h a s
m e d iu m -s h o r t d u r a t i o n . The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e may c a r r y
s e c o n d a r y / ' / o r p r im a r y / * / s t r e s s . T h is j u n c t u r e u s u a l l y
i n d i c a t e s ;a , c l o s e r g ra m m a t ic a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n s y l l a b l e s * —*»t h a n d o e s open j u n c t u r e / / (u n m a rk e d ) , t h u s f r e q u e n t l y
o c c u r r i n g in com pounds. I t may, h o w e v e r , o c c u r be tw een
bound s y l l a b l e s i n d e l i b e r a t e s p e e c h , a s i n / k a w - s u u /
( ~ /k a w + s u u / ) ‘r u b b e r 1 .
3 . / / open j u n c t u r e (u n m ark e d ) . The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e
h a s medium d u r a t i o n , an d may c a r r y e i t h e r p r im a r y o r s e c o n d a r y
s t r e s s , b u t i s n e v e r u n s t r e s s e d . Any s e q u e n c e o f s e g m e n ta l
phonemes bounded b y a two s u c c e s s i v e o c c u r r e n c e s o f open
j u n c t u r e i s a p h o n o l o g ic a l w o rd .
ij.. / * / l o n g j u n c t u r e . The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e h a s l o n g
d u r a t i o n , p r im a r y s t r e s s , and i s u s u a l l y acco m p an ied by
r a i s e d s u s t a i n e d p i t c h . T h is j u n c t u r e u s u a l l y I n d i c a t e s a
m a jo r im m e d ia te c o n s t i t u e n t c u t w i t h i n an u t t e r a n c e .
E x a m p le s t
/ + / * / s o Q + k h a a / ' p r o v i s i o n s ’
/ - / * / s o g - k h a a jo / ' b o t h s i d e s '
/ - / * /k o o c e h - t a e n i y e y b a r a g s a e h ^ . /
h e a lw ay s sp e a k F re n c h
'H e a lw ays sp e a k s F r e n c h . '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
fco
/ f t / k e e c e h t a e n l y e y b a r a ^ s a e h i , /
h e know -h ow -to s p e a k o n ly F re n c h
•He c an s p e a k o n ly F r e n c h . ’
/ / : /knom tw e o -k a a m in -b aan * t e e ) - . /
I w ork n e g a t i v e - a b l e e m p h a t i c - p a r t i c l e
’ I ’m n o t a b l e t o w o r k . '
/ t / t /knom tw o e -k a a* m ln -b a a n qey s o h i . /
I w ork n e g a t i v e - g e t a n y th i n g a t - a l l
'(W h en ) I w ork I d o n ' t make a t h i n g . '
1 .1 2 3 P h r a s e c o n t o u r phonemes
P h r a s e c o n to u r s a r e c o n t r a s t i n g p i t c h c o n to u r s whose
dom ain i s e i t h e r an i n t e r n a l o r a f i n a l s y l l a b l e . The
s y l l a b l e o f s e q u e n c e o f s y l l a b l e s be tw een any two o c c u r r e n c e s
o f p h r a s e c o n to u r i s d e f i n e d a s a p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e .
I n t e r n a l l y , p h r a s e c o n to u r s s i g n a l a m a jo r im m ed ia te c o n
s t i t u e n t c u t . T e r m in a l ly , p h r a s e c o n to u r s com bine w i t h t h e
i n t o n a t i o n a l phoneme / . / ' e n d o f c o n s t r u c t i o n ' t o form
i n t o n a t i o n a l m orphem es.
1 . / f / The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e h a s a r i s i n g p i t c h c o n to u r ,
2 . / \ / The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e h a s a f a l l i n g p i t c h c o n to u r .
3 . / l / The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e h a s a h i g h s u s t a i n e d p i t c h .
14-. / The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e h a s a low s u s t a i n e d p i t c h .
R i s i n g c o n to u r i s n o r m a l ly a s s o c i a t e d w i th i n t e r
r o g a t i v e u t t e r a n c e s . However, f a l l i n g c o n to u r may a l s o
o c c u r w i th q u e s t i o n s . F a l l i n g c o n to u r w i t h a q u e s t i o n
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10.
seem s t o c a r r y a s e c o n d a r y i m p l i c a t i o n o f s p e a k e r s t a t u s
e q u a l o r s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f t h e a d d r e s s e e , w h i l e r i s i n g
c o n t,o u r r e f l e c t s d e f e r e n c e , p o l i t e n e s s , o r f o r m a l i t y . The
f o l l o w i n g e x am p les a r e t r a n s l a t e d f r e e l y i n o r d e r t o
i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e m a n t ic nuances*
/ l o o k tow n a a t . / (you ( r e s p e c t f u l ) go w h e re )
... 'W here a r e you g o i n g , s i r ? '
. / l o o k . t o w n a a l . / (you go w here)
'W here i n t h e w o r ld a r e you g o in g ? '
R i s i n g c o n to u r a l s o o c c u r s be tw een c l a u s e s , and be tw een
members o f a c o n c a t e n a t e d l i s t , e . g . :
/ba© l o o k k i t t o w t knom koo k i t tow: d a e J ' , /
i f you t h i n k g o t I t h e n t h i n k go to o
• I f y o u ' r e g o in g , t h e n I ' l l go t o o . '
/knom t ro w t i n s k o o t m r l c f h a e y - n l g qoqkoo •I',/
I m ust b uy su g a rf- p e p p e r f and r i c e
' I h a v e t o buy s u g a r , p e p p e r , and r i c e . '
P a l l i n g c o n to u r i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n i s n o r m a l ly a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h s t a t i v e u t t e r a n c e s . However, r i s i n g , c o n to u r may a l s o
o c c u r w i t h s t a t e m e n t s , i n w hich c a s e i t seems t o c a r r y t h e
s e c o n d a r y i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t i s o b v io u s o r
a n t i c i p a t e d , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x am p le s :
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
/k n o m 'to w p s a a i . / ( I go m a r k e t )
’ I ’m g o in g t o t h e m a r k e t . ’
/knom tow p s a a t . / ( I go m a rk e t)
’ I ’m g o in g t o t h e m a r k e t , o f c o u r s e ( o r , a s u s u a l ) . ’
F a l l i n g c o n to u r a l s o t y p i c a l l y f o l lo w s i n t e r j e c t i o n s and
r e s p o n s i v e s , e i t h e r i n i s o l a t i o n o r a t t h e b e g in n in g o f
l a r g e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s , as. f o l l o w s :
/ t a e l lo o k k i t tw ee q w e y f . /
t e l l - m e i you t h i n k do w hat
’ S ay , w hat a r e you p l a n n i n g t o d o ? ’
/ b a a t i knom k i t tow m oel k o n i , /
p o l i t e - r e s p o n s e I I t h i n k go s e e f i l m
’ W ell , I t h i n k [ I ' l l ] go s e e a f i l m . ’
I n a d d i t i o n , f a l l i n g c o n to u r t y p i c a l l y o c c u r s w i th t h e
c o n ju n c t i o n / t h a a / ' t h a t ' , e . g . :
/knom sogkhim t h a a i l o o k niiQ maok . /
I hope t h a t ^ you f u t u r e come
’ I hope t h a t y o u ’ l l co m e . '
H igh l e v e l c o n to u r / I / i s n o r m a l ly a s s o c i a t e d w i th
i m p e r a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s and w i th i n t e r j e c t i o n s and p a r t i c l e s
o f an e x h o r t a t i v e o r c a j o l i n g n a t u r e , a s i n t h e f o l l o w in g
e x am p le s :
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
/ ’ y i i ! knom m ln h e s n som* t e e ! , /
i n t e r j . - o f - p r o t e s t ! . I n e g a t i v e d a r e a s k e m p h a t i c - p a r t ,
•Oh n o , I d o n ’ t d a r e a s k ! !
/kom p h £ y : n e h ! . / (d o n ’ t b e - a f r a i d e x h o r t a t i v e - p a r t i c l e
’ D o n ' t w o r r y ! 1
H igh l e v e l c o n to u r may a l s o o c c u r a f t e r e m p h a tic o r d e
c la m a to r y s t a t e m e n t s , r e f l e c t i n g e m o t io n a l in v o lv e m e n t on
t h e p a r t o f t h e s p e a k e r , as f o l l o w s :
/ ' q o o ! k o n la e g nuh s r u o l : 1d a e i . /
OhJ p l a c e t h a t b e - a g r e e a b l e to o
'O h , t h a t p l a c e i s r e a l l y n i c e ! ( c o n t r a r y t o what you
b e l i e v e ) ’
Low l e v e l c o n to u r /_ _ / t y p i c a l l y o c c u r s w i th s t a t i v e
u t t e r a n c e s o f a n -u n e m o t io n a l o r s o l i l o q u i z i n g n a t u r e , e . g . :
/ q a e j raonuh y e o g t e e ^ q o h t r e w concern e i w £ t _ . /
r e s p o n s e ! human we a l l m ust s u p p o r t l i f e
’Y e s , we a l l h a v e t o e a r n a l i v i n g . ’
Low l e v e l c o n to u r a l s o o c c u r s w i th p o s t - p o s e d t o p i c s , e . g . :
/knom m in c o o l - c e t : , t e e m o n u h nuh__./
I n e g a t i v e l i k e e r a p h a t i c - p a r t i c l e ! p e r s o n t h a t
' I d o n ’ t l i k e [h im ] a t a l l , t h a t m a n . ’
I . I 2 I4. I n t o n a t i o n a l phoneme
I n t o n a t i o n s ( 5 . 0 ) a r e a n a ly z e d i n te rm s o f t h e f o u r
p h r a s e c o n to u r s d e s c r i b e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n and th e
one i n t o n a t i o n a l phoneme / . / 'e n d o f c o n s t r u c t i o n ’ , whose
o n ly p h o n o l o g ic a l m a rk e r i s p a u se o r i n d e f i n i t e s i l e n c e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 . 2 P h o n o l o g i c a l words
P h o n o l o g i c a l w o rd s , a s d e f i n e d i n 1 .1 3 2 , may c o n t a i n
from one t o s i x s y l l a b l e s , w i t h v a r i o u s s t r e s s p a t t e r n s and
s y l l a b l e s h a p e s . How ever, t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f words i n
Cambodian a r e m o n o s y l l a b l e s , i n f r e q u e n c y i f n o t i n i n v e n
t o r y . The m in o r d i s y l l a b l e ( 1 .2 2 1 ) i s s e c o n d t o t h e mono
s y l l a b l e i n t e rm s o f f r e q u e n c y , and a l t h o u g h no s tu d y h a s
been m ade, m ig h t a lm o s t e q u a l t h e m o n o s y l l a b l e i n te rm s o f
t o t a l i n v e n t o r y . P o ly s y l l a b ic - , words ( 1 .2 3 ) a r e i n f r e q u e n t
i n c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h , and c a n u s u a l l y b e I d e n t i f i e d as
l o a n - w o r d s from P a l i , S a n s k r i t , o r F r e n c h s o u r c e s , th o u g h
n o t on s t r u c t u r a l g r o u n d s .
1 .2 1 M o n o s y l la b ic w ords
Any o c c u r r e n c e o f a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e p r e c e d e d and
f o l lo w e d by open j u n c t u r e i s a m o n o s y l la b ic word / £ / .
M o n o s y l l a b le s c o n t a i n i n g a s i n g l e vow el o r s h o r t d ip h th o n g
o c c u r i n t h e f o l lo w in g t h r e e c a n o n i c a l s h a p e s :
1 . /C ^ C / / b e t / ’ t o c l o s e ’ ; / k i t / ’ t o th in k *
2 . /C C ^G / / s d a p / ' t o u n d e r s t a n d '} / p r o h / 'm a l e '
3 . /CCCVC/ / s t h e t / ' t o s t a n d , be l o c a t e d '
F re q u e n c y o f t h e above sh a p e s i s i n t h e o r d e r l i s t e d .
Only one exam ple o f # 3 i s r e c o r d e d .
M o n o s y l la b le s c o n t a i n i n g a d o u b le vow el o r lo n g d i p h
th o n g o c c u r i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f i v e c a n o n i c a l s h a p e s ;
1 . / C W / / k a a / 'work* / p u u / ’ u n c l e '
2 , /C W C / / b a a n / ’ t o have* /< ja o y / 1 g i v e '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
/ c h £ & / ’ t o be i l l ' / p s a a / ’m a r k e t ’
/ c r a e n / ’much’ / s q a a t / ’ t o be c l e a n 1
/ s t h a a n / ’ p l a c e ’ / l k h a o n / ’ d ram a’
A lth o u g h a f r e q u e n c y c o u n t h a s n o t been m ade, t h e
f r e q u e n c y o f t h e . a b o v e sh a p e s i s a p p r o x im a te ly i n t h e o r d e r
l i s t e d . The o n ly two r e c o r d e d exam ples o f # 5 a r e t h o s e
l i s t e d a b o v e .
1 .2 2 D i s y l l a b i c w o r d s . ’
1 .2 2 1 M inor d i s y l l a b l e s - *'
A m in o r d i s y l l a b l e i s any u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e f o l lo w e d
i n c l o s e j u n c t u r e by a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e , S+S. The s t r u c t u r e
o f s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s h a s a l r e a d y b een d e s c r i b e d (1 . 1 2 ) .
The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e c an be shown by
t h e f o rm u la
1 . C-j_ i s any c o n s o n a n t e x c e p t / f / , b u t o n ly / p t c k s /
b e f o r e C2 .
2 . C2 i s / r / .
3 . V i s any s h o r t vow el ; a f t e r C-|_, b u t o n ly /© a o o /
a f t e r C2 .
I4.. i s any c o n s o n a n t e x c e p t / b d f r / .
5 . / + / c l o s e j u n c t u r e (and h e n c e ' a f o l l o w in g s t r e s s e d
s y l l a b l e ) o c c u r s a f t e r a l l u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s .
1 . My u s e o f t h e te rm s ’m in o r 1 and ’m a j o r ’ d i s y l l a b l e d i f f e r s somewhat from t h a t o f H e n d erso n , op, c i t . , p . 150.
3 , /CGVV/
k . /CCVVC/
$. /cccvvc/
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Thus t h e f o l l o w i n g f o u r m in o r d i s y l l a b i c ' p a t t e r n s
occu r*
1 . CV+S / k o + k a a y / ' t o s c r a t c h ' / r o + b o o g / ' f e n c e '
2 . CrV+S / s r o + l a n / ' t o l i k e 1 / c r e + m o h / ' n o s e '
3 . CVC+S / s o n + d a e k / 'b e a n s ' / s o p + b a a y / 'p l e a s a n t *
Ij.. CrVC+3 /p ra m + b o y / ' e i g h t '
1 .2 2 2 M ajor d i s y l l a b l e s
A m a jo r d i s y l l a b l e i s any s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e f o l lo w e d
i n c l o s e o r medium j u n c t u r e by a n o th e r s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e .
T h e re a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e sh a p e o f t h e
f i r s t s y l l a b l e . The f o l lo w in g p a t t e r n s o c c u rs
1 . S+3 / s io w + p h o w / 'b o o k ' / p h e e + s a a / . ' lan g u ag e*
2 . S -3 / s m a o -m a a n / 'how much' / b u e g - s u © ^ / ' t o p r a y 1
3 . S -S / c e h - t a e / ' a l w a y s ' / h a a - s © p / ' f i f t y '
Ij.. / l u y - k a q / 'm o n ey ' / s d u o c - s d a o g / ' t o be t h i n '
M o r p h o lo g ic a l l y s im p le m a jo r d i s y l l a b l e s o c c u r o n ly i n
r e l a t i v e l y c a r e f u l s p e e c h , becom ing m in o r d i s y l l a b l e s i n
c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h th r o u g h l o s s o f s t r e s s on t h e f i r s t s y l
l a b l e . T hose m a jo r d i s y l l a b l e s w hich o c c u r i n n o rm a l s p e e c h
a r e u s u a l l y com plex ( /sm a e -m a a r i / ) , r e d u p l i c a t i v e s ( / b u o g - s u o g / ) ,
o r compounds ( / l u y - k a q / ) . M ajor d i s y l l a b l e s o f t h e p a t t e r n
a r e i n v a r i a b l y compounds.
1 .2 3 P o l y s y l l a b i c w ord3
A p o l y s y l l a b i c word i s any s e q u e n c e o f more t h a n two
s y l l a b l e s b e tw een two s u c c e s s i v e o c c u r r e n c e s o f open j u n c t u r e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
U-7
1 .2 3 1 T r i s y l l a b i c words
The f o l l o w i n g t r i s y l l a b i c words p a t t e r n s occu r*
1 . S+5+3 /p r o + p & y + n f i / ' c u s t o m 1 /p r o + c e e + c u o n / ' p e o p l e '
2 . S+S+S / thoe ra+ m o+ daa / ' u s u a l l y ' / s a t + t s + w o e t / ' c e n t u r y '
3 . 3+3+5 / k r £ h + s a h + s n a a / ' C h r i s t i a n i t y '
ij., 3 -S+3 / r o a t - m u e n + t r e y / ' m i n i s t e r '
/ k o o - k r o + b e y / 'o x e n and b u f f a l o , l i v e s t o c k '
£>. S+3-3 / w i + t h i i - b o n / 'c e re m o n y '
1 .2 3 2 Q u a d r i s y l l a b l e w ords
The f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n s h a v e b e e n o b se rv ed *
1 . S+3+S+3 / q a + t h a a + t h i + b a a y / ' t o e x p l a i n '
2 . 3+S+3+3 / p h o o + c e + n i i + t h a a n / ' r e s t a u r a n t '
3 . 3+S+3+3 /p u t+ tG + s a h + s n a a / 'B ud dh ism '
14.. 3+3+S+3 /k r £ h + s a q + k 9+ r a a c / ' C h r i s t i a n e r a '
i>. 3+3+3+3 / r e © c + c e 9+ t h i p + p t a y / 'm o n a rc h y '
6 . S+3-S+3 /b o n + tG c - b o n + tu a c / 'so m e , a l i t t l e '
1 .2 3 3 P e n t a s y l l a b l e words
The f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n s occu r*
1 . 3+S+3+S+3 / r a t + t e + n a q + k o + r i i / 'R a t a n a k i r i ( p r o v i n c e ) '
2 . S+3+3+S+3 /qa+ nuq+ saa+ w 9+ r f i / 'm onum ent, m e m o r ia l '
3 . S+3+3+3+3 /p ro + th e o + n e G + th lp + p d G y / ' p r e s i d e n t '
14., 3+3+3+S+3 / r e o c + c e G + th lp + p G + ta y / 'm o n a rc h y '
S+3~S+3+3 /p re© h + reac -> q a+ n aa+ caq / 'k in g d o m '
6 , '3 -3+3+S+3 / r e o c - r o o t + t h a a + p h i + b a a l / ' r o y a l g o v e rn m e n t '
1,23k- H e x a s y l l a b i c words
1 . S+3+S+3+S+3 /w i+ c a a + re + n a q + k G + th a a / ' f o r e w o r d '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2*0 Mor phophon em1c s
M orphophonem ics i s t h e a n a l y s i s o f s t r u c t u r e b e tw een
t h e l e v e l s o f p h o n o lo g y and m o rp h o lo g y . I t d e a l s w i t h
n o n - c o n t r a s t i v e a l t e r n a t i o n b e tw e e n phonem es.
2 . 1 F r e e v a r i a t i o n
F r e e v a r i a t i o n i s n o n - c o n t r a s t i v e a l t e r n a t i o n b e tw ee n
two o r more phonemes i n t h e same p h o n o l o g ic a l e n v iro n m en t*
T h is t y p e o f a l t e r n a t i o n i s c o n d i t i o n e d p r i m a r i l y by t h e
s p e e d and d e g r e e o f f o r m a l i t y em ployed b y t h e s p e a k e r .
2 .1 1 F re e v a r i a t i o n i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s
The l o c u s o f g r e a t e s t m orphophonem ic f r e e v a r i a t i o n i s
t h e u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e (1 . 2 2 1 ) . In t h e ex am ples t h a t
f o l l o w , t h e m ost f o r m a l a l t e r n a n t s a r e f o l lo w e d by t h e i r
s u c c e s s i v e l y m ore c o l l o q u i a l a l t e r n a n t s . I t w i l l be s e e n
t h a t a l l u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s t e n d t o be l e v e l l e d in
c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h t o |C e + |^ , a s f o l lo w s *
1 . |Co+, Co+| > |C 9+ |
/ k o + k a a y / > / k o + k a a y / ’ t o d i g , s c r a t c h about*
/ c o + c a e k / > / c o + c a e k / ’ t o a r g u e , s q u a b b l e '
/ rao + n u h / > / rao + n u h / ’human, man'
2 . V o iced s t o p s / b d / > v o i c e l e s s / p t / i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b i
/ d o + d a e l / > / d o + d a e l / > / t e + d a e l / 's a m e '
1 . V e r t i c a l s l a s h e s ( | ) a r e u s e d t o i n d i c a t e m orphophonem ic s h a p e s , w h ich a r e a b s t r a c t i o n s , a s op p o sed t o m o rphs, w hich a r e r e p r e s e n t e d p h o n e m ic a l ly .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
/ b o + b u o l ' / > /b a + b u © l / > p©+bu©l/ ’ t o e n t r e a t 1
3 , / s o + / > / s 9 + / > / t 9 + /
/ s o + s e e / > / s o + s e e / > / t e + s e e / 1 t o w r i t e 1
I4.. / r o + / > / r a + / > / ! © + / > / q a + /
/ r o + b f a n / > / r a + b £ © n / > / l e + b £ e n / > /q a + .b lo n / ’m e th o d 1
/ r o + t e h / > / r a + t e h / > / l e + t e h / > / q a + t e h / ’ c a r t 1
5 . |CVq+| > |0V+1 > |C e+ |
/ p i q + b a a q / > / p i + b a a q / > / p e + b a a q / ’ d i f f i c u l t ’
/ q a q + r u n / > / q a + r u n / > / q a + r u n / ’ dawn’
6 . |C ro + , C ro+ | > jC re + | > jCa+j
/ p r o + t e a h / > / p r o + t e a h / > / p s + t e a h / ’ t o m e e t1^
/ s r o + n o k / > / s r a + n o k / > / s a + n o k / ’ p e a c e f u l ’
7 . |CVN+| > |CaN+| > |C 9+ j
/ k o n + l a e g / > / k a n + la e Q / > / k a + l a e $ / ’p l a c e ’
/d o m + n a a p / > /d a m + n a o p / > / t a + n a a p / ’ g l u t i n o u s ’
In a l t e r n a t i o n s 8 -1 2 b e low , u n s t r e s s e d , s y l l a b l e s o f
sh a p e |CVNJ a r e r e d u c e d i n r a p i d s p e e c h t o a s y l l a b i c n a s a l*
8 . jqol'T+| > jqeN+J > |N+| ( s y l l a b i c n a s a l )
/q o Q + k u y / > / q a i 3+ k u y / > / 13+ k u y / ’ t o s i t ’
/q o n + c © a n / > /q o n + c a o n / > / n + c e a n / ’ t o i n v i t e ’
9 . JCVN+J > JCoN+J > jN+j ( - | Co+J)
/ b o n + t a c - b o n + t u o c / > / b o n + t a c - b o n + t u a c / > / n + t o c - n + t u a c /
• a l i t t l e , som ew hat’
/d o n + d o p / > /d o n + d o p / > / n + d o p / ( - / t a + d o p / ) ’ - t e e n ’
1 . In c o n t r a s t w i t h / p t e a h / ’h o u s e ’ .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5o
10 . The n e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r y / m i n / i s r e d u c e d t o a s y l l a b i c
n a s a l / m + / i n r a p i d s p e e c h , e . g . :
/ m i n - m e e n / > /ra+meen/ ' n o t r e a l l y '
/m & n- tow / > / ra+ tow / ' n o t g o '
1 1 . The i n c i p i e n t a u x i l i a r y / n i i a / i s r e d u c e d i n r a p i d s p e e c h
t o a n a s a l h o m o rg an ie w i t h a f o l l o w i n g consonant .*^
/ n i f l - m a o k / > /ra+maok/ ' w i l l come'
/ n i g - t o w / > / n + t o w / ' w i l l g o 1
12 .. / k h a a g / ' s i d e ' i n compounds i s s u b j e c t t o e x t re m e
r e d u c t i o n : / k h a a f l - k r a o y / > / k h a g - k r a o y / > / g + k r a o y / ' b e h i n d '
1 3 . / m u e y / ' o n e ' i s h i g h l y u n s t a b l e i n u n s t r e s s e d p o s i t i o n :
/ m u e y - d o o g / > / r a a a - d o o g / > /m s + d o o g / ' o n c e '
/ r a u e y - r o o y / > / r a a a - r o © y / > / m e + r o o y / ' o n e h u n d r e d '
111, / p r a m / ' f i v e * i s s u b j e c t t o e x t r e m e r e d u c t i o n when i t
does n o t c a r r y p r i m a r y s t r e s s :
/p ra ra -m u o y / > /pr&ra+muoy/ > /p s + m u o y / ' s i x '
/ p r a m - b o y / > / p r e m + b o y / > / ra+ b o y / ' e i g h t '
l £ . The p r e f i x / p r e o h / i s s u b j e c t t o l o s s o f s t r e s s , vowel
r e d u c t i o n , and l o s s o f f i n a l / - h / i n r a p i d s p e e c h , t h u s
a s s i m i l a t i n g t o t h e t y p i c a l / C r o + / u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s h a p e ,
/ p r e o h - p u t / > / p r o + p u t / 'B ud d ha '
/ p r e o h - c a n / > / p r o + c a n / 'moon'
16 . / n i q + y e e y / > / n i + y e y / > / n + y e y / ' t o speak*
1 7 . / t u e n + l e e / > / t o + l e e / ' r i v e r , l o n g body o f w a t e r '
1 8 . / q o y + l o w / > / q a a + l o w / > / q a + l e w / > / q o + l e w / 'now '
1 . T h i s k i n d o f a l t e r n a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 , 3 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
51
2 . 1 2 S t r e s s a l t e r n a t i o n
As h a s a l r e a d y b e en m e n t i o n e d i n 1 , 2 2 2 , t h e t e n d e n c y
i n m a jo r d i s y l l a b l e s i s t o move t o w a r d t h e p r e f e r r e d m in o r
s y l l a b l e s t r e s s p a t t e r n S+g i n c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h , e . g . t -
/ p i i + s a a / > / p i + s a a / ' t o e a t '
/ k a w + q o y / > / k a w + q e y / ' c h a i r '
/ t e o + h e e n / > t e o + h e o n / ' s o l d i e r '
T h i s same p r e f e r e n c e f o r a l t e r n a t i o n b e tw ee n s t r e s s e d and
u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s i n c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h i s o p e r a t i v e i n
p o l y s y l l a b l e s . The c h a n g e s , a s w i t h m a j o r d i s y l l a b l e s ,
i n v o l v e , . b o t h s t r e s s and vowel r e d u c t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g
a l t e r n a t i o n s o c c u r , moving f rom f o r m a l t o c o l l o q u i a l fo rm s j
1, g+g+g > s+S+g/ q a a + n a a + k u e t / > / q a '+ n a s + k u s t / ' f u t u r e '
/ q a o + b a a + s o q / > / q o + b a a + s o q / ' l a y m a n '
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s , l o s s o f s t r e s s is c o r r e l a t e d
w i t h l o s s o f f i n a l c o n s o n a n t i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s ?
/ q a q + k h o o + s a q / > / q a + k h o o + s a q / ' t o be s i l e n t , v o i c e l e s s '
/ q u q + t e o + h o o / > / q u + t e o + h o o / ' e x a m p l e '
2 , g+g+g > g+S+g
/ k a q + r u q + n a a / > / k a q + r u + n a a / ( > / k o + n a a / ) 'm e r c y '
/ k e q + r £ q + y a a / > / k e q + r i + y a a / ' c o n d u c t '
3 , g+g+g+g > S+g+S+g
/ q a q + n u q + s e e + n a a / > / q a + n u q + s e + n a a / ' m i l i t a r y d i v i s i o n '
1|. g+g+g+g > g+S+g+g
/ q i h + s a q + r a q + p h e e p / > / q i h + s o + r a q + p h e o p / ' f r e e d o m '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
£2
2 . 1 3 F r e e v a r i a t i o n in s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s
F r e e v a r i a t i o n w h ich i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h d e g r e e o f
f o r m a l i t y t a k e s p l a c e i n c e r t a i n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s , b u t
seems t o be u n r e l a t e d t o r e d u c t i o n o f s t r e s s , e . g . *
/ t w e e / > / t h e e / ’ t o make, d o ’
/ k n o m / > / k y o m / *1’
/m e + d o o ^ / > /m e + ro o Q / ’ o n c e , a t o n c e ’
C e r t a i n f i n a l s e n t e n c e p a r t i c l e s a r e s u b j e c t t o
morphophonemic r e d u c t i o n i n r a p i d s p e e c h , e . g . *
/ t e e / > / t e h / > / t e h / ’ e m p h a t i c p a r t i c l e ’
/ n a a / > / n a h / > / n e h / ’ e x h o r t a t i v e f i n a l p a r t i c l e '
/ h a e y / > / h e y / > / q e y / > / q © h / ’ p e r f e c t i v e f i n a l p a r t . '
2 .2 P hon o log ica lly conditioned a lte r n a t io n
P h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l t e r n a t i o n i s a l t e r n a t i o n
w h ic h i s c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e p h o n o t a c t i c r u l e s o f t h e l a n g u a g e ,
and i s t h u s i n v a r i a b l e . The f o l l o w i n g a l t e r n a t i o n s occur*
1. V o ic e d s t o p s / b d / > v o i c e l e s s / p t / b e f o r e n a s a l s .
/ b - / > / p - / b e f o r e / ~ n - / * ^
/ b a e k / ' t o b r e a k ’ > / p n a e k / ’ f r a g m e n t ’
/ d - / > / t ~ / b e f o r e / - n - / *
/ d a q / ’ t o p u t ' > / t n a q / ' c l a s s , p l a c e m e n t '
/ d - / > / t - / b e f o r e / - m ~ / t
/ d a o / ' t o w a lk ' > / t m a e / ' p e d e s t r i a n '
1 . The symbol / - / i s u s e d h e r e t o i n d i c a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a f f i x e s t o b a s e s , r a t h e r t h a n a s a phoneme o f j u n c t u r e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2 . V o i c e l e s s s t o p s / p t / > / b d / b e f o r e j-oDT-|
/ p V > A -/*/ p r a e / ’ t o u s e ’ > / b o m ra © / ’ s e r v a n t ’
/ p l a e / ' f r u i t ' > / b o n l a e / ' v e g e t a b l e s '
/ p q a e r a / ' b e s w e e t ' > / b o g q a e m / ' s t r e e t s '
/ t - / > / d - / *
/ t b a a n / ' t o weave ' > / d o m b a a n / 'w e a v in g '
/ t w a a y / ' t o g i v e ' > / d o ^ w a a y / ' g i f t '
/ t a e g / ' t o a p p o i n t ' > / d o m n a e g / ' p o s i t i o n '
3 . A l t e r n a t i o n . o f / r - / and / r o - /
/ r * r / > / r o - / b e f o r e | - C - j j
/ r o o h / ' t o r a k e ' > / r o n o e h / ' a r a k e '
/ r i e n / ' t o s t u d y ' > / r o b i e n / 'k n o w le d g e '
/ r o - / > / r - / b e f o r e / - u m - / j
/ r o l i i g / ' b e s h i n y ' > / r u m l i i f l / ' t o p o l i s h ’
/ r o d o h / ' f r e e d ' > / r u m d o h / ' t o f r e e '
2 , 3 M o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l t e r n a t i o n
The f o l l o w i n g a l t e r n a t i o n s a r e m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n
d i t i o n e d ,
1 , I n c e r t a i n morphemes, su c h as
V^N-/ ' i n c i p i e n t a u x i l i a r y ' ( r a p i d s p e e c h a l l o m o r p h )
< / - o N - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
< /boN -/ ' c a u s a t i o n 1
i / s o N - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n ' , t h e morphophoneme j-N~|
a s s i m i l a t e s t o t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n t a c c o r d i n g t o
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
$k
t h e f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n s
/ m / b e f o r e / b p a n q /
/ n / b e f o r e / d t 1 y s /
/ n / b e f o r e / o n /
/ $ / b e f o r e / k r h w q f /
The f o l l o w i n g exam ples i n v o l v e t h e morpheme / b o N - / ' c a u s a t i o n * ,
/ b a e k / ' t o b r e a k ' ( i n t r . ) > / b o m b a e k / ' t o c a u s e t o b r e a k '
/ d a o / ' t o w a lk ' > / b o n d a e / ' t o w a lk (a dog , e t c . ) '
/ c o n / ' t o l e a v e ' > / b o n c o n / ' t o e x p e l '
/ k a o t / ' t o be b o r n ' > / b o ^ k a o t / ' t o o r i g i n a t e '
T h i s i s i n . c o n t r a s t w i t h ; suchrmorphemes as / - 6 m - /
' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n ' , i n w h ich / - m - / i s i n v a r i a b l e *
/ c r a o n / ' t o be much' > / c o m r a o n / ' i n c r e a s e '
/ k d a w / ' t o be h o t ' > /k om daw / ' h e a t '
/ k c i l / ' t o be l a z y ' > / k o m c i l / ' l a z y p e r s o n '
/ c k u o t / ' t o be c r a z y ' > / c o m k u o t / ' i d i o t '
S i n c e t h e r e i s a morpheme-vA*^**/ ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n ' a s w e l l
a s a morpheme ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n ' , t h e morph / - o m - /
i n t h e exam ple / k p u o h / ' t o be h i g h ' > /k o m p u o h / ' h e i g h t '
c o u l d e q u a l l y w e l l bo a s s i g n e d t o e i t h e r t h e morpheme \ / - o N ~ /
o r t h e morpheme j \ / -o m - / . The a n a l y s i s f o l l o w e d h e r e i s t o
c o n s i d e r t h e morph / - o r a - / t o be an a l l o m o r p h o f t h e morpheme
a/ —oN - / when i t con fo rm s t o t h e p a t t e r n o f a l t e r n a t i o n o u t
l i n e d ab o v e , as i n / k o m p u o h / , and o f t h e morpheme
when i t does n o t , as I n / c o m r a o n / .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
« '
T h ere i s a t l e a s t one c a s e o f d o u b l e t s r e s u l t i n g
f rom t h e u s e o f an a l l o r a o r p h o f b o t h morphemes w i t h a
s i n g l e base*
/-urn-/*" / t l o s p / ' t o be a c c u s to m e d to* > / t u m l o e p / ' c u s t o m 1
/ - u e n - / / t l o o p / * to be a c c u s to m e d t o ' > / t u e n l o e p / ' c u s t o m * •
2 . I n i n f i x e s o f sh a p e | - V r a ( n ) - | ,
J-Vra-j o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h i n i t i a l s e q u e n c e C^Cg.
/ k p u e h / ' t o be h i g h ' > / k o m p u o h / ' h e i g h t '
/ l q o o / ' b e a u t i f u l ' > / l u m q o o / ' b e a u t y '
j-Vmn-1 o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h a s i n g l e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t ,
/ k a s t / ' t o be b o r n ' > / k o m n a o t / ' b i r t h '
/ k i t / ' t o t h i n k ' > / k u m n i t / ' t h o u g h t '
3 , In i n f i x e s o f sh a p e J - r V ( n ) - | ,
1 - rV - j o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h i n i t i a l s e q u e n c e C^C2 .
/ s d e y / ' t o t e l l ' > / s r o d e y / ' t o s p e a k ( e l o q u e n t ) '
| ~ r V n - | o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h a s i n g l e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t ,
/ s a o k / ' t o p i t y ' > / s r o n a o k / ' p i t y '
1 , T hese morphs a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y a l l o m o r p h s o f / / - o m - / and
n / - o N - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n ' , a s d e s c r i b e d i n 2.1+32.
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56
2 . 1}. Vowgl a b l a u t
T h e r e a r e two s e r i e s o f vo w e ls and v o w e l s - p l u s - s e m i
v ow el I n Cambodian w i t h r e s p e c t t o which vowel a l t e r n a t i o n
t a k e s p l a c e i n c a r t a i n a f f i x e s and b a s e s . S e r i e s 1 vow els
a r e c o n s i s t e n t l y l o w e r th an : t h e i r s e r i e s 2 c o u n t e r p a r t s .
In t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t s t h e vow els o f one s e r i e s a r e l i s t e d
o p p o s i t e t h e i r c o r r e l a t i v e a l t e r n a n t s i n t h e o t h e r s e r i e s .
2
b e f o r e / - q , - n , - h /
b e f o r e / - p , - t , -m, - n , - h /
1 . T h ese two s e r i e s o f vow els a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t h e w r i t i n g s y s te m n o t by d i f f e r e n t vowel sym bols b u t r a t h e r by two c o r r e l a t i v e s e t s o f c o n s o n a n t sy m b o ls , l e a d i n g t o t h e s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t t h e y may once h a v e been a l l o p h o n i c ( s e e A ppend ix A, 1 . 1 ) .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
S e r i e s 1
A y /—/ a e / —
/ o o / —
/ a © / —
/ a a / —
/ ° o / —
/ a o / —
/ o o / -----
/e / — / e / . _
/a /
S e r i e s
_ / i i /
— / e e /
/ i i /
— /a©/ — /©©/
— / u u /
— / o o /
— / o o /
- / i /
— A /
57
/ V / o / i n r e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x e s
• / u / b e f o r e / - p , -m /
' / u s / e l s e w h e r e
/a y / / i y // a w /
The d i p h t h o n g s ' / i e i o u o / . d o n o t a l t e r n a t e *
2 . 111 S p o r a d i c a b l a u t ■
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s , t h e vow e ls o f b a s e s a r e r e
p l a c e d by t h e i r c o r r e l a t i v e a l t e r n a n t ' s i n d e r i v e d o r a l t e r
n a n t f o r m s . T h is a l t e r n a t i o n c a n n o t be p r e d i c t e d from t h e
p h o n o l o g i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t , and i s h e n c e g r a m m a t i c a l l y con
d i t i o n e d , o r s p o r a d i c .
/ c i i - p o o / ‘monks’ r o b e s ’ > / c o y - p o e / ’ i d . ’
/ r e a p / ’ t o be l e v e l ’ > / k r a a p / ’ t o l e v e l , p r o s t r a t e ’
/ m u u l / ‘ t o be r o u n d ’ >■ / c m o o l / ’ t o b a l l up*
/ n i h / ’ t h i s ’ > / n e h / ’ t h i s ’ ( s t y l i s t i c v a r i a n t )
2.112 A u to m a t ic a b l a u t
A u to m a t ic a b l a u t i s c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e p h o n o t a c t i c r u l e s
o f t h e l a n g u a g e . Vowel a b l a u t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g examples i's
c o n d i t i o n e d : i b y t h e n o n - o c c u r r e n c e o f s e r i e s 2 vow els
a f t e r / b / .
/ l e e g / ’ t o p l a y ’ > / l b a e g / ’ game’
/ I ogiq/ ’ t o t r y ’ > / l b o o g / ’ e x p e r i m e n t '
/ r o o m / ' t o d a n c e ’ > / r o b a m / 'a . d a n c e '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2,U-3 Vowel harmony
I n many d e r i v a t i v e s ,o f d i s y l l a b i c s h a p e , t h e s e r i e s
o f t h e a f f i x vow el i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s e r i e s o f t h e b a s e
v o w e l . In a s m a l l e r number o f f o r m s , t h e s e r i e s o f t h e
b a s e vowel i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s e r i e s o f t h e a f f i x vo w e l .
T h i s k i n d o f c o n d i t i o n i n g i s d e f i n e d h e r e a s vowel h a rm on y .
2 . 14-31 In t h e f o l l o w i n g d e r i v a t i v e s , t h e b a s e vowel i s r e
p l a c e d b y ' i t s c o r r e l a t i v e a l t e r n a n t i n t h e same s e r i e s as
t h e p r e f i x vowel*
/ l e e h / ’ b e y o n d ’ > / c r o l a e h / ’ t o e x c e e d ’
/w & c/ ‘ t o w ra p ’ > /boigwoc/ ’ p a c k a g e ’
/ m u c / ’ t o s u b m e rg e ’ > / p r o r a o c / ' t o p u t u n d e r ’
/ y o o l / ’ t o s w in g ’ > / p r o y a o l / ’ a f o b ’
/ l e e h / ’ t o be c l e a r ' > / s r o l a h / ’ c l e a r ; c o m p l e t e l y ’
/ w u e q / ’ c i r c l e ’ > / k r o w o g / ’ t o be c i r c u l a r '
/ w e e q / ' t o be l o n g ' > / sog w a e io / ' l e n g t h '
2.1+32 A f f i x e s a f f e c t e d by vow el harmony
Vowel harm ony i s e s s e n t i a l t o a c o m p le te d e s c r i p t i o n o f
t h e morphophonemic a l t e r n a t i o n w h ich o c c u r s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
a f f i x e s . Where vowel harmony i s t h e c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c t o r o f
a l l o m o r p h i c s h a p e , t h e vowel a l t e r n a n t o f t h e a f f i x i s
d e t e r m i n e d by t h e vowel a l t e r n a n t o f t h e b a s e . When t h e
b a s e vowel i s common t o b o t h s e r i e s o f v o w e l s , i t i s
assumed t o b e l o n g t o t h e same s e r i e s as t h e a f f i x v o w e l . ^
1 . In some d i a l e c t s t h e r e I s a more c o m p le to d ich o to m y b e tw ee n t h e two s e r i e s . In no d i a l e c t , h o w e v e r , does t h e d ich o to m y a p p e a r t o be c o m p l e t e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 . R e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x e s a r e o f s h a p e |C V - | . | C - | i s a
r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t o f t h e b a s e , and'
j - V - j i s / o - ©/ o r / o ~ ©/, / © / i s i n b o t h c a s e s a
s t y l i s t i c a l t e r n a n t w h ich i s i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n w i t h / o / o r
/ o / ( a s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 1 1 ) , w h i l e t h e a l t e r n a t i o n be tw een
/ o / and / o / i s a f u n c t i o n o f vow el ha rm ony , as f o l l o w s :
I f |C —| i s a v o i c e l e s s s t o p / p t c k / ,
jCo- j o c c u r s when t h e b a s e vowel b e l o n g s t o s e r i e s 1 ,
/ k a a y / ’ t o dig* > / k o k a a y / ’ t o s c r a t c h a b o u t '
/ c © k / ’ t o b i t e ’ > / c o c © k / ' t o p e c k a t ’
|Co— j o c c u r s when t h e b a s e vowel b e l o n g s t o s e r i e s 2 .
/ t e e h / ’ t o s l a p ' > / t o t e e h / ' t o f l a p t h e w in g s '
/ c r u l / ' t o e x c e e d ' > / c o c r u l / ' e x c e s s i v e l y '
I f J c - | I s a nasal or la te ra l /m n n 13 l / , jCo-J occurs./ n e © q / ' t o s h a k e ' > / n o n e e q / ' t o t r e m b l e '
/ l u a t g / ' t o c o m f o r t ' > / l o l u s g / ' t o f l a t t e r , c a j o l '
I f JC—| I s a v o i c e d s t o p / b d / , o r / s / , |C o - | o c c u r s .
/ d o h / ' t o r u b ' > / d o d o h / ' t o r u b b a c k and f o r t h ’
/ s o k / ' t o comb' > / s o s e k / ' t o comb, t o s i f t '
2 . P r e f i x e s o f s h a p e | p r V - | ' r e c i p r o c i t y ' , e t c .
/ p r o - / o c c u r s s p o r a d i c a l l y b e f o r e b a s e s w h o s e 'v o w e l o c c u r s
o n l y i n s e r i e s 2 :
/ r i t / ' t o b i n d ' > / p r o r l t / ' t o em brace '
/ p r o - / o c c u r s e l s e w h e r e :
/ k h a m / ' t o b i t e ’ > /p ro k h am /- ' t o ! b i t e ; e a c h o t h e r '
/ t o o h / ' t o s l a p * > / p r o t e o h / ' t o m ee t a c c i d e n t l y ' .
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60
3 , The p r e f i x jboN- ~ pueN-j ' c a u s a t i o n ' , e t c ;
|pu©N-"| o c c u r s s p o r a d i c a l l y b e f o r e b a s e s whose i n i t i a l
c o n s o n a n t i s / y r 1/ , and whose vowel o c c u r s o n l y i n
s e r i e s 2 .
/ r i i k / ' t o b loom' > / p u © $ r i i k / ' t o i n c r e a s e ( t r . )»
/ l i e / ' t o s i n k ( i n t r . ) ' > / p u s n l i c / ' t o o v e r t h r o w '
|b o N - | o c c u r s e lsevxhere .
/ p l i i / ' t o be b r i g h t ' > / b o m p l i i / ' t o i l l u m i n e '>
/ r i e n / ' t o s t u d y ' > / b o ^ r i e n / ' t o t e a c h '
Ij.. The i n f i x / - o m - ~ - u m - / ' c a u s a t i o n ' , e t c .
/ - u m - / o c c u r s
i f t h e s e c o n d c o n s o n a n t o f t h e b a s e i s a s o n o r a n t , and
t h e b a s e vowel o c c u r s i n s e r i e s 2 :
/ t l e s q / ' t o f a l l ' > / t u m l e s q / ' t o ov e r th ro w *
/ c r e e p / ' t o l e a r n ' > / c u m r e s p / ' t o i n f o r m '
i f t h e f i r s t c o n s o n a n t o f t h e b a s e i s a s o n o r a n t j
/ i q o t / ' t o be f i n e ' > / l u r a q e t / ' t o pow der '
/ - o m - / o c c u r s e l s e w h e r e :
/ s q a a t / ' t o be c l e a n ' > / s o r a q a a t / ' t o c l e a n '
/ s l a p / ' t o d i e ' > / s o m l a p / ' t o k i l l '
I n f i x e s o f - s h a p e | -o N - ~ -u©N-| ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n ' , e t c .
l -uoN -J o c c u r s i f t h e s e c o n d c o n s o n a n t o f t h e b a s e i s a
s o n o r a n t , and t h e b a s e v o w e l o c c u r s o n l y i n s e r i e s 2 .
/ p l i i / ' t o be b r i g h t ' > / p u o n l i i / ' l i g h t '
/ t l o o p / ' a c c u s t o m e d t o ' > / t u e n l o e p / ' c u s t o m '
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61
| - o N - | o c c u r s e l s e w h e r e .
/ s n a e c / ' t o a d m i r e 1 > / s o m n a o c / • a d m i r a t i o n 1
/ s t u u c / ' t o f i s h 1 > / s o n t u u c / ' f i s h i n g h o o k 1
. 6 . I n f i x e s o f sh a p e / - o r a ( n ) - *» - u m { n )~ / • n o m i n a l i z a t i o n 1
/ - o m n - / o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h a s i n g l e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t
whose vowel b e lo n g s t o s e r i e s 1 .
/ c a e k / ’.to d i v i d e 1 > • / c o m n a e k / • s e c t i o n 1
/ s a o c / ' t o l a u g h 1 > / s o m n a o c / • l a u g h t e r '
/ - u m n - / o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h a s i n g l e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t
whose vowel b e lo n g s t o s e r i e s 2 .
/ k i t / ' t o t h i n k ' > / k u m n i t / ' t h o u g h t '
/ k u u / ' t o draw,' > /k u m n u u / • d r a w in g , p i c t u r e 1
• / - u m - / o c c u r s
I f t h e secon d c o n s o n a n t o f t h e b a s e i s a s o n o r a n t ,
and t h e b a s e vowel b e lo n g s t o s e r i e s 2 j
/ t ^ u o n / ' h e a v y ' > /tumiQuon/ ' w e i g h t '
/ c l u o h / ' t o a r g u e ' > / c u m l u o h / ' a r g u m e n t '
i f t h e f i r s t c o n s o n a n t o f t h e b a s e i s a s o n o r a n t .
/ i q o o / ' b e a u t i f u l ' > / l u m q o o / ’ b e a u t y '
/ - o m - / o c c u r s e l s e w h e r e .
/ k h o g / ' t o be a n g r y ' > /k o m h o g / ' a n g e r '
/ c Q a a y / ' t o be f a r 1 > / c o m q a a y / ' d i s t a n c e '
7. I n f i x e s o f sh a p e | - r V ( n ) ~ i ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n ' , e t c .
/ - r o n - / o c c u r s s p o r a d i c a l l y in b a s e s w i t h a s i n g l e i n i t i a l
c o n s o n a n t , and whose voivel o c c u r s o n l y i n s e r i e s 2 *
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62
/ t u p / ' t o o b s t r u c t ' > / t r o n u p / ' o b s t r u c t i o n '
/ t u r n / ' t o p e r c h ' > / t r o n u m / ' a perch*
/ - r o n - / o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h a s i n g l e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t
b e f o r e o t h e r vowels*
/ s a o k / ' t o p i t y ' > / s r o n a o k / ' p i t y '
/ - r o - / o c c u r s i n b a s e s v r i th an i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t sequence*
/ s t o o p / ' t o d iv id e * > / s r o t o o p / ' s e c t i o n , d i v i s i o n '
2*14-33 N on-ha rm on ic d i s y l l a b l e s
When t h e vowels o f d i s y l l a b i c fo rm s a r e n o t i n harmony,
t h e r e g u l a r p a t t e r n i s t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a , v o w e l o f s e r i e s 1
i n t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e , o r a f f i x , a n d . a vow el o f s e r i e s 2 i n
t h e s e c o n d s y l l a b l e , o r b a s e , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g examples*
/ c o m k u o t / ' i d i o t '
/ p r o t e s h / ' t o meet*
/ b o m p l i i / ' t o i l l u m in e *
A few form s h a v e t h e r e v e r s e o r d e r *
/ r o b o h / ' t h i n g '
/ c u o n d a o / ' s t a i r s '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3 . 0 M orphology
3 . 1 M o r p h o l o g i c a l u n i t s
M orphology i s h e r e d e f i n e d a s t h e a n a l y s i s o f s t r u c t u r e
b e tw een t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l and s y n t a c t i c l e v e l s . I t d e a l s
w i t h minimum m e a n i n g f u l u n i t s o f s p e e c h and w i t h t h e ways
i n w h ic h t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l e x e m e s ,
o r g r a m m a t i c a l w o rd s .
3 . 1 1 Morphemes
The r a w d a t a o f m o r p h o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s a r e m o rp hs . A
morph i s any m e a n i n g f u l a r r a n g e m e n t o f phonemes, f rom one
phoneme up w ard i n l e n g t h . A morpheme i s any s e t o f morphs
w h ich h a v e t h e same m ean in g , s i m i l a r s h a p e , and do n o t c o n -
t r a s t i n any g i v e n e n v i r o n m e n t , o r i t i s any morph w h ich
does n o t b e l o n g t o s u c h a s e t . The i n d i v i d u a l members o f a
s e t o f morphs b e l o n g i n g t o a g i v e n morpheme a r e i t s a l l o -
m o rp h s . F o r ex am p le , t h e s e q u e n c e / k o m n a e t / ’ b i r t h 1 c o n
t a i n s a d i s c o n t i n u o u s a l l o m o r p h / k . . . a © t / o f t h e morpheme
v ^ k a o t / ' . to be b o r n 1, whose o t h e r a l l o m o r p h i s / k a o t / . I t
a l s o c o n t a i n s t h e i n f i x e d a l l o m o r p h / - o m n - / o f t h e morpheme
' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n 1, whose o t h e r a l l o m o r p h s a r e / - u r a ( n ) - /
and / - © m ( n ) - / . An example o f a morpheme whose m em bersh ip
c o n s i s t s o f a s i n g l e a l l o m o r p h i s / b a a n / ' t o h a v e ' .
Morphemes c a n be d i v i d e d i n t o s u b - l e x e m i c and l e x e m i c
c a t e g o r i e s . S u b - l e x e m ic morphemes h a v e a l l o m o r p h s w h ic h
a r e bound , and t h e r e f o r e n e v e r o c c u r a s f r e e fo rm s ,
63
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61+
Lexemic morphemes a r e t h o s e morphemes whose a l l o m o r p h s
o c c u r as f r e e f o r m s . A l th o u g h l e x e m i c morphemes may r a n g e
up t o s i x s y l l a b l e s i n l e n g t h , morphemes c o n t a i n i n g more
t h a n two s y l l a b l e s a r e r a r e . Examples*
1 ) M o n o s y l l a b i c morphemes
/ t o w / ' t o g o 1
/ m a o k / ' t o come'
/ t £ k / ' w a t e r '
2 ) D i s y l l a b i c morphemes
/ r o b o h / ' t h i n g '
/ p r o t e e h / ' c o u n t r y '
/ s o p b a s y / ' t o be h a p p y '
3 ) T r i s y l l a b i c morphemes
/ q a n a a k u e t / ' f u t u r e '
/ f a a m e s i i / ' p h a r m a c y '
ij.) Q u a d r i s y l l a b l e morpheme
/ p h o o c e n i i h a a / ' r e s t a u r a n t '
f>) P e n t a s y l l a b l e morpheme
/ q a n u q - s a a w o r i i / ' s o u v e n i r '
6 ) H e x a s y l l a b i c morpheme
/ q a n a a - p r o c e o n u r e a h / ' c i t i z e n r y '
3 . 1 2 Lexemes
Lexemes a r e s e t s o f v a r i a n t fo rm s c a l l e d l e x i c a l u n i t s .
A l e x i c a l u n i t i s any m e a n in g f u l form w h ich i s a minimum
s y n t a c t i c c o n s t i t u e n t o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n w hich i t o c c u r s .
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65
F o r exam ple , i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n :
/knora tow s a l a a r £ e n p r o w o o t t o s a a h l . /
I go s c h o o l s t u d y h i s t o r y
’ I ’m g o in g t o s c h o o l t o s t u d y h i s t o r y . ’
/ s a l a a / and / r £ o n / a r e c o - e x t e n s i v e l y morphemes and l e x i c a l
u n i t s j i . e . t h e y a r e 1 exemic morphemes. However, i n t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n :
/knom tow s a l a a - r £ © n I . /
I go s c h o o l
' I ' m g o i n g t o s c h o o l . ’
t h e y a r e t h e c o n s t i t u e n t morphemes o f t h e s i n g l e l e x i c a l
u n i t / s a l a a - r £ o n / ' s c h o o l ' .
A lexem e i s any s e t o f l e x i c a l u n i t s w hich h a v e t h e
same m ea n in g , s i m i l a r s h a p e , and do n o t c o n t r a s t i n any
g i v e n e n v i r o n m e n t , o r i t i s any l e x i c a l u n i t w h ich does n o t
b e l o n g t o s u c h a s e t . V a r i a n t l e x i c a l u n i t s b e lo n g i n g t o
t h e same lexeme a r e i t s a l l o l e x e s . F o r exam ple , t h e lexem e
/ k h a a ^ - k r a o y / ' b e h i n d , backw ard ' h a s an a l l o l e x o f t h a t
s h a p e and a l s o one o f t h e s h a p e / k h a g - k r a o y / . / k h a a g / and
/kha.13- / a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a l l o m o rp h s o f t h e morpheme
/ k h a a f l / ' s i d e , d i r e c t i o n ' , and / k r a o y / i s t h e i n v a r i a n t
morpheme ' b e h i n d ' .
Lexemes, l i k e morphemes, e n t e r i n t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f
l ex em es l a r g e r t h a n t h e m s e l v e s , t h r o u g h d e r i v a t i o n , com
p o u n d in g , and r e d u p l i c a t i o n .
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66
3 . 2 D e r i v a t i o n
Cambodian h a s a com plex s y s te m o f p r e f i x e s and i n f i x e s
w hich combine v r i th b a s e s t o form d e r i v a t i v e s . The f o l l o w i n g
a r e exam ples o f d e r i v a t i o n a l p a ra d ig m s fo rm ed on a s i n g l e
b a s e :
/ k a o t / ’ t o be b o rn *
/ p k a o t / 1 t o i n v e n t *
/ k n a o t / ’ p e r i o d o f t h e waxing moon1
/ k o m n a e t / ’ b i r t h , o r i g i n ’
/ b o q k a o t / ’ t o f o u n d , t o o r i g i n a t e ’
/ s a o m / ’ t o be w e t ’
/ p s a b m / ’ t o w e t 1
/ so m n ao m / ’m o i s t u r e ’
/ b o n s a o m / ’ t o m o i s t e n ’
/ s o n s a o m / ’ dew’
S in c e t h e s e a f f i x e s a r e no l o n g e r p r o d u c t i v e , t h e t e rm
d e r i v a t i o n i s h e r e d e f i n e d a s a s y s t e m a t i c s e m a n t i c r e l a t
i o n s h i p be tw een g r o u p s o f f o r m a l l y r e l a t e d w o rd s , r a t h e r
t h a n as a p r o d u c t i v e p r o c e s s .
W hile t h e s e a f f i x e s may a t one t im e h a v e had c l e a r l y
d e f i n e d - f u n c t i o n s , a g i v e n a f f i x may.now h a v e a v a r i o t y o f
f u n c t i o n s . F o r exam p le , t h e i n f i x e d morph / - o m - / h a s t h e
f o l l o w i n g p r i n c i p a l f u n c t i o n s :
1 ) N o m i n a l i z a t i o n
2 ) C a u s a t i o n
3) D e r o g a t i o n
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67
ij.) S t y l i s t i c v a r i a t i o n
£ ) V e r b a l i z a t i o n
6 ) D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s
Thus / - o m - / i s t h e homophonous a l l o r a o r p h o f s i x d i f f e r e n t
morphemes.
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , a g i v e n f u n c t i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d by
a v a r i e t y o f fo r m s . F o r ex am p le , t h e f u n c t i o n ' n o m i n a l -
i z a t i o n o f v e r b s ' i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g d i f f e r e n t
i n f i x e s : ■
1 ) / - o m - / / k d a w / ’ t o be h o t ' > /koradaw/ ' h e a t '
2 ) / - O N - / / k c o p / ' t o w ra p ' > / k o n c o p / ' p a c k a g e '
3 ) / - r o n - / / s a o k / ' t o p i t y ' > / s r o n a o k / ' p i t y '
k ) / - b - / / l e e g / ' t o p l a y ' > / l b a e i j / 'gam e '
$) / - m - / / l u o c / ' t o s t e a l ' > / l m u o c / ' t h i e f '
6 ) / - n - / / c u o l / ' t o r e n t ' > / c n u o l / ' r e n t '
7) / - g - / / s a o y / ' t o e a t ( r o y a l ) ' > / s g a o y / ' r o y a l f o o d
As a r e s u l t o f t h i s o v e r l a p p i n g o f fo rm and f u n c t i o n ,
many b a s e s h a v e synonymous d e r i v a t i o n s fo rm ed w i t h d i f f e r e n t
a f f i x e s , and many homophonous d e r i v a t i v e s h a v e s e v e r a l
f u n c t i o n s , e . g . :
1 ) Synonymous d e r i v a t i v e s
/ c u m / ' t o come t o g e t h e r 1
/ k a o t / ' t o be b o r n '
/ p c u m / ' t o a s s e m b le ( t r . ) '
/ p r o c u m / ' t o a s s e m b le ( t r . )
/ p k a o t / ' t o o r i g i n a t e '
/ p r o k a a t / ' t o o r i g i n a t e 1
/ b o ^ k a o t / ' t o o r i g i n a t e ’
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
/ m u u l / ' t o be r o u n d ' / c m o o l / ' t o make i n t o a b a l l *
/ p r o m o o l / ' t o g a t h e r t o g e t h e r '
- <V crorao° ^ / ' e n t a n g l e d '
/ s r o m o o l / 1 e n t a n g l e d '
2 ) Homophonous d e r i v a t i v e s
/ c h e h / ' t o b u r n ( t r . ) / p r o c h e h / ' t o s e t f i r e t o '
/ p r o c h e h / ' l i g h t e r '
/ c r a o n / ' t o be much, many' / c o m r a o n / ' i n c r e a s e , s u c c e s s '
/ c o m r a s n / ' t o p r o m o te , i n c r e a s e '
/ c k u o t / ' t o be m e n t a l l y i l l ' / c o m k u e t / ' t o be c r a z y ( d e r o g . )
/ c o m k u o t / ' i d i o t '
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g i n v e n t o r y o f d e r i v a t i o n a l a f f i x e s ,
a l l morphs t h a t s h a r e an e le m e n t o f m e a n in g , and w h ich h ave
b e e n shown t o be p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l t e r n a n t s , a r e
c o n s i d e r e d a l l o m o r p h s o f t h e same morpheme. Morphemes a r e
a r r a n g e d by morphophonemic s h a p e . In s p i t e o f t h e o v e r
l a p p i n g o f f u n c t i o n , t h e t y p i c a l o r ' ' r e g u l a r 1' f u n c t i o n
(morpheme) o f a g i v e n a f f i x can u s u a l l y be i d e n t i f i e d . T h is
r e g u l a r morpheme i s c i t e d f i r s t , f o l l o w e d by t h e r e s i d u a l
morphemes o f t h e same s h a p e . S u b - l e x e m ic morphemes a r e
p r e c e d e d by a morpheme sym bol , e . g , ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
I f a morpheme i s r e p r e s e n t e d by, more t h a n one a l l o m o r p h , t h e
, m os t f r e q u e n t o r b a s i c a l l o m o r p h i s u s e d t o d e s i g n a t e t h e
morpheme, and i s p r e c e d e d by t h e morpheme sym bol . O th e r
a l l o m o r p h s a r e l i s t e d i n o r d e r o f f r e q u e n c y .
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69
3 .2 1 P r e f i x e s
3 .2 1 1 P r e f i x e s o f sh a p e j(3-J
' A l l p r e f i x e s o f s h a p e |C - | c o n s i s t o f one o f t h e c o n
s o n a n t s / p t c k s / , a l t h o u g h / p - / i s by f a r t h e most
common. T hese same c o n s o n a n t s a l s o commonly o c c u r a s t h e
f i r s t member o f i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e s i n u n a n a l y z a b l e
l e x e m e s , e . g . / p t e o h / ‘h o u s e ’
/ t m e y / ’ t o be new’
/ c k a e / ’ dog*
/ k b a a l / ’h e a d 1
/ s d a p / ’ t o l i s t e n ’
l . ^ P - / 1 ’ c a u s a t io n *
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s :
/ d a c / ’ t o b r e a k ( i n t r . ) > / p d a c / ’ t o b r e a k ( t r a n s , )
/ d u o l / 1 t o f a l l over* > / p d u e l / ‘ t o f e l l ’
/ s a a y / * to s p r e a d ( i n t r . ) > / p s a a y / ’ t o s p r e a d ( t r . )
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/ c a a l / ’ t o be e x h a u s t e d ’ > / p c a a l / ’ t o e x h a u s t ’
/ d o t / ’ t o be s t u c k ’ > / p d o t / ’ t o s t i c k , p a s t e ’
/ s a g / ’ t o be t a m e ’ > / p s a g / ’ t o t a m e ’
V/ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t : ^
/ l e a n / ’ r u i n e d ’ > / p l a a n / ’ t o r u i n ’
1 . In l i s t i n g d e r i v a t i o n a l a f f i x e s , t h e symbol / - / w i l l be u s e d t o show- t h e p o s i t i o n o f a f f i x e s r e l a t i v e t o b a s e s , r a t h e r t h a n as a phoneme o f j u n c t u r e .2 , Vowel a b l a u t r u l e s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n 2 .I4..
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70
D e r i v e s d e l a t e d t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f rom i n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s
/ l i e / ' t o s i n k ’ > / p l i c / ' t o f o r g e t 1
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from bound a d j e c t i v a l v e r b base*
/ ( t o - ) t e e / ' t o be f r e e , em pty ' > / p t e e / ' t o empty , u n l o a d '
2 . \ / P “/ ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v e s s p e c i f i c v e r b s f rom g e n e r a l v e r b s ;
/ t u k / ! t o p u t , p l a c e ' > / p t u k / ' t o l o a d (a b o a t , e t c . ) '
/ r i o p / ' t o p r e p a r e , a r r a n g e '
> /p r la p / ' to compare, se t alongside*
/ d o l / ' t o r e a c h ’ > / p d o l / ' t o f a c i l i t a t e '
3 . \ / p - / ' v e r b a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom nouns ;
/kuu/ 'a pa ir ' > /pkuu/ ' t o pair o f f '
/ c u o / ' a row ' > / p c u a / ' t o make i n t o a rotv, t o p low '
/ d a o r a / ' o r i g i n ' > / p d a e m / ' t o b e g i n , t o o r i g i n a t e '
I+. v^p-/ ' nominalization'
/ l e e g / ' t o p l a y (a game, m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t , e t c . '
> / p l e e i o / ' s o n g , m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n '
5 . / p - /
■' D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e from p r e p o s i t i o n *
/ d a o y / ' b y , w i t h ' > / p d a o y / ' r i g h t away1
6 . * / k - / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v e s s p e c i f i c v e r b s f rom g e n e r a l ve rbs*
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71
/ b o t / ’ t o t u r n , f o l d ’ > / k b o t / ' t o d e c e i v e , b e t r a y ’
/ t o o t / ' t o k i c k ' > / k t o o t / ' t o thump, t o f l i c k '
/ t u p / ' t o o b s t r u c t , .'dam' > / k t u p / ' t o p l u g , s t o p u p '
/ s a a n / ' t o be p e a c e f u l ' > / k s a a n / ' t o be c a lm , a t e a s e '
/ c o o m / ' t o be b r u i s e d ' > / k c o o m / ' t o be u n c l e a r ,
b l e m i s h e d '
7 « \ / k - / ' n e g a t i o n ' ( o c c u r s o n l y v; ith . t h e f o l l o w i n g b a s e ) :
/ m e e n / ' t o h a v e , e x i s t ' > / k m e o n / ' n o t h a v e , no t . e x i s t '
8 , f / k - / ' c a u s a t i o n '
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f rom a d j e c t i v a l v e rb s
W i th b a s e a l l o m o r p h vot^el a b l a u t :
/ r e a p / ' t o be l e v e l ' > / k r a a p / ' t o l e v e l , p r o s t r a t e '
9 . \ / k - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v e s noun f rom t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s
/ l e o / ' t o s e p a r a t e ' > / k l e o / ' s p a c e , i n t e r v a l '
10. i/k - /
D e r i v e s c o n c r e t e noun f rom a b s t r a c t nouns
/ r i e g / ' a f f a i r , t o p i c ' > / k r i o i g / ' t h i n g , u t e n s i l '
1 1 , \ / s - / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v e s s p e c i f i c t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from g e n e r a l t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s :
/ k a t / ' t o c u t ' > / s k a t / ' t o o b s t r u c t , c u t o f f p a s s a g e '
/ d o h / ' t o f r e e , l o o s e ' > / s d o h / ' t o e x p e c t o r a t e ’
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vo w e l a b l a u t :
/ r u n / ' t o p u s h ' > / s r o n / ' t o kn o ck f l a t '
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72
1 2 . s —/ ' a t t r i b u t i o n 1
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v a l v e r b from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t :
/ l i p / ' t o l o w e r , duck ' > / s l o p / ' l o w e r e d , low '
1 3 . \ A “/ ' s p e c i a l i s a t i o n '
D e r i v e s s p e c i f i c t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom g e n e r a l t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s :
/ k a s n / ' t o e x t e n d ' > / c k a a n / ' t o s t r e t c h o v e r a sk e w e r '
/ r e o w / ' t o s e a r c h fo r* > / c r e o w / ' t o f e e l a ro u n d f o r '
111. \ / c - / ' c a u s a t i o n '
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t :
/ m u u l / ' t o be r o u n d ' > / c m o o l / ' t o make i n t o a b a l l '
15>. \ / t - / ' c a u s a t i o n '
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f rom a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
/ b i o t / ' c l o s e t o g e t h e r ' > / t b i s t / ' t o p i n c h '
1 6 . \ / t - / ' a t t r i b u t i o n '
D e r i v e s ‘a d j e c t i v e f rom t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/ b o t / ' t o c l o s e ' > / t b o t ( - t b i o t ) / ' p a r s i m o n i o u s '
3 .2 1 2 P r e f i x e s o f s h a p e JC V -1
3 .2 1 2 1 R e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x e s
R e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x e s a r e p r e f i x e s o f sh ap e |CV-*|
where |C~| i s a ’ ' p r e d u p l i c a t i o n * ' o f t h e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t
o f b a s e s w i t h i n i t i a l / p t c k s b d - m n n 13/ , o r i t i s
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
73
/ l ~ r ~ q / b e f o r e b a s e s w i t h i n i t i a l / l / . I -V-J i s
/ o ~ ©/ o r / o - ©/.■*"
1 . > /C o - / ’ r e p e t i t i v e o r c o n t i n u o u s a c t i o n ’
/ k a a y / ’ t o d i g ’ > / k o k a a y / ’ t o d i g a r o u n d , s c r a t c h about*
/ l c e h / ’ t o p i c k ’ > / k o k e h / ’ t o p i c k a t , s c r a t c h 1
/ c e k / ’ t o p e c k ’ > / c o c e k / ’ t o p ock a t r e p e a t e d l y *
/ d o h / ’ t o rub* > / d o d o h / ’ t o r u b b a c k and f o r t h ’
A l lom orph / G o - / t
/ n u e q / * to n o d ’ > / n o n u a q / ’ t o bob up and down’
/ t e e h / ’ t o ' s l a p ’ > / t o t e o h / ’ t o f l a p t h e w i n g s ’
/ t h e o q / ’ t o k i c k ’ > / t o t h e o q / ’ t o k i c k r e p e a t e d l y ’
/ l u o f l / ’ t o c o m f o r t ’ > / l o l u o i j / ’ t o f l a t t e r , c a j o l ’
Some lex em es have r e p e t i t i v e o r d i s t r i b u t i v e m ea n in g , b u t
t h e i r u n d e r l y i n g fo rm s n e v e r o c c u r w i t h o u t a r e d u p l i c a t i v e
p r e f i x ?
Verb's and a d j e c t i v e s :
/ k o k e e / ’ t o n i b b l e ( a s a m o u s e ) ’
/ b o b u e l / ’ t o a g r e e , t o c a j o l ’
/ k o k a e - k o k o o / ’ b a b b l i n g ’
/ c o c a q - c o c o c / ’w h e e d l i n g ’
A l lom orph / C o - / :
/ t o t o © / ’ t o t r e m b l e ’
/ m o m l i / ’ t o f l u t t e r ( o f t h e e y e l i d s ) ’
/ l o l e s m / ’ f l a s h i n g ’
1 , Morphophonemic a l t e r n a t i o n in r e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x e s i s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 ,l(-3 2 1 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
71+
Nouns*
/ b o b e e / ' t h e l i p s '
/ k o k o o / ' s e d i m e n t '
A l lo m o rp h / C o - / :
/ r ton o © / 'hammer '
2, a/C o- / ' in t e n s i f i c a t io n '
/ b a o h / ' t o sweep ' > / b o b a o h / ( •» / p e b a o h / } ' t o sweep
d i l i g e n t l y , t o r a i s e a d u s t '
/ t o o Q - t a a J o / ' w i t h a l o u d c l a t t e r i n g n o i s e '
> / t o t o o g - t o t a a g / ' w i t h an e x t r e m e l y l o u d c l a t t e r '
/ k w e e h - k w a a h / ' awkw ard ly '
> / k o k w e e h - k o k w a a h / ' d e s p e r a t e l y , h e e d l e s s l y '
A l lo m o rph / C o - / :
/ p l e o m / ' t o be h a p p y ' > / p o p l e o m / ' t o be d e l i g h t e d '
/ k r o o r a / ' t o be r o u g h 'i
> / k o k r e e m / ' t o be v e r y r o u g h and u n e v e n '
/ Q i ih - J O a a h / ' u n d i s c i p l i n e d '
> /QOQiih-QOQaah/ ' v e r y l o u d and b o i s t e r o u s '
3 . » /C o - / ' r e p e t i t i o n and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n '
When a r e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x o c c u r s w i t h an u n d e r l y i n g
form w h ich a l r e a d y h a s r e p e t i t i v e o r c o n t i n u a t i v e m ea n in g ,
i t i s a p o r tm a n te a u morpheme w h ich i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e m ean ings
o f morphemes 1 and 2 a b o v e .
/ k a e k - k a o k / ' t h e sound o f a r g u i n g b a c k and f o r t h ’
> / k o k a e k - k o k a o k / ' a r g u i n g v i o l e n t l y t o g e t h e r *
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1$
/ p l s k - p l o q / ‘ so u nd o f waves l a p p i n g ’
> / p o p l o k - p o p l o q / ’ so u n d o f waves l a p p i n g v i g o r o u s l y 1
/ p l e h - p l o h / ' c o n s t a n t l y t e a s i n g 1
> / p o p l e h - p o p l o h / ' c o n s t a n t l y t e a s i n g and a n n o y in g '
A l lo m o rp h . / C o - / :
/ qi h - Q u h / ' t o w him per '
• > / iQoQih-Qoguh/ ' t o w h ine p i t e o u s l y '
/ k r & r a - k r im / ' b u z z i n g s o u n d ’
> / k o k r i m - k o k r i m / ' l o u d buziz ing so u n d '
/m a o k -m o o k / ' s l o w l y '
> /momeok-momook/ ' v e r y s l o w l y and s l u g g i s h l y '
I4.. « /C o ~ / ' a t t r i b u t i o n '
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e f rom c o n j u n c t i o n s
/ d a e l / ' t h a t w h ic h ' > / d o d a e l / ' t h e same'
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e f rom noun :
/ d a a m / ' o r i g i n ' > / d o d a a r a / ' o r i g i n a l l y , a t f i r s t '
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s o r a d j e c t i v a l v e r b 3 f rom v e r b s :
A l lo m o rp h / C o - / :
/ p e e n / ' t o c r o s s t h e l e g s ' > / p o p e e n / ' c r i s s - c r o s s e d '
/ n £ o q / ' t o s h a k e ' > / n o n e o q / ' s h a k i n g , t r e m b l i n g '
/ c r u l / ' t o e x c e e d ' > / c o c r u l / ' h e e d l e s s l y , b l a t a n t l y '
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v a l v e r b f rom n e g a t i v e p a r t i c l e s
/ t e e / ' ' n o , n o t a t a l l ' > / t o t e e / ' t o be f r e e , empty '
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e f rom nouns
/ c u e / ' r o w , l i n e ' > / c o c u e / ' i n a row, d r a g g i n g a l o n g '
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76
3 .2 1 2 2 H o n - r e d u p l l c a t l v e p r e f i x e s o f shape | CV-|
1 . « / r o « / ‘ a t t r i b u t i o n 1
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s f rom t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/ d o o q / ‘ t o p u l l u p 1 > / r o d o o q / ‘u p r o o t e d 1
/ m u e l / ‘ t o t w i s t 1 > / r o m u o l / ‘ t w i s t e d 1
/ l u o t / ‘ t o e x t i n g u i s h 1 > / r o l u o t / ‘ e x t i n g u i s h e d 1
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v a l v e r b f rom i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b ;
/ w u o l / ‘ t o r e v o l v e * > / r o w u e l / ‘ t o be b u s y 1
2 . a / p o - / ‘ i n t r a n s i t i v e 1
D e r i v e s i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/ b o o t / ‘ t o p u l l o f f 1 > / r o b o o t / ‘ t o come o f f 11
/ b a s k / ‘ t o o p e n 1 > / r o b a s k / - . 1 to ' move ( s p o n t a n e o u s l y ) 1
/ b a o k / ‘ t o t e a r 1 > / r o h a e k / ‘ t o t e a r ( s p o n t a n e o i i s l y ) 1
3 . \ / r o - / ‘n o m i n a l i z a t i o n 1
D e r i v e s n ouns from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/ b a ^ ) / ‘ t o h i d e 1 > / r o b a i j / ‘ a s h a d e , s c r e e n '
/ m u u / ‘ t o r o l l u p 1 > / r o m u u / ‘ a r o l l , s c r o l l 1
Ij.. The p r e f i x \ /m9- /
T h i s p r e f i x i s t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t a l l o m o r p h o f t h e
morpheme \/mu9y ~ m aa- - m o - / ‘ o n e 1.
/ d o o ^ / ‘ t i m e , o c c a s i o n 1 > /modoo33/ ' o n c e 1
/ y a a g / ‘ k i n d 1 > / m e y a a ^ / ' o n e k i n d o f 1
/ n e o q / ‘ p e r s o n 1 > / m s n e s q / ' a l o n e , one p e r s o n 1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
* / - ph4y/^" ’ t w e n t y ’ > /meph& y/ ’ t w e n t y 1
A llom orph / r n a a - / ( d e l i b e r a t e , s p e e c h a l t e r n a n t )
* / -ph& y/ ’ t w e n t y ’ > / m a a - p h i y / ’ txyenty’
A l lom orph / m u o y - / ( a l s o o c c u r s a s a f r e e fo rm )
\ / - p h i y / ’ t w e n t y ’ > / rauey -ph& y/ ’ t w e n ty '
5 . The p r e f i x j / n i - / ' d i s t r i b u t i v e m e a n in g ’
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e f rom n u m e r a l :
/m u o y / ’ o n e ' > / n i m u o y / ^ ' e a c h , e v e r y ’
> / n i m u s y - n i r a u o y / ’ t h e v a r i o u s '
3 .2 1 3 P r e f i x e s o f sh a p e [C rV - l
I n p r e f i x e s o f s h a p e JC rV - j , jC-jJ i s one o f t h e c o n
s o n a n t s / p t c k s / , and | - V - | i s / - o - / . , o r ; r a r e l y , / - o - / 3 ,
e a c h w i t h r a p i d s p e e c h a l t e r n a n t / - © V / . The p r e f i x / p r o - /
i s by f a r t h e most f r e q u e n t . The g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n ^ o f
t h e s e p r e f i x e s i s u n c l e a r , and s e v e r a l p r e f i x e s may o c c u r
w i t h a g i v e n b a s e w i t h s i m i l a r o r i d e n t i c a l m ean ing ( se e
s e c t i o n 3 . 2 ) . |C rV - | i s a l s o a common u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e
sh ap e i n u n a n a l y z a b l e l e x e m e s :
/ p r o d a p / ' i n s t r u m e n t ’
/ c r o m o h / ’n o s e ’
/ t r o c i e q / ’ e a r '
/ k r o b o y / ’ w a t e r b u f f a l o '
/ s r o m a o c / ' a n t '
1 . T h is morpheme does n o t o c c u r a s a f r e e ' form.2 . T h is i s p o s s i b l e a c o n t r a c t i o n o f -“- /n eo q -m u o y / ' o n e p e r s o n3. Vowel a l t e r n a t i o n i n t h e s e p r e f i x e s i s d e s c r i b e d i n 2.1+322
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1 7 8
1 , \ / p r o - / ’ r e c i p r o c i t y *
/ k h a m / ’ t o b i t e ’ > / p r o k h a m / ’ t o b i t e e a c h o t h e r ’
/ c e e ^ / ' t o p u s h a h e a d 1 > / p r o c e e d / ' t o r a c e , c o m p e te ’
/ c l u o h / ' t o a r g u e ' > / p r o c l u o h / ' t o s q u a b b l e t o g e t h e r '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t ;
/ l e e f l / ' t o p l a y ' > / p r o l a e ^ / ' t o p l a y t o g e t h e r ’
/ l o o g / ' t o t r y , t e s t ' > / p r o l o o g / ' t o com pete
( i n an exam ) '
A l lom orph / p r o - / ;
/ n i t / ' t o b i n d t i g h t l y ' > / p r o r i t / ' t o e n c i r c l e one
a n o t h e r '
/ r u o t / ' t o s q u e e z e ' > / p r o r u o t / ' t o e m brace , g r a p p l e '
2 . i / p r o - / ’ c a u s a t i o n '
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom a d j e c t i v a l v e rb s ?
' / k o e / ’ i n a > p i le * . > / p r o k o e / ’ t o p i l e u p ’
/ k o o p / 'w h o l e ' > / p r o k o o p / ' t o com bin e , b e s to w '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t ;
/ m u u l / ' t o be r o u n d ' '> / p r o m o o l / ' t o g a t h e r t o g e t h e r '
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom i n t r a s i t i v e v e r b s ; -
/ k a o t / ' t o be b o r n ' > / p r o k a s t / ' t o o r i g i n a t e , s e t u p ’
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t ;
/ m u c / ' t o d i v e ' > / p r o m o c / ' t o su b m e rg e , p u t u n d e r '
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79
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f rom p r e p o s i t i o n :
/ d o o c / iVlilce' > / p r o d o o c / ’ t o compare*
D e r i v e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/ c h e h / ’ t o b u r n ' > / p r o c h e h / ' t o i g n i t e ; i n f u s e '
D e r i v e s m odal v e r b f rom a d j e c t i v a l ' v e r b :
With b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t :
/ n o o p / ' t o be q u i c k ' > / p r o n a p / ' t o h u r r y t o ' -
3 . \ / p r o - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v e s noun from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/ c h e h / ' t o b u r n ' > / p r o c h e h / ' a w ic k , l i g h t e r ’ ^
/ p u o n / ' t o t i e , a t t a c h ' > / p r o p u o n / ' w i f e , com pan ion '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t :
/ y o o l / ' t o sw ing b a ck and f o r t h ' > / p r o y a o l / ' a f o b '
i
D e r i v e s a b s t r a c t noun from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
/wee*) / ' t o be l o n g ' > / p r o w e e ^ / ' l e n g t h '
\ / p r o ~ / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v e s s p e c i f i c t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom g e n e r a l t r a n s . v e r b s :
/ k a c / ' t o b r e a k ' > / p r o k a c / ' t o a l t e r , f a l s i f y '
/ k a n / ' t o h o l d , b e l i e v e ' > / p r o k a n / ' t o a c c u s e , m a i n t a i n '
/ d a w / ' t o i m p r e s s , m ark ' > / p r o d a w / ' t o i n s t r u c t , t e a c h '
1 . The fo rm s / p r o c h e h / ' t o i g n i t e ' and / p r o c h e h / ' l i g h t e r ' a r e d o u b l e t s .
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8 0
D e r i v e s s p e c i f i c noun f rom g e n e r a l noun:
/ p h e e t / ' s e x , gender* > / p r o p h e e t / ‘ k i n d , v a r i e t y *
5 . \ / p r o - / ’ v e r b a l i z a t i o n * > / ,vr-•?•. / 1 t o ; ,~nv;*
/ y u t / ’ b a t t l e * > / p r o y u t / * t o f i g h t *
6 . \ / p r o - / ’ a t t r i b u t i o n *
/ b a e k / ’ t o b r e a k ( i n t r . ) > / p r o b a e k / ’ broken*
7 . \ / s r o - / ' i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n *
■ / f l a w / ' t o be sh iny* > / s r o q a w / ' t o be v e r y sh iny*
/ t u o n / ' t o be s o f t* > / s r o t u a n / ' v e r y s o f t and g e n t l e *
/ q a p / ' t o be dim* > / s r o q a p / ' t o be dim and ug ly*
8 . * v / s ro - / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n *
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t :
/ l e a p / ' t o r u b , p a i n t * > / s r o l a a p / ' t o a p p l y m ed ic ine*
/ m u u l / ' t o be round* > / s r o m o o l / ' e n t a n g l e d , t i e d u p ’
9 . h / s r o - / ’v e r b a l i z a t i o n *
/ k a a q / ' l e a v i n g s , r e f u s e *
> / s r o k a a q / ' t o be l i t t e r e d v t i th r e f u s e *
1 0 . \ / c r o - / ' c a u s a t i o n *
W ith b a s e a l l o m o rp h vowel a b l a u t :
/ l e o h / 'beyond* > / c r o l a e h / ' t o v i o l a t e , exceed*
A l lom orph / c r o - / :
/ m u c / ' t o dive* > / c r o r a u c / ' t o p u t under*
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 1 . \ / c r o - / ’ i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n 1
/ l t i n / ' t o be c o n f u s e d ' > / c r o l o m / ' d a z e d , c o n f u s e d '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t :
/ m u u l / ' t o be r o u n d ' > / c r o m o o l / ' i n t e r w o v e n , e n t a n g l e d
1 2 . \ / c r o - / ' a t t r i b u t i o n '
Makes a d j e c t i v a l v e r b f r o m t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/ q o o h / ' t o d r a g ' > / c r o q o o h / ' t o be l a z y , s l u g g i s h '
\ / c r o ~ / ' v e r b a l i z a t i o n *
/ b a c / ' h a n d f u l ' > / c r o b a c / ' t o g r a s p , s q u e e z e '
llj.. \ / k r o - / ' c a u s a t i o n '
/ p u l / ' t o be p o i so n o u s* > / k r o p u l / ' t o poison*
1 5 . \ / k r o - / ' i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n '
/ w i a c / ' t o be c r o o k e d ’ > / k r o w i o c / ' t w i s t e d and /
d e fo rm e d '
1 6 . \ / k r o - / ' v e r b a l i z a t i o n '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t :
/w u o i j / ' c i r c l e ' > / k r o w o ^ / ' t o be c i r c u l a r '
1 7 . \ / t r o - / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n '
/ b a s e / ' t o s c a t t e r ' > / t r o b a a c / ' t o c ru m b le i n t h e
f i n g e r s '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8 2
3 . 21U- P r e f i x e s o f s h a p e |CVN-|
In p r e f i x e s o f shape JCVN-J, jC~J i s one o f t h e
c o n s o n a n t s / b d p t c k q s r l / , | - V - | i s / o / ( ~ r a p i d
s p e e c h a l t e r n a n t / © / ) , / u / , o r / u © / , and | - N - j i s a n a s a l
w hich i s i n v a r i a n t i n some morphemes and w h ic h , i n o t h e r
morphemes, r e p r e s e n t s c o n d i t i o n e d a l t e r n a n t s . By f a r t h e
m os t common morpheme o f t h i s sh a p e i s t h e morpheme / b o N - /
• c a u s a t i o n * . |CVN-| a l s o o c c u r s a s an u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e
i n u n a n a l y z a b l e morphemes, e . g . *
/ tu m p e © / • t o chew'
/ t u en3 .ee / ' r i v e r ’
/ k u e n l o o g / ' f u r r o w '
/cu©nce©3o/ 'w a ll'
f rom ' i n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s *
> /b o m b a e k / ' t o c a u s e t o b r e a k '
> / b o n d a © / ' t o w a lk (a dog , e t c . ) '
> / b o n e o n / ' t o se n d o u t , e x p e l 1
> / b o $ k a © t / ' t o o r i g i n a t e '
vowel a b l a u t *
> /botQwol/ ' t o c a u s e t o r o t a t e 1
1 . The a l t e r n a t i o n o f | -N-1 i s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 3 .2 . Vowel a l t e r n a t i o n i n morphemes o f t h i s sh a p e i s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 ,i|.3 2 3 ,
/ b o g q u o c / 'window*
/dora looip / ' p o t a t o '
/ c o q k a a / ' c h i n '
/ s o n d a e k / ' b e a n s ’
1. -/boN-/2D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s
*/ b a e k / ' t o b r e a k ' •
/ d a © / ' t o w a lk '
/ c o n / ' t o l e a v e 1
/ k a o t / ' b e b o r n '
V7ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h
/ w & l / ' t o r o t a t e *
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
A llo m orph / p u s N - / ; ^
/ y u o l / ' t o u n d e r s t a n d ’ > / p u o n y u o l / ' t o e x p l a i n '
/ l i e / ' t o s i n k 1 > / p u s n l i c / ' t o o v e r t h r o w '
/ r i i k / ' t o b loom ' > / p u o g r i i k / ' t o ex pand , i n c r e a s e ’
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/ p i n / ' t o be f u l l ' > / b o m p i n / ' t o f i l l '
/ t u r n / ' t o be r i p e 1 > / b o n t u m / ' t o r i p e n ( t r . ) '
/ r i g / ' t o be h a r d ' > / b o g r i g / ' t o h a r d e n ( t r . ) '
/ q o o / ' t o be h a p p y ' > / b o g q o o / ' t o c h e e r '
D e r i v e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s :
/ b a e / ' t o tu rn * > / b o m b a e / ' t o c a u s e t o t u r n '
/ t o o / ' t o c o n t i n u e ’ > / b o n t o o / ' t o c a u s o t o c o n t i n u e '
/ c o o l / ' t o e n t e r ' > / b o n c o o l / ' t o c a u s e t o e n t e r ; p u t i n '
/ r i s n / ' t o s t u d y ' > / b o g r i o n / ' t o t e a c h '
/ h a t / ' t o p r a c t i c e ' > / b o g h a t / ' t o t r a i n , t o d r i l l '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t chango :
/ f e k / ' t o p r a c t i c e ' > / b o g w o k / ' t o t r a i n , t o d r i l l '
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom p r e p o s i t i o n s :
/ d a o y / ' b e means o f > / b o n d a o y / ' t o f a c i l i t a t e '
A l lo m o rph / p u o N - / :
/ l o o h / ' b e y o n d ' > / p u o n l o o h / ' t o e x a g g e r a t e '
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from a d j e c t i v e ;
/ h a o y / ' a l r e a d y ' > / b o g h a o y / ' t o f i n i s h , c o m p l e t e '
1 . The a l t e r n a t i o n / b - / > / p - / i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e vowel a l t e r n a t i o n , s i n c e / b - / n e v e r o c c u r s b e f o r e / - u s - / ( s e e 2 . 2. f o r o t h e r exam ples o f t h i s k in d o f a l t e r n a t i o n ) .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2 . j / b o N - / * n o m i n a l ! z a t i o n *
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e o b j e c t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e verb*
/ p e e q / ’ t o wear above t h e w a i s t ’
> / b o m p e o q / ’ g a rm e n ts worn above t h e w a i s t ’
/ t u k / ' t o p l a c e , p u t ' > / b o n t u k / ' c a r g o , l o a d '
/ k a n / ' t o h o l d ’ > / b o ^ k a n / ' r a i l i n g , h a n d l e '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t :
/ w i c / ' t o vrrap' > / b o g w e c / ' p a c k a g e , p a r c e l '
3 . \ / b o N - / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v e s s p e c i f i c t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom g e n e r a l t r a n s . v e r b s
/ k o o / ' t o b u i l d , e s t a b l i s h ' > /bojQkoo/ ' t o i n s t i g a t e ,
a g i t a t e 1
/ k a t / ' t o c u t ' > / b o Q k a t / ' t o c r e a t e a h a l f - b r e e d '
/ k a c / ' t o b r e a k ( t r . ) > / b o q k a c / ' t o a l t e r t h e t r u t h ,
* t o s l a n d e r '
I4.. \ / s o N - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v e s n ouns f rom t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s :
/ b o o q / ' t o p e e l ' > / s o m b o o q / ' p e e l , b a r k '
/ k a t / ' t o c u t ' > / s o q k a t / ' d i v i s i o n , s e c t o r '
D e r i v e s nouns from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/ s a o m / ' t o be w e t ' > / s o n s a e m / 'dev: '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t :
/w ee ia / ' t o be l o n g ' > / s o ^ w a e g / ' l e n g t h '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8 5
5 . * / s o N - / ‘ c a u s a t i o n 1
D e r i v e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from, t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/ r u s n i / ’ t o c o m b in e ’ > /so ioruoru / ' t o c a u s e t o com bine '
/ r u e p - r u s m / ' t o c o l l e c t '
> / s o ^ r u o p - s o ^ r u e m / ' t o c a u s e t o com bine '
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/ s o m / ' t o come t o g e t h e r ' > / s o n s o m / ' t o s a v e , am ass '
6 . n / s o N - / ' r e p e t i t i o n o r i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n '
/ k e n / ' t o g r i n d ' > / s o g k s n / ' t o g r i n d o v e r and o v e r '
/ k u e t / ' t o s h a r p e n ' > / s o ^ k u e t / ' t o whet o v e r and o v e r '
7. \ / s o N - / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n *
/ k o t / ' t o f i x , n o t e down' > / s o c k e t / ' t o p u sh down,
b e a r down on '
8 . iy /soN-/ ' v e r b a l i z a t i o n 'i
/ k r u e h / ' f a t e , c h a n c e ' > / s o q k r u o h / ' t o h e l p , s u p p o r t '
9 . \ / k o N - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v a t i v e i s d e s c r i b e d by t h e b a s e :
/ d a a c / ' t o be t o r n , t a t t e r e d '
> / k o n d a a c / ' r a g s , t a t t e r e d g a r m e n t s '
/ t u o q / ' t o be w r i n k l e d , s h a t t e r e d '
> / k o n t u o q / ' r i c e b r a n , c h a f f '
/ c r i l / ' t o be b r i l l i a n t ' > / k o n c r i l / ' b r i g h t o r n a m e n t s '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f t h e b a s e ' v e r b ;
/ t r o o 33/ ' t o s t r a i n , f i l t e r ' > / k o n t r o o q / ' s t r a i n e r '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8 6
10 . \ / k o N - / . ' a t t r i b u t i o n 1
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vow el a b l a u t :
/ w u o l / ' t o r e v o l v e ' > / k o g w o l / ' t o be i n v o l v e d , b u s y '
1 1 . ' c a u s a t i o n '
/ d e g / ' t o know' > / d o n d o g / ' t o an nounce o n e ’ s
i n t e n t i o n o f m a r r y i n g a g i r l '
1 2 . \ / d o N - / ' v e r b a l i z a t i o n '
/ d a o m / ' o r i g i n ' > / d o n d a e m / ' t o q u a r r e l o v e r , d i s p u t e
o w n e r s h ip o f '
13* \ / d o N - / ' i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n '
/ d a m / ' t o c o o k ' > / d o n d a m / ' t o c o o k t h o r o u g h l y '
III-, fy/rum-/ ' c a u s a t i o n '
D e r i v e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f rom t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/ l e e p / ' t o s w a l lo w ' > / r u m l e e p / ' t o c a u s e t o sw a l lo w ,
t o f o r c e i n '
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from i n t r a n s i t i v e verb*
/ k e l / ' t o move ( i n t r . ) ' > / r u m k e l / ' t o move ( t r . ) ’
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
W ith l o s s o f / - r - / i n b a s e a l l o m o r p h ; ^
/ c r i n / ' t o be b o r e d ' > / r u m c i n / ' t o b o r e , an n oy '
/ c r u e l / ' t o be e x c i t e d ' > / r u m c u e l / ' t o e x c i t e , a g i t a t e '
1 , T h ese a r e t h e o n ly exam ples o f t h i s k i n d o f a l t e r n a t i o n i n t h e d a t a .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
87
1 5 . \ / r u i n - / ‘ i n t r a n s i t i v e 1
D e r i v e s i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f ro m t r a n s i t i v e v e r b ;
/ l u s t / ‘ t o t w i s t ( t r . ) ’ > / r u r a l u e t / ' t o t w i s t ( i n t r . ) '
■ 1 6 . fy/rum-/ ' v e f c b a l i z a t i o n '
/ ^ e e k / '-to be s lo w , s l u g g i s h ' > / rumiQsek/ ' t o be v e r y
s lo w and s l u g g i s h '
1 7 . \ / r u m - / ' v e r b a l i s a t i o n '
/ l o o p / ' g r e e d ' > / r u m l o o p / ' t o u s u r p , p l u n d e r '
1 8 . \ / r u © N - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
/ w o e h / ' t o m e a s u re l i n e a l l y * > / r u s ^ w d o h / ' l i n e a r
m e a s u r e '
/ w o o l / ' t o m ea su re t h e volume o f '
> / ruQQvrool / ' a v o l u m e t r i c m e a s u r e '
1 9 . fy /rueN-/ ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n '
/ k i e q / ' t o g r a s p , c l a s p '
> / ruQ jQ kioq / ' t o work b a ck and f o r t h (as a s t a k e
i n a h o l e ) '
2 0 . »/coJ\T- / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
/ t u o l / ' t o p r o p ' > / c o n t u s l / ' a p r o p 1
A llom orp h / c u o n - / :
/ d a e / ' t o w a lk ' > / c u o n d a © / ' s t a i r s '
2 1 . * / c o m - / ' c a u s a t i o n '
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s ?
/ t o s h / ' t o be o p p o se d ' > / c o m t o o h / ' t o o b s t r u c t , p r e v e n t '
/ k a o n / ' t o be b e n t ' > / c o m k a o n / ' t o s t r e t c h o n e s e l f
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2 2 . \ /q o N ~ / ’ n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f t h e b a s e v e r b j
/b 'aoh./ / ’ ' t o sw eep ' > / q o m b a o h / ' a broom'
/ t e s q / ' t o t r a p ' > / q o n t e o q / ' a t r a p '
2 3 . \ / l u m ~ / ' c a u s a t i o n '
D e r i v e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s
/ q a o n / ' t o bow' > / l u m q a o n / ' t o c a u s e t o bow'
2 l|.. \ / l u m ~ / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
/ n o w / ' t o s t a y , l i v e ' > / lu m n o w / ' r e s i d e n c e , abode
2 5 . \ / s o m - / ' v e r b a l i z a t i o n '
/ k a a q / ' c h a f f > / s o m k a a q / ' t o winnow, d u s t '
2 6 , \ / s o m - / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n '
/ c o o t / ' t o p a r k , moor ' > / s o m c o o t / ' t o s t o p and r e s t '
i
2 7 . \ / d o m - / ' c a u s a t i o n '
/ l a o ^ / ' t o a s c e n d ' > / d o m l a o q / ' t o r a i s e , e l e v a t e '
28 , \ / t u 9N - / ' a t t r i b u t i o n '
/ t i m / ' t o y o k e ' > / t u o n t i m / ' t o be yoked t o g e t h e r
3 .2 1 5 The p r e f i x \/ q a a - / ' d e r o g a t i o n *
\ / q a a - / i s a bound p r o n o m in a l p r e f i x w i t h a d e r o g a t o r y
o r d i m i n u t i v e m ean ing . I t o c c u r s p r o d u c t i v e l y w i t h v e r b s ,
n o u n s , p r o n o u n s , d e m o n s t r a t i v e s , and a d j e c t i v e s , and i t s
d e r i v a t i v e s u s u a l l y o c c u r as d e r o g a t o r y terras o f a d d r e s s ,
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89
a l t h o u g h t h e y o c c a s i o n a l l y o c c u r as t e r m s o f r e f e r e n c e .
W ith v e r b s :
/ t o o c / ’ t o be small* > / q a a - t o o c / ‘ l i t t l e o n e ! , r u n t I *
/km aw / ’ t o be b l a c k ’ > / q a a - k m a w / ’ b l a c k f e l l o w '
W ith nouns*
/ c a o / ’ t h i e f > / q a a - c a o / ' y o u t h i e f 1 '
/ c o m k u e t / ' i d i o t ' > / q a a - c o m k u e t / ' y o u i d i o t ! '
W ith p ronouns*
/ q a e g / ' y o u ' ( f a m i l i a r ) ' > / q a a - q a e g / 'y o u ( f a m i l i a r ,
i n s u l t i n g ) '
A ) a a / ' y o u ( t o s m a l l b o y s ) ' > / q a a - g a a / 'my l i t t l e on e '
W i th d e m o n s t r a t i v e s :
/ n u h / ' t h a t ' > / q a a - n u h / ' t h a t ( d i m i n u t i v e ) o n e '
/ n i h / ' t h i s ' > / q a a - n i h / ' t h i s ( d i m i n u t i v e ) one '
W ith a d j e c t i v e s :
/ n a a / 'w h i c h ' > / q a a - n a a / 'w h i c h ( d i m i n u t i v e ) o n e ? ,
any ( d i m i n u t i v e ) o n e . '
3 . 2 1 6 The p r e f i x y/ p r e o h - / ' s a c r e d , e s t e e m e d '
■y/preohr/ i w i t h r a p i d s p e e c h a l l o m o r p h / p r © - / ) i s a
bound p r e f i x w h ic h o c c u r s b e f o r e any noun whose r e f e r e n t i s
o f s a c r e d o r e s t e e m e d n a t u r e , and b e f o r e any v e r b e x p r e s s i n g
a c t i o n p e r f o r m e d by a p e r s o n o f s a c r e d o r h i g h e s t e e m . ’
Nouns: / p u t / ' t h e Buddha’ > / p r e e h - p u t / ’ t h e Buddha'
/ t q a y / ' t h e su n ' > / p r e o h - t f l a y / ' t h e sun (w i th
a n th r o p o m o r p h ic c o n n o t a t i o n ) '
/ r e o c e o / ' k i n g ' > / p r e a h - r e o c e o / ' r e v e r e d k i n g '
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90
W ith v e r b s : .
/ s d a e : g / * t o show, e x p l a i n 1
> / p r e s h - s d a e f l / ’ t o t e a c h ’ ( o f t h e Buddha o r monks)
/ t h a p / ’ t o s t a y ( r o y a l t y ) ’
> / p r e o h - t h a p / * to s t a y , l i v e , r e s i d e ( r o y a l t y ) ’
/ r e e c c o t e e n / ’ t o g i v e ( r o y a l t y ) ' ,
> / p r e o h - r e o c c o t e o n / ' t o p r e s e n t ( r o y a l t y ) '
3 , 2 1 7 M i s c e l l a n e o u s p r e f i x e sn I
1 , ~ q a ~ / ' n o n - , u n - ' 1
/ p h i y / ' t o be a f r a i d ' > / q a q p h i y / ' t o be f e a r l e s s ’
/ m o n u h / ' a human' > /q a q m o n u h / 'n o n -h u m an , s p i r i t u a l '
/ y u t t o t h o o / ' j u s t i c e ' > / q a y u t t a t h o a / ' i n j u s t i c e '
2 , \ A i a q - / ' g e n e r i c p r e f i x f o r f r u i t s and wood p r o d u c t s
/ m a q - k l i o / ' e b o n y '
/m a q - p r a a ) o / »' p lum '
/ r n a q - b a a t / ' a l a r g e f r u i t o f u n p l e a s a n t o d o r '
1 , O ccurs o n l y i n words b o r ro w e d from S a n s k r i t o r P a l i .2 , A p p a r e n t l y bo r ro w ed from T h a i , s i n c e i t s u s e i s more g e n e r a l i n T h a i , and s i n c e i t o c c u r s b e f o r e names o f f r u i t s w h ic h a l s o o c c u r i n T h a i , b u t n o t b e f o r e words w hich do n o t o c c u r i n T h a i , s u c h a s / i h o q / ' p a p a y a ' .
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91
3 .2 2 I n f i x e s
3 .2 2 1 I n f i x e s o f s h a p e | - C - |
S i n g l e - c o n s o n a n t i n f i x e s a r e one o f t h e c o n s o n a n t s
/ n b m g l / , w i t h / - n - / by f a r t h e m ost common. T hese same
c o n s o n a n t s a l s o commonly o c c u r a s C2 i n u n a n a l y z a b l e l e x e m e s j
/ s n a a / ' c r o s s b o w '
/ t b o o x ) / ' h e a d '
/ t m o o / ' s t o n e '
/kQaok/ 'goose'
/klaa/ 'tiger'
1 . \ / - n - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e I n s t r u m e n t o f t h e b a s e verb*
. / k e o p / ' t o p i n c h ' > / k n e o p / ' p i n c e r s '
/ t i m / ‘ t o y o k e ' > / t n * m / *a y o k e '
/ a i e t / ' t o i n s e r t ' > / s n i e t / ' a n i n s e r t , wedge'
W ith base allomorph /r-/ > /to - / ? 1
/ r o e h / ' t o r a k e ' > / r o n o e h / ' a r a k e '
/ r e e f l / ' t o o b s t r u c t ' > / r o n e e i ] / ' a s c r e e n '
/ t r o s p / ' t o s u p p o r t ' > / t r o n o o p / ' a s u p p o r t , p r o p '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / d - / > / t -/:**•
/ d a o l / ' t o p o l e a b o a t ' > / t n a o l / ' p o l e ‘( f o r a b o a t ) '
/ d o l / ' t o r e a c h ' > / t n o l / ' r o a d , way'
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / b - / > / p - / * ^
/ b o o l / ' t o f o r e c a s t ' > / p n o o l / ' a n omen'
1 . T h i s k i n d o f a l t e r n a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 2 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
92
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e b a s e verb*
/ c u e t / ’ t o make i n t o a t u r b a n , wear a t u r b a n ’
> / c h u e t / ' a t u r b a n ’
/ k u e c / ’ t o k n o t ’ . > / k n u e c / ’ a k n o t '
/ p e e n / ’ t o f o l d t h e l e g s I n d i a n - f a s h i o n '
> / p n e e n / ' t h e f o l d e d l e g s '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o rp h / b - / > / p - / *
/ b a e k / ’ t o break* > / p n a e k / ' f r a g m e n t , s e c t i o n '
/ b u e $ / ' t o wear a c h i g n o n ' > / p n u a g / ' a c h ig n o n '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o rp h / d - / > / t - / :
/ d o o / ' t o t r a d e ' > / t n o o / 'w h a t i s t r a d e d , a
t r a d e ; p r i c e ’
/ d a q / ' t o p u t , p l a c e 1 > / t n a q / ' c l a s s , p lacem en t*
/ d o q / 'make a pocke t* > / t n o q / ' a p ocke t*
D e r i v a t i v e i s a s e m a n t i c a l l y r e l a t e d noun :i
/ k a e t / ' b e b o r n , a r i s e ' > / k n a e t / ' p e r i o d o f waxing moon*
/ c a m / ' t o w a i t ' > / c n a m / ' a y e a r ’
/ t e o q / ' a t r a p , s n a r e ' > / t n e e q / ' a decoy*
W ith b a s e a l l o m o rp h / d - / > / t - / s
/ d a m / * to p l a n t * > / t n a m / ' a p l a n t , h e r b , m e d i c i n e ’
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / r - / > / r o - / *
/ r o o c / ' t o wane ( o f t h e moon) '
> / r o n o o c / ' p e r i o d o f t h e waning moon'
2 . \ / - b - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e verb*
/ l i e n / ' t o be f a s t ' > / l b i e n / ' s p e e d '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
93
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t *
/ l e e g / ' t o p lay * > / l b a e g / 'game*
/ l u e q / ' t o s l e e p 1' > / l b o q / *a nap*
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / r . - / > / r o - / *
/ r i o n / ' t o l e a r n ' > / r o b i e n / 'k n o w le d g e , a b i l i t y '
/ r i e p / ' t o a r r a n g e ' > / r o b i o p / ' o r d e r , method*
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / r - / > / r o - / p l u s vowel a b l a u t *
/ r o o m / ' t o dance* > / r o b a m / ’ a d a n c e '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e b a s e v e rb *
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t , and / - k / > / - q / * ^
/ l o © k / ' t o c h i s e l ' - > / l b o o q / ' a c h i s e l '
3 »‘ \ / - b - / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n '
Verb* (W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t )
/ I 0 G13/ ' t o t r y , t e s t ' > / l b o o g / ' a n e x p e r i m e n t '
Noun* (With b a s e a l l o m o r p h vowel a b l a u t )
/ l e e k / ' t i m e , o c c a s i o n '
> / l b a e k / 'xghat can be a c c o m p l i s h e d i n one a t t e m p t?
1+. -m ~/ ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n *
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e human a g e n t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e ve rb*
/ s o o r a / ' t o b e g ' > / sm oom / 'b e g g a r*
/ l u e c / ' t o s t e a l ' > / l r a u o c / ' t h i e f '
VJith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / d - / > / t - / *
/ d a e / ' t o w a lk ' > / t m a e / ' p e d e s t r i a n '
5 * \ / - m - / ' a t t r i b u t i o n '
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e f rom t r a n s i t i v e verb*
1 . The a l t e r n a t i o n / - k / > / - q / i s a u t o m a t i c i n t h i s e n v i r o n m en t ) s e e 1 . 1 2 5 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
9b
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h l o s s o f / - h - / i
/ c h o q / ’ t o s n a t c h 1 > / c r a o q / ’ s t e a l t h i l y , by s n a t c h i n g ’
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v a l v e r b f rom noun :
/ l o o p / ’ g r e e d ’ > / l m o o p / ’ t o be g r e e d y '
6 * \Z**m“/ ‘ c a u s a t i o n ’
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f rom p r e p o s i t i o n :
/ l a s h / ’ b e y o n d ’ > / l m e e h / ’ t o e x c e e d , v i o l a t e ’
7 . \ / —3Q—/ ’n o m i n a l ! z a t i o n '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e o b j e c t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e verb*
/ s a o y / ’ t o e a t ( r o y a l ) ’ > / s g a o y / ’r o y a l f o o d ’
8 . ^ / - l - / ’ s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ’
D e r i v e s r e l a t e d t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f rom t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/ l c i a q / ’ t o g r a s p ' > / k l i e q / ' t o g r a s p and t w i s t ’
3 . 2 2 2 The i n f i x \ / - r o - /
The i n f i x « / - r o - / o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h an i n i t i a l c o n
s o n a n t s e q u e n c e whose i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t i s / s - / . I t s p r i m a r y
f u n c t i o n seems t o be s t y l i s t i c v a r i a t i o n o r i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n ,
/ s d s y / ' t o s p e a k ; i n f o r m ’ > / s r o d e y / ’ i d , ’ ( e l e g a n t )
/ s l © p / ' t o be low* > / s r o l e p / ' i d . '
/ s m a a n / ' i r r e g u l a r ' > / s r o m a a n / ' i n g r e a t d i s o r d e r ’
/ s m o y / ' t o f ro w n ' > / s r o m o y / ' t o scow l d a r k l y '
3 . 2 2 3 I n f i x e s o f sh a p e | -V N - |
In i n f i x e s o f s h a p e J -V N - | , 1-V - j i s / o / o r / u e / ( a s
d e s c r i b e d i n and | —II— j i s a h o m o rg an ic n a s a l (as
d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 3 ) . The p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f |-VN— J i s
n o m i n a l i z a t i o n .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 . \ / - o N - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e verb*
/ s h o t / ' t o s w e a r ’ > / s o m b o t / ' a n o a t h 1
/ s d a p / ’ t o u n d e r s t a n d 1 > / s o n d a p / ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,
c o n v e n t i o n '
/ k c o p / ' t o w rap ' > / k o n c o p / ' p a r c e l '
/ c h a n / ' t o e a t ( o f p r i e s t s ) > / c o $ i a n / ' p r i e s t s ' f o o d '
W i th b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t - / > / d - / : ^
/ t b a a n / ' t o w eave ' > / d o m b a a n / 'w e a v i n g '
/ t w a a y / ' t o p r e s e n t ' > / d o ^ w a a y / ' g i f t ( e l e g a n t ) '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e b a s e v e r b :
/ s t u u c / ' t o f i s h w i t h a h o o k ' > / s o n t u u c / ' f i s h - h o o k '
/ k l a h / ' t o sew ' > / k o n l a h / ' n e e d l e '
/ c h a a y / ' t o s p r e a d ' > / c o Q h a a y / ' a h a y - f o r k '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t - / > / d - / i
/ t b i o t / ' t o ; p i n c h ' > / d o m b i o t / ' p i n c e r '
/ t p u e q / ' t o h o o k ' > / d o m p u e q / ' a h o o k '
D e r i v a t i v e i s a noun d e s c r i b e d by t h e b a s e :
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / p - / > / b - / : ^
/ p q a e m / ' t o be s w e e t ' > / b o ^ q a e m / ' s w e e t s '
D e r i v e s r e l a t e d noun from a d j e c t i v e :
/ c h a l / ' q u i c k l y ' > / c o ^ h a l / ' a f a n '
D e r i v e s a n u m e r a l f rom an a d j e c t i v e :
/ k l a h / ' s o m e ' > / k o n l a h / ' h a l f '
1 , T h i s k i n d o f a l t e r n a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 2 , 2 .
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9 6
D e r i v e s a b s t r a c t noun f rom a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
Allom orph /-uqN - / j
/ p l i i / ’ t o be l i g h t * > / p u e n l i i / ’ l i g h t *
D e r i v e s a b s t r a c t noun f rom modal v e r b :*
A llom orph /-uqN-/;
/ t l o e p / ' t o be a c c u s to m e d t o ’ > / t u e n l o e p / ’ c u s to m ’
2 . v ' - o N - /
D e r i v a t i v e i s a s e m a n t i c a l l y r e l a t e d noun:
/ s l o k / ’ l e a f ( o f t r e e } ’ > / s o n l e k / ’ l e a f , s h e e t ( p a p e r ) ’
With b a s e a l l o m o rp h / p ~ / > / b - / :
/ p l a e / ’ f r u i t ’ > / b o n l a e / ’ v e g e t a b l e ’
3 . \ / ~ o N - / ’ c a u s a t i o n ’
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
With b a s e a l l o m o rp h / p - / > / b - / ;r
/ p q a o l / ’ t o be f r i g h t e n e d ’ > / b o g q a o l / ’ t o . f r i g h t e n ,
s t a r t l e ’
D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b ;
W ith b a s e a l l o m o rp h / p - / > / b - / j
/ p r a a h / ’ t o g e t f r e e ’ > / b o ^ r a a h / ’ t o f r e e ’
Ij.. \ / ~ o N - / ’ a t t r i b u t i o n ’
D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/ s b a o m / ’ t o a d m i r e ’ > / so m baem / ’ a w f u l , i m p r e s s i v e ’
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97
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / p - / > / b - / i
/ p t o s p / ‘ t o a r r a n g e i n s u c c e s s io n *
> / b o n t o e p / ’ t o be i n s u c c e s s io n *
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s f rom a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/ c b o o g / * t o be t h e e l d e s t * > /com boor) / ’m o s t , e x t r e m e l y ’
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e f rom noun:
W ith b a s e a l l o m o rp h / t - / > / d - / :
/ t b o o g / ’h e a d ’ > /dombootq/ ’ f i r s t ’
S. \ / - o N - /
D e r i v e s p r e p o s i t i o n from a d j e c t i v e :
/ c p u o h / ’ d i r e c t l y ’ > / c o m p u e h / ’ e s p e c i a l l y f o r ’
3*22lj. I n f i x e s o f sh a p e | -Vm-}
I n i n f i x e s o f s h a p e j -V m - | , J —V— J i s / - o - / o r / - u - /
( a s d e s c r i b e d i n ; 2 J 4.32 I1 ) , .w i t h r a p i d s p e e c h a l t e r n a n t / - © - / ,
and / - i n - / i s i n v a r i a n t . The p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f | -Vm-j i s
c a u s a t i o n .
1 . ’ c a u s a t i o n ’
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/ k s a a n / ’ t o be p e a c e f u l ’ > / k o m s a a n / ’ t o a p p e a s e , c a lm '
/ s q a a t / ’ t o be c l e a n ' > / s o m q a a t / ' t o c l e a n ’
/ s d a e q / ’ t o be c l e a r ’ > / s o m d a e Q / ’ t o e x p l a i n , c l a r i f y ’
/ s r u o l / ' t o be e a s y ’ > / s o m r u o l / ’ t o f a c i l i t a t e ’
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t ~ / > / d - / »
/ t k a o g / ’ i l l u s t r i o u s , h i g h ’ > / d o m k a e q / ' t o e l e v a t e '
/ t l o h / ’ t o be f a l l e n ' > / d o m l o h / ’ t o dem ote , r u i n ’
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98
A llo m o rp h / - u m - / *n
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / ro ** / > / r - / »
/ r o d o h / ' f r e e d ' > / r u m d o h / ' t o f r e e , exem pt '
/ r o l i i i o / ' t o be s h i n y ' > / r u m l i i i o / ' t o p o l i s h , sh in e *
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f rom i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ?
/ k c a t / ' t o s e p a r a t e , l e a v e ' > / k o m c a t / ' t o d i s m is s *
/slap/ 'to die' > /soralap/ 'to kill'
/ s r a a q / ' t o a b a t e ' > / s o m r a a q / ' t o r e s t , r e g e n e r a t e ( t r , ) '
. A l lo m o rp h / - ru n - /*
/ t l e o q / ' t o f a l l ' > / t u m l e e q / ' t o f e l l , ove r th row *
/ t l e o y / ' t o g i v e way' > / t u m l e s y / ' t o b r e a k t h r o u g h '
/ c r e e p / ' t o l e a r n ' > / c u m r e e p / ' t o i n f o r m '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / r o - / > / r - / t
/ r o l u e h / ' t o d e c r e a s e ' > / . . -umluoh/ ' t o d e c r e a s e ( t r . ) '
/ r o l e e y / ' t o m e l t ' > / r u m l e e y / ' t o m e l t ( t r . ) 1»
D e r i v e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ?
/ k l a a c / ' t o f e a r , r e s p e c t ' > / k o m l a a c / ' t o f r i g h t e n '
/ cI ooq/ ' t o c r o s s ' > / c o m l o o ^ / ' t o p u t o r t a k e a c r o s s *
A l lo m o rp h / - u m - / *
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / r o - / > / r - / *
/ r o l i k / ' t o romcraber ' > / r u m l & k / ' t o r e m in d ,
commemorate '
1 . T h i s a l t e r n a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 2 .
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99
D e r i v e s r e l a t e d t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f rom a d j e c t i v a l v e rb s
/ k h a e f l / ’ t o be a r r o g a n t 1 > / k o m h a e ^ / ' t o f r i g h t e n '
2 , ' d e r o g a t i o n *
D e r i v e s d e r o g a t o r y a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s f rom a d j e c t i v a l v e rb s *
/ s k o o q / ' b e s t u n t e d ' > / s o m k o o q / ' r i d i c u l o u s l y s t u n t e d '
/ s k o e m / ' b e s l e n d e r ' > /somkoora/ ' r i d i c u l o u s l y s l e n d e r '
/ s n a a n / ' b e o p e n ' > / s o m n a a n / ' s c o w l i n g , g a p i n g '
The above b a s e s h a v e a n o n - e m o t i o n a l o r m a t t e r - o f - f a c t
c o n n o t a t i o n , w h i l e t h e d e r i v a t i v e s h a v e a c o n n o t a t i o n o f
d i s a p p r o v a l o r s c o r n . The d i f f e r e n c e can be i l l u s t r a t e d by
a f r e e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g examples*
/ k e e skoem n a h j . / ' H e ' s q u i t e s l e n d e r , '
/ k e e somkoem n a h ! . / ' H e ' s p u n y . '
/ k e e c k u o t I . / ' H e ' s m e n t a l l y i l l . '
/ k e e c o m k u o t i - . / ' H e ' s ' ' n u t t y as a f r u i t - c a k e 1 ' . 'i
3 . %/-om-/ ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n *
Verb* / c l o o tq / ' t o c r o s s ' > / c o m l o o y / ' t o c o p y ’
A u x i l i a r y : ( w i t h b a s e a l l o m o r p h / p - / > / b - / )
/ p r o q / ' t o p r e p a r e to* > / b o m v o q / ' d e t e r m i n e d t o '
Noun: ( a l l o m o r p h / - u m - / )
/ k r u u / ' t e a c h e r ' > / k u m r u u / ' e x a m p l e , m od e l '
I4.. \ / - o m - / ' v e r b a l i z a t i o n '
/ k r o t / ' l a w ' > / k o m r o t / ' t o s t i p u l a t e '
A l lom orph / - u m - / *
/ k r u o h / ' f a t e ' > / k u m r u e h / ' i n a u s p i c i o u s , i m p r o p e r '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 0 0
$i a /-o ra-/
, D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v e s f rom a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/ k l a a / ' t o be b r a v e ’ > / k o m l a a / ’w i t h p r e t e n d e d b r a v e r y ’
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t - / > / d - / *
/ t r o g / ' t o be s t r a i g h t ' > / d o m r o g / ’ d i r e c t l y ’
6. om-/
D e r iv e s modal v e r b from a d j e c t i v a l verb*
/ k r o o / ' t o be p o o r ’ > / k o m r o o / ' t o be p o o r a t '
7. y^om -/
D e r i v e s i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from a d j e c t i v e *
/ s l o ^ / ' f i x e d l y , s t e r n l y ’ > / s o m l e g / ' t o s t a r e , frown*
3 , 2 2 5 I n f i x e s o f s h a p e | - Vm(n) - |
In I n f i x e s o f shape | - V m ( n } - | , j —V—( i s / - o - / o r / - u ~ /
( a s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 , lj.326), J-Vra-j o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h an
i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e , and J-Vmn-j o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t hi
a s i n g l e i n i t i a l . The p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f | - V m ( n ) - i i s
n o r a i n a l i z a t i o n .
1 , < / - o m - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e b a s e verb*
/ k r e t / ' t o n o t c h , m a rk ’ > / k o m r e t / ' a n o t c h , m a r k 1
/ s d e y / ' t o s p e a k , t e l l ' > / s o m d e y / ' s p e e c h '
/ s l o o / ' t o make a s t e w ' > / s o m l o o / *a s t e w '
/ c l a s y / ' t o a n s w e r ’ > / c o m l a o y / ' a n a n sw e r '
With b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t - / > / d - / *
/ t r a p / ' t o I m i t a t e ’ > / d o m r a p / ' i m i t a t i o n , m o d e l '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
I
1 0 1
A llom orph / - u m - / ;
/ c n e e h / ’ t o d e f e a t '
/ c r a a h / ’ t o c h o o s e '
/ c l u e h / ' t o q u a r r e l '
W ith a l l o m o r p h / - o m n - / s
/ d e g / ' t o know'
/ d a m / ' t o p l a n t '
/ k a t / ' t o c u t '
/ k o t / ' t o n o t e , f i x '
/ c o o g / ' t o t i e '
/ s a a c / ' t o l a u g h '
/ s u e / ' t o a s k '
/ q a o y / ' t o g i v e '
> / c u m n e a h / ' v i c t o r y '
> / c u m r e e h / ' c h o i c e '
> / c o m l u e h / ' a q u a r r e l '
> / d o m n o g / ' i n f o r m a t i o n '
> /domnara/ ' a p l a n t '
> / k o m n a t / ' a c u t p i e c e '
> / k o m n o t / ' a p p o i n t m e n t '
> /com no o f l / ' k n o t '
> / s o m n a e c / ' l a u g h t e r '
> / s o m n u e / ' a q u e s t i o n '
> /q o m n a o y / ' a g i f t '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t - / > / d - / *
/ t o o / ' t o e x t e n d ' > /d o m n o o / ' e x t e n s i o n '
/ t a e g / ' t o e s t a b l i s h ' > /domnaeig/ ' p o s i t i o n '
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / p - / > / b - / :
/ p o o $ / ' t o hope t o ' > /b o m n o o ^ / ' h o p e , i n t e n t i o n '
A l lo m o rph / - u m n - / :
/ t i n / ' t o buy '
/ c u m / ’ t o m e e t ’
/ k i t / ' t o t h i n k '
/ c i e / ' t o b e l i e v e ’
> / t u m n i n / ' m e r c h a n d i s e '
> /curanum/ 'm e e t i n g '
> / k u m n i t / ' t h o u g h t '
> / c u m n i s / ' b e l i e f *
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1 0 2
D e r i v e s a b s t r a c t nouns from a d j e c t i v a l verbs.*
/ k d a w / ' t o be h o t 1 > /kom daw / ' h e a t *
/ k h e i j / ' t o b e a n g r y ' > /korahaio/ ' a n g e r '
/ c g a a y / ' t o be f a r ' > / c o m ^ a a y / ' d i s t a n c e '
/ c r a e n / ' t o be much' > / c o m r a o n / ' i n c r e a s e , s u c c e s s '
W i th b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t - / > / d - / j
/ t l a y / ' t o be e x p e n s i v e ' > / d o m l a y / ' v a l u e '
/ t r e e k / ' t o be h a p p y ' > / d o m r e e k / ' h a p p i n e s s '
A l lo m o rp h / r -u m - / :
/ t Q u e n / ' t o be heavy'.’ > / tumtQuen/ ' w e i g h t '
/ c r o w / ' t o be d e e p ' > / c u m r o w / ' d e p t h '
/ l q o o / ' t o be p r e t t y ' > / l u m q o o / ' b e a u t y '
W ith a l l o m o r p h / - o m n - / j
/ q o o / ' t o be h a p p y ' > / q o m n o o / ' h a p p i n e s s '
/ s a e m / ' t o be w e t ' > / so m n aa m / 'm o i s t u r e *
A l lo m o rp h / - u m n - / *
/ k u e / ' t o be p r o p e r ' > / k u m n u e / ' p r o p r i e t y '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e a g e n t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e v e r b :
/ s q a a g / ' t o d r e s s , d e c o r a t e *
> / s o m q a a g / ' o r n a m e n t , d e c o r a t i o n '
With b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t - / > / d - / :
/ t r o o $ / ' t o f i l t e r ' > / d o m r o o g / ' a f i l t e r ’
/ t r u s t / ' t o i n s p e c t , c o n t r o l ' > / d o m r u a t / ' p o l i c e ' 1
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103
A llom orph / - o m n - / :
/ s a t / ‘ t o f l o a t 1 > / s o m n a t / . ‘ d r i f t w o o d ’
A l lom orph / - u m n - / *
/ t u p / ’ t o b l o c k ’
/ t i m / ‘ t o j o i n '
/ c u o h / ' t o r e p l a c e ’
> / t u m n u p / ‘ o b s t r u c t i o n , dam'
> / tu rn n i i a / ' ad j u n c t ’
> / c u m n u s h / ' r e p l a c e m e n t '
D e r i v a t i v e i s a noun d e s c r i b e d by t h e base*
/ l c t e c / ' t o be s h a t t e r e d ' > / k o m t e c / ' s h r e d s '
. / s q o y / ' v i l e - s r a e l l i n g ' > / s o m q o y / ' r e f u s e , g a r b a g e ’
A l lo m o rph / - u m n - / :
/ t e o p / ' t o be f l a t , l e v e l ' > / t u m n e o p / ' l e v e l p l a c e '
D e r i v a t i v e i s a p e r s o n d e s c r i b e d by t h e b a s e :
/ k h o o e / ' t o be w ic k e d ' > / k o m h o o c / 'w i c k e d p e r s o n '
/ k c & l / ' t o be l a z y 1 > /k o m c & l / ' l a z y p e r s o n '
/ c k u o t / ' t o be c r a z y ' > / c o m k u o t / ' i d i o t '
W i th b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t - / > / d - / t
/ t l o g / ' t o be d e a f ' > / d o m l o ^ / ' d e a f p e r s o n '
2 . * / - o m - / ' s t y l i s t i c v a r i a t i o n '
D e r i v a t i v e i s a s t y l i s t i c v a r i a n t o f t h e b a s e :
/ k r o t / ' l a w ' > / k o m r o t / ' s t a t u t e , r e g u l a t i o n '
A l lo m o rph / - u m - / :
/ l q a a n / ' t r a c e , m ark ' > / l u m q a a n / ' d e s i g n ( e l o q u e n t ) '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
IOLj.
A llom orph / ~ o r a n - / i
/ c a a y / ’ t o spend* . > / c o m n a a y / ’ t o d i s p e n s e ’
A l lom orph / - u m n - / :
/ c u e n / ’ t o f l o o d ’ > / c u m n u e n / ’ t o i n u n d a t e '
/ t e o p / ' t o be low, sm ooth ' > / t u m n e e p / ' i d ( e l o q u e n t ) ’
3 * V^-omn-/ ' s e m a n t i c s h i f t i n t h e same form c l a s s '
V e rb s :
/ k o t / ' t o n o t e down' > / k o m n o t / ’ t o make an a p p o i n t
m e n t ’
A l lom orph /-umn*-/ ;
/ t u k / ' t o p u t away' > / t u m n u k / ’ t o p l a n , i n t e n d t o '
N o u n . ( a l l o m o r p h / - u m n - / ) j
/ c o o n / ' f l o o r , s t o r y ' > / c u m n o e n / ' e r a , s t a g e '
I| . \ / “ oran~ //
D e r i v e s r e l a t e d p r e p o s i t i o n f rom v e r b :
/ c o h / ' t o d e s c e n d ' > / c o r a n o h / ' b e l o n g i n g t o ,
u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f '
5>. y ' - u m n - /
D e r i v e s r e l a t e d a d j e c t i v a l v e r b from a u x i l i a r y :
/ t e o p / ' j u s t now' > / t u m n o o p / ' t o be new, r e c e n t '
6 * \ / - u m n ~ /
D e r i v e s r e l a t e d t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f rom a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
/ k o e p / ' t o be p l e a s i n g ' > /kum.noop/ ' t o s a l u t e , g r e e t '
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io 5
3 .2 2 6 I n f i x e s o f s h a p e l - r V ( n ) - l
I n i n f i x e s o f s h a p e | - r V ( n ) - | , | - V - | i s / - o - / o r / - o - /
( a s d e s c r i b e d i n 2.1J-327). | - r V ~ | o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h an
i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e , and J - r V n - | i n b a s e s w i t h a
s i n g l e c o n s o n a n t i n i t i a l . The p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f t h i s
i n f i x i s n o m i n a l i z a t i o n .
1 , o n - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n 1
/ s a o k / ' t o p i t y ' > / s r o n a o k / ' p i t y '
W i th b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t - / > / d - / :
/ d a o t / ' t o s p i t - r o a s t ' > / t r o n a o t / ' s k e w e r '
A l lo m o rp h / - r o n - / :
/ t u p / ' t o o b s t r u c t ' > / t r o n u p / ' o b s t r u c t i o n '
/ t u r n / ' t o p e r c h ' > / t r o n u m / ' a p e r c h 1
A llo m orph / - r o - / :
/ s t o o p / ' t o d i v i d e ' > / s r o t o o p / ' s e c t i o n , d i v i s i o n '
2 , / / - r o n - / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n *
T r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/ p e o q / ' t o wear above t h e w a i s t '
> / p r o n e o q / ' t o c a r r y on t h e b a c k '
A d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
/ s o k / ' t o be h a p p y ' > / s r o n o k / ' s e r o n e , p e a c e f u l *
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3*23 S u f f i x e s
T h e re a r e s e v e r a l s u b - l e x e m i c morphemes w h ic h o c c u r i n
p o s t - b o u n d p o s i t i o n w i t h a c o n s i s t e n t m ean ing i n a s i g n i f i -
c a n t number o f l e x e m e s . They a r e a n a l y z e d as s u f f i x e s .
1 . \ / - b 9y /
D e r i v a t i v e s a r e s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s *
/ d a e m / ’ o r i g i n 1 > / d a o m - b s y / ’ i n o r d e r t o ’
/ k o m / ’n e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e ’ > / k o m - b a y / ’ i n o r d e r n o t t o ’
/ k o o p / ’ t o be p l e a s i n g * > / k o o p - b o y / ’ t h e b e t t e r t o ’
/ t u e h / ’ i f ’ > / t u a h - b a y / ’ a l th o u g h *
2,. v^ -m aan / ’how much, t o \d ia t e x t e n t ’
D e r i v a t i v e s a r e i n t e r r o g a t i v e and i n d e f i n i t e a d v e r b i a l s :
/ p o n / * to e q u a l ’ > /p o n r a a a n / ’how much?’.
/ s m a e / * t o e q u a l ’ > / s m a o - m a a n / ’how much?1
/ q o m b a a l / ’ t o equa l* > / q o m b a a l - m a a n / 'how m uch?’
O th e r d e r i v a t i v e s fo rm ed on t h e b a s e * / - m a a n / ;
/ p r o m a a n / ; ' t o e s t i m a t e ; an e s t i m a t e ; how much? '
/ s m a a n / ' t o g u e s s , c o n s i d e r *
3 . v ^ - s e p / ’ ten*
D e r i v a t i v e s a r e m u l t i p l e s o f t e n : ^
n / s a a m - / ’ t h r e e ’ / s a a m - s o p / ’ t h i r t y ’
v / s a e - / ’ f o u r ’ / s a e - s e p / ’ f o r t y ’
1 . T h ese forms a r e b o r ro w e d i n t o t o f rom T h a i , b u t t h e y a r e shown t o be com plex by t h e o b s e r v e d form / h a a - r 4 4 h o k - s a p / ’ f i f t y o r s i x t y ’ . Fo r t h e n u m e r a l s 1 0 -9 0 s e e I+.2Lpl0
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107
3 , 3 Compounds
Compounds a r e lex em es whose c o n s t i t u e n t s o c c u r a s fr .oe
l ex e m e s i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s .
3 . 3 1 G o v e rn in g l e x e m ic c o n s t i t u e n t s '
G o v e rn in g l e x e m i c c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e c o n s t i t u e n t s which
o c c u r a s f r e e l e x e m e s , and w h ich r e g u l a r l y g o v e rn t h e form
c l a s s o f t h e compounds i n w h ic h t h e y o c c u r . T h is k i n d o f
compounding i s p r o d u c t i v e .
1 . / k a a / ‘ work; t h e a c t o f , a f f a i r s o f ’
D e r i v e s a b s t r a c t nouns from a c t i v e v e r b s and v e r b e x p r e s s i o n s ,
and f ro m nouns*
/ n i y e e y / ' t o s p e a k ' > / k a a - n i y e o y / ' s p e a k i n g '
/ t w o e - s r a e / ' t o f a r m ' > / k a a - t w s e ~ s r a e / ' f a r m i n g '
/ r o o k - s i i / ' t o e a r n a l i v i n g '
•> / k a a - r o o k - s i i / ' e a r n i n g a l i v i n g '
/ r e o c c o k a a / ‘ c i v i l s e r v i c e (as a b r a n c h o f g o v e r n m e n t ) '
> / k a a - r e s c c e k a a / ' c i v i l s e r v i c e ( p r o f e s s i o n ) '
/ b o o r e t e e h / ' f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s '
> / k a a - b o o r o t e e h / ' f o r e i g n a f f a i r s '
2 , / s e c - k d © y / ' s i t u a t i o n , c a s e ; t h e c o n d i t i o n o f
D e r i v e s a b s t r a c t n o u ns from a d j e c t i v a l and a c t i v e v e r b s :
/ l q o o / ' t o be p r e t t y ' > / s e c ~ k d e y l q o o / ' b e a u t y '
/ s o p b a a y / ' t o be h a p p y ' > / s e c - k d e y s o p b a a y / ' h a p p i n e s s '
/ r i i k - r e s y / ' t o p r o g r e s s '
> / s o c - k d o y r i i l c - r e o y / ' p r o g r e s s '
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108
/ k a n p u u c / ' t o bo p a t r i o t i c ( t o u p h o l d o n e ' s r a c e ) '
> / s e c - k d o y kan p u u c / ' p a t r i o t i s m '
/ d o g k u n / ' t o be g r a t e f u l ( t o r e c o g n i z e m e r i t ) '
> / s o c - k d o y kan p u u c / ' ' g r a t i t u d e 1
The d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw een t h e f u n c t i o n s of . / k a a - / and
/ s o c - k d o y / can be i l l u s t r a t e d a s f o l l o w s :
/ s l a p / ' t o d i e ' | / k a a - s l e p / ' d y i n g 1; / s o c - k d o y s l a p /
' d e a t h '
3 . / d o ra n a o / ' c a s e , p r o c e s s ; t h e p r o c e s s o f
D e r i v e s a b s t r a c t nouns from a c t i v e v e r b s :
/ p r a o / ' t o u s e ' > /domnao p r a o / ' u s e '
/ b o n t o o h / ' t o p u n i s h '
> /domnao b o n t o o h / ' ( a s p e c i f i c c a s e o f ) p u n i s h m e n t '
/ p r o l o o g / ' t o co m p e te ' > /domnao p r o l o o g / ' ( a s p e c i f i c
h o l d i n g o f an) e x a m i n a t i o n '
/ t r u o t - t r a a / ' t o i n s p e c t ' > /domnao t r u o t - t r a a / ' a n
i n s p e c t i o n '
/ t o w - m a o k / ' t o go and come'
> /domnao to w -m ao k / ' g o i n g and co m ing '
k., / k h a a g / - / k h a g - / ' s i d e ; toward*
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s f rom n o u n s , d e m o n s t r a t i v e s , and p r e p o s i t i o n s :
/ s d a m / ' t h e r i g h t s i d e ' > / k h a g - s d a m / ' o n t h e r i g h t '
/ t b o o g / ' t h 9 s o u t h ' > / k h a g - t b o o g / ' t o t h e s o u t h ’
/ n i h / ' t h i s ' > / k h a g - n i h / ' t h i s way'
/ m u k / ' i n f r o n t o f ' > / k h a g - m u k / ' i n f r o n t , a h e a d '
/ k r a o y / ' b e h i n d ' > / k h a g - k r a o y / ' b e h i n d ( a d j . ) '
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109
5>. / t i i / ' p l a c e ; p l a c e , o f t h e o r d e r , w h ic h '
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s f rom d e m o n s t r a t i v e s :
/ n i h / ' t h i s ' > / t i i - n i h / ' h e r e '
/ n u h / ' t h a t ' > / t i i - n u h / ' t h e r e '
D e r i v e s o r d i n a l n u m e ra l a d j e c t i v e s f rom n u m e r a l s and t h e
n o n - n u m e r i c a l q u a n t i f i e r / p o n m a a n / 'how many? '1 ( I | .2 l i2 ) :
/ p i i / . ' t w o ' > / t i i - p i i / ' s e c o n d '
/ s a a m - s e p « p r a r a / ' t h i r t y - f i v e '
> / t i i - s a a m - s e p - p r a m / ' t h e t h i r t y - f i f t h '
/ p o n m a a n / 'how many? ' » / t i i - p o n m a a n / 'hovj m a n y ' t h ? '<
D e r i v e s nouns f rom a c t i v e v e r b s and a d j e c t i v e s :
/ k o e p - c e t / . ' t o be i n t e r e s t i n g , p l e a s i n g '
> / t i i - k o a p - c a t / ' i t e m o f i n t e r e s t '
/ s n a e - h a a / ' t o love* > / t i i - s n a e - h a a / ' l o v e d o n e '
/ k o o r u p / ' t o r e s p e c t ' > / t i i - l c o o r u p / ' r e s p e c t e d o n e '
/ b o m p h o t / 'm o s t , l a s t ' > / t i i - b o m p h o t / ' t h e m o s t , l a s t '
i
6* / t a e / ' b u t , o n l y ; o n l y , s p e c i f i c a l l y *
D e r i v e s a u x i l i a r i e s f rom v e r b s , p r e p o s i t i o n s , and c o n j u n c t i o n s ;
/ c e h / ' t o know' > / c e h - t a e / ' a l w a y s '
/ t a e ^ / ' t o e s t a b l i s h ' > / t a e g - t a e / ' u s u a l l y '
/ n o w / ' t o r e m a i n ' > / n o w - t a e / ' s t i l l '
/ k r o a n / ' t o be e nough ' > / k r o a n - t a e / ' b a r e l y '
/ t o a p / ' t h e n ' > / t o e p - t a e / ' t o hav e j u s t '
/muk/ ' i n f r o n t of* > / m u k - t a e / ' p r o b a b l y , l i k e l y t o '
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110
3»32 C e n t e r e d compounds
C e n t e r e d compounds a r e compounds I n w hich t h e f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t i s t h e h e a d and a l l t h a t f o l l o w s , i s t h e a t t r i b u t e .
T h i s k i n d o f compounding i s f u l l y p r o d u c t i v e . A l l h e a d s o f
c e n t e r e d ' c o m p o u n d s a r e n o u n s , and t h e r e s u l t i n g compounds
a r e n o u n s , A t t r i b u t e s may b e :
V erb :
/ s a l a a / ’h a l l 1 + / r i o n / ’ t o s t u d y ’
> / s a l a a - r i o n / ’ s c h o o l ’
/ n e o q / ’ p e r s o n ’ + / l u o q / ’ t o s e l l ’
>' / n e o q - l u o q / ’ s a l e s m a n ’
Verb a n d o b j e c t :
/ p t e o h / ’h o u s e ’ + / l u o q / ’ t o s e l l ’ + / k a f e e / ‘ c o f f e e ’
> / p t e o h - l u o q - k a f o e / ’ c o f f e e s h o p ’
/ n e o q / ’ p e r s o n ’ + / t w o o / ’ t o m ake’ + / s r a e / ’ r i c e f i e l d ’
> / n e o q - t w o o - s r a e / ’ r i c e f a r m e r ’
C o o r d i n a t e v e r b compound and o b j e c t :
/ n e o q / ’ p e r s o n ’ + ( / b a o k / ’ t o d r i v e ’ + / b o o / ’ t o d r i v e ’ >)
/ b a o k - b o o / ‘ t o d r i v e ’ + / t a q s i i / ’ t a x i ’
> / n e o q b a e k -b o o t a q s i i / ’ t a x i - d r i v e r ’
Verb and c o o r d i n a t e noun compound o b j e c t :
/ p t e o h / ’h o u s e ’ + / k a t / ’ t o c u t 1 + ( / k h a o / ! ’ p a n t s ’ +
/ q a a w / ’ s h i r t ’ > ) / k h a o - q a a w / ’ c l o t h e s ’
> / p t e o h k a t k h a o - q a a w / ’ t a i l o r s h o p ’
/ n e o q / ’ p e r s o n ’ + ( / b a o k / ’ t o w a sh ’ + / q u t / ’ t o i r o n ’ >)
/ b a o k - q u t / ’ t o l a u n d e r ’ + / k h a o - q a a w /
> / n e o q b a o k - q u t k h a o - q a a w / ’ l a u n d r y m a n ’
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1X1
Noun:
/ b o n t u p / ’ room 1 + / t & k / ' w a t e r 1
> / b o n t u p ~ t £ k / ' b a t h r o o m 1
/ r o t i h / ' c a r t ' + / k o o / ' o x ' > / r o t i h ~ k o o / ' o x c a r t '
C e r t a i n n ou n s o c c u r w i t h g r e a t f r e q u e n c y a s h e a d s o f
c e n t e r e d compounds. The m os t f r e q u e n t a r e l i s t e d below*
1 . / n e o q / ' p e r s o n , t h e one who'
/ s r a e / ' r i c e f i e l d ' > / n e e q - s r a e / ' f a r m e r *
/ t w o o - k a a / ' t o w ork ' > / n e o q - t w o o - k a a / 'w o r k e r '
/ t e e h s o c o o / ' t o u r i s m ' > / n e o q - t e e h s o c o o / ' t o u r i s t '
2 . / p t e o h / 'h o u s e * sho p '
/ s o m n a q / ' t o s t a y ' > / p t e e h - s o m n a q / ' h o t e l '
/ l u o q / ' t o s e l l * + / b a a y / ' r i c e '
> / p t e o h - l u o q ~ b a a y / ' r e s t a u r a n t '
/ c o n / ' C h i n e s e ' > / p t e o h - c o n / 'C h i n e s e s h o p '
3 . / p r o d a p / ' i n s t r u m e n t , t o o l '
/ s t u f l / ' t o m e a s u r e ' > / p r o d a p - s t u ^ ) / 'm e a s u r i n g d e v i c e 'f
/ b o o m / ' t o pump' + / k y o l / ' a i r '
> / p r o d a p - b o o m - k y o l / ' a i r pump'
/ t h o o t / ' t o e x t r a c t ' + / r u u p / ' p i c t u r e '
> / p r o d a p - t h o o t - r u u p / ' c a m e r a '
Ij., / k r i e f l / ' t o o l , m a c h in e , p r o v i s i o n '
/ c a q / 'w h e e l ' > / k r i o ^ - c a q / 'm o t o r , m a c h in e '
/ t a e g - t u o / ' t o d r e s s ' > / k r i e Q - t a e i a - t u o / ' c l o t h i n g '
/ k a e / ' t o r e p a i r ' > / k r i o : Q - k a e / ' t o o l s '
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112
5 . / b o n t u p / ‘ room, p l a c e w here '
/ t i k / 'v x a te r ' > / b o n t u p - t i k / ‘ bathroom*
/ s i e w - p h o w / ‘ b o o k ' > / b o n t u p - s i o w - p h o w / ' l i b r a r y *
/ tw o © / ' t o make' + / q a h a a / ' f o o d '
> / b o n t u p tw©Q q a h a a / ' k i t c h e n *
6 . / s a l a a / ' h a l l , room, s c h o o l '
/ r i o n / ' t o s tudy* > / s a l a a - r l e n , / ' s c h o o l*
/ c b a p / ‘ law* > / s a l a a - c b a p / ' l a w s c h o o l '
/ k a t - t o o h / ' t o j u d g e ' > / s a l a a - k a t - t o o h / ' c o u r t - h o u s e *
7 . / r o o g / ' h a l l , b u i l d i n g '
/ c a q / 'w h e e l ' > / r o o j g - c a q / ' f a c t o r y '
/ r o b a m / 'd a n ce * > / r o o i a - r o b a m / ' d a n c e - h a l l '
/ k © n / ' t o t h r e s h * + / s r o w / 'paddy*
/ ro o i3 ~ k 9 n ~ s r9 w / ' r i c e m i l l '
8 . / w i c c e o / ' s c i e n c e , p r o f e s s i o n '
/ l e e k / 'n u m b e r s ' > / w i c c e Q - l e e k / ' a r i t h m e t i c '
/ p e e t / ' d o c t o r ' > / w i c c e a - p e e t / ' m e d i c a l s c i e n c e *
/ k r u u / ' t e a c h e r ' > / w & c c e a - k r u u / ' p e d a g o g y '
9 . / w i t h i i / ' p r o c e d u r e , cerem ony '
/ b o n / 'g o o d w o r k s ' > / w i t h i i - b o n / ' c e r e m o n y o f m e r i t*
/ k a a / ' t o m a r r y ' > / w i t h i i - k a a / ' m a r r i a g e ce rem ony '
/ b u o h / ' t o e n t e r t h e p r i e s t h o o d '
> / w i t h i i - b u o h / ' o r d i n a t i o n '
1 0 . / t i k / ' j u i c e , l i q u i d , water* .
/ t a e / ' t e a ( p l a n t ) ' > / t i k - t a e / ' t e a ( b e v e r a g e ) '
/ t r o y / ' f i s h ' > / t - i k - t r o y / ' f i s h sauce*
/ k r o o c / ' o r a n g e ' > / t & k - k r o o c / ' o r a n g e j u i c e '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 1 3
1 1 . / t g a y / ' d a y , sun*
/ p r & k / 'm o r n i n g ' > / t ^ j a y - p r i k / 'm orn ing*
/ t r o j j / ' t o bo s t r a i g h t ' > / t i j a y - t r o g / ' n o o n '
/ l g i o c / ' a f t e r n o o n ' > / t i Q a y - l i g i o c / ' a f t e r n o o n '
1 2 . / s a c / 'meat*
/ k o o / ' ox*
/ m o o n / ' c h i c k e n '
/ c r u u k / ' p i g *
1 3 . / p o o / ' c o l o r , a s p e c t '
/ k h i o w / ' t o be b l u e '
/ k r o h o o m / ' t o be r e d '
II4.. / t i i / ' p l a c e '
/ k r o g / ' c i t y '
/ s o i n n a a p / ' s e e d l i n g '
> / s a c - k o o / ' b e e f '
> / s a e - m o o n / ' c h i c k e n ( m e a t ) 1
> / s a c - o r u u k / ' p o r k '
> / p o o - k h i o w / ' b l u e '
> . / p o o - k r o h o o m / ' r e d '
> / t i i - k r o j j / ' c i t y '
> / t i i - s o m n a a p / ' s e e d - b e d '
15>. / c i i / ' a n c e s t o r , r e l a t i v e '
/ d o o n / ' o l d l a d y ' > / c l i - d o o n / ' g r a n d m o t h e r '
/ t a a / ' o l d m a n ' > / c i i - t a a / ' g r a n d f a t h e r '
/ m u o y / ' o n e ' > / c i i - d o o n - m u o y / ' f i r s t c o u s i n '
1 6 , / m c a h / ' m a s t e r , p r o p r i e t o r '
/ p t e o h / ' h o u s e ' > / m c a h - p t o o h / ' h e a d o f t h e h o u s e '
/ t l a y / ' t o be v a l u a b l e * > / m c a h - t l a y / 'g o o d f r i e n d 1
1 7 , / m e e / ' f e m a l e ( p e j o r a t i v e i f u s e d w i t h humans)'
/ m o o n / ' c h i c k e n ' > /m e e -m o o n / ' h e n '
/d o m r 'o y / ' e l e p h a n t ' > / m e e - d o m r o y / ' f e m a l e e l e p h a n t 1
/ k a o w / ( p r o p e r name' > /m e e - k a o w / ' l i t t l e Miss Kaow* r
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
lllj.
> / m e e ~ k a a / ’ b o s s , f o r e m a n ’
> / rae e -k h u m / ’ d i s t r i c t c h i e f ’
/ c a p / ’ t h i e f ’ > / m e e - e a o / ' l e a d e r o f a band o f t h i e v e s ’
1 9 . / m e e / ’p o i n t , l e s s o n , c h a r a c t e r '
/ s o o t / ’ t o r e c i t e ' > / m o e - s o o t / ’ r e c i t a t i o n ’
/ k o o / 'name o f t h e l e t t e r ’ ’ lc’ ’ '
> / m e e - k o o / ’ t h e l e t t e r ’ ’ k ' ' •
3 . 3 3 C o o r d i n a t e compounds
A c o o r d i n a t e compound i s any lexem e composed o f two
c o n s t i t u e n t s o f s i m i l a r o r i d e n t i c a l moaning s u c h t h a t
e i t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t can s u b s t i t u t e s y n t a c t i c a l l y f o r t h e
w h o le . The c o n s t i t u e n t s may be*
1 . Nouns:
/ k o o / ’ o x ’ + / k r o b o y / ' w a t e r b u f f a l o ’
> / k o o - k r o b s y / ' l i v e s t o c k '
/ q o w p u k / ’ f a t h e r ’ + / m d a a y / ’ m o t h e r ’
> /q o w p u k -m d aa y / ' p a r e n t s ’
/ d o m r e h / ' k n o w le d g e ' + / w i c c e © / ' s c i e n c e '
> / d o m r e h - w i c c o o / 'k n o iy led g e , a b i l i t y '
2 . V e r b s :
/ s o k / ' t o be h a p p y ' + / s o p b a a y / ' t o be w e l l , h a p p y '
> / s o k - s o p b a a y / ' t o be w e l l and h ap p y '
/ p i i n i t / ' t o examine* + / m o o l / ' t o l o o k a t '
> / p i i n & t - m o o l / ' t o s u p e r v i s e ’
1 8 . / m e e / ' h e a d , c h i e f '
/ k a a / 'w o r k '
/ k h u m / ' d i s t r i c t '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
/ c u © p / ' t o m o o t 1 + / p r o t e e h / ' t o m ee t by a c c i d e n t '
> / c u o p - p r o t e o h . / ' t o m e e t '
3 . A d j e c t i v e s *
/ n i k / ' q u i c k l y ' + / n o o p / ' q u i c k l y '
> / n i k - n o o p / ' q u i c k l y , f r e q u e n t l y '
/ r u o c / ' a l r e a d y ' + / s r a c / ' c o m p l e t e l y ' + / h a o y / ' a l r e a d y
> / r u o c - h a o y / ' a l r e a d y '
> / s r a c - h a o y / ' a l r e a d y '
> / r u o c - s r a c - h a o y / ' a l r e a d y '
1̂ .. P r e p o s i t i o n s :
/ k r u p / . ' a l l ' + / s o p / ' e v e r y '
> / k r u p - s o p / , / s o p - k r u p / ' e v e r y , e v e r y one o f
/ c e a - m u o y / ' w i t h ' + / n i g / ' w i t h '
> / c e o - m u o y - n i g / ' w i t h , t o g e t h e r w i t h '
/ t o o g / ' a l l , i n c l u d i n g 1 + / q o h / ' c o m p l e t e l y , a l l o f
> / t o o g - q o h / ' a l l o f
5* C o n ju n c t io n s *
/ h a o y / ' w i t h ' + / n i g / ' w i t h ' > / l i a e y - n i g / ' a n d '
6 , N um era ls :
/ p i i / ' t w o ' + / b o y / ' t h r e e ' > / p i i - b o y / ' t w o o r t h r e e ’
3*3U- U n c e n t e r e d compounds
U n c e n t e r e d compounds a r e compounds i n w hich no c o n
s t i t u e n t can bo i d e n t i f i e d as t h e h e a d . Such compounds
u s u a l l y f o l l o w n o rm a l s y n t a c t i c o r d e r , b u t a r e marked as
compounds by t h e i r c o n s i s t e n t c o - o c c u r r e n c e w i t h a u n i t a r y
m ean in g , and by t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f s e c o n d a r y r a t h e r th a n
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116
p r i m a r y s t r e s s on t h e f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t , a s w e l l a s by t h e
o c c u r r e n c e o f t y p i c a l compounding j u n c t u r e be tw een c o n
s t i t u e n t s ( / - / ) • U n c e n to r e d compounds may b e :
1 . V e rb s :
/ n a r a / ‘ t o e a t ’ + / b a a y / ‘ r i c e ’
> / n a m - b a a y / ' t o have a m e a l 1
/ t w o o / ' t o make, do ' + / k a a / 'w o r k '
> / t w o o - k a a / ' t o work*
/ q o o / ' t o be h a p p y ' + / k u n / ' m e r i t '
- > / q o o - k u n / ' t h a n k ( y o u ) 1
2 . Nouns i
/ s r a o r a / ' t o e n v e l o p ' + / s o m b o t / ' l e t t e r '
> / s r a o m - s o m b o t / ' a n e n v e l o p e '
/ s r a o m / ' t o e n v e l o p ' + / c a o q / ' f o o t '
> / s r a o m - c 9 9 ) o / ' s o c k s '
3 . A d v e r b i a l s :
/ b a o / ' i f + /qoncQio/ ' t h e r e f o r e '
> / b a 9 - q o n c 9 io / ' i n t h a t case*
/ p i i / ' f r o m ' + / d a o m / ' o r i g i n '
> / p i i - d a e m / ' o r i g i n a l l y , i n f o r m e r t i m e s ’
/ s o p / ' e v e r y ' + / t f l a y / ' d a y '
> / s o p - t ^ a y / - / s o p - g a y / ' e V e r y day , t h e s e d a y s '
Ij., A d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/ d o o c / ' l i k e ' + / k n e o / ' t o g e t h e r '
> / d o o c - k n o o / ' t o be s i m i l a r ’
/ c i t / ' n e a r ' + / k n e e / - ' t o g e t h e r '
> / c i t + k n e e / ' t o be c l o s e t o g e t h e r '
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117
3*35> A p p o s i t i v e compounds
A p p o s i t i v e compounds a r e noun compounds whose f i r s t i
c o n s t i t u e n t i s a k i n s h i p t e r m o r t i t l e , a n d whose s e c o n d
c o n s t i t u e n t i s a s p e c i f i c i d e n t i f y i n g n ou n ;
/ k o o n / ' o f f s p r i n g ’ + / p r o h / 'm a l e '
> / k o o n - p r o h / ' son*
/ n e e q / ’ g e n e r a l t i t l e ’ + / s r o y / ’ a f e m a l e ’
> / n e e q - s r e y / ’madam’
/ l o o k / ' r e s p e c t f u l t i t l e ' + / k r u u / ’ t e a c h e r '
- > / l o o k - k r u u / ’ t e a c h e r 1
Such compounds o c c u r a s compound t i t l e s i n a p p o s i t i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h p r o p e r nam es , e . g . :
/ n e e q - s r e y k a e w / (madam Kaew) ’Madam Kaew'
/ l o o l c - k r u u c h o o q / ( t e a c h e r Chang) ’ T e a c h e r Chang’
>3 . 3 6 A s y n t a c t l c compounds
A s y n t a c t i c compounds a r e compounds whose c o n s t i t u e n t s
do n o t comform t o t h e n o r m a l s y n t a c t i c o r d e r o f t h e form /
c l a s s e s i n t h e l a n g u a g e . Such compounds a r e nou n s whose
f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t i s a q u a l i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r (k*2 2 1 1 ) and
whose s e co n d c o n s t i t u e n t i s a n o un , e . g . :
/ d a e m / ' s p e c i f i e r f o r l o n g s l e n d e r o b j e c t s , t r e e s ’ +
/ c h e e / 'wood* > / d a o m - c h s o / ' t r e e '
/ p l a e / ' s p e c i f i e r f o r f r u i t s and v e g e t a b l e s ' +
/ s w a a y / 'mango' > / p l a e - s w a a y / ’mango f r u i t ’
/ k r o e p / ' s p e c i f i e r f o r s e e d , g r a i n s , e t c . ’ +
/ k a m p l e e g / ' g u n ' > / k r o o p - k a m p l s e g / ' b u l l e t '
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118
I n s y n t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e above s p e c i f i e r s a lw ays
f o l l o w n u m e r a l s . The compounds i n which t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e ,
h o w e v e r , p r e c e d e n u m e r a l s and s p e c i f y i n g p h r a s e s , e . g . s .
/ d a e ra -c h o o p i i daom/
t r e e two l o n g - s l e n d e r - o b j e c t s
1 two t r e e s '
3*37 I d i o m a t i c compounds
I d i o m a t i c compounds a r e compounds whose m ean in gs
• c a n n o t be d e t e r m i n e d f rom t h e m ean in g s o f t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s
a s f r e e l e x e m e s . Such compounds may b e :
V e rb s :
/ c o o l / ‘ t o e n t e r 1 + / c o t / ' h e a r t , m ind '
> / c o o l - c o t / ' t o l i k e , u n d e r s t a n d 1
/ t r o w / ' t o hav e t o ' + / k a a / 'w o rk '
.> / t r e w - k a a / ' t o w a n t , n e e d '
/ t o t u o l / ' t o r e c e i v e ' + / t e o n / ' g i f t '
> / t o t u o l - t e o n / ' t o e a t ( e l e g a n t ) '
/ s i i / ' t o e a t ' + / k a a / 'w o r k , a f f a i r '
> / s i i - k a a / ' t o a t t e n d a v tedding '
Nouns*
/ b a a y / ' r i c e ' + / q o o / ! t o be h a p p y '
> / b a a y - q o o / ' c e m e n t , m o r t a r '
/ k o o n / ' c h i l d ' + / s a o / ' l o c k ' > / k o o n - s a o / ' k e y '
/ b o o q - p q o o n / ' s i b l i n g s ' + / b o ^ k a o t / ' t o g i v e b i r t h t o '
> / b o o g - p q o o n b o ^ k a o t / ' f u l l s i b l i n g s '
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119
/ t £ k / ' w a t e r 1 + /km aw / ' t o be b lack*
> / t& k -k m aw / ' ink'**-
3 .3 8 N u m e r ic a l compounds
N u m e r ic a l compounding i s t r e a t e d i s s e c t i o n Ii-.2 I4.I
(N u m e r ic a l q u a n t i f i e r s ) .
1 . The o c c u r r e n c e o f / t i k - k m a w lcrohoom/ ' r e d i n k ' i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s i s an i d i o m a t i c compound.
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120
' 3.1+ P seu do - compounds
P s e u d o -c o m p o u n d s•a r e complex l ex e m e s w h ich a r e n o t
composed e n t i r e l y o f f r e e f o rm s . F o r e x am ple , / q a n u q -
p h e a r i y e o / ’m ino r w i f e ’ i s composed o f t h e bound a t t r i b u t e
/ q a n u q - / ’ s e c o n d , j u n i o r ’ and / p h e e r i y e o / ’ w i f e ( e l o q u e n t ) ’ .
Such form s a r e f u r t h e r marked as compounds by t h e a s y n t a c t i c
p o s i t i o n o f t h e a t t r i b u t e , w h ich i n s y n t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s
f o l l o w s r a t h e r t h a n p r e c e d e s t h e h e a d , a s i n / p r o p u o n t o o c /
(w i f e l i t t l e ) ’m in o r w i f e ’ . Some form s w h ich o c c u r a s f r e e
le x e m e s h a v e s p e c i a l co m b in in g forms i n p seu d o -co m p o u n d s , e . g .
t h e form s / p u e l l o r o o t / ’ c i t i z e n s 1, / r o e t t h a a p h i b a a l / ’ g o v e r n
m e n t ’ , and / r o e t t h a q - t h o e m m a n u n / ’ c o n s t i t u t i o n ’ a l l c o n t a i n
t h e morpheme / r o o t / ’ s t a t e ’ w h ich o c c u r s as a f r e e lexem e1i n i t s own r i g h t .
F o l l o w i n g i s a l i s t o f morphemes w h ich r e c u r w i t h
r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y a s c o n s t i t u e n t s o f p seudo-com pounds ,
3.1+1 The f o l l o w i n g c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e a lw a y s bound?
1 . / m o h a a - / ~ / r a o h a a - / ‘ b i g , i m p o r t a n t , e x t r e m e l y ’
/ s o m o t / ’ s e a ’ > / m o h a a - s o m o t / ’ o c e a n ’
/ w & t t y a a l a y / ’ c o l l e g e ’ > / m o h a a - w & t t y a a l a y / ’u n i v e r s i t y *
/ k h o o c / ’w i c k e d ’ > / m o h a a - k h o o c / ’ r o t t e n t o t h e c o r e ’
1 . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f pseudo-com pounds a r e b o r ro w e d from P a l i and S a n s k r i t s o u r c e s , and a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y p r o d t i c t i v e i n t h e spoken l a n g u a g e . W hether t h e s e form s a r e s i m p l e o r com plex i n t h e mind o f t h e s p e a k e r depends on h i s d e g r e e o f l i t e r a r y s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , so t h a t p se u do -com pounds m ig h t be s a i d t o c o n s t i t u t e a d e r i v a t i o n a l s u b - s y s t e m f o r t h e e d u c a t e d s p e a k e r .
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2 . / q o t d o i n - / ’h i g h , e x c e l l e n t ’
/ w i c c e e / ’ s t u d y ’ > / q o t d o m - w ^ c c e e / ' h i g h e r s t u d i e s '
/ r a u e n t r s y / ' m i n i s t e r ' > / q o t d o r a - m u e n t r e y / ' h i g h o f f i c i a l '
/ p o e t / ' l i f e , e x i s t e n c e > / q o t d o m - c e e t / ' h i g h l i n e a g e '
3 . / c a w - / ' l o r d , m a s te r '^ "
/ q a t h i k a a / ' c h i e f ' . . > / c a w - q a t h i k a a / ' h e a d monk, a b b o t '
> / c a w - k r o m / ' j u d g e '
> / c a w - w a a y / ' g o v e r n o r , - a d m i n i s t r a t o r '
J| . / q a n u q - / ~ / q a n u - / ' s e c o n d , f o l l o w i n g , j u n i o r '
/ w & t t y a a l a y / ' c o l l e g e * > / q a n u q - w i t t y a a l a y / ' s e c o n d a r y
s c h o o l '
/ p h e e r i y e o / ' w i f e ' > / q a n u q - p h e o r i y e e / 'm in o r w i f e '
/ s e n a a n e y / ' m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r ' > / q a n u q - s e n a a n e y /
' j u n i o r o f f i c e r '
/ s Q h a q - / ' u n i t e d , a g r e e d , i n ha rm ony '
/ - k o o / ' p e r s o n n e l ' > / s e h a q l c o o / ' a c o o p e r a t i v e '
/ r o o t / ’ s t a t e ’ > / s e h a q - r o o t / ’u n i t e d s t a t e s , u n i o n '
/ - k a m / ' a ' c t i o n ' > / s a h a q k a m / ' c o o p e r a t i o n '«
6 . / t r o y - / ' t h r e e *
/ k a o n / ' a n g l e ' > / t r e y - l c a o n / ' t r i a n g l e '
/ c a q k r e y e o n / 'w h e e l e d v e h i c l e ' > / t r o y - c a q k r o y e o n /
' b i c y c l e '
/ - m e o h / 'm o n th ' > / t r o y - m e o h / ' t r i m e s t e r '
7* / t r a y - / ' t h r e e '
/ - b e y d o q / ' b o o k ' > / t r a y - b e y d o q / ' t h e T r i p i t a k a '
1 , Not t o be c o n f u s e d w i t h / c a w / ' g r a n d c h i l d ' .
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122
/ c i y w o o / M o n k s ' g a r m e n t s ’ > / t r a y - c ^ y w o o / ’ t h e t h r o e
g a r m e n t s o f a monk’
/ - r o o t / ’ t r e a s u r e ’ > / t r a y - r o e t / ’ t h e t h r e e j e w e l s o f
Buddhism1
8 . / b o p p e o q - / « / b o p p o - / „ / b o p - / ’ f i r s t , p r e c e d i n g ’
/ k o t h a a / ’v e r s e , s t o r y ’ > / b o p p e o q - k o t h a a / ’ p r e a m b l e ’
/ r k a m / / ’ c o n d u c t ’ > / b o p p o k a m / ’ p r e v i o u s c o n d u c t ’
/ b o t / ’ w ord , s t a n z a ’ > / b o p - b o t / ’ p r e f i x ’
9 * / q a q k e o q - / - / q a k e o q - / ’ f i r s t , su p re m e ’
/ r e o c c o t u u t / ’ r o y a l m i s s i o n ’ > / q a q k e o q - r e o c c o t u u t /
’ i m p o r t a n t em bassy ’
/moheesoy/* ’ q u e e n ’ > / q a k e o q - m o h e e s o y / ’ f i r s t q u e e n ’
1 0 , / q a t e q - / ’ e x c e s s i v e , e x t r e m e ’«
/ - p a r o m a a / ’ e x c e l l e n t ’ > / q a t e q - p a r o m a a / ’ o f h i g h e s t
q u a l i t y ’ .
/ p e o q / ’word , s p e e c h ’ > / q a t e q - p e o q / ’h y p e r b o l e ’
1 1 , / b o o c e n 4 y - / ’ p r a i s e w o r t h y ’t
/ w o o t t h o q / ‘ a r t i c l e ’ > / b o o c e n & y - w o e t t h o q / ’ s a c r e d
o b j e c t , t e m p l e ’
/ s t h a a n / ’ p l a c e ’ > / b o o c o n a y - s t h a a n / ‘ s a c r e d s i t e ,
monument’
1 2 , / q a p h i q - / - / q a p h i - / ’ v e r y , g r e a t ’
/ i d i e o t / ’m u r d e r ’ > / q a p h i q - k h e o t / ’m a s s a c r e ’
/ m u k / ’h e a d , c h i e f ’ > / q a p h i m u k / ’ g r e a t l e a d e r ’
1 3 , / q a t h i q - / - / q a t h i - / ’ g r e a t , h i g h ’
/ k a a / ’ w o rk ’ > / q a t h i k a a / ’ i m p o r t a n t a f f a i r s , c h i e f ’
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123
Ilf., / q a t t i i a q - / ~ / q a t t h a - / ~ / q a t t h e - / ' s u b j e c t , p u r p o s e '
/ k e t h a a / ' s t o r y ' > / q a t t h a q - k a t h a a / ' s p e e c h , l e c t u r e '
/ - a t h i b a a y / ' t o e x p l a i n ' > / q a t t h a a t h i b a a y / ' t o
e l u c i d a t e '
/ b o t / ' s t a n z a ' > / q a t t h e b o t / ' l e s s o n '
1 5 . / k a m - / ~ / k a m m a - / ' a c t i o n , c o n d u c t '
/ - k o o / ' p e r s o n n e l * > /kam m akoo/ 'w o r k e r , c o o l i e ’
/ w i t h i i / 'm e th o d , ce rem ony ' > / k a m - w i t h i i / ' p r o c e d u r e ,
a b i l i t y '
/ k a q s i - / ' a g r i c u l t u r e * > / k a q s i k a m / ' f a r m i n g '
1 6 . / m o n o o - / ' h e a r t , m ind '
/ - k a m / ' a c t i o n ' > /monookam/ ' t h o u g h t , f e e l i n g *
> /m onoorum / ' p l e a s i n g '
> / m o n o o - s a n c e e t t e n a a / ' f e e l i n g ,
s e n t i m e n t '
1 7 . / - c o o / ' t r a v e l , movement*
/ n e a w e a / ' b o a t* > / n e a w e a c o o / 'm a r i n e t r a v e l '
/ t e a h s a n a a - / ' t o o b s e r v e ' > / t e a h s a n a a c o o / ' t o u r i s m ,
s i g h t - s e e i n g '
> / c a r a a c o o / ' a u t o m o b i l e t r a f f i c '
1 8 . / - l a y / ' p l a c e '
/ w i t t y a a / ' k n o w le d g e ' > / w i t t y a a l a y / ' s c h o o l '
/ p a n n a a - / ' b o o k ' > / p a n n a a l a y / ' l i b r a r y '
/ s u k ( k h a a ) - / ' t o be p l e a s a n t ' > / s u k k h a a l a y / ' r e s o r t '
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12k
1 9 . / - p h e o p / ’ s t a t e o f , c o n d i t i o n o f
/ s e e r e y / ’ t o be f r e e ’ > / s e e r e y - p h e e p / ’ f r e e d o m ’
/ W i b o l / ’ t o be p r o s p e r o u s ’ > / w i b o l - p h e e p / ’ p r o s p e r i t y ’
/ m & t ( t o - ) / ’ f r i e n d ' > / m i t t e p h e e p / ' f r i e n d s h i p '
2 0 . / - s a a h / ’ t h e s t u d y o f , t h e s c i e n c e o f
/ p r o w o e t ( t e - ) / ’h i s t o r y ' > / p r o w o e t t e s a a h / ' t h e s t u d y
o f h i s t o r y *
/ q a q s o o / ' l e t t e r , w r i t i n g ’ > / q a q s o o s a a h / ’ l i t e r a t u r e , '
l e t t e r s ’
/ p h u u m ( i - ) / ’ l a n d , r e g i o n ’ > / p h u u m i s a a h / ’ g e o g r a p h y ’
2 1 . / t h a a n / ’p l a c e , e s t a b l i s h m e n t ’
/ p r e y s e n i i / ’m a i l ’ > / p r e y s e n i i t h a a n / ’ p o s t - o f f i c e ’
/ k i l e e n ( n e - ) / ’ a s i c k p e r s o n ’ > / k i l e e n n e t h a a n /
’ i n f i r m a r y ’
/ p h o o c e n i i / ’ f o o d ’ > / p h o o c e n i i t h a a n / ’ r e s t a u r a n t ’
2 2 . / - k o o / ’ p e r s o n n e l ’
/ k h e e t ( t e - ) / ’m u r d e r ’ > / k h e e t t e k o o / ’m u r d e r e r ’
/ s e n a a / ’ s o l d i e r ’ > / s e n a a k o o / ’m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l ’
/ k a m ( m e - ) / ’ a c t i o n ’ > /kam m ekoo/ ’w o r k e r , c o o l i e ’
2 3 . / - k a a / ’ work , a c t i v i t y ’
/ k a m ( m e - ) / ’ a c t i o n ’ > / k a m m e k a a / •’ a c t i v i t y ’
/ k h o o s e n a a / ’ t o p u b l i c i z e ’ > / k h o o s e n a a k a a / ’ a d v e r t i s i n g ’
/ t e e h s e n a a - / ’ t o o b s e r v e ’ > / t o e h s e n a a k a a / ’ o b s e r v a t i o n ’
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
12$
3 . ^ 2 The f o l l o w i n g c o n s t i t u e n t s h a v e a l l o m o r p h s w h ic h o c c u r
a l s o as f r e e lexemes*
1 . / r e o c / « . / r e e c c e - / « / r e 9c e 9/ ’ k ingdom , r e i g n j r o y a l ’
/wu©33/ / ’ f a m i l y , c i r c l e ’ > / r e s c c e w u o i a / ’ r o y a l f a m i l y ’
/ - t h i p p e d e y / ' p o w e r ' > / r e e c e 9t h i p p e d s y / ’m o n a rc h y 1’
/ q a e k ( k a - ) / ' p r i m e , su p re m e ' > / q a e k k e r e o c / ' i n d e p e n d e n c e '
2 . / v o Q t / ~ / r o Q t t h a . - / ~ / r o Q t t h & q - / ' p o l i t i c a l s t a t e '
/ m u e n t r s y / 'm a n d a r i n ' > / r o a t - m u e n t r e y / - ' m i n s i t e r o f
s t a t e '
/ - a p h i b a a l / ' t o g o v e r n ' > / r o s t t h a a p h i b a a l / ' g o v e r n m e n t '
/ p u e K l e - ) / ' p e o p l e ' > / p u e l l o r o e t / ' c i t i z e n r y '
3 . / q a e k ( k a - ) / ' p r i m e , s i n g l e , su p re m e '
/ s o n t h a a n / ' k i n d , c l a s s ' > / q a e k - s o n t h a a n / ' f i r s t c l a s s '
/ s a q / ' g r a d e , e r a ' > / q a e k k e s a q / ' f i r s t 1 2 - y e a r c y c l e ’
/ c u o n / ' c i t i z e n ' > / q a e k k e c u s n / ' p r i v a t e s e c t o r '
I4.. / p u t ( t o - ) / ' t h e Buddha '#
/ p r e o h - / ' s a c r e d '
/ r u u p / 1 i m a g e ; fo r m ’
/ s a h s n a a / ' r e l i g i o n '
£• / q o r ) ( k e - ) / ' b o d y , o r g a n '
/ k a a / ' a f f a i r s ' > / q o g k a a / ' o r g a n i z a t i o n '
/ c e © t / ' l i f e ' > / q o Q k o c e o t / ' s e x u a l o r g a n s '
/ p r e s h - / ' s a c r e d ' > / p r e e h - q o iq/ ' s a c r e d body '
> / p r e s h - p u t / ' t h e Buddha'
> / p u t t o r u u p / 'Buddha image '
> / p u t t s s a h s n a a / 'B uddh ism '
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126
6 . / s o a n a a / ~ / s e n a a / « / s e n a - / ' m i l i t a r y , s o l d i e r s '
/ - k a m / ' c o n d u c t * > / s e n a a k a m / ' m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s *
/ - a t h i k a a / ' c h i e f > / s e n a a t h i k a a / ' m i l i t a r y commander'
/ - a n u p u s n / ' a t t a c h e ' > / s e n a a n u p u o n / ' m i l i t a r y a t t a c h e '
7 . / p r o c e © / ' p e o p l e '
/ c u © n / ' c i t i z e n ' > / p r o c e s c u a n / ' p o p u l a c e '
/ c e s t / ' e s s e n c e ' > / p r o c e e c 6 © t / ' r a c e , n a t i o n a l i t y '
/ - t h 4 p p © t a y / ' a u to n o m y ' > / p r o c e © t h l p p © t a y / 'democracy*
8 . / y u w e s q / ~ / y u u w & - / 'y o u n g p e r s o n '
/ c u © n / ' c i t i z e n ' > /yuuw © cuen / 'y o u n g p e o p l e '
/ c a q r i y a a / ' c o n d u c t ' > / y u w e © q - c a q r i y a a / ' y o u t h t r a i n i n g '
/ - p h e © p / ' s t a t e o f > / y u u w e p h e e p / ' y o u t h '«
9. / y u t ( t h 9 - ) / ~ / y u t t h e o q - / ' b a t t l e '
/ p r o - / ' r e c i p r o c i t y ' > / p r o y u t / ' t o f i g h t '
/ p h u u m / ' a r e a ' > / y u t t h e o q - p h u u m / ' b a t t l e f i e l d '
/ - s a a h / ' s c i e n c e o f ■ > / y u t t h e s a a h / ' m i l i t a r y s c i e n c e '/
1 0 . / y u s n ( t © - ) / ~ / y u a n t a q - / 'm o t o r , machine*
/ - h o h / ' t o f l y ' > / y u o n - h o h / ' a i r p l a n e '
/ - k a m / ' a c t i o n ' > / y u e n t o k a m / 'm e c h a n i c s ( p r o f e s s i o n ) '
/w 4 c c e © / ' s c i e n c e ' > / y u s n t a q - w i c c e e / ' m e c h a n i c s ( s c i e n c e ) '
11 . / y e © n ( © - ) / ' v e h i c l e '
/ m o h a a - / ' g r e a t ' > /m o h a a y o o n / ' g r e a t v e h i c l e '
/ t h a a n / ' p l a c e ' > / y e o n e t h a a n / ' g a r a g e , h a n g a r '
/ q a k a a h ( s 9 - ) / ' a i r ' > / q a k a a h s o y e a n / ' a i r p l a n e '
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127
1 2 . / s a p ( p o - ) / 'w o rd , speech*
/ r e © c c © - / ' r o y a l ' > / r e © c c © s a p / ' r o y a l v o c a b u l a r y '
/ k e q r i y a a / ' a c t i o n ' . > / k e q r i y a a - s a p / ' v e r b '
/ n e s m / 'name* > / s a p p e n e o m / ' p r o n o u n '
1 3 . / t u u t / ' d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n , embassy '
/ l e e k h a a / ' s e c r e t a r y 1 > / l e e k h a a t u u t / ' d i p l o m a t i c
s e c r e t a r y '
/ r e e c c e - / ' r o y a l ' > / r e © c c © t u u t / ' r o y a l m i s s i o n '
/ s t h a a n / ' p l a c e ' > / s t h a a n - t u u t / ' e m b a s s y '
11+. / p h u u r a ( i - ) / ' l a n d , r e g i o n ’
/ p h e e q / ' p a r t ' > / p h u u m i p h e e q / ' r e g i o n *
/ - s a a h / ' s t u d y o f > / p h u u m i s a a h / ' g e o g r a p h y '
/ y u t t © * / ' . b a t t l e ' > / y u t t a p h u u m / ' b a t t l e f i e l d '
lj?. / k u n ( n © - ) / ' q u a l i t y , m e r i t '
/ q a t h i - / ' h i g h , g r e a t ' > / q a t h i k u n / ' m e r i t o r i o u s '
/ s a p / 'w o rd ' > / k u n n o s a p / ' a d j e c t i v e 't
/ - p h e a p / ' s t a t e o f ' > /kunn©phe©p/ ' q u a l i t y '
16. / s t h a a n / ' p l a c e , e s t a b l i s h m e n t '
/ k r i h / ' f o u n d a t i o n , s i t e ' > / k r i h - s t h a a n / ' b u i l d i n g ,
s i t e '
/ t u u t / ' d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n ' > / s t h a a n - t u u t / ' e m b a s s y '
1 7 . / k © c / ' d u t y , b u s i n e s s '
/ k a a / 'w o rk ' > / k © c - k a a / ' d u t i e s , a f f a i r s '
/ t e s h s e n a a - / ' t o o b s e r v e ' > / t e © h s © n a a k © c / ' i n v e s t i g a t i o n '
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128
/ s e e t t © - / ‘m o n e t a r y ’
1 8 . / p u © l ( l © - ) / ' p e o p le *
/ r o © t / ' s t a t e '
/ p r o c e © / 'p e o p le *
1 9 . / s a h s n a a / ' r e l i g i o n '
/ l r r & h - / ' C h r i s t '
/ p u t t © - / 'B u d dh a '
2 0 . / s a q k o r a a c / ' e r a ,
/ k r i h - / 'C h r i s t *
/ p u t t © - / 'B u d d h a '
2 1 . / s a q / ' g r a d e , e r a ’
/ q a e k k © - / ' s i n g l e '
/ p a n c a - / ' f i v e '
2 2 .
/ r u k k h © - / ' p l a n t , t r e e '
> / s e e t s k s o / ' e c o n o m i c s '
> / p u o l l e r o s t / ' c i t i z e n r y *
> / p r o c e © p u e l / ' p o p u l a c e '
> / k r i h - s a h s n a a / ' C h r i s t i a n i t y '
> / p u t t © s a h s n a a / 'B uddh ism '
c e n t u r y '
> / k r a h - s a q k e r a a c / ' C h r i s t i a n Era*
> / p u t t o s a q k s r a a c / 'B u d d h i s t E r a '
> / q a e k k © s a q / ' e q u a l i n r a n k '
> / p a n c a s a q / ' f i f t h 1 2 - y e a r c y c l e '
/ c e © t / ' l i f e , e s s e n c e ' •
/ thoam m © -/ ' c a u s a t i o n , dharma ' > / t h o a m m e c e e t / ' n a t u r e *
> / r u k k h © c e © t / ' v e g e t a t i o n '
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129
3 . 5 R e d u p l i c a t i v e s
A r e d u p l i c a t i v e i s any lexem e whose c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e
s i m i l a r o r i d e n t i c a l i n shape and m ea n in g . R e d u p l i c a t i v e s
may b e composed o f
1 ) two o r more bound c o n s t i t u e n t s
2 ) a f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t f o l l o w e d by a bound c o n s t i t u e n t
3 ) a bound c o n s t i t u e n t f o l l o w e d by a f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t
I4.) two f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t s
I n r e d u p l i c a t i v e s c o n s i s t i n g o f two o r more' bound f o r m s ,
t h e f i r s t fo rm i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e b a s e and t h e f o l l o w i n g
form o r fo rm s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i t s r e d u p l i c a t i o n s . I n r e d u p l i -
• c a t i v e s c o n t a i n i n g one f r e e fo rm , t h e f r e e form i s c o n s i d e r e d
t h e b a s e , w h e t h e r i t p r e c e d e s o r f o l l o w s i t s r e d u p l i c a t i o n .
R e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n v o l v i n g a f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t u s u a l l y b e lo n g
t o t h e same form c l a s s as t h e f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t . R e d u p l i
c a t i v e s i n w h ich b o t h c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e f r e e a r e r e d u p l i c a t
i v e compounds.*
3 . 5 1 C o m p le te r e d u p l i c a t i o n
3 ,5 1 1 R e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
R e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s I n v o l v e r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
e n t i r e b a s e . A l l r e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s a r e composed
e i t h e r o f two bound c o n s t i t u e n t s o r two f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t s .
In e a c h c a s e t h e c o n s t i t u e n t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e b a s e .
3 .5 1 1 1 B oth c o n s t i t u e n t s bound
A lm ost a l l bound r e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s a r e
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130
o n o m a t o p o e t i c a d j e c t i v e s , w i t h a few k i n e s t h e t i c a d j e c t i v e s .
T hese a d j e c t i v e s m o d i fy b o t h nouns and v e r b s i n t h e f o l l o w
i n g way*
/c m a a yum l & i so o : gaaw-flaaw*.. /
c a t c r y h e a r sound meow-meow
’ C a t s make a 1 ’meow-meow’ ’ s o u n d . 1
/knom l l i kee c lu o h * . k o k a o k - k o k a o k * . /
I h e a r them a r g u e s o u n d - o f - a r g u i n g - v i o l e n t l y
’ I h e a r d them a r g u i n g v i o l e n t l y , '
F u r t h e r examples*
/ k r i m - k r i m / 1 d e s c r i p t i v e . o f a s t rum m ing sound*
/ k r u e p - k r u o p / ’ d e s c r i p t i v e o f a c r u n c h i n g sound*
/ p r i c - p r & c / ’ t h e sound o f w a te r , d r i p p i n g '
/ p d e o t - p d o Q t / ’ s l o w l y , w i t h g r e a t e f f o r t *
/ r u Q ^ w o o l - r u a Q w o s l / ’ s l o v t ly , s l u g g i s h l y *
D e s c r i p t i v e r e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s may c o n t a i n up
t o f o u r o r f i v e c o n s t i t u e n t s . The p r o c e s s i s t h u s p r o d u c t i v e .
Example*
/ k i k - k i k / ’ d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e n o i s e o f m a c h in e s o p e r a t i n g *
/ k i k - k i k - k i k / » i d '
/k& k-k& k-kl-k-k- ik / ’ i d ’
3 .5 1 1 2 Both c o n s t i t u e n t s f r e e
R e d u p l i c a t i o n o f f r e e l ex e m e s t o fo rm r e p e t i t i v e r e - ’
d u p l i c a t i v e compounds i s p r o d u c t i v e . I t s f u n c t i o n v a r i e s
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 3 1
w i t h t h e form c l a s s o f t h e r e d u p l i c a t e d fo rm .
I ."1 Nouns: ’ p l u r a l i t y , g e n e r a l i t y ’
/ s r o y / ’woman’ > / s r o y - s r e y / ’ s e v e r a l women, women i n
g e n e r a l ’
/ k m e e q / ’ c h i l d ’ > /kmeeto-kmeeio/ ’ c h i l d r e n , c h i l d r e n i n
g e n e r a l ’
/ p r d h / ’man’ > / p r o h - p r o h / ’men, men i n g e n e r a l ’
2*) A d j e c t i v a l v e r b s * ’ i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , p l u r a l i t y ’
/ p s e e i 3/ ’ t o be d i f f e r e n t ’ > / p s e e g - p s e e q / ’v a r i o u s ’
/ t o o c / ’ t o be s m a l l ’ > / t o o c - t o o c / ’ t o be q u i t e s m a l l ,
s m a l l and n u m ero u s ’
/ k p u o h / ’ t o be h i g h ’ > / k p u e h - k p u e h / ’ t o be v e r y h i g h j
h i g h and n u m e ro u s ’
/ l & o n / ’ t o be f a s t ’ > / l i o n - l i o n / ’ t o be v e r y f a s t ’
3. P ronouns and a d j e c t i v e s : ’p l u r a l i t y ’
/ q w o y / ’w h a t , s o m e th in g , a n y t h i n g ( s i n g u l a r ) ’
> /q w o y -q t^ sy / ’ w h a t , a n y t h i n g , s o m e th in g ( p l u r a l ) ’
/ n a a / ’ w h ich , anywhere ( s i n g u l a r ) ’
> / n a a - n a a / ’w h ic h , anywhere ( p l u r a l ) ’
/ q a e - t i e t / ’ a n o t h e r ’ > / q a e t i o t - q a e t i o t / ’v a r i o u s o t h e r ’
Ij., D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v e f rom n u m e r a l :
/m u o y / ’ o n e ’ > /m u ey -m u oy / ’ s l o w l y ’1
D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v e from p r e p o s i t i o n :
/ c i t / ’ c l o s e t o ’ > / c & t - c & t / ’ c l o s e l y , q u i t e c l o s e ’
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132
6 . A d j e c t i v e s : ’ r e p e a t e d a c t i o n ’
/ k r i p / ’ s h o r t , a b r u p t ’ > / k r & p - k r & p / ’ d e s c r i p t i v e o f
t h e sound o f l i v e s t o c k c r o p p i n g g r a s s ’
/ p i 9e k / ’ s l o w l y ’ > / p l o e k - p l e s k / ’ s l o w l y and r e p e a t e d l y ’
3• 5>2 P a r t i a l r e d u p l i c a t i o n
3 .£ 2 1 A b l a u te d r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
A b l a u t e d r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n v o l v e r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
b a s e w i t h vowel a b l a u t . The g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f a b l a u t e d
r e d u p l i c a t i v e s a r e composed o f two bound c o n s t i t u e n t s .
Most o f s u c h r e d u p l i c a t i v e s a r e e i t h e r k i n e s t h e t i c o r
•o n om a to p o e t ic a d j e c t i v e s .
The p a t t e r n s o f vowel a l t e r n a t i o n a r e a p p a r e n t l y
random , b u t c e r t a i n a l t e r n a t i o n s o c c u r w i t h r e l a t i v e
f r e q u e n c y , and seem t o h a v e s e c o n d a r y s e m a n t i c a s s o c i a t i o n s .
The m ost f r e q u e n t a r e l i s t e d below*
1 . / - e e - / " / - a a - / ’u n s t r u c t u r e d , c o n f u s e d ’
/k ro w eem -k row aam / ‘m arked u p , d i s f i g u r e d ’
/ r o h e e Q - r o h a a g / ' i n c o n f u s i o n , c a r e l e s s '
/ p d e e h - p d a a h / ' h e l t e r - s k e l t e r , l a c k a d a i s i c a l '
/ k w e e h - k w a a h / 'aw kw ard , d e s p e r a t e '
/ t e e i j - t a a i o / ’ i n c o h e r e n t , c o n f u s e d '
2 . / - 0 e » / ~ / “OO-/ 'unstructured , confused'
/k roheeJQ -krohoo j ] / ' i n c o n f u s i o n '
/ r o h e e t - r o h o o t / ’ i d . '
/ k r o l e e Q - k r o l o c q / « to s p l a s h a r o u n d '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
133
3 . / ~ i i ~ / " / “ 09” / ’ i r r e g u l a r , ^ . i n e f f e c t i v e '
/ t o t r i i p - t o t r e e p / ’ s t a g g e r i n g , w a n d e r in g a i m l e s s l y ’
/ k r i i t - k r e a t / ' t o be r o u g h , u n e v e n ’
/ k n i i - k n e a / ' m o t l e y g r o u p '
/ m o n i i - m o n e a / ' h u r r i e d l y , p r e c i p i t o u s l y '
I}.. / - o o - / ~ / - a a - / ' h e t e r o g e n e o u s , i n p r o f u s i o n '
/ t o o ^ - t a a i o / ' c l a t t e r i n g l y '
/ t o o c - t a a c / ' s m a l l and n u m e ro u s ’
/ c r o o q - c r a a Q / ' t h i c k , i n p r o f u s i o n '
/ s r a o o n - s m a a n / ' i n p r o f u s i o n , i r r e g u l a r '
‘5 . / - i i - / « - /* 9® - / ' i n e f f e c t i v e , v a c i l l a t o r y ’
/ t o t i i m - t o t a a m / ' s l o w and h e s i t a n t , u n c o o r d i n a t e d '
/ t i i - t a a / ' s c a r e d , v a c i l l a t o r y ' .
/ p l i i - p l a a / ' t o be s lo w , s t u p i d '
/ l o ^ i i - l o ^ e a / ' t o be s l o w , . s t u p i d '
6 . / - e - / « / * * ° - / ' r e p e a t e d , a n n o y in g '
/ t e h - t o h / ' a l i t t l e o f t h i s , a l i t t l e o f t h a t '
/qom p eh -qo m p o h / ' d e s u l t o r i l y '
/ l e h - l o h / ! t e a s i n g , a n n o y in g '
/ p o p l e h - p o p l o h / ' i d . '
7 . / - a * * / ~ / “ 0“ / ' d e s u l t o r y '
/ l p a n - l p o n / ' i n t o e v e r y t h i n g ( o f c h i l d r e n ) '
/ c r o n - c r o n / ' h a l t i n g l y , i n e f f e c t i v e l y '
/ t a n - t o n / , / c r a m - c r o m / ' i d . 1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
13k
8 . / - a e - / ~ / * * a o - / ' d i s o r d e r *
/ k a e k - k a o k / ’ sound o f an u n se e m ly r u c k u s ’
/ p r o h a e Q - p r o h a o f l / ' i r r e g u l a r , s p o t t y ’
9 . / - a e - / ~ / - o o - / ’ i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l n o i s e ’
/ q a e - g o o / ’ t o w h in e , i m p o r t u n e ’
/ k o k a e - k o k o o / ’ b a b b l i n g ’
3 . ^ 2 2 Rhyming r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
Rhyming r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n v o l v e r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
n u c l e u s and f i n a l c o n s o n a n t ( i f one o c c u r s ) o f t h e b a s e .
3 .5 2 2 1 B oth c o n s t i t u e n t s bound
Rhyming r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n which b o t h c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e
bound a r e u s u a l l y a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s o r a d j e c t i v e s , e . g . : *
/ r e e q - t e e q / ’ t o be p o l i t e , a f f a b l e ’
/ c a o g - h a o i o / ' t o be r u d e , a r r o g a n t '
/ c a e q - m a s g / ' t o be h a u g h t y , p r e t e n t i o u s ’
/saoQ-maojQ/ ' g r o g g y , b e w i l d e r e d '
3 .5 2 2 2 One c o n s t i t u e n t bound
Most rh y m in g r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n w hich one c o n s t i t u e n t
i s bound i n v o l v e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e b a s e , e . g . :
/ k h a e ^ ) ~ r a e g / ( ' t o be b o l d ' / - ) ' t o be a r r o g a n t , f e a r l e s s ’
/ s r u o l - b u o l / ( ’ t o be e a s y ' / - ) ’ t o be e a s y , e n j o y a b l e '
/ t u e n - p l u e n / ( ’ t o be s o f t ' / - ) ' t o be t e n d e r , g r a c e f u l '
/ r e o y - m e o y / ( ' t o be s c a t t e r e d ' / - ) ' t o be h e l t e r - s k e l t e r ’
/p q a e m - r o h a e m / ( ' t o be s w e e t ’ / - ) ' t o be s i c k e n i n g l y s w e e t '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
13*
/ c l o s n - p e s n / ( - / ' t o t r a m p l e * ) ' t o i n v a d e , u su rp*
3 .5 2 2 3 Both c o n s t i t u e n t s f r e e
Most rh y m in g r e d u p l i c a t i v e s composed o f two f r e e c o n
s t i t u e n t s i n v o l v e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e m ean in gs o f t h e
c o n s t i t u e n t s , e . g . :
/ c a a n - k b a a n / ( 1 d i s h ' / ’ c r o c k * ) ’ c ro c k e ry *
/ p r i o p - t h i o p / ( ’ t o s e t a l o n g s i d e ' / ’ t o c o m p a re ’ ) ’ t o c o m p a re ’
/ c r o o h - r o o h / ( ’ t o c h o o s e ' / ' t o s e l e c t ’ ) ’ t o c h o o s e , e l e c t *
3 .5 2 3 A l l i t e r a t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
A l l i t e r a t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n v o l v e r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f
■the i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t o r c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e o f t h e b a s e , o r
. i n t h e c a s e o f d i s y l l a b l e s , o f t h e p r e f i x p l u s t h e i n i t i a l
c o n s o n a n t o r c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e o f t h e b a s e .
3 .5 2 3 1 B oth c o n s t i t u e n t s bound
1 . A d j e c t i v e s ?
/ p r a m - p r o y / ’ c u t e , l i k a b l e ’
/ p r o m - p r a a y / ’ p l e a s i n g t o h e a r '
/ k c i i - k c e o y / ’h a p h a z a r d ’
/ r o p o c - r o p o y / ' t r i v i a l and num erous '
/kom pec-kom pok / ' s m a l l and num erous '
2 . V e rb s :
/ c h a e k - c h e e / ' t o i n v e s t i g a t e , i n t e r r o g a t e '
/ c h a a - c h a w / ' t o p e s t e r , t e a s e *
/ k l a e q - k l a e / ' t o p r e t e n d ’
/ k s e k - k s u o l / ' t o so b '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
136
3 .5 2 3 2 One c o n s t i t u e n t bound
1. I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e meaning o f t h e b a s e :
/ c q a e t - c q a n / ( - / ’ t o be d o n e ’ ) ’w e l l done , cooked j u s t r i g h t ’
/ p h i t - p h i y / ( - / ’ t o be a f r a i d ’ ) ’ t o be t e r r i f i e d ’
/ t u l u m - t u l e a y / ( - / ’ t o be r o o m y ' ) ' t o be w ide and s p a c i o u s '
/ b o m p l e c - b o m p l a a n / ( - / ' t o d e s t r o y ' ) ' t o d e v a s t a t e '
/cmaaiQ-cmay/ ( ' t o be p r o u d ' / - ) ' c o n c e i t e d , s e l f - i m p o r t a n t '
/ b i a t - b i a n / ( ' t o s q u e e z e ’ / - ) ' t o o p p r e s s '
/ c o m p e a q -c o m p a n / ( ' t o owe’ / - ) ' t o be t i e d u p , i n v o l v e d '
2 . G e n e r a l i z a t i o n o r p l u r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e m ea n in g o f b a s e :•%
/ b a n - b u a / ( ' l a k e 1/ - ) ' l a k e s and p o n d s '
/ t h u a n - t h e a n / ( ' t v e a l t h ' / - ) ’ p o s s e s s i o n s , p r o p e r t y ’
/ k r a t - k r o e m / ( ' l a w ' / - •) ' l a w s , r e g u l a t i o n s '
/ p r o d a p - p r o d a a / ( ' i n s t r u m e n t ' / - ) ' t o o l s , i n s t r u m e n t s '
3. D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v e s f rom v e r b s :
/ p r o n a p - p r o n a l / ( ' t o h u r r y ' / - ) ' h u r r i e d l y '
/ t r o l o p - t r o l o n / ( ' t o r e v e r t ' / - ) ' h e a d o v e r h e e l s '
3 .5 2 3 3 Both c o n s t i t u e n t s f r e e
1 . S p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e m eaning o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s :
/ s d u a c - s d a a j o / ( ' t o be s h a r p ' / ' t o be t h i n ' ) ’ ’t o be s m a l l and
i n s i g n i f i c a n t '
/ lcpu^j-kpuoh/ ( ' t o be t o w e r i n g ' / ' t o be h i g h ' ) ' i m p o r t a n t ,
e x a l t e d '
/ b o h - b a o k / ( ' t o d i s c a r d ' / ' t o b e a t ' ) ' t o be c r u d e , i m p o l i t e '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
137
/ b o n d a e t - b o n d a o y / ( ' t o f l o a t * / ' t o f o l l o w ' ) ' fco a l l o w ,
f a c i l i t a t e *
/ b o n c h s t - b o n c h i© 3 3 / ( ' t o b r u s h p a s t * / 1 t o t \ i r n a s i d e ' )
' t o s k i r t an i s s u e , t o c i r c u m l o c u t e '
/boiQkhet-boQkhom/ ( ' t o m o v e ' / ' t o f o r c e ' ) ' t o s t r i v e
d i l i g e n t l y '
2 . C o o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e m ean ings o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s ;
/ r u e p - r u o i n / ( ' t o c o l l e c t ' / ' t o c o m b i n e ' ) ' t o c o l l e c t , b r i n g
t o g e t h e r '
/ c u o p - c u m / ( ' t o r a e e t ' / ' t o a s s e m b l e ' ) ' t o a s s e m b le '
/ p t u k - p t e e / ( ' t o l o a d ' / ' t o u n l o a d ' ) ' t o l o a d and un load*
/ b o ^ k o o - b o Q k a e t / ( ' t o e s t a b l i s h ' / ' t o o r i g i n a t e ' )
' t o a g i t a t e , i n s t i g a t e '
/ b o ^ q o o - b o ^ q u e t / ( ' t o c h e e r ' / ' t o show o f f ' ) ' t o show o f f ,
amuse*
3 . D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s f rom v e r b s ;
/ d o h - d a a l / ( ' t o g r o w ' / ' t o s p r e a d ' ) ' r i c h l y , p r o f u s e l y '
/ r u u t - r e o h / ( ' t o h u r r y ' / ' t o h u r r y ' ) ' h u r r i e d l y , d e s p e r a t e l y '
/ p i £ c - p i e 013/ ( ' t o f o r g e t ' / ' t o r e l a x ' ) ' c a r e l e s s l y '
/ r o w l o h - r o w i y / ( ' t o h u r r y ' / ' t o t u r n , s p i n ' ) ' h u r r i e d l y ,
e x c i t e d l y '
/ b o n t o o p - b o n t o o / ( ' n e x t ' / ' t o e x t e n d ' ) ' c o n t i n u o u s l y '
3*53 I n c o m p l e t e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
I n c o m p l e t e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n v o l v e t h e rhym ing r e d u p l i ~
c a t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d s y l l a b l e o f a d i s y l l a b i c b a s e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
.138
1 . V e rb s : ' i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n *
/ k r o b i p / ' t o be r o b u s t 1 > / k r o b i p - b i p / ’ t o be f a t and r o b u s t 1
/ c r o l a a h / ' t o be a r r o g a n t * > / c r o l a © h - b a © h / ’ r u d e and fo rx^a rd ’
/ p o p i s h / ‘ t e a s i n g 1 > / s e h - p o p l e h / ’ f r i v o l o u s , u n p r i n c i p l e d ’
/ k r o l u u k / ’ c o n f u s e d ’ > / s u u k - k r o l u u k / ’ c o n f u s e d , d a z e d ’
2 . Nouns I
/ t r o l 4 jo~ti?3/ ' a s p e c i e s o f t r e e ’
/ k o n d a e - r a e / ' a k i n d o f d a n c e ’
Pseudo- re d u p lic a t iv e s
P s e u d o - r e d u p l i c a t i v e s a r e c o o r d i n a t e compounds whose
c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e s i m i l a r i n m ea n in g , b u t e x h i b i t no f o r m a l
s i m i l a r i t y o t h e r t h a n word s h a p e . Such compounds c a n n o t by
d e f i n i t i o n be c o n s i d e r e d r e d u p l i c a t i v e s , s i n c e no c o n s i s t
e n t p a t t e r n o f r e d u p l i c a t i o n can be fo u n d . They do, how ever ,
seem t o r e f l e c t a p r e f e r e n c e f o r words o f s i m i l a r sh ap e
i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c o o r d i n a t e compounds. The m eaning o f
s u c h s h a p e r e d u p l i c a t i o n s i s ’ p l u r a l i t y o r g e n e r a l i t y .
E xam ples :
/ q a a c a o - q a a k i n / ( ’ t h i e f ’ / - ) ’ t h i e v e s , c r i m i n a l s ’
/ t u m n i e m - t u m l o e p / ( ’ c u s t o m ’/ ’ c u s to m ’ ) ’ c u s to m s , c u l t u r e ’
/ s o m l i a q - b o m p e e q / ( ’ l o w e r g a r m e n t s ’ / ’u p p e r g a r m e n t s ’ )
’ c l o t h i n g ’
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139
3 . 6 Sound sym bolism
C e r t a i n vowels r e c u r i n g r o u p s o f s e m a n t i c a l l y r e l a t e d
l e x e m e s , and t h u s a p p e a r t o h ave s e c o n d a r y s e m a n t i c f u n c t i o n .
F o l l o w i n g a r e some t o t h e most f r e q u e n t *
1 . / - ! © - / ' p r e s s u r e , t i g h t n e s s ’
/ a i © t / ' t o i n s e r t i n t o a t i g h t p l a c e *
/ c o Q q i s t / ' t o be t i g h t , c row ded '
/ b i e t - b i e n / ' t o o p p r e s s '
/ k i o q / ' t o s q u e e z e '
/ b i e q / ' t o c o m p r e s s ' <
/ b i o m / ' t o h o l d t i g h t l y i n t h e m outh '
2 . / —©8—/ ' s l o w , s l u g g i s h i n mind o r g a i t '
/meek-moQk/ ' s l o w l y , s l u g g i s h l y '
/ p l e o k - p l e o k / ' i d . '
/ n e e k - n e e k / ' i d . '
/ ru9QW 00l-ru9QW 90l/ ' i d . ' •
/ p i© © / ' t o be s lo w and s t u p i d '
/ l g o © / ' i d . *
/lm©©/ ' i d . 1
3 . / - a © - / ' l a r g e s i z e , i n c r e a s e '
/ c r a s n / '.much, many'
/ k a © n / ' t o i n c r e a s e '
/ s b a e m / ' t o f e a r , be i n awe o f
/ so m b aem / ' t o be l a r g e , awesome'
/ 1 b.qx) / * i n c r e a s i n g l y , t o c l i m b '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
lj.. / - a © - / , /-©©-/•*• ’ e x c e s s i v e , a r r o g a n t ’
/ l e © h / ’ b eyond , e x c e e d i n g ’
/ c r o l a e h / ' t o e x c e e d '
/crb la© h*»ba© h/ ' t o be a r r o g a n t , c r u d e '
/ p r o h o e n / ’ t o be i n s o l e n t '
/cxna©q/ ' t o be p r o u d , c o n c e i t e d ’
/ca©Q-raa©X)/ ' i d . '
1 . T hese v o w e ls a r e c o r r e l a t i v e a l t e r n a n t s , a s d e s c r i b e d i n
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Ij.. 0 Lexeme c l a s s e s
A 3-Qxeme c l a s s i s a s e t o f lex e m e s w h ich s h a r e a s e t o f
s y n t a c t i c p r i v i l e g e s o f o c c u r r e n c e . The m a jo r c l a s s e s a r e% ■
l i s t e d b e lo w w i t h t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a b b r e v i a t i o n s . S m a l l e r
s u b - c l a s s e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e b a s i s o f a d d i t i o n a l sy n
t a c t i c c r i t e r i a , o r o f s e m a n t ic c r i t e r i a .
lj.,1 I s o l a t i v e s
1+.11 I n t e r j e c t i o n s I
1+.12 R e s p o n s iv e s R
lj.,2 S u b s t a n t i v e s
1|, 21 Nouns N
li-. 22 S p e c i f i e r s S
lj.,23 P ro n o u n s P ro
Ij..2l|. Q u a n t i f i e r s • X
1 |.2£ D e m o n s t r a t iv e s D
l|..3 P r e d i c a t i v e s
I|.,31 A d j e c t i v a l v e rb s Va
I4..32 A c t iv e v e rb s
I}.,321 T r a n s i t i v e v e r b s Vt
Ij., 322 I n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ’ Vi
1|.» 33 Modal v e r b s Vra
£4.. 3'U- D i r e c t i o n a l v e rb s Vd
35 C o m p le t iv e v e r b s Vc
I4..I4. A d v e r b i a l s Adv
A d j e c t i v e s Adj
lj.,6 A u x i l i a r i e s Aux
1 k i
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
li|2
14-. 7 R e l a t o r s
I}.. 7.1 P r e p o s i t i o n a l r e l a t o r s Rp
14. . 72 S u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s Rs
1|. 73 G e n e ra l r e l a t o r s Rg
I4— 7U- C o o r d in a t in g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s Rc
1+. 75 C o p u la t iv e r e l a t o r s Cop
14..8 P a r t i c l e s
14. .81 P i n a l s e n t e n c e p a r t i c l e s F
I4.*82 P au se p a r t i c l e s * P
14. .1 I s o l a t i v e s
I s o l a t i v e s , t y p i c a l l y o c c u r a s s o l e le x e m ic c o n s t i t u e n t s
o f u t t e r a n c e s and a s s o l e le x e m ic c o n s t i t u e n t s o f p r e p o s e d
p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e s w h ic h a r e s e p a r a t e d from t h e i r c o - -
c o n s t i t u e n t s by a p h r a s e c o n t o u r . They n e v e r o c c u r a s
s u b s t a n t i v e s o r a s p r e d i c a t i v e s .
14.. 11 I n t e r j e c t i o n s
Most i n t e r j e c t i o n s h a v e g r e a t a l lo m o r p h ic v a r i e t y . The
p r i n c i p a l members o f t h e c l a s s a r e l i s t e d b e lo w , w i th t h e i r
commonest a l lo m o rp h s and t h e i r t h e i r t y p i c a l p h r a s e c o n t o u r s .
1 ) / q o o l ~ q a o V ’ Oh! 1 ( e m p h a s is , e x c i t e m e n t )
2 ) / c o h l / ’ Come o n ’ ( e x h o r t a t i o n , p e r s u a s i o n )
3 ) / t o h ' l ' / ’ Go a h ead I ' ( i m p e r a t i v e , e x h o r t a t i o n )
ij.) / n a e ' l ' / ’ H e y ! ’ ( t o a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n , p r o h i b i t )
5 ) / c o m ! / ’ Oh r e a l l y ? (su d d e n r e v e l a t i o n )
6 ) / n a o V ’Look h e r e l ’ ( to a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n )
7) / y i l f ~ y e e t / (D is a g re e m e n t , m i ld o r p l a y f u l r e b u k e )
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11+3
8 ) / m a e t /
9 ) / h 0 0 ^ /
1 0 ) /q © e ' i /
1 1 ) / t a o 1/
1 2 ) / q a y y a a ' | ' /
1 3 ) / q a y y a h ! /
l i j . ) / q o y y o o y | /
15> )/qu u l~ q u y l /
1 6 ) / p u t t h o o l /
Ip. 12 R e s p o n s iv e s
R e s p o n s iv e s o c c u r i n t h e same e n v iro n m e n t a s i n t e r j e c t
i o n s , b u t o n ly i n u t t e r a n c e s s u b s e q u e n t t o t h e o p e n in g u t t e r
an ce o f an e x c h a n g e . They t y p i c a l l y o c c u r w i t h t h e p h r a s e
c o n to u r / { / . T h e i r f u n c t i o n i s p o l i t e acknow ledgem ent o f a
p r e v i o u s u t t e r a n c e by a n o th e r s p e a k e r , w h e th e r t h e p r e v i o u s
u t t e r a n c e was a s t a t e m e n t o r a q u e s t i o n . F o l lo w in g a q u e s t i o n ,
t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a r e s p o n s i v e a s t h e s o l o le x e m ic c o n s t i t
u e n t o f an u t t e r a n c e i m p l i e s a f f i r m a t i o n , A n e g a t i v e r e p l y i s
i n d i c a t e d by a r e s p o n s i v e fo l lo w e d by t h e n e g a t i v e f i n a l s e n t
en ce p a r t i c l e / t e e f / , o r by / t e o i 1/ a l o n e . In e x ch a n g es b e
tw een e q u a l s , r e s p o n s i v e s t e n d t o be d i s c o n t i n u e d a f t e r t h e
i n i t i a l e x c h a n g e s . However, i n e x ch a n g es b e tw een a s u p e r i o r
and an i n f e r i o r , r e s p o n s i v e s t e n d t o be u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e
ex ch an g e by t h e i n f e r i o r , a l th o u g h t h e y may be d i s c o n t i n u e d
by t h e s u p e r i o r p a r t y i n t h e e x c h a n g e .
• W e l l ! 1 ( s u r p r i s e , an n o y an ce )
•H e y ! ’ ( t o a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n )
•On t h e c o n t r a r y * (m ild d i s a g r e e m e n t )
• R e a l l y ? ’ ( a s i s o l a t e d u t t e r a n c e )
’ T e l l me’ (a s c o - c o n s t i t u e n t )
•G ee’. ’ ( a d m i r a t i o n , w onder)
’ Heavens I ’ , ( a la r m , s u r p r i s e )
•O uch’
’ O h!’ ( f e a r , a la r m )
’ Damn!’ (m ild o a t h )
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ll&
The c l a s s i s s m a l l and c l o s e d . One member, / q a © / , h a s
t h r e e a l lo m o r p h s .
1 ) / b a a t V ( P o l i t e r e s p o n s i v e u s e d by men)
2 ) / c a a h f " - c a h l / ( P o l i t e r e s p o n s i v e u s e d b y women)
3 ) /q a © ,l,~ q©©'l'~-'qi&}/ ( F a m i l i a r r e s p o n s i v e u s e d by b o th
men and women)
P e r s o n a l nam es, k i n s h i p t e r m s , and t i t l e s , a l l o f w h ic h
a r e s u b - c l a s s e s o f s u b s t a n t i v e s , a lso , o c c u r i n t h e i s o l a t i v e
p o s i t i o n , a s w e l l a s f i n a l l y , i n v o c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
( £ . 1 2 5 ) , w i t h t h e f u n c t i o n o f i d e n t i f y i n g t h e a d d r e s s e e .
^ . 2 S u b s t a n t i v e s
A s u b s t a n t i v e i s any n o n - p r e d i c a t i v e lexem e w h ich can
o c c u r a s t h e s u b j e c t o r t o p i c o f an u t t e r a n c e . S u b s t a n t i v e s
a l s o f u n c t i o n a s o b j e c t s and a t t r i b u t e s . Many p r e d i c a t i v e s
can f u n c t i o n a s s u b s t a n t i v e s , b u t s u b s t a n t i v e s n e v e r f u n c t i o n
a s p r e d i c a t i v e s .
I4. .2 I Nouns
A noun i s any s u b s t a n t i v e w h ic h may o c c u r i n t h e c o n t e x t
# JC S # , w here # r e p r e s e n t s s i l e n c e , X r e p r e s e n t s a n u m e r a l ; o r
an d S r e p r e s e n t s a s p e c i f i e r . In o t h e r w o rd s , a noun i s any
s u b s t a n t i v e w h ich can be c o u n te d ,
1;. 211 G e n e r a l nouns a r e nouns w h ich can o c c h r a s h e a d s o f
n u m e r ic a l noun p h r a s e s w i th o u t a s p e c i f i e r , i . e . i n t h e c o n
t e x t #_X#. The g r o a t m a j o r i t y o f nouns b e lo n g t o t h i s s u b
c l a s s .
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ii |5
E xam p les : / l a a n p i i / / c k a e b e y /
c a r txfo dog t h r e e
•tw o c a rs* ’ t h r e e d o g s '
A l th o u g h g e n e r a l nouns t y p i c a l l y o c c u r i n t h e above c o n
t e x t , t h e y may a l s o o c c u r i n t h e c o n t e x t #_XS7f , w here S i s one
o f t h e g e n e r a l s p e c i f i e r s (I4. . 2 2 1 3 ) .
E sam p le : / l a a n p i i y a a g /
c a r two k in d
' tw o k in d s o f c a r s '
ii.,212 S p e c i f i c n ou ns a r e nouns w h ich n o r m a l ly o c c u r in
n u m e r i c a l noun p h r a s e s o f t h e p a t t e r n , w here S i s a
q u a l i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r (I}..2 2 1 1 ) .
E xam p les : /raonuh b e y n e e q / / b a r e y p i i daom /
human t h r e e p e r s o n c i g a r e t t e two l o n g - o b j e c t s
' t h r e e p e r s o n s ' ‘ two c i g a r e t t e s '
T h is c l a s s i s much s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t o f g e n e r a l n o u n s ,
and t h e f a c t t h a t i t s members som etim es o c c u r i n i n f o r m a l
s p e e c h w i th o u t a s p e c i f i e r ( i . e . a s g e n e r a l n o u n s ) may i n
d i c a t e t h a t t h e c l a s s i s d e c r e a s i n g i n s i z e .
F u r t h e r s u b - c l a s s e s o f s p e c i f i c nouns can be e s t a b l i s h e d
on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s p e c i f i e r s w i th w h ich t h e y o c c u r . The
l a r g e s t s u b - c l a s s i s t h a t o f common p e r s o n a l n o u n s , a l l o f
Which c o - o c c u r w i t h t h e q u a l i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r / n e e q / 'p e r s o n
o f o r d i n a r y e s t a t e ' . S uch nouns a r e :
1 ) nouns whoso r e f e r e n t i s a p e r s o n
Exam ple::; / n e e q - t w e e - s r a e p i i n e e q / ' tw o f a r m e r s '
p e r s o n - d o - f i e l d two p e r s o n
i
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1I+6
2 ) k i n s h i p te rm s
Example* /bocnj-pqoon pram n e e q /
o l d e r - a n d - y o u n g e r - s i b l i n g s f i v e p e r s o n
' f i v e b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s '
3 ) t i t l e s
Example* / l o o k bey n e e q / .
g e n t le m a n t h r e e p e r s o n
' t h r e e g e n t le m e n '
•lj.,213 Mass noun3 a r e nouns t h a t a lw ays o c c u r , when c o u n te d ,
i n n u m e r i c a l noun p h r a s e s o f t h e p a t t e r n #_XS#, w here S i s a
q u a n t i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r (!}..2 2 1 2 ) . Xn o t h e r w o rd s , mass nouns
n e v e r o c c u r in t h e fram e #_X#.
E x am p le s : / t i k muey k a e w / / b a a y p i i c a a n /
w a te r one g l a s s r i c e two p l a t e
' a g l a s s o f w a t e r ' ' tw o p l a t e s o f r i c e '
I4. . 2 H4. Name3 o c c u r i n t y p i c a l s u b s t a n t i v e p o s i t i o n s a s t o p i c s ,
s u b j e c t s , o b j e c t s , and a t t r i b u t e s , b u t t h e y a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
by t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e a s t h e s e c o n d c o n s t i t u e n t o f a p p o s i t i v e
p h r a s e s .
Exam ples* / t u e n l e e meeko*]/ / k r u u t h o o n /
r i v e r Mekong t e a c h e r Than
' t h e Mekong R i v e r ' 'T e a c h e r Than'*1,
1 . P e r s o n a l names a l s o o c c u r a f t e r t i t l e s a s g e n i t i v a l a t t r i b u t e s . F o r exam p le , / k r u u t h o o n / c an a l s o mean 'T h a n 's t e a c h e r ' j t h e a m b ig u i ty i s r e s o l v e d o n ly i n c o n t e x t .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
11*7
lj.,22 S p e c i f i e r s
A s p e c i f i e r i s any lexem e ( o t h e r t h a n a n u m e ra l) w h ich
o c c u r s i n p o s t - p o s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a n u m e ra l , i . e . i n t h e
c o n t e x t #X__#. The r e s u l t i n g c o n s t r u c t i s a s p e c i f i e r p h r a s e .-
I4. . 22 I Noun s p e c i f i e r s a r e s p e c i f i e r s w h ich may o c c u r i n s p e c i
f i e r p h r a s e s w hich a r e a t t r i b u t i v e t o noun h e a d s , i . e , i n th e
c o n t e x t #NX__#.
E x am p le s ; /d a e m -c h e e p i i d aem / / e n a c t p i i s o n l e k /
t r e e two S - f o r - t r e e s t i c k e t two sh e e t ; :
‘ two t r e e s ' ' tw o t i c k e t s '
Noun s p e c i f i e r s a l s o o c c u r w i t h o u t a noun h e a d when t h e
a n t e c e d e n t o f t h e s p e c i f i e r h a s b een m e n t io n e d , o r i s o b v io u s
f ro m t h e c o n t e x t .
Exam ples* w i t h t h e s p e c i f i e r / n e o q / ' o r d i n a r y p e r s o n ' ;
/n e s q - n u h / ( p e r s o n t h a t ) ' t h a t r p e r s o n * . :
/ p i i n e e q n u h / (two p e r s o n t h a t ) ' t h o s e two p e r s o n s '
/ n e e q thum n u h / ( p e r s o n t a l l t h a t ) ' t h a t t a l l p e r s o n '
ij.,2211 Q u a l i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r s a r e s p e c i f i e r s w h ich h a v e , a
s p e c i a l s e m a n t ic r e l a t i o n s h i p w i th a g ro u p o f n o u n s . Most
q u a l i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r s o c c u r o n ly a s s p e c i f i e r s and d e f i n e
t h e c l a s s . The c l a s s i s s m a l l and c l o s e d , a l t h o u g h t h e
f o l l o w i n g l i s t may n o t be c o m p le te .
1 ) / n e s q / 'p e r s o n s o f o r d i n a r y e s t a t e '
2 ) / q o $ / ' p r i e s t s j Buddha im ages? h o l y p e r s o n s '
3 ) / p r e s h - q o x i / ' r o y a l p e r s o n s '
Lj.) / d a e m / ' l o n g s l e n d e r o b j e e t s j t r e e s '? c i g a r e t t e s '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1U-8
$ ) / tU 9 /
6 ) / k r o e p /
7) /dom/8 ) / s b n l e k /
9) / p l a e /
1 0 )/ c h a p /
1 1 ) / s o s a y /
1 2 ) / p h a e n /
1 3 ) / k b a a l /
l l+ J / r u u p / .
l £ ) / s n e t /
1 6 ) / p r o d a p /
1 7 ) / k r i 9X)/
• l e t t e r s o f t h e a l p h a b e t ; c h a r a c t e r s o f a p l a y 1
• s e e d s , g r a i n s , p e l l e t s *
• p i e c e s , lu m p s ’
’ t h i n s h e e t s ’
’ f r u i t s ’
• i n d i v i d u a l c o p i e s , l e t t e r s , n ev rsp ap e rS ’
' s i n e w s , t h r e a d s ’
• f l a t c a k e s ’
•vo lum es o f b o o k s ; l i v e s t o c k '
’ p i c t u r e s , im a g e s , s h a p e s ’
•h a n d s o f b a n a n a s ’
• i n s t r u m e n t s , t o o l s ’
•m o to r s , m a c h in e s ’
Q u a l i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r s f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r a s h e a d s o f
noun.' compounds. E x am p les :
/ n e o q - p r o h / / d a e m - c h e e /
p e r s o n - +■ m ale l o n g - s l e n d e r - o b j e c t *./wood
i man ’ t r e e ’
It*. 2212 Q u a n t i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r s a r e s p e c i f i e r s w h ich d i v i d e
t h e r e f e r e n t s o f nouns i n t o s p e c i f i c q u a n t i t i e s c r m anners o f
m a r k e t in g . Most members o f t h e c l a s s o c c u r a l s o as n o u n s .
The c l a s s i s as . ' l a r g e a s t h e number o f nou ns d e n o t i n g con~
t a i n e r s o r a g g lo m e r a t io n s i n t h e l a n g u a g e . E x am p les :
/s rev ? mu ay t a w / / b i y e o muoy do o p /
u n h u s k e d - r i c e - o n e b u s h e l beex* one b o t t l e
• a b u s h e l o f r i c e ’ ’ a b o t t l e o f b e e r ’
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ll{-9
/ t r e y musy k o n t u y /
f i s h one t a i l
' a s t r i n g o f f i s h '
14..2213 G e n e ra l s p e c i f i e r s a r e s p e c i f i e r s vriilch o c c u r a f t e r a
w ide r a n g e o f n o u n s . E xam pless
/m hoop p i i y a a J j / ( fo o d two k i n d s ) ’ two k in d s o f fo o d '
/ s b a e k - c o o j j muoy k u u / ( s h o e s one p a i r ) ’ a p a i r o f s h o e s ’
/ p t e o h p i i l m a a t / (h o u se two s i z e ) ' tw o s i z e s o f h o u s e s '
[{..222 V erb s p e c i f i e r s o c c u r i n t h e c o n t e x t #VX_#, and d i v i d e
t h e a c t i o n o f . t h e v e rb i n t o p h a s e s o r o c c u r r e n c e s .
Exam ples* / p o e t bey cum /
e n c i r c l e t h r e e c i r c u m a m b u la t io n s
' t o go a ro u n d t h r e e t i m e s '
/w a y b e y q o n lu u g /
h i t t h r e e s t r o k o s - o f - a - m a l l e t
' t o h i t t h r e e t im e s ( w i th a m a l l e t )
V erb s p e c i f i e r s d i f f e r from noun s p e c i f i e r s i n t h a t t h e y
n e v e r o c c u r i n c o n s t r u c t i o n w i th a noun h e a d , and from i n d e
p e n d e n t s p e c i f i e r s in t h a t t h e y n e v e r o c c u r i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f
a v e r b h e ad i n f i r s t r e f e r e n c e . Tho c l a 3s i s s m a l l and p r o b
a b ly c l o s e d , a l t h o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t may n o t be c o m p le te .
1 ) /d o o io / ' t i m e s , o c c a s i o n s '
2 ) / l o o k / ' a t t e m p t s , o c c a s i o n s '
3 ) / c u m / ' r e v o l u t i o n s '
[{.) / c o p / 'c o m p l e t i o n s '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
i5 o
5 ) / k a m b o t / ’ s l a s h e s , s t r o k e s ( o f a k n i f e ) '
6 ) / t r o l o p / ' r o t a t i o n s , o v e r - t u r n i n g s '
7 ) / q o n l u u g / ' s t r o k e s ( o f a hammer o r m a l l e t ) '
8 .) / m a t / ' u t t e r a n c e s , m o u th f u l s '
9 ) / t i k / ' r o u n d s , h e a t s ( o f a c o n t e s t ) '
1 0 ) /w u9io/ ' c i r c l e s , r e v o l u t i o n s '
1 1 ) / l b a a k / ' e x c u r s i o n s , d i s t a n c e s '
1 2 ) / l b o q / ' n a p s , p e r i o d s o f s l e e p '
I+.223 In d e p e n d e n t s p e c i f i B r s a r e s p e c i f i e r s w hich o c c u r i n
n u m e r ic a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e p a t t e r n #X__#, i n d e p e n d e n t ly
o f a noun o r v e r b head* Such s p e c i f i e r s a r e u n i t s o f t im e ,
money, o r d i s t a n c e .
Exam ples*
/ p i i tf lay t i o t f knom tow pnum -pih k.i /
t*?o day more I go Phnom-Penh
' I ' m g o in g t o Phnom Penh in txyo d a y s . '
/knom mean dop r i e l I . /
I hav e t e n r i e l
' I h a v e t e n r i e l s . '
/y o sQ d aa pram k i l o o - m a e t | , /
we w alk f i v e k i l o m e t e r
'We w a lk ed f i v e k i l o m e t e r s . '
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151
lj.,32 P ronouns
Pronouns a r e noun s u b s t i t u t e s w h ic h f u n c t i o n a s t o p i c s ,
s u b j e c t s , o b j e c t s , and a t t r i b u t e s , b u t w h ich do n o t o c c u r a s
h e a d s o f n u m e r ic a l p h r a s e s .
^ •2 3 1 P e r s o n a l p ro n o u n s a r e noun s u b s t i t u t e s whose r e f e r e n t s
a r e p e r s o n s B P e r s o n a l p ro n o u n s a r e n o n - s p e c i f i c a s t o g e n d e r
and num ber, a l t h o u g h p l u r a l i t y can be s p e c i f i e d by a d d in g one
- o f t h e p a r t i t i v e p ro n o u n s (14-.23I+), s u c h a s / t e o ^ - q o h / ’ a l l * ,
t o t h e p e r s o n a l p ro n o u n . P e r s o n a l p ro n o u n s form r e f l e x i v e
p ro n o u n compounds w i th t h e r e f l e x i v e p ro n o u n / q a e g / ’ o n e s e l f ’ .m ___*1 ̂* /•»_*?_____ ^ / t t ’_i a i ....... .................J W L t u u p A t j ; / j s j j u i u - q u t y j y / • j l •
A lth o u g h t h e c l a s s o f p e r s o n a l p ro n o u n s p e r s e I s q u i t e
• l i m i t e d , i t i s su p p le m e n te d b y t h e u s e o f t i t l e s , k i n s h i p
t e r m s , and names i n p ro n o m in a l f u n c t i o n . The form s / n e s q /
and / l o o k / o c c u r a l s o as t i t l e s , b u t t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e i r
u s e a s common 2n d - p e r s o n p ro n o u n s seems t o j u s t i f y t h e i r i n
c l u s i o n i n t h e i n v e n t o r y o f p e r s o n a l p ro n o u n s a s w e l l .
1 s t - and 2n d - p e r s o n p ro n o u n s a r e c o n t e x t - o r i e n t e d , so
t h a t t h e c h o ic e o f a p ro noun h a s many s e m a n t ic i m p l i c a t i o n s .
The f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n s a r e o n ly a p p ro x im a te . When a l l o -
l e x e s o c c u r t h e y a r e l i s t e d i n d e s c e n d in g o r d e r o f f o r m a l i t y .t
I*.2311 1 s t - p e r s o n p ro n o u n s
1 . /k n o m / ( g e n e r a l , p o l i t e )
2 . / q a n / (be tw een i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s , s u p e r i o r t o i n f e r i o r , o r
a d u l t t o c h i l d ; o th e r iy i s e I n s u l t i n g )
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3* /y9©^)/ ( s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l e x c l u s i v e when u s e d by s u p e r i o r
t o i n f e r i o r t p l u r a l i n c l u s i v e when u s e d among i n t i m a t e s )
1+• /yoejQ-knom / ( s u b s e r v i e n t , i n f e r i o r t o s u p e r i o r )
/ q a e y / (b e tw e en i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s , c o n t r a s t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n )
6 e / k n e s / ( i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s , s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l i n c l u s i v e )
7 . / k n o m - p r e e h - b a a t / ^I ( i n f e r i o r t o s u p e r i o r , r e s p e c t f u l o r
/ k n o m - p r e b a a t / /I e x t r e m e ly f o r m a l )
/ k n o m - b a a t / J
8 . / k n o m - p r e o h - k a q r u n a a / 1I ( laym an t o p r i e s t , i n f e r i o r t o
/ k n o m - k a q r u n a a / r1 s u p e r i o r o f e x a l t e d r a n k )
/k n o m - k e n a a / J
9 . / q a a tm a a - p h e o p / 1) ( p r i e s t t o lay m an )
/ q a a t m a a / *»
I4..2312 2n d - p e r s o n p ro n o u n s
1 . / l o o k / ( f o r m a l , p o l i t e , i n f e r i o r t o s u p e r i o r )
2 . / n e e q / (b e tw een e q u a l s , o r s u p e r i o r t o i n f e r i o r )
3 . / q a e $ / (b e tw een i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s , o r s u p e r i o r t o i n f e r i o r )
1| . / k l u o n / (b e tw een i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s , r e f l e x i v e c o n n o t a t i o n )
5 . / q a a - q s e q / ( d e r o g a t o r y , g o o d - n a t u r e d i n s u l t be tw een f r i e n d s ,
a d u l t t o c h i l d )
6 , / p r e e h - d a c p r e e h - k u n / ( i n f e r i o r t o s u p e r i o r o f e x a l t e d
/ p r e e h - d a c c e e h - k u n / r a n k , o r t o v e n e r a b l e p r i e s t )
U-.2313 3r d - p e r s o n p ro n o u n s a r e c o n t e x t - o r i e n t e d o n ly i f t h e
r e f e r e n t i s p r e s e n t . O th e rw is e t h e c h o ic e o f p ronoun depends
on t h e a b s o l u t e s t a t u s o f t h e r e f e r e n t o u t s i d e t h e f a c e - t o - f a c e
c o n t e x t .
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153
1 , / k o o t / ( r e s p e c t f u l , y o u n g e r o f e l d e r , i n f e r i o r o f s u p e r i o r )
2 , / k e e / ( i n f o r m a l , o t h e r , e x c l u s i v e )
/ k e e / a l s o o c c u r s a s an i n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n s
/ k e e thaa 'J ' l q o o n a h l , /
/ t h e y s a y b e a u t i f u l v e r y
‘ They s a y [ i t ' s ] v e r y b e a u t i f u l . 1
3 , /w e© / ( s u p e r i o r o f i n f e r i o r , a d u l t o f c h i l d j o th e r w i s e
i n s u l t i n g )
/w e© / a l s o o c c u r s a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r n o n - p e r s o n a l
n o u n s , e ' . g . s / c k a e n u h t we© k c i l n a h l . /
dog t h a t i t l a z y v e r y
'T h a t d o g , i t ' s v e r y l a z y . 1
A f u r t h e r u s e o f /w e© / i s as an e x p l e t i v e p ro n o u n :
/ r a a e t we© kdaw n a h l . /
i n t e r j e c t l o n - o f - a n n o y a n c e i t b e - h o t v e r y
'S a y , i t ' s r e a l l y h o t l '
lj.,232 I n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n s a r e p ro n o u n s whose r e f e r e n t s a r e
i n d e f i n i t e . They t y p i c a l l y o c c u r as o b j e c t s i n b o th
a f f i r m a t i v e and n e g a t i v e c l a u s e s . The f o l l o w i n g exam ples
i n v o lv e t h e i n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n / q w e y / 's o m e t h in g , a n y t h i n g ' .
A f f i r m a t i v e : /knom t i n qway ha© yf t r o l o p tow p t e o h l . /i •I buy so m e th in g p e r f e c t i v e r e t u r n go h o u se
'A f t e r I buy s o m e th in g , [ I 'm ] g o in g b a ck hom e. '
N e g a t iv e s /knom min t i n qw©y te e * ! ' , /
I n e g a t i v e buy a n y th i n g e m p h a t i c - p a r t i c l e
' I d i d n ' t buy a n y t h i n g . ' '
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151*.
The c l a s s h a s f o u r m em bers, t h e f i r s t member h a v in g t h r e e
R e d u p l i c a t e d i n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n s o c c u r i n a f f i r m a t i v e
u t t e r a n c e s w i th a c o n n o ta t i o n o f v a r i e t y o r g e n e r a l i t y .
Exam ple; /da© tow m se l qw©y-qw©y h a s y t t r o l o p tow so n th aake© 4 '. /
w a lk go s e e v a r i o u s - t h i n g s a l r e a d y , r e t u r n go h o t e l
'When [ I h a d ] w a lk ed a ro u n d t o s e e v a r i o u s t h i n g s ,
[ I ] w ent b ack t o t h e h o t e l . 1
I n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n s a r e n o n - s p e c i f i c as t o num ber, b u t
s i n g u l a r num ber can be s p e c i f i e d by a d d in g t h e n u m e ra l /m u© y/
'o n e ' t o t h e i n d e f i n i t e p rono uns
Exam ple; /ba© lo o k coq t i n qwoy-m uoyf qo nceen tow I . /
i f you w ant buy s o m e th in g -o n e , i n v i t e f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
' I f you w ant t o buy some (o n e ) t h i n g , go a h e a d . '
P l u r a l i t y may a l s o be s p e c i f i e d by a d d in g t h e p a r t i t i v e
p ro n o u n / k l a h / 's o m e ' t o t h e i n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n .
Exam ple:
/knom t i n q w e y -k la h h a o y f k i t tow nam b a a y { . /
I buy s o m e th i n g - p l u r a l a l r e a d y , p l a n go e a t r i c e
' [ A f t e r ] I buy some t h i n g s , I p l a n t o go e a t . ’
I n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n s a l s o o c c u r w i th a d j e c t i v a l f u n c t i o n
a f t e r n o u n s .
a l lo m o r p h s :
1 ) /qw ey - sq e y - q o y /
2 ) / n e © q - n a a /
3 ) / n a a /
Ip) / q a a n a a ~ q a n a a /
's o m e th in g , , a n y th i n g '
' som eone, a n y o n e '
'so m ew h ere , an yw h ere '
'w h ic h e v e r o n e , any o n e '
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155
E xam ple : / l o o k lo it t i n po e qwey koo b a a n h /
you t h in k , buy c o l o r w h a te v e r t h e n a b l e
‘You can buy w h a te v e r c o l o r you l i k e . 1
1+.233 I n t e r r o g a t i v e p ro n o u n s
The c l a s s o f i n t e r r o g a t i v e p ro n o u n s h a s t h e same member
s h i p a s t h e c l a s s o f i n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n s , (ty..2 3 2 ) , b u t i n t e r
r o g a t i v e p ro n o u n s may o c c u r i n u t t e r a n c e - f i n a l p o s i t i o n ,
w h i l e i n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n s do n o t . As i n t e r r o g a t i v e p ro n o u n s ,
t h e fo rm s h a v e t h e f o l l o w in g m e a n in g s :
1 ) /q w o y / ’ w h a t? ’
2 ) / n o o b - n a a / ‘w ho?’
3 ) / n a a / ‘ w h e re ? 1
U-) / q a a n a a / 'w h ic h o n 8? ‘
E x am p le s : / l o o k coq t i n qwoyt , /
you w an t buy what
'W h a t 'd o you w ant t o b u y ? ’
/ l o o k maok r o e k n e e q - n a a f . /
you come s e e k who
’ Whom d i d you come t o s e e ? '
/ l o o k tow n a a f . /
you go w here
'W here a r e you g o in g ? '
/ l o o k cog t i n q a a n a a f . /
you want buy w h ic h -o n e
'W hich one do you w ant t o b uy ? 1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
l£6
A l l o f t h e above e x c e p t / n a a / a l s o s u b s t i t u t e f o r noun
s u b j e c t s , e . g . *
/ n e e q - n a a m a o k f , /
who.come
‘ W ho's com ing? 1
I n t e r r o g a t i v e p ro n o u n s a l s o o c c u r w i th a d j e c t i v a l fun$*~
tlon a f t e r n o u n s , e . g . *
/ l o o k so m ra c -co .t n^tf t&n p o e q w o y f . /
you s e t t l e - h e a r t f u t u r e buy c o l o r what
•What c o l o r d i d you d e c id e t o b u y ? '
ij.. 2.34 F a r t i t l v e p ro n o u n s a r e s u b s t i t u t e s whose r e f e r e n t s a r e
am ounts o r q u a n t i t i e s . They d i f f e r f ro m i n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n s
■in t h a t t h e y a r e s p e c i f i c a s t o num ber, and do n o t o c c u r as
i n t e r r o g a t i v e p ro n o u n s . P a r t i t i v e p ro n o u n s t y p i c a l l y o c c u r
as s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t s i n a f f i r m a t i v e u t t e r a n c e s .
Exam ples /knom y o e k to S Q -q o h 'J ' . /
I t a k e a l l
‘ I ' l l t a k e a l l [ o f th em ].*
The c l a s s i n c l u d e s a t l e a s t t h e f o l l o w i n g members*
1 ) / t e e g - q o h / ‘ a l l *
2 ) / t e e y - q o h - k n e e / ' e n t i r e g r o u p '
3 ) / k l a h / 'so m e '
I4.) / b o n t o c / ' a l i t t l e '
5 ) / c r a s n / 'm uch, many'
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157
^■•235 R e l a t i v e p ro n o u n s a r e p ro n o u n s w h ich o c c u r a s h e a d s
o f a t t r i b u t i v e p h r a s e s w h ich t h e n f i l l t h e t y p i c a l s u b s t a n t i v e
p o s i t i o n s o f t o p i c , s u b j e c t , an d o b j e c t . The f o l l o w i n g
examples-, i n v o lv e t h e r e l a t i v e p ro noun / d a e l / ’ t h a t w h ic h ,
t h o s e w h ic h 1.
As t o p i c : . / d a e l l q o o t knom lu o q qoh h a e y j . /
t h o s e - w h ic h p r e t t y I s e l l c o m p le t e ly a l r e a d y
’ I ’ve a l r e a d y s o l d a l l t h e p r e t t y o n e s , ’
As s u b j e c t : / d a e l lq o o t l a y n a h l , /
t h o s e - w h ic h p r e t t y b e - e x p e n s i v e v e r y
’The p r e t t y o n es a r e v e r y e x p e n s i v e . 1
As o b j e c t s /knom cog t i n d a e l l q o o i ' . /
I w ant buy th a t -x y h ic h p r e t t y
’ I want t o buy a p r e t t y o n e . 1
The c l a s s h a s o n ly two members*
1 , / d a e l / ’ t h a t , t h a t w h ic h , t h o s e w h ic h '
2 . / d o n / ' t h a t , t h a t w h ic h , t h o s e w h ich ( c o l l o q u i a l ) '
ip.2lp Q u a n t i f i e r s
Q u a n t i f i e r s a r e d e f i n e d b y theii> o c c u r r e n c e in t h e
c o n t e x t #N J3# . Q u a n t i f i e r s a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s n u m e r ic a l
and n o n - n u m e r i c a l .
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158
i | , 2 l4-l N u m e ric a l q u a n t i f i e r s
N u m e ric a l q u a n t i f i e r s (o r s im p ly n u m e r a l s ) a r e q u a n t i -
f i e r s whose r e f e r e n t s a r e nu m bers . Cambodian h a s tw e lv e
s im p le n u m e ra l le x e m e s , as f o l lo w s ;
1 ) /m u o y / ' o ne ' 7 ) / r o o y / 'h u n d re d *
2) / p i i / 1 tw o ' 8 ) / p o o n / ' t h o u s a n d '
3) / h a y / ' t h r e e « 9 ) /m o o n / ' t e n - t h o u s a n d '
k) / b u o n / ' f o u r 1 1 0 ) / s a e n / ' h u n d r e d - th o u s a n d '
$) / p r a m / ' f i v e ' 1 1 ) / l e e n / ' m i l l i o n '
6 ) / d o p / ' 1 t e n 1 1 2 ) / k a o t / ' t e n - m i l l i o n '
The f o l lo w in g n u m e ra ls a r e com plex le x e m e s :
1 3 ) /m oph4y / ;1 1 tw e n ty '
l l | ) / s a a m - s o p / ' t h i r t y '
1 5 ) / s a e - s e p / ' f o r t y '
1 6 ) / h a a - s o p / ' f i f t y '
1 7 ) / f r o k - s o p / ' s i x t y '
1 8 ) / c o t - s o p / ' s e v e n t y '
1 9 ) / p a e t - s o p / ' e i g h t y '
2 0 ) / k a w - s o p / ' n i n e t y '
1 . The lexem e /m o p M y / ' t w e n t y 1 som etim es o c c u r s in t h e fo rm /m u o y - p h ly / , p o s s i b l y by a n a lo g y w i th t h e c l a s s o f m u l t i p l i c an d s ( so e b e lo w ) , b u t i t . i s n e v e r m u l t i p l i e d by any n u m era l o t h e r t h a n 'o n e * , /m o p h iy / may bo a r e s i d u a l fo rm o f an o ld sy s te m o f m u l t i p l i c a n d s w hich i n c l u d e d th e p a r t i t i v e s p e c i f i e r s /d o m b o o / ' a f o u r s o m e ' , / p l o o n / f a f o r t y - l o t ’ , and / s l o k / ' a Ij-OO-lot' w h ich a r e now l i m i t e d t o s p e c i f y i n g l o t s o f f r u i t s o r v e g e t a b l e s .2 . E xam ples l lp -20 above a r e composed o f th e bound morphemes 13—9* and t h e bound m u l t i p l i c a n d / - s o p / ' t e n ' . T hese form s a r e a p p a r e n t l y bo rrow ed i n t o t o from T h a i , b u t t h e y a r e p ro v en t o be com plex by t h e o b s e rv e d form / h a a - r i i h o k - s o p / ' f i f t y o r s i x t y ' .
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159
A l l o t h e r num bers a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by s e q u e n c e s o f t h e
above n u m e ra ls , in . e i t h e r a d d i t i v e o r m u l t i p l i c a t i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n . The b a s i c p a t t e r n i n su ch c o n s t r u c t i o n s
i s a s f o l l o w s :
Any n u m e ra l i s . i n a d d i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a f o l lo w in g
s m a l l e r n u m e ra l .
Any n u m e ra l i s i n m u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i th a
f o l lo w in g l a r g e r n u m e ra l .
The f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i v e n p in e ra l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o c c u r w i t h s t r e s s
and j u n c t u r e p a t t e r n s t y p i c a l o f compounds, and a r e th u s
a n a ly z e d a s n u m e r ic a l compounds:
2 1 ) /p ram m uoy / * s i x ’
2 2 ) / p r a m p i i « p r a m p l l / 1 s e v e n ’
•23) / p r a m b e y / 1 e i g h t ’
21+) /p r a m b u e n / 1 n i n e ’
25 ) /d o p - m u e y / ~ /mu ey -d o n d o p / ’*' 1 e l e v e n ’
2 6 ) / d o p - p i i / « / p i i - d o n d o p / 1 t w e l v e ’
27) /dop-pram m uey - p raram uey-dondop / ’ s i x t e e n ’
2 8 ) / d o p - p r a m p i l ~ p r a m p i l - d o n d o p / ’ s e v e n t e e n ’
29) /m o p h ly -rau o y / ’ tw e n ty -o n e
30) /saam -s© p -p ram m u ey / 1 t h i r t y - s i x
In exam ples 22 and 2 5 -2 8 a b o v e , t h e s e c o n d fo rm i s t h e
m ore c o l l o q u i a l .
1'. T he ' a l t e r n a t i v e fo rm s f o r " t h e n u m e ra ls 1 1 -1 9 (exam ples 25 2 8 ) , xdiich a r e fo rm ed w i th a d e r i v a t i v e o f / d o p / ’ t o n ’ , may be t h e o r i g i n a l form s o f t h e n u m e ra ls 1 0 -9 0 w h ich w ere r e p l a c e d by t h e T h a i fo rm s , s i n c e t h e y a r e t h e o n ly a d d i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n w hich a s m a l l e r n u m era l p r e c e d e s a l a r g e r .
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160
A l l o t h e r num bers a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by s e q u e n c e s o f t h e
above lex e m e s i n s y n t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n . ^ E xam ples 7 -1 2
above o c c u r a s m u l t i p l i c a n d s i n m u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n
a f t e r t h e n u m e ra ls ‘ o n e ’ t o ‘n i n e * , e . g . :
3 1 ) /p r a m r o s y / - (5 x 1 0 0 ) ' f i v e h u n d r e d '
3 2 ) /p ra m b e y p o a n / (8 x 1 , 0 0 0 ) ' e i g h t t h o u s a n d ’ , e t c .
VJhen. t h e m u l t i p l i e r i s /m u a y / ’ o n e ’ , i t u s u a l l y o c c u r s a s
t h e bound m u l t i p l i c a t i v e a l lo ra o rp h / m e - / ( s e e 3 . 3 1 2 2 ) , e . g . :
/ m a r o o y / 'o n e h u n d r e d ’
/m a p 5 o n / 'o n e t h o u s a n d ’ , e t c .
N um eral lex e m e s i n a d d i t i v e , c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e t y p i c a l l y
f o l lo w e d by r i s i n g p h r a s e c o n to u r / f / , e . g . :
. / p i i s a e n t pram maanf buon p o a n t b ay r o a y t h a a - s a p - p r a m ! . /
2 0 0 ,0 0 0 + 5 0 , 0 0 0 + I; , 000 + 300 + 55
/ 2 5 ^ 3 5 5 ’
The lexem e / s o o n / i s a noun m eaning ' z e r o ' , n o t a
n u m e r a l , s i n c e i t does n o t o c c u r b e f o r e s p e c i f i e r s . I t i s
u s e d , h o w e v e r , i n r e a d i n g n u m b ers , s u c h a s a l o t t e r y t i c k e t
num ber:
/p ra m m u a y t b u a n t s o o n t s o o n t pram l1 m u a y i . /
’ S i x , f o u r , z e r o , z e r o , . . f i v e , o n e . '
1 . They a r e t h u s d e a l t w i th on t h e l e v e l o f s y n ta x ( s e e 5 A N u m e r ic a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s ) . T hese c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e a l s o ' i l l u s t r a t e d h e r o , hox-rover, i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e an o v e r a l l v iew o f t h e n u m e r i c a l s y s t e m . .
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161
l+.2l|2 Non- n u m e r i c a l Q u a n t i f i e r s o c c u r i n t h s c o n t e x t #NJS#,'
a s do n u m e r a l s , b u t a r e i n d e f i n i t e o r p a r t i t i v e i n num ber.
The c l a s s i s s m a l l and c l o s e d .
1 ) /p o n m a a n / ‘how many, so m any’
2 ) / c r a e n / ‘m any’
3 ) / k o n l a h / ‘h a l f ’
U-) / p l a a y / ’ a f r a c t i o n ’
5 ) / n e e - n e e / ‘ v a r i o u s ’
Exam ples*
/ l o o k mean bo og -pq oon ponmaan n e e q f . /
you h av e o l d e r - a n d - y o u n g e r - s i b l i n g s how-many p e r s o n
•How many b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s do you h a v e ? ’
/knom mean b o o ^ -p q o o n c r a e n n e o q K /
I h a v e o l d e r - a n d - y o u n g e r - s i b l i n g s many p e r s o n
’ I h a v e many b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s . ’
/ t i i ~ n u h m*n mean ponmaan neeq t e e t . /
t h e r e n o t h a v e so -m any p e r s o n n e g a t i v e - f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
’ T h e re w e r e n ' t so many p e o p le t h e r e . ’
/p o n m a a n / . .a n d / c r a e n / s h a r e w i t h t h e n u m e ra ls ‘ o n e ’ t o ’ n i n e '
t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o c c u r r i n g i n t h e m u l t i p l i e r p o s i t i o n b e f o r e
m u l t i p l i c a n d s (I+.2I+1, exam ples 7 - 3 2 } .^
When / k o n l a h / ‘h a l f o c c u r s b e f o r e a s p e c i f i e r i t h a s th o
m ean ing ’h a l f a ’ , e . g .*
1 . See 5.1+2.
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162
/ b a r o y k o n la h k onco 'p /
c i g a r e t t e h a l f p a c k a g e
• h a l f a p a c k o f c i g a r e t t e s ’
When i t o c c u r s a f t e r a s p e c i f i e r , i t h a s t h e a d d i t i v e mean
i n g 'a n d a h a l f ’ , e . g . :
/ b a r o y muey koncop k o n l a h /
c i g a r e t t e one pack ag e h a l f
’ a p a c k and a h a l f o f c i g a r e t t e s '
The n um era l / p l a a y / 'a n d a f r a c t i o n , and some' o c c u r s o n ly i n
a d d i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n a f t e r b o th n u m e ra ls and s p e c i f i e r s , e . g . *
/knom meen dop p l a a y r i o l ! . /
I h a v e t e n and-som e r i e l s
' I h a v e a l i t t l e o v e r t e n r i e l s . '
B u t : /knom meon pram r i o l p l a a y ! . /
I h ave f i v e r i e l a n d - a - f r a c t i o n
',1 h av e f i v e and a f r a c t i o n r i e l s . '
The s p e c i f i e r / c o m h i o ^ / ' h a l f an o b j e c t ' a l s o o c c u r s i n a d d
i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n a f t e r o t h e r s p e c i f i e r s , b u t i t i s n o t a
n u m e ra l , s i n c e i t n e v e r p r e c e d e s s p e c i f i e r s .
/ p r a q p i i r i o l com hi© $/
money two r i o l h a l f
' tw o - a n d ~ a - h a l f r i e l s ’
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 6 3
D e m o n s t r a t iv e s
D e m o n s t r a t iv e s a r e d e f i n e d by t h e i r a b s o l u t e f i n a l
p o s i t i o n i n any s u b s t a n t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n . The c l a s s h a s o n ly
two m em bers, e ach w i t h s e v e r a l a l lo m o rp h s .
1 ) / n i h ~ n e h ~ n s io / ’ t h i s / t h e s e ( i n s i g h t ) , t h e r e f e r r e d
t o ’
2 ) / n u h ~ n o h ~ n o q - n o ^ / ’ t h a t / t h o s e ( i n s i g h t , b u t d i s t a n t ,
o r o u t o f s i g h t ) , t h e r e f e r r e d t o ’
D e m o n s t r a t iv e s o c c u r i n a l l t h e t y p i c a l s u b s t a n t i v e p o s i t i o n s s
As t o p i c j / n i h q w s y t , /
t h i s w hat
’ What i s t h i s ? ’
As s u b j e c t ; / n i h maok p i i n a a f . /
t h i s come from whore
’ Where d id t h i s come f r o m ? 1
As o b j e c t ; / c u o y y o sk n i h tow c a o l l . /
h e l p t a k e t h i s go th ro w -aw ay
’ P le a s e t a k e t h i s [ a n d ] th ro w [ i t ] a w a y . '
As a t t r i b u t e ; / k o o n - s o h p i i neoq n i h c l a a t n a h i . /
s t u d e n t two p e r s o n t h i s c l e v e r v e r y
’ T h ese two s t u d e n t s a r e v e r y c l e v e r . 1
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161}.
lj.,3 P r e d i c a t i v e s
A p r e d i c a t i v e i s any lexem e w h ich may o c c u r i n t h e fram e
/m&n ___ t e e . / , w here / m i n / i s a n e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r y (I}.,51+)
and / t e e / i s a n e g a t i v e f i n a l s e n t e n c e p a r t i c l e ( I + . 8 1 ) . I n .
o t h e r words* a p r e d i c a t i v e i s any lex em e w h ich may be n e g a t e d .
A p r e d i c a t i v e may o c c u r a s t h e s o l e le x e m ic c o n s t i t u e n t
o f a p r e d i c a t i o n . A p r e d i c a t i o n i s any v e r b o r v e rb p h r a s e ,
w i t h o r w i t h o u t a s u b j e c t o r t o p i c , w hich can o c c u r a s an "V
i s o l a t e d u t t e r a n c e . A p r e d i c a t e i s any v e r b o r v e r b p h r a s e
i n an y o c c u r r e n c e a s t h e com plem ent o f a s u b j e c t o r t o p i c .
P r e d i c a t i v e s a l s o f i l l t y p i c a l s u b s t a n t i v e p o s i t i o n s a s t o p i c s ,
s u b j e c t s , o r o b j e c t s . Any lexem e w h ich f u n c t i o n s b o t h a s a
s u b s t a n t i v e an d a p r e d i c a t i v e i s a p r e d i c a t i v e ; any lexem e
w h ich o c c u r s o n l y a s a s u b s t a n t i v e i s a s u b s t a n t i v e .
1+.31 A d j e c t i v a l v e r b s
An a d j e c t i v a l v e r b i s any p r e d i c a t i v e w h ich may p r e c e d e
t h e i n t e n s i f y i n g a d j e c t i v e / n a h / ‘ v e r y ’ . A d j e c t i v a l v e rb s
n e v e r o c c u r i n c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t . B e s id e s
o c c u r r i n g a s p r e d i c a t i v e s , a d j e c t i v a l v e rb s a l s o o c c u r as
a t t r i b u t e s i n a t t r i b u t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i th b o th noun and
v e r b h e a d s .
As p r e d i c a t e ; / s r e y nuh l q o o l . /
g i r l t h a t - p r e t t y
‘ T h a t g i r l i s p r e t t y . 1
As noun a t t r i b u t e s / s r e y Iqo o n u h f m i t k n o m ! . /
g i r l p r e t t y t h a t , f r i e n d my
•T h a t p r e t t y g i r l [ i s ] my f r i e n d . ’
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16$
As v e r b a t t r i b u t e : / s r e y nuh s o s e e I q o o ' h /
g i r l t h a t w r i t e p r e t t y
• T h a t g i r l w r i t e s p r e t t i l y . 1
Ip. 32 A c t iv e v e r b s
A c t iv e v e r b s a r e p r e d i c a t i v e s w h ic h do n o t p re c o d e t h e
i n t e n s i f y i n g a d j e c t i v e / n a h / ’v .ery* . A c t iv e v e r b s may be
p r e c e d e d by m odal v e r b s iCIp.33)» w h i l e a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s may
n o t .
Ip.321 T r a n s i t i v e v e rb s
A t r a n s i t i v e v e r b i s any a c t i v e v e r b w hich may o c c u r i n
A yv %A /“« 4>Vkt1 A * AVV « 4- a. 1% A 4* AV%4* 4 «f A a K 4 A A 4* l"P VI A Vt A 4 4“ 4 *t A A V> V\ nu u i i o i / r u v u x ^ n vw j_ u x x a u u j o v > u e v Uw?
a l s o o c c u r w i th i n t r a n s i t i v e and a d j e c t i v a l f u n c t i o n . E xam ples:
T r a n s i t i v e : /knom baelc t w e e j ' , /
I open d oo r
I I o p e n /o p e n e d t h e d o o r . '
I n t r a n s i t i v e : / tw e e kompuQ b a e k ' k /
d o o r i n - p r o c e s s - o f open
'T h e d o o r i s o p e n i n g . '
A d j e c t i v a l : / tw e e b a s k h a e y K /
d o o r open p e r f e c t i v e - p a r t i c l e
•The d o o r i s o p e n . '
C e r t a i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b compounds t y p i c a l l y o c c u r as
s o l e le x e m ic c o n s t i t u e n t s o f u t t e r a n c e s , e . g . :
/ c u m r e e p / ' t o in f o r m ' + / s u e / ' t o a s k '
> / c u m r o o p - s u o / ' g r e e t i n g s '
/ s u e / ' t o a s k ' + / s d e y / ' t o s a y ' > / s u e - s d e y / 'h e l l o *
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166
/ s o o m / ' t o b e g 1 + / t o o h / ' p u n is h m e n t '
. > / s o o m - t o o h / 'p a r d o n '
S uch v e r b s , ho w ev er , do o c c u r w i t h s u b j e c t s and o b j e c t s , e . g . ?
/k o o n t re t* so o m -too h k r u u i ' . /
c h i l d m ust beg i-pardon t e a c h e r
•You ( c h i l d ) m ust beg t h e t e a c h e r i s p a r d o n . 1
^ •3 2 2 I n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s
An i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b i s any a c t i v e v e r b w hich n e v e r
p r e c e d e s a s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t . Such v e r b s d e s c r i b e s e l f -
m o t i v a t e d a c t i o n .
Exam ples* / d e s k / ! l i© down'
/ t l e e q / ' f a l l '
/ b a o k / ' b r e a k '
Many i n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s s e r v e a s b a s e s f o r t r a n s i t i v e v e rb
d e r i v a t i v e s w h ich o c c u r w i th o b j e c t s . F o l lo w in g a r e t h e
t r a n s i t i v e d e r i v a t i v e s o f t h e t h r e e i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s c i t e d
a b o v e : / p d e e k / ' t o l a y . ( so m e th in g o r som eone) down1
/ t u m l e a q / ' t o d ro p ( s o m e th in g ) '
/b o m b a e k / ' t o b r e a k ( s o m e th in g '
ip* 33 Modal v e r b s -
A modal v e rb i s any p r e d i c a t i v e w h ich o c c u r s i n c o n
s t r u c t i o n w i t h , and in some \my q u a l i f i e s o r l i m i t s , a fo l lo v r -
in g a c t i v e v e r b . . >
E xam ples : /knom c eh n i y e e y p h e e s a a con I - . /
I know -how -to sp e a k la n g u a g e C h in e se
' I know how t o sp e a k C h i n e s e . '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
/ k o e t t r a w tow p t e e h i . /
ho m ust go h o u se
’ He h a s t o go h o m e .’
Modal v e r b s a lw ay s f o l l o w a u x i l i a r i e s ( l | . .6 ) , i n c l u d i n g t h e
n e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r y / m i n / w h ich ' d e f i n e s t h e c l a s s o f p r e d i c a t
i v e s . E xam p le*
/knom m in t r e w tow t e e i| ' . /
I n e g . m ust go n e g a t i v e - f i n a l - p a r t i c l ©
’ I d o n ’ t h a v e t o g o . '
A l th o u g h some m odal v e r b s a l s o o c c u r a s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s
w h ic h t a k e s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t s , an o b j e c t n e v e r I n t e r v e n e s
be tw een a m odal v e r b and t h e v e r b i t m o d i f i e s .
Exam pleJ /k o o n c u e y tw e e - k a a m d a a y i ' . /
c h i l d h e l p work m o th e r
’ The c h i l d h e l p s [ h i s ] m o th e r w o r k . ’
I f a s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t i n t e r v e n e s , t h e f i r s t v e r b i s a
t r a n s i t i v e v e r b , n o t a m odal v e r b , as i n t h e f o l l o w i n g example*
/k o o n tow p s a a t i n t r e y * ! ' . /
c h i l d go m a rk e t buy f i s h
’ The c h i l d i s g o in g t o t h e m a rk e t t o buy f i s h . ’
S e v e r a l m odal v e r b s may o c c u r i n a s e q u e n c e , e a c h on© q u a l i
f y i n g t h e s u c c e e d in g m odal v e r b . A se q u e n c e o f t h r e e 1 h a s b een
observed*.
/knom min d a a l baan r l s n n i y e e y p h e e s a a c e n K /
I n e g . h a v e - o v e r g e t - t o l e a r n - t o s p e a k la n g u a g e C h in e se
’ I ’ ve n e v e r h a d th e c h a n c e t o l e a r n t o sp e a k C h i n e s e . ’
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 6 8
The p o s i t i o n a l s u b - c l a s s e s o f m odal v e r b s h a v e n o t y e t been
f u l l y a n a l y z e d . F o r t h e p r e s e n t , t h e f o l l o w i n g two s u b
c l a s s e s a r e s e t up* 1 ) s p e c i f i c m odal v e r b s , w h ic h o c c u r
b n l y l a s m odal;.:verbs', and w h ich d e f i n e t h e c l a s s , and
2 ) g e n e r a l m odal v e r b s , w h ic h f o l l o w s p e c i f i c m odal v e r b s ,
a n d w h ich o c c u r b o t h a s m odal v e rb s and a s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s .
The c l a s s e s a r e s m a l l and c l o s e d , a l t h o u g h t h e f o l l o w in g l i s t s
may n o t b e c o m p le te .
14..331 S p e c i f i c m odal v e r b s
1 ) / p r o o m / ' t o a g re e t o 1
2 ) / t a 013/ ' t o be a cc u s to m e d t o * :
3 ) . / k r o o n / ' t o be enough t o '
l\.) / c o g / ' t o w is h t o '
5>) / t l o a p / 'u s e d t o , t o hav e e v e r '
6 ) / h e p n / ' t o d a re to*
7) / p r o n a p / ' t o h u r r y t o '
8 ) / q a a c / ' t o be l i k e l y t o '
9 ) / k u © / 'o u g h t t o '
10 ) / r o w u © l / • t o be b u sy a t '
1 1 ) /k h o m / ' t o s t r i v e t o ’
1 2 ) / d a e l / ' t o h a v e e v e r '
I4. . 3I12 G e n e r a l m odal v e r b s
1 ) / c e l l / ' t o know how t o '
2 ) / r i e p / ' t o p r e p a r e t o '
3 ) / t r o w / ' t o h a v e t o ’
Ij.) / n o w / ' s t i l l t o '
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169
5) / c o o l - c s t / ' t o l i k e t o ' ;
6 ) / t r e w - k a a / ' t o n e e d t o '
7) / c a p / ' t o b e g in t o '
8 ) /p d a e m / ' ' t o b e g in t o '
9 ) /c a p -p d a © m / 1 t o b e g in t o '
l O j / l a e g / ' t o q u it*
l l ) / c h u p / ' t o s t o p '
1 2 ) / t o t u e l / ' t o t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r*
1 3 ) / c u © y / ' t o h e lp t o '
l l | ) / k h o o q / ' t o f a i l to*
' t o p l a n t o '
1 6 ) / l o © / ' t o t r y t o '
1 7 ) / s o m / ' t o a s k t o '
1 8 ) / b a a n / ' t o have been a b l e t o , t o g e t t o
1 9 ) /m e e n / ' t o have t o '
2 0 ) / q a a n e t / 1 t o be good enough t o '
2 1 ) / k h a a n / ' t o m is s , f a i l t o '
22 J / p r s t o / 1 t o be d e te r m in e d t o '
2 3 ) /m * n - b a c / ‘*' ' n o t n e c e s s a r y t o '
2 l} .) /cam -bac/^ 'n e c e s s a r y t o '
2 ^ ) /b o m ro t3 / ' t o i n t e n d t o '
2 6 ) / q o n c e s n / 1 t o i n v i t e t o '
2 7 ) / q o t / ' t o l a c k , m is s '
1* / b a c / ' n e c e s s a r y ' o c c u r s o n ly n e g a t i v e l y and in compounds.
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170
L}., 3k- D i r e c t i o n a l v e r b s
D i r e c t i o n a l ' v e r b s o c c u r a f t e r a c t i v e v e r b 3 w h ich a r e
n o n - s p e c i f i c as t o d i r e c t i o n o r g o a l , and s p e c i f y t h e
d i r e c t i o n o r o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a t e d a c t i o n .
The c l a s s i s s m a l l and c l o s e d ..•>
1 ) / t o w / ’ t o go ; away, t o w a rd (away f ro m s p e a k e r ) ’
2 ) / m a o k / ’ t o come; t h i s way, to w a rd ( i n s p e a k e r ’ s d i r e c t i o n ) '
3 ) / c o h / ' t o go dovm; down'
I4.) / l a ©53/ ' t o go u p j u p , i n c r e a s i n g l y '
5 ) / c o o l / ' t o e n t e r ; i n , i n t o '
6 ) / c a n / ' t o go o u t ; o u t ’
7 ) / t a a m / ' t o fo l low ;- a l o n g , f o l l o w i n g ’
8 ) / n o w / ' t o r e m a in ; s t i l l , a t ’
9 ) / q a o y / ' t o g i v e ; as a f a v o r , f o r ’
1 0 ) / c u u n / ' t o g i v e ; a s a f a v o r , f o r ( e l e g a n t ) ’
Examples* /q sw p u k m i n - t o a n t r o l o p maok4*./
f a t h e r n o t - y e t r e t u r n come
’ F a t h e r h a s n ' t come b a c k y e t . '
S u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t s i n t e r v e n e b e tw een an I n i t i a t i n g v e r b
and i t s d i r o c t i o n a l v e r b a t t r i b u t e .
/ y o o k hop n £ h tow I . /
t a k e box t h i s go
'T a k e t h i s box a w ay . '
When a d i r e c t i o n a l v e r b i s f o l l o w e d by a s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t ,
i t h a s a p r e p o s i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n , and c a r r i e s t h e s e c o n d a r y
s t r e s s / ' / c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p r o p o s i t i o n s . (JLp. 71 ) s r a t h e r
t h a n p r i m a r y s t r e s s / * / a s i n t h e above e x a m p le s .
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171
/ y e o k h e p n f h tow p t e e h j . /
t a k e box t h i s go h o u s e
•Take t h i s box t o t h e h o u s e . '
^••35 C o m p le t iv e v e r b s
C o m p le t iv e v e r b s o c c u r i n p o s t - p o s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h ,
a n d e x p r e s s t h e c o m p l e t i o n , e x p e c t e d r e s u l t , o r p o s s i b i l i t y
o f a c h ie v e m e n t o f , v e r b s w hich i n i t i a t e , an a c t i o n . I n
n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s , t h e n e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r y a lw a y s f o l l o w s
t h e i n i t i a l vei*b, a s opposed uo c o o r d i n a t e o r a t t r i b u t i v e
v e r b s e q u e n c e s , i n which t h e n e g a t i v e p r e c e d e s t h e f i r s t v e r b
o f t h e s e q u e n c e .
C o m p le t iv e v e r b s a r e o f two k i n d s : 1 ) s p e c i f i c c o m p l e t i v e
v e r b s , w h ic h h a v e a r e s u l t a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a s p e c i f i c
i n i t i a t i n g v e r b , and 2) g e n e r a l c o m p l e t i v e v e r b s , w h ic h o c c u r
a f t e r a l a r g e number o f v e r b s , and e x p r e s s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
a ch iev e m e n t ' , o r t h e c o m p l e t i o n , o f t h e i n i t i a t e d a c t i o n .
The n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n o f e i t h e r c l a s s i m p l i e s f a i l u r e o r
i n a b i l i t y t o a c h i e v e t h e i n i t i a t e d a c t i o n .
The f o l l o w i n g exam ples i n v o l v e t h e s p e c i f i c c o m p l e t i v e
v e r b / l u e q / ‘ t o s l e e p ' x
/ y u p m i n t knom doek l u e q s o p b a a y n a h / . /
n i g h t l a s t , I l i e - d o w n s l e e p p l e a s a n t v e r y
' L a s t n i g h t , I s l e p t v e r y w e l l . *
Nog . : / y u p m in t knom deek min l u e q s o h l . /
n i g h t l a s t , I l i e - d o w n n e g . s l e e p a t - a l l
• I d i d n ' t s l e e p a t a l l l a s t n i g h t . '
Or: *1 c o u l d n ' t s l e e p a t a l l l a s t n i g h t . '
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172
A l th o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t s may n o t be c o m p l e t e , t h e
c l a s s i s p r o b a b l y c l o s e d .
lj.. 35>1 S p e c i f i c c o m p l e t i v e v e r b s
E ach s p e c i f i c c o m p l e t i v e v e r b i n t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t i s
shown ty i th i t s s p e c i f i c a n t e c e d e n t , and i t s s p e c i a l f u n c t i o n
i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n b o t h a f f i r m a t i v e and n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s .
1 ) / l u e q / ’ t o go t o s l e e p ’ ( / d e e k / ’ t o l i e down’ )
/ d e e k l u e q / ' t o s l e e p 1
/ d e e k min l u e q / ’ t o f a i l t o s l e e p '
2 ) / k h e e n / ' t o s e e ' ( / k i t / ' t o t h i n k ’ )
/ k i t k h e e n / ’ t o u n d e r s t a n d '
/ k i t min k h e e n / ' t o f a i l t o u n d e r s t a n d '
( / m e e l / ' t o l o o k , w a t c h ' )
/ m e e l k h e e n / ' t o s e e '
/meeji min k h e e n / ' t o f a i l t o s e e '
( / r o e k / ' t o h u n t f o r ’ )
/ r o o k k h e e n / ' t o f i n d '
/ r o e k min k h e e n / ' t o f a i l t o f i n d '
( / n i k / ' t o r e f l e c t ' )
/ n i k k h e e n / ' t o r e a l i z e ’
/ n i k min k h e e n / ' t o f a i l t o r e a l i z e '
3 ) / i o e n / ' t o be on t i m e '
/ t o w t o o n / ' t o c a t c h '
( / t o w / 1 t o g o ' )
/ t o w min t o e n / ' t o f a i l t o c a t c h , t o m i s s '
lj.) / l i i / ' t o h e a r ' ( / s d a p / ' t o l i s t e n ' )
/ s d a p l i i / ' t o h e a r '
/ s d a p min l i i / ' t o f a i l t o h e a r '
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173
/ s d a p / c an a l s o be f o l l o w e d by on© o f t h e g e n e r a l c o m p l e t i v e
v e r b s , / b a a n / ' t o be a b l e ' , i n w h ich c a s e t h e m ean ing o f t h o
e x p r e s s i o n i s ' t o u n d e r s t a n d ' .
$ ) / p h o t / ' t o be c l e a r o f ( / c i e h / ' t o a v o i d ' )
/ c i e h p h o t / ' t o e s c a p e '
/ c i o h min p h o t / ' t o f a l l t o a v o i d '
6 ) / c . e h / ' t o know' ( / r i o n / ' t o s t u d y ' )
/ r i e n c e l l / ' t o l e a r n '
/ r i e n min c e h / ' t o f a i l t o l e a r n '
7 ) / t h u m / ' t o s m e l l ' ( / h o t / ' t o s n i f f ' )
/ h e t th u m / ' t o s m e l l '
/ h e t min th u m / ' t o f a i l t o s m e l l '
8 ) / m a t / ' t o p i e r c e ' ( / c a q / ' t o s t a b ' )
/ c a q m u t / ' t o s t a b t l i r o u g h , t o p e r f o r a t e 1
/ c a q min m u t / ' t o f a i l t o p i e r c e '
9 ) / c o o p / ' t o s t i c k t o ' ( / p r o l o o ^ / ' t o c o m p e t e ' )
/ p r o l o o g c o o p / ' t o p a s s (an e x a m i n a t i o n ) '
A l th o u g h / p r o l o o g mill c o o p / ' f a i l t o p a s s ' may o c c u r , t h e
n e g a t i o n o f / p r o l o o g c o o p / i s u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d by a n o t h e r
s p e c i f i c c o m p l e t i v e v e r b / t l e o q / ' t o f a l l ' *
/p ro loo jQ t l e o q / ' t o f a i l (an e x a m i n a t i o n ) '
I |. 3S>2 G e n e r a l c o m p l e t i v e v e r b s
The i n i t i a t i n g v e r b s u s e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l
c o m p l e t i v e v e r b s a r e o n l y examples o f t h e k i n d s o f v e r b s
w h ic h can p r e c e d e g e n e r a l c o m p l e t i v e v e r b s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 ) / b a a n / ' t o be a b l e ’
/ t o w b a a n / ’ can g o ’
/ t o w min b a a n / ’ c a n ’ t g o ’
2 ) / k a e t / ’ t o be a b l e ’ o c c u r s l e s s g e n e r a l l y t h a n / b a a n /
and u s u a l l y o n l y In n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s *
/knom maok min k a e t t e e K /
I come n e g . a b l e f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
' I c a n ' t c o m e . ’
3 ) / r u e c / ’ t o be a b l e , t o f i n i s h * o c c u r s i n two c o n t e x t s
1) p h y s i c a l c a p a b i l i t y
/knom l e e k t o k n i h min ruecv l - . /
I l i f t t a b l e t h i s n e g . a b l e
' I c a n ' t l i f t t h i s t a b l e ; ’
2 ) c o m p l e t i o n i n t e r m s o f t im e
/knom m ee l siewphow n i h min r u e c K /
I r e a d book t h i s n e g . f i n i s h
’ I c a n ’ t f i n i s h r e a d i n g t h i s b o o k . ’
or* ' I ' m n o t t h r o u g h r e a d i n g t h i s b o o k . '
I}.) / s r a c / ' t o f i n i s h , c o m p l e t e ’
/knom tw ee k a a n i h m i n - t o e n s r a c I . /
I do work t h i s n o t - y e t f i n i s h
' I h a v e n ’ t y e t f i n i s h e d t h i s w o r k . ’
5 ) / c o p / ' t o g e t t o t h e end , t o c o m p l e t e '
/knom m eel k a s a e t n i h min c o p j ; /
I r e a d n e w sp a p e r t h i s neg . c o m p le t e
' I d i d n ' t f i n i s h r e a d i n g t h i s n e w s p a p e r . '
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175
6 ) / k h a m i / ’ t o l a c k , f a i l , m i s s ’
■ / l o o k t r o w tow mi-n k h a a n l , /
you m us t go n e g . f a i l
’ You m u s t go w i t h o u t f a i l . ’
14-. 14- A d v e r b i a l s
A d v e r b i a l s a r e l ex e m e s w h ich o c c u r a s a t t r i b u t e s o f
e n t i r e p r e d i c a t i o n s .
I4..I4I G e n e r a l a d v e r b i a l s
G e n e r a l a d v e r b i a l s a r e a d v e r b i a l s w h ic h e i t h e r p r e c e d e
o r f o l l o w t h e c o n s t i t u e n t w hich t h e y m o d i f y . As p r e p o s e d
a t t r i b u t e s , a d v e r b i a l s c a r r y g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s t h a n as p o s t -
p o s e d a t t r i b u t e s , and a r e t y p i c a l l y s e t o f f f ro m t h e r e
m a in d e r o f t h e u t t e r a n c e by t h e p h r a s e c o n t o u r / f / .
P r e p o s e d : / tho o m m o d aa f knom maok nara b a a y t i i - n i h K /
u s u a l l y I come e a t r i c e h e r e
’ U s u a l l y , I come h e r e t o e a t . ’
P o s t - p o s e d * ' /k n o m maok nam ba ay t i i - n i h thoGmmedaa 'i ' . /
I come e a t r i c e h e r e u s u a l l y
’ I u s u a l l y come h e r e t o e a t . ’
G e n e r a l ad\re r b i a l s m o d i f y t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s w i t h w h ich t h e y
c o - o c c u r as t o mode, p l a c e , o r t i m e , and a r e t h u s c l a s s e d
a s : 1 ) m odal a d v e r b i a l s
2 ) l o c a t i v e a d v e r b i a l s
3 ) t e m p o r a l a d v e r b i a l s
No more t h a n one member f rom eac h c l a s s may o c c u r in : .a s i n g l e
u t t e r a n c e . I f more t h a n o n e - c l a s s i s r e p r e s e n t e d , t h e o r d e r
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
176
i s u s u a l l y 1 - 2 -3 i n p r o p o s e d p o s i t i o n , and 3 - 2 -1 i n p o s t -
posed . i p o s i t i o n . T y p i c a l members o f t h e t h r e e c l a s s e s a r e
l i s t e d b e lo w .
I4. . ip l l Modal a d v e r b i a l s
1 ) / q one ©13/
2 ) / d o o c c n o h /
3 ) / h a © y /
' t h e r e f o r e ’
’ t h e r e f o r e , l i k e t h a t ’
’ t h e n , t h e r e f o r e ’
C e r t a i n p r e p o s i t i o n a l and noun p h r a s e s t y p i c a l l y o c c u r
w i t h m odal a d v e r b i a l f u n c t i o n s Examples*
1 ) /ba© q o n c e g / ’ i n t h a t c a s e '
2 ) /ba© y a a q - n a a k o o - d a o y / 'h o w e v e r t h a t may b e ’
.3 ) / h a e t n i h / ' f o r t h i s r e a s o n '
lj..l|12 L o c a t i v e a d v s r b i a l s
1 ) / t i l - n i h /
2 ) / t i i - n u h /
3 ) / k h a g - m u k / /
’ h e r e ’
' t h e r e '
' i n f r o n t ? 5
C e r t a i n p r e p o s i t i o n a l and noun p h r a s e s a l s o o c c u r w i t h
l o c a t i v e a d v e r b i a l f u n c t i o n . Examples*
1 ) / k o n l a e g n u h / ,
2 ) / b o o r i w e e n n i h /
3 ) /knoQ s r o k n u h /
l!-.l|13 Tem poral a d v e r b i a l s
1 ) / q s y l e w " q s y l s w - n i h /
2 ) / s q a e k /
3) / t g a y - n i h /
Ll-) / c u o n - k a a l /
’ t h e r e , i n t h a t p l a c e '
' [ i n ] t h i s r e g i o n '
' i n t h a t c o u n t r y !
' nov;'
' tom orrow '
' t o d a y '
1 s o m e t im es '
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177
Many noun p h r a s e s t y p i c a l l y o c c u r i n . t e m p o r a l a d v e r b i a l
f u n c t i o n , e . g . t
1 ) / t g a y c a n / ‘ [on ] Monday’
2 ) / p r i k l a o g / ' ’ t h e n e x t m o r n in g ’
3) /sa raay n u h / ’ [ i n ] t h o s e d a y s ’
b 'kZ I n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b i a l s
I n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b i a l s a lw ays o c c u r w i t h i n t e r r o g a t i v e
m ean ing i n u t t e r a n c e - f i n a l ’ p o s i t i o n . . The c l a s s i s s m a l l and
c l o s e d . Most o f t h e f o l l o w i n g exam ples i n v o l v e s e q u e n c e s o f
morphemes. I t i s n o t c l e a r w h e th e r t h e y s h o u l d be t r e a t e d as
compounds o r as p h r a s e s , b u t t h e y a r e t r e a t e d h e r e a s com
p ound a d v e r b i a l s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r t y p i c a l o c c u r r e n c e as u n i t s
. in t h a t f u n c t i o n .
Examples / l o o k k i t tow d o o c - m d o c ^ . /
you t h i n k go howt
’ How do you p l a n t o g o ? ’
1 ) / d o o c - m d o c / ’ how?
2) / y a a q - n a a / ’how?’
3 ) / y a a q - m o c / ’how?’
l|.) / q o ^ k a l / ’ when ( f u t u r e ) ? ’
£ ) / p i i - q o ^ k a l / . ’ when ( p a s t ) ? ’
6 ) / k a a l - n a a / ’ when ( f u t u r e ) ? ’
7) / p i i - k a a l - n a a / ’when ( p a s t ) ? ’
8 ) / p o n m a a n / ’how much?’
9) / p o n n a a / ’ how much?’
1 0 ) / s m a o - m a a h / ’ how much, t o what e x t e n t ? ’
1 1 ) /qo m baa l~ m aan / ’how much, t o what e x t e n t ? ’
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178
lj..I|-3 I n d e f i n i t e a d v e r b i a l s
The c l a s s o f i n d e f i n i t e a d v e r b i a l s h a s t h e same member
s h i p as t h e c l a s s o f i n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b i a l s (i|..I|.2) , b u t
t h e y n e v e r o c c u r i n . u t t e r a n c e - f i n a l p o s i t i o n , a s do i n t e r
r o g a t i v e a d v e r b i a l s . They o c c u r i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n o n l y i n
n o n - f i n a l c l a u s e s , and a r e f o l l o w e d by a f i n a l s e n t e n c e
p a r t i c l e i n s i m p l e p r e d i c a t i o n s .
E xam ples : / l o o k tow d ooc-m doc t t r s w to w dom rDojj^ . /
you go how ever m ust go r i g h t - a w a y
’ ’ However you g o , [y ou ] must go r i g h t a w a y . ’
/l/V ir tW vn4.v\ I r l a Am v\AV\vnr> a m 4* a a !. /^ t i t i v i a x u z z n <ru»wk>lx p v ;4 x u a a l i v v v / /
I n e g . b e - h u n g r y t o - a n y - e x t e n t f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
’ I 'm n o t so h u n g r y . '
The form s a r e l i s t e d be low w i t h t h e i r i n d e f i n i t e m e a n in g s :
1 ) / d o o c - m d e c / ’h o w e v e r ’
2 ) /y a a jQ - n a a /
3 ) / y a a g - m e c /
14-) / q b ^ k a l /
$ ) / p i i - q o q k a l / •
6 ) / k a a l - n a a /
7) / p i i - k a a l - n a a /
8 ) / p o n m a a n /
9) / p o n n a a /
1 0 ) / sm aefm aan /
1 1 ) / q omb a a l -ma a n /
•how ever '
'h o w e v e r '
'w h e n e v e r ( i n t h e f u t u r e ) '
'w h e n e v e r ( i n t h e p a s t ) '
'w h e n e v e r ( i n t h e f u t u r e ) '
'w h e n e v e r ( i n t h e p a s t ) '
' t o any e x t e n t '
' t o any e x t e n t '
' t o any e x t e n t '
' t o any e x t e n t '
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179
k*5 A d j e c t i v e s
A d j e c t i v e s a r e le x e m e s w h ich o c c u r a s p o s t - p o s e d
m o d i f i e r s o f n o u n s , v e r b s , o r o t h e r a d j e c t i v e s , and w h ic h
n e v e r o c c u r as s u b s t a n t i v e s o r p r e d i c a t i v e s .
A d j e c t i v o s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b - c l a s s e s s
1 ) g e n e r a l a d j e c t i v e s
2 ) I m i t a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s
3 ) o r d i n a l n u m e r a l a d j e c t i v e s
Ip. ^1 G e n e r a l a d j e c t i v e s " •
T h i s C l a s s i s l a r g e and o p e n - e n d e d , and i n c l u d e s a l l
a d j e c t i v e s w h ich do n o t b e l o n g t o c l a s s e s 2 and 3 a b o v e .
A d j e c t i v a l v e r b s (Lp.31) a l s o f u n c t i o n l i k e a d j e c t i v e s o f
t h i s g r o u p , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r p r e d i c a t i v e f u n c t i o n .
G e n e r a l a d j e c t i v e s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e
s u b - c l a s s e s *
1 ) A d j e c t i v e s which m o d i fy e i t h e r n o u n s o r v e r b s
Noun m o d i f i e r s /knom mean p r a q b o n t e c K /
I h a v e money a - l i t t l e
' 1 h a v e a l i t t l e m o n e y .1
Verb m o d i f i e r s
/ t w e o - k a a bontoc ' l ' l e e Q b o n t e c t s r u o l ceoQ’k /
work a - l i t t l e p l a y a - l i t t l e c o m f o r t a b l e more
•To work a l i t t l e and p l a y a l i t t l e i s more a g r e e a b l e . '
2 ) A d j e c t i v e s which m o d i f y o n l y v e r b s and o t h e r a d j e c t i v o s
• A d j e c t i v e s o f t h i s c l a s s hav e a d v e r b i a l f u n c t i o n , b u t
d i f f e r f rom t h e c l a s s o f a d v e r b i a l s (Ip.lj.) i n t h a t t h e y do
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180
n o t o c c u r a s p r e p o s e d m o d i f i e r s , and a r e a lw ay s a t t r i b u t i v e
t o a p r e c e d i n g v e r b o r a d j e c t i v e , r a t h e r t h a n t o an e n t i r e
p r e d i c a t i o n . Many, r e d u p l i c a t i v e compounds, e s p e c i a l l y
t h o s e i n v o l v i n g vowel a b l a u t ( 3 .5 2 1 ) b e lo n g t o t h i s g r o u p .
Examples* /monuh c a h dae t o t r e e t - t o t r o o t ' i ' . /
man o l d w alk s t a g g e r i n g l y - y
‘ The o l d man w a lked u n s t e a d i l y . 1
F r e q u e n t l y u p t o t h r e e su c h a d j e c t i v e s o cc t i r i n c o o r d i n a t e
c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h an i n t e n s i f i e d m ea n in g , as f o l l o w s : •
/k m eeg l .eeg k n e e t e e n - t a a f l r o 3 e e m - ro s a a m row iim-roweera t o w l . /
c h i l d r e n p l a y t o g e t h e r s k i t t i s h l y b o i s t e r o u s l y c o n f u s e d l y on
The c h i l d r e n p l a y e d on t o g e t h e r [ i n a ] s k i t t i s h , b o i s t r o u s ,
and c o n f u s e d [ m a n n e r ] . 1
( A l l o f t h e s e a d j e c t i v e s a r e d e s c r i p t i v e o f u n s t r u c t u r e d
b e h a v i o r o f one k i n d o r a n o t h e r . The g l o s s e s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e . )
3 ) A d j e c t i v e s w h ich o c c u r o n l y a s m o d i f i e r s o f n o u n s .
The c l a s s i s q u i t e s m a l l and may be l i m i t e d t o t h e
f o l l o w i n g members:
1 ) / q a e t i o t / ‘ o t h e r ’
2 ) / q a e t i o t - q a e t i e t / ‘ v a r i o u s o t h e r '
3 ) / n i r a u e y / ‘ e a c h ’
lj.) / n i m u e y - n i m u o y / ' e a c h i n i t u r n ’
5 ) / d o t i y / ' o t h e r , f o r e i g n
6 ) / d o d a e l / ' s a m e '
M o d i f i e r s w h ich d e s c r i b e t h e s i z e , s h a p e , o r c o l o r o f t h e i r
noun h e a d s a r e u s u a l l y a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s .
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181
b*$2 I m i t i a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s
I m i t a t i v e . a d j e c t i v e s a r e o n o m a to p o e t i c a d j e c t i v e s
w h ic h o c c u r a f t e r v e r b s and a f t e r t h e noun / s o o / ' s o u n d ' .
The c l a s s i s l a r g e and o p e n -e n d e d , and t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y
o f i t s members a r e r e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s (3 .5 > l l ) . Such
a d j e c t i v e s a r e u s u a l l y acco m p an ied by a s p e c i a l i m i t a t i v e
i n t o n a t i o n , p r e c e d e d , and i f n o n - f i n a l , f o l l o w e d , by p a u s e .
E x am ple s ; / k e e ban k n e e* c ch a ^ s ! ; chafl : I qonc-eg t o w l /
t h e y s h o o t t o g e t h e r bang bang l i l c e - t h a t c o n t i n u a t i v e
' ’ They were f i r i n g a t e a c h o t h e r [ w i t h a]
’ ’ bang! b a n g ! * ’ ( t h u s ) .
/ p d e y - p r o p u e n c l u e h k n e e l i i s o o : kokao lc -k o kao k i ! /
h u s b a n d - w i f e a r g u e t o g e t h e r h e a r sound y a k k i t y - y a k
’ The c o u p le were a r g u i n g t o g e t h e r ( w i t h a ) ’ ’ y a k k i t y -
y a k ' ’ s o u n d , '
O r d i n a l nu m era l a d j e c t i v e s
N u m era ls , a s w e l l as t h e - - n o n - n u m e r i c a l q u a n t i f i e r
/ p o n m a a n / ’how many’ , combine w i t h t h e o r d l n a l i z i n g p r e f i x
/ t i i - / t o fo rm o r d i n a l n u m e ra l a d j e c t i v e s . Such compounds
a r e n o t n u m e r a l s , s i n c e t h e y n e v e r o c c u r b e f o r e s p e c i f i e r s .
E x am ple s : / k o o n - p r o h t i i - b e y /
son t h i r d
' t h e t h i r d so n '
/ t g a y t i i - p o n m a a n / .
day h o w -m a n y ' th
'w h a t day ( i n a s e r i e s ) ? '
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1 8 2
lj.,6 A u x i l i a r i e s
A u x i l i a r i e s a r e l ex em es w h ic h q u a l i f y a f o l l o w i n g v e r b
o r modal v e r b , b u t w h ich n e v e r o c c u r as p r e d i c a t i v e s , a s do
modal v e r b s . A u x i l i a r i e s a r e d e f i n e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g
c r i t e r i a :
1 ) They p r e c e d e modal v e r b s
2 ) They n e v e r o c c u r a s p r e d i c a t i v e s
3 ) They a r e n e v e r n e g a t e d
Ip) They n e v e r p r e c e d e s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t s
Many compound a u x i l i a r i e s i n c l u d e t h e p r e p o s i t i o n / t a e / ' b u t 1,
w i t h s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s , a s s e c o n d e l e m e n t . In some a u x i l i a r i e s
/ t a e / i s o p t i o n a l , and h a s an i n t e n s i f y i n g f u n c t i o n :
W i th o u t / t a e / : /knom t o e p maok p i i p t e e h s £ m j . /
I j u s t come f rom h o u s e Sim
' I ’ ve j u s t come f ro m S i m 's h o u s e . '
W ith / t a e / : /knom t e e p - t a e maok p i i p t e e h s i m j . /
' I ' v e j u s t t h i s m in u te -c o m e f ro m S im 's h o u s e . '
In o t h e r a u x i l i a r i e s , h o w e v e r , / t a e / i s a d e r i v a t i o n a l
e l e m e n t w h ich d e r i v e s a u x i l i a r i e s f ro m v e r b s :
V/i thou t / t a e / : / k e e c e h n i y e e y b a r a q s a e h ' ! ' . /
h e knows sp e a k F r e n c h
'He knows how t o s p e a k F r e n c h , '
W ith / t a e / : / k e e c e h - t a e n i y e e y b a r a f l s a e h ' k /
h e a lw ays s p e a k F r e n c h
'He a lw ays s p e a k s F r e n c h . '
In t h e f i r s t e x am p le , / c e h / i s a modal v e r b ; / c e h - t a e / i n t h e
s e co n d example i s an a u x i l i a r y .
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183
The c o p u l a t i v e / c e e / ' i s 1 a l s o o c c u r s a s an o p t i o n a l
s e c o n d e le m e n t i n some compound a u x i l i a r i e s . I t s f u n c t i o n
seems t o be p r i m a r i l y one o f s i g n i f y i n g g r e a t e r f o r m a l i t y
o r d e l i b e r a t i o n , e . g . :
/q ow puk knom mult tow d a e f . /
f a t h e r ray l i k e l y - t o go to o
’ My f a t h e r i s l i k e l y t o go t o o . ’ .
But* /qe i^puk knom m uk-cee tow d a e j / . /v
' I t i s q u i t e l i k e l y t h a t my f a t h e r w i l l go t o o , '
^ • 6 1 G e n e r a l a u x i l i a r i e s a r e a u x i l i a r i e s w h ic h may a l s o o c c u r
r* -I- •? r\v» n n n n o r M v irp •f’.ViCi 0 1 1 K r \ ■f* f . K nff a. vaa u U v v i , it/ j* . a. v iu v w p j. w v v a a v w m v . i w v v a v a a v iva v —
d i c a t i o n t h e y m o d i f y . The c l a s s i s c l o s e d , a l t h o u g h t h e
f o l l o w i n g l i s t may n o t be c o m p l e t e .
1 ) / s o o m /
2 ) / c o o /
3) / c r a © n ( - t a e ) /
) / co ranara - t& e/
5>) / t a e i o - t a e /
6 ) / t r © w - t a e /
7) / r o m e e Q ( - t a e ) /
8 ) / s o t ( - t a e ) /
9) / k u © g ( - t a e )
1 0 ) / m u k ( - t a o )
11 ) / s r a p ( - t a e ) /
12 ) / k u © ~ ta o ) /
1 3 ) / p r o h a e l ( - c e o ) /
' p l e a s e '
' g o a h e a d an d '
'm o s t ly *
' u s u a l l y '
*u s u a l l y '
' n e c e s s a r i l y '
1 u s u a l l y '
' a l l w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n '
' u s u a l l y '
' p r o b a b l y '
' . s u d d e n ly '
' p r o p e r l y '
' p e r h a p s *
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1814-
ll}.) / m u k ( - c e s ) / ’ p r o b a b l y 1
l £ ) / t o o l - t a e / ’w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , e n t i r e l y '
16) / m a c ( - k o o j / 'w hy? '
1 7 ) /m d0c ( » k o o ) / 'w h y? '
1 8 ) / m © c . . . . r a o c / ' i f . . . t h e n why?'
1 9 ) / m d o c . . .m d o c / ' i f . . . t h e n why?'
E xam ples 18 and 19 above a r e p a r a l l e l a u x i l i a r i e s . They
o c c u r i n c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t i n g o f one o r more d e p e n d e n t
c l a u s e s , f o l l o w e d by a m ain c l a u s e , and s i g n a l t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e m a i n - c l a u s e i s a r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n , e . g . j
/ tu m ro om qewpuk w e s t indec wee min k l a a c _ coh
cohtl’ n e e q d o t i y t mdec wee k l a a c _ . /
i f - e v e n f a t h e r h i s i f h e n e g . r e s p e c t
t e l l - m o p e r s o n o t h e r th en -w h y h e r e s p e c t
' I f he d o e s n ' t r e s p e c t even h i s f a t h e r , t h e n t e l l me, why
1 s h o u l d he ] r e s p e c t anyone e l s e ? '
I}..62 P r e v e r b a l a u x i l i a r i e s a r e a u x i l i a r i e s which a lw a y s p r e
ced e v e r b s . The c l a s s i s c l o s e d , a l t h o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t
may n o t be c o m p l e t e .
1 ) / t 9 o p ( - t a o ) / I t o h a v e j u s t '
2 ) / s t e e - t a e / ' o n t h e p o i n t o f '
3 ) / c i t / ' n e a r l y ')
Ll) /kompug(-tae)/ ' in the process of'
5 ) / s e g ( - t a e ) / ' a l m o s t a l l '
6 ) / k a n - t a e / ' i n c r e a s i n g l y '
7) /ceh - tae / 'always'
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1 8 5
1 i n c r e a s i n g l y ’
‘ b a r e l y ’
1 a l m o s t ’ ;
’ s t i l l , c o n t i n u a l l y ’
' e n g r o s s e d i n '
’ t r y o n l y t o ’
‘ e s p e c i a l l y ’
’vhave o n l y t o ’
1 e x t r e m e l y ’
' s o , t h e n , a c c o r d i n g l y ’
The f o l l o w i n g two exam ples o c c u r o n l y as compound n e g a t i v e
a u x i l i a r i e s :
1 8 ) / m i n - t o o n / ’ n o t y e t ’
1 9 ) /m in -s© w / ' h a r d l y , n o t so v e r y ’
lj.,63 The i n c i p i e n t a u x i l i a r y / n i g / ‘ w i l l , j u s t a b o u t t o ’
p r e c e d e s n e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r i e s , b u t f o l l o w s a l l o t h e r a u x
i l i a r i e s , e . g . * /knom c-i t n i g min t o w j . /
I a lm o s t f u t u r e n e g a t i v e go
’ I a lm o s t d i d n ' t g o . ’,
I4. .6 I4. N e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r i e s f o l l o w a l l o t h e r a u x i l i a r i e s .
T h e i r o c c u r r e n c e im m e d ia t e l y p r e c e d i n g v e r b s d e f i n e s t h e
c l a s s o f p r e d i c a t i v e s . The c l a s s h a s f o u r members.
1 ) / m i n / ’ n o t ( g e n e r a l ) '
2 ) / q o t / ’ n o t ( c o l l o q u i a l ) '
3 ) / p u m / ’ n o t ( l i t e r a r y ) '
lj.) / k o m / ’ d o n ’ t ( n e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e ) ’
8 ) / r i - t ( - t a e ) /
9 ) / k r o s n - t a e /
1 0 ) / r i o p - t a e /
1 1 )/ n o w - t a e /
12 ) / r o w u o l - t a e / .
1 3 ) / k h o m - t a e /
lL}.)/c om pu eh - tae ' /
1 5 ) / m e o n - t a e /
16 ) / s a e n /
1 7 ) / k o o /
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186 ’
b*7 R e l a t o r s
R e l a t o r s a r e lex em es whose f u n c t i o n i s t o i n d i c a t e t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n two c o - c o n 3 t i t u e n t s . Such lexem es a r o
n o t s u b s t a n t i v e s , s i n c e t h e y n e v e r o c c u r a s s u b j e c t s o f
v e r b s (1|*2), and t h e y a ro n o t p r e d i c a t i v e s , s i n c e t h e y a r e •
n e v e r n e g a t e d Cl}..3 ) . R e l a t o r s a r e d i v i d e d , on t h e b a s i s
o f s y n t a x , i n t o f i v e c l a s s e s , as f o l l o x j s i
1 ) p r e p o s i t i o n a l r e l a t o r s ( p r e p o s i t i o n s )
2 ) s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s ( s u b o r d i n a t i n g
' c o n j u n c t i o n s )
3 ) g e n e r a l r e l a t o r s (which o c c u r b o t h as p r e p o s i t i o n s
and as s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s )
I4.) c o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s ( c o o r d i n a t i n g
c o n j u n c t i o n s )
S) c o p u l a t i v e r e l a t o r s ( c o p u l a t i v e s )
U-* 71 P r e p o s i t i o n a l r e l a t o r s (o r s i m p l y p r e p o s i t i o n s ) a r e
r e l a t o r s w hich p r e c e d e o n l y s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t s and which
show t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s u b s t a n t i v e t o a c o - c o n s t i t t i e n t ,
A c o n s t r u c t i o n whose c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e a p r e p o s i t i o n and i t s
o b j e c t i s a p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e . P r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s a r e
a lw ay s a t t r i b u t i v e t o a c o - c o n s t i t u e n t . The f o l l o w i n g
exam ples i n v o l v e t h e p r e p o s i t i o n / k r a o m / ‘u n d e r 1:
/ k r o b o y d e ek now lcraora p t e o h ' h /
b u f f a l o l i e r e m a in u n d e r h o u s e
‘ The b u f f a l o a r e l y i n g u n d e r t h e h o u s e .*
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
187
/ k r o b o y kraom p te© h n u h t thum n a h l ; /
b u f f a l o under* h o u s e t h a t b o - b i g v e r y
’ The b u f f a l o u n d e r t h a t h o u s e a r e v e r y b i g ! ’
Many p r e p o s i t i o n s o c c u r w i t h a d j e c t i v a l f u n c t i o n t ^ i t h o u t a
f o l l o w i n g o b j e c t , e . g . :
/kampucce© k ra o m /
Cambodia u n d e r
’ Lower Cambodia!
The f o l l o w i n g s u b - c l a s s e s o f p r e p o s i t i o n s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d
on t h e b a s i s o f s e m a n t i c c r i t e r i a :
1|. 711 L o c a t i o n a l p r e p o s i t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h e l o c a t i o n a l r e
l a t i o n s h i p o f a f o l l o w i n g o b j e c t t o a c o - c o n s t i t u e n t .
1 ) / k n o q /
2 ) / k r a w /
3) / l o o /
’ i n ’
' o u t s i d e ’
’ onj a b o v e ’
U.) / k r a o m /
5 ) / m u k /
6 ) / k r a o y /
7) / c i t /
8 ) / q a e /
9) / b o n t o o p /
1 0 ) / k b a e /
1 1 ) / k o n d a a l /
1 2 ) / c o © p /
’u n d e r ’
’ i n f r o n t o f ’
• a f t e r , b e h i n d '
’ n e a r ’
• a t ’
’ s u c c e e d i n g , n e x t t o ’
' b e s i d e ’
’ i n t h e c e n t e r o f ’
' a t t a c h e d t o ’
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
188
lj.,712 D i r e c t io n a l ! p r e p o s i t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h e d i r e c t i o n a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a f o l l o w i n g o b j e c t t o a c o - c o n s t i t u e n t . '
1 ) / p i i / -‘ f r o m 1
2 ) / d o l / 1 t o w a r d ’
3) / c u m w i n / ‘ a r o u n d 1
lj.) / wuoq/ ’ a r o u n d ’
$ ) / c w i e l / ‘ c i r c l i n g ’
^ . 7 1 3 Q u a n t i t a t i v e p r e p o s i t i o n s i n d i c a t e - t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e -or
d i s t r i b u t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a f o l l o w i n g o b j e c t t o a
c o - c o n s t i t u e n t .
1 ) / s m a o /
2 ) / t e e p /
3 ) / q o h /
lj.) / t e o Q - q o h /
5 ) / p i n /
6 ) / 0 0 3 5 3/7) / I e o h /
8 ) / h u o h /
9 ) / c o m /
1 0 ) / t a e / .
11 ) / r o o l / V
1 2 ) / s o p /
1 3 ) / k r u p /
11).) / l c r u p - k r u p /
l 5 ) / k r u p - s o p /
16 ) / s o p - k r u p /
1 7 ) / c u o h /
e q u a l l i n g ’
i n c l u d i n g ’
a l l o f ’
i n c l u d i n g a l l o f ’
t o t h e e x t e n t o f ’
more t h a n '
e x c e e d i n g '
e x c e e d i n g ’
e x a c t l y ’
o n l y '
e v e r y ( w i t h u n i t s o f t i m e ) '
e v e r y '
a l l o f '
e v e r y '
e v e r y one o f '
e v e r y one o f
i n s t e a d o f
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
189
lj., 711). Q u a l i t a t i v e p r e p o s i t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h e q u a l i t a t i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a f o l l o w i n g o b j e c t t o a c o - c o n s t i t u e n t .
1 ) / r o b o h / ’ o f , b e l o n g i n g t o ’
2 ) / q o m p i i / ’ a b o u t , o f ’
3 ) / p t o e l / ’ c o n c e r n i n g ’
k ) / c e a - m u s y / ’ w i t h ’
5 ) / c e o - m u e y - n i g / ’ t o g e t h e r w i t h '
1)..72 S u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n . j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s ( o r s im p ly
s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s ) a r e r e l a t o r s w hich i n t r o d u c e
s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s . The r e s u l t i n g c o n s t r u c t s a r e a lw ays
i n a t t r i b u t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a c o - c o n s t i t u e n t . In t h e
f o l l o w i n g ex am ple , / b a o / i s a c o n j u n c t i o n m ean ing ' i f ' :
/ b a o pqoon cog t i n l a a n t qan cuey b o n to c b a a n j - . /
i f y o u ( o l d e r t o y o un g e r s i b l i n g ) want buy cap
I h e l p a - l i t t l e a b l e
' I f you want t o buy a c a r , I can h e l p a l i t t l e . '
I n t h e m in im a l c a s e , t h e c o - c o n s t i t u e n t o f a s u b o r d i n a t i n g
c o n j u n c t i o n may b e a s i n g l e p r e d i c a t i v e (which i s n e v e r t h e
l e s s a p r e d i c a t i o n j s e e i)..3)» as i n t h e f o l l o w i n g exam ple :
/ b a e t h a o k f knom t i n b a a n j ’. /
i f i n e x p e n s i v e I buy a b l e
’ I f [ i t ’ s ] i n e x p e n s i v e , I c an buy [ i t ] . ’
Most o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s a r e m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y com
p l e x . The bound morpheme / - b e y / which o c c u r s as a s e c o n d
e le m e n t i n exam ples 6 -8 below seems t o f u n c t i o n o n l y as a
m ark e r o f s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s ( s e e 3 . 2 3 ) . Sequences
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190
o f morphemes eac h o f w hich o c c u r s by i t s e l f a s a c o n j u n c t i o n
a r e t r e a t e d a s c o o r d i n a t e compound c o n j u n c t i o n s , e . g . ?
/ t u e h / • a l t h o u g h ’ + / c e e / ’ t h a t ’ > / t u o h - c e e / ' a l t h o u g h ’
Some o f t h e ' f o l l o w i n g exam ples c o n s i s t o f s e q u e n c e s o f
morphemes w h ich o c c u r e l s e w h e r e as f r e e f o r m s , b u t whose
f u n c t i o n a s e l e m e n t s o f c o n j u n c t i o n a l compounds seems t o be
i d i o m a t i c . F o r example?
/ b a a / ' i f ' + / s e n / ( o c c u r s e l s e w h e r e o n l y as an im p e r -
B oth / b a a - s e n - n a a / ’ i f and / b a a - s a n - c e a / ' i f ' (exam ple H4.
b e lo w ) can s u b s t i t u t e s y n t a c t i c a l l y and s e m a n t i c a l l y f o r t h e
m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y s im p le c o n j u n c t i o n / b a a / ’ i f . Such s e
q uences a r e t r e a t e d as i d i o m a t i c compound c o n j u n c t i o n s .
Some o f t h e exam ples b e low c o u l d p o s s i b l y ; be a n a l y z e d
as s y n t a c t i c p h r a s e s . However, s i n c e t h e y seem t o f u n c t i o n
l i k e c o n j u n c t i o n s , t h e y a r e f o r t h e p r e s e n t a n a l y z e d as
compound c o n j u n c t i o n s . The f o l l o w i n g l i s t may n o t be c o m p l e t e .
a t i v e f i n a l s e n t e n c e p a r t i c l e ) + / n a a / 'w h i c h '
• > / b a e - s e n - n a a / ' i f
1 ) / b a o /
2 ) / l u l l /
3). / c e e /
I4.) / t h a a /
$) / k a a l /
' when '
' i f '
' when'
' t h a t '
' t h a t '
6 ) / d a e m - b e y /
7) / k o m - b e y /
8 ) / s o o m - b o y ( - t a e ) /
9) / t u 0h ( ~ c e o ) /
’ i n o r d e r t o '
' i n o r d e r t o n o t '
1 a l t h o u g h ’
1 a l t h o u g h ’
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10) / t u a h - b a y (- b a a ) /
11) / t u m r o a m /
12) / t u m r o a m - d o l /
13) / b a a - s a n - n a a /
Ilf.) / b a a - s a n - c e a /
15) / k a a l - n a a /
16) / k a a l - d a e l /
17) / k a a l - n a a - b a a /
18 ) / b a a - k a a l - n a a /
19) / k a a l - p i i /
20) / p e e l - n a a /
21) / p e e l - d a e i /
22) / k n o j 3- p e e l « d a e l /
23) / d o l - p e e l ° d a e l /
2k ) / q a o y /
25) / q a o y - ’t a e /
26) / k o m - q a o y /
27) / k o m - q a o y - t a e /
28) / l u h - t a e /
29) / l u h * * t r a a ~ t a e /
30) / t u k - b a a ( - c e a ) /
31) / c i i - c e a g /
32) / d b a t ( - t a e ) /
1 a lth o u g h ’
’u n t i l , even i f ’
• u n t i l ’
’ i f ’
‘ i f ’
' w h e n e v e r ’
' when’
’w h e n e v e r ’
' w h e n e v e r ’
’ when ( i n t h e p a s t ) ’
1 w h e n e v e r ’
’ when ( i n t h e p a s t ) '
’ w h i l e ’
' when’
’ so t h a t '
' s o l o n g a s '
' i n o r d e r t h a t n o t '
' s o l o n g as n o t '
' o n l y when '
' u n l e s s '
' g i v e n t h a t '
' a l t h o u g h ’
' a l t h o u g h '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
192
14-. 72X C o r r e l a t i v e conjunctions a r e p a i r e d f o r m s , t h e f i r s t
o f tyhich i n t r o d u c e s t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e , and t h e se co n d
o f w h ic h i n t r o d u c e s t h e main c l a u s e , o f com plex s e n t e n c e s
(6 .1 2 ) , The s e c o n d member o f s u c h c o r r e l a t i v e p a i r s i s
i n v a r i a b l y t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n / t a e / ‘ b u t , n e v e r
t h e l e s s ’ .
1 ) / d b e t . . . t a e / 1 a l t h o u g h . . . n e v e r t h e l e s s ’
2 ) / t u o h , . . t a e / ’ a l t h o u g h , . . n e v e r t h e l e s s ’
3) / c i i - c e o f l / . . t a e / ’ a l t h o u g h . . . n e v e r t h e l e s s ’
I}.) / s o o m - b o y . , . t a e / ’ a l t h o u g h . . . n e v e r t h e l e s s ’
Example*
/ d b o t knom c h i & f t a e knom tow t w e o - k a a d a e l . /
a l t h o u g h I b e - i l l b u t I go work anyhow
’ A l th o u g h I [was] i l l , n e v e r t h e l e s s I went t o work
( anyhow) . 1
b*73 G e n e r a l r e l a t o r s a r e r e l a t o r s w hich o c c u r w i t h b o t h
p r e p o s i t i o n a l and s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l f u n c t i o n .
The f o l l o w i n g exam ples i n v o l v e / s o m r a p / ’ f o r ’ ?
As p r e p o s i t i o n s
/knom t i n siowphow n i h somrap ko o n -p ro h ' l ’, /
I buy book t h i s f o r son
’ I b o u g h t t h i s book f o r [my] s o n , ’
As s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n :
/knom t i n siewphow n i h somrap y oek tow s a l a a - r i e n l . /
I buy book t h i s f o r t a k e t o s c h o o l
’ I b o u g h t t h i s book t o t a k e t o s c h o o l . ’
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
193
The f o l l o w i n g l i s t may n o t be c o m p l e t e :
1 ) / s o m r a p /
2 ) / d a o y /
3 ) / m u n /
k ) / k r a o y ( - p i i ) /
£>) / r u o c - p i i /
6 ) / t a g - p i i /
7) / d o o c ( - c e s ) /
8 ) / d o l /
9 ) / r o h o o t ( - d o l ) /
1 0 ) / s r a c - t a e /
11 ) / c o m p u e h ( - t a e )
1 2 ) / k r a w - p i i /
1 3 ) / r i o i o /
lLl-J/cumnuoh/
l £ ) / p r o p e n /
16 J / p r o e m - t e e q /
l ? ) / p r u 9 h /
1 8 ) / p i p r u 9 h /
1 9 - ) / t o 9 l - t a o /
2 0 ) / d a o y - s a s /
1 f o r 1
by*
b e f o r e ’
a f t e r ’
a f t e r ’
s i n c e '
l i k e ’
u n t i l '
up u n t i l '
d e p e n d in g on '
j u s t f o r '
b e s i d e s '
a b o u t 1
i n s t e a d o f
l i k e '
w h i l e *
b e c a u s e 1 ( o f ) '
b e c a u s e ( o f ) '
to tf t i l*
b e c a u s e ( o f ) '
k*7k C o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s (o r s i m p ly c o o r d i n
a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s ) i n t r o d u c e t h e s e c o n d c o i r c o n s t i t u e n t o f
c o o r d i n a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s . They p r e c e d e s u b s t a n t i v e s , p r e d
i c a t i v e s , o r p r e d i c a t i o n s . The f i r s t t h r e e members o f t h e
c l a s s l i s t e d be low a r e p u re m a r k e r s ( i . e . s e r v e o n l y t o mark
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1914-
c o o r d i n a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n ; t y p e s ) , w h i l e o t h e r s h a ve s e m a n t i c
c o n t e n t , e . g . *
/ y e e g tow nara b a a y f t e e p tow m ea l k o n h /
we go e a t r i c e t h e n go w a tc h f i l m
' W e t ' l l ] go e a t , t h e n go t o a m o v i e , '
The c l a s s i s s m a l l and c l o s e d . Exam ples 9 -1 1 a r e compounds.
1 ) / r i i / ' o r ' 7 ) / t a e / ' b u t '
2 ) / h a a y / ' a n d ' 8 ) / p o n t a e / ' b u t '
3 ) / h a e y - n i g / 'and* 9 ) / k o o - p o n t a e / ' b u t ' .
l\.) / r u a c / ' t h e n ' 1 0 ) / k 4 i - t h a a / ' t h a t i s '
5 ) / s e r a / ' a n d t h e n ' 1 1 ) / d o o c - t h a a / ' t h a t i s '
6 ) / t a a p / ' o n l y t h e n '
i|.. 7U1 P a r a l l e l c o o r d i n a t i n g con . j u n c t io n s o c c u r b e f o r e b o t h
c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s o f a c o o r d i n a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Example* / r 4 4 t knom tow p n u m -p 4 n 1 ' ' r 4 i f ’ knom tow s ia m - r e a p ' J ’. /
o r I go Phnom-Penh o r I go S ie m - r e a p
' I ' m g o i n g e i t h e r t o Phnom Penh o r t o S i e m r e a p . '
The c l a s s h a s o n l y two members*
1 ) / r 4 4 . . , r 4 4 / ' e i t h e r . . . o r '
2 ) / t e e q . . . tee^o / ' b o t h . . . a n d '
I4.. 7k2 P a i r e d c o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s a r e p a i r s o f c o n
j u n c t i o n s , t h e f i r s t o f w h ich o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e f i r s t c o -
c o n s t i t u e n t , and t h e s e c o n d o f w h ich o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e s e c o n d
c o - c o n s t i t u e n t , o f c o o r d i n a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s .
Example* / t e e q knom tow p lo w n i h f h a e y - n i g l o o k tow p le w n u h J - , /
b o t h I go s t r e e t t h i s and you go s t r e e t t h a t
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
195
• I ' l l go [b y ] t h i s s t r e e t , and ( a t t h e same t i m e ) you
go [b y ] t h a t s t r e e t . ’
The c l a s s h a s two members:
1 ) / t e e g . . . h a e y - n i g / ’ b o t h . . . a n d ’
2 ) /pro8m-te933.. .haey-n iio / ’w h i l e . . . at the same tim e’
1+. 71+3 P o s t - p o s e d p a r a l l e l c o o r d i n a t i n g con . j u n c t i o n s f o l l o w
t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s w h ich t h e y mark a s c o o r d i n a t e , e . g . :
/ m i t tow k d e y I min to w k d e y f knom tow d a e ^ . /
y o u ( f r i e n d ) go w h e t h e r n o t go w h e th e r I go anyhow
’ W h eth e r y ou go o r n o t , I ’m g o i n g . ’
The c l a s s h a s ' t h e f o l l o w i n g two members:
1 ) / k d e y . . . k d e y / ’ w h e t h e r . . . o r ’
2 ) / k o o - d a o y . . . k o o - d a o y / ’p o s s i b l e . . . a l s o p o s s i b l e '
1+. 75 C o p u l a t i v e r e l a t o r s ( o r s i m p l y c o p u l a t i v e s ) o c c u r b e
tw een t h e c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s o f e q u a t i o n a l o r t o p ic - c o m m e n t
c o n s t u c t i o n s ( 5 . 1 2 ) . The c l a s s h a s t h r e e members:
1) / k i i / ’b e’
2 ) / c e e / 'be'
3 ) / m i n - m e e n / ’ n o t b e ’
E xam ples 1 and 2 a r e n o t c l a s s e d a s v e r b s , s i n c e t h e y do n o t
m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f o c c u r r i n g a f t e r t h e n e g a t i v e a u x
i l i a r y / m i n / . Example 3 i s t h e n e g a t i o n o f exam ples 1 and 2 .
/ m e e n / and i t s n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n a l s o o c c u r s , a s , ^ . a n ^ a d j e c t i v a l
v e r b , b u t w i t h t h e m ean ing ' t o be t r u e ' , / c e e / o c c u r s a l s o as
an a d j e c t i v a l v e r b w i t h t h e m ean in g ' t o be w e l l , i n good
h e a l t h ’ .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 9 6
ij.,8 P a r t i c l e s
P i n a l s e n t e n c e p a r t i c l e s
P i n a l s e n t e n c e p a r t i c l e s o c c u r i n a b s o l u t e f i n a l
p o s i t i o n i n a l l s e n t e n c e s e x c e p t s e n t e n c e s i n v o l v i n g a
p o s t - p o s e d , t o p i d ' , , i n w h ic h c a s e t h e y f o l l o w t h e comment
( 5 . 1 2 2 ) . P i n a l p a r t i c l e s c o - o c c u r i n c a r e f u l s p e e c h w i t h
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p h r a s e c o n t b u r s ; However, i n r a p i d s p e e c h ,
many f i n a l p a r t i c l e s h a v e r e d u c e d a l lo m o r p h s w h ich c o - o c c u r
w i t h t h e p h r a s e c o n t o u r / l / . The p a r t i c l e s b e lo w a r e c i t e d
i n t h e i r c a r e f u l s p e e c h a l l o m o r p h s , f o l l o w e d by t h e i r r a p i d
s p e e c h a l l o m o r p h s w here d i f f e r e n t . P i n a l p a r t i c l e s as
l i s t e d be low a r e m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . Those s e q u e n c e s w h ich
do c o - o c c u r seem t o be compounds.
1 ) / t e e - I ' - t e h l /
2 ) / t e e J ~ t e h l /
3 ) / r i i t - r i h l /
h) / r 4 4 - t e e f - r i t e h l /
5 ) / t e e l r i i /
6 ) /dae ' l ' ~ d e h l /
7) /phooiQ I «. htxgl/
8 ) / h a e y ^ ~ h e y l ~ q e h l /
9 ) / n a a l - na h l ~ n © h l /
1 0 ) / s e n l /
1 1 ) / c o h l /
12)/tov7-l' ~ t o h l /
1 3 ) / n a e | /
l l 4. ) / n a o 1 /
• e m p h a t i c p a r t i c l e '
• n e g a t i v e p a r t i c l e 1
• q u e s t i o n p a r t i c l e 1
• o r n o t ? '
• r e a l l y ? '
• a s w e l l ( c o n t r a r y t o b e l i e f ) '
• t o o , a l s o '
' a l r e a d y ( p e r f e c t i v e p a r t i c l e ) '
' y o u s e e ? ! ( p o l i t e i m p e r a t i v e H
• f i r s t j go a h e a d '
' g o a h e a d '
•go on '
' e m p h a t i c i m p e r a t i v e '
' emphat i c imp e r a t i v e '
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197
15>) /w eey l - way! - weh 1/ 'jo c u la r emphatic p a r t ic le '
ij.,82 Pause p a r t ic le s
Pause p a r t ic le s s ig n a l that an u tteran ce has been su s
pended, e ith er tem porarily or permanently. I f the u t t e r
ance i s not resumed, the pause p a r t ic le i s the co -c o n stitu e n t
o f a l l th at precedes in the sen ten ce . I f the sentence Is r e
sumed, the pause p a r t ic le , u su a lly preceded and fo llow ed by
pause, i s in con stru ction w ith the d iscontinuous sen ten ce .
Pause p a r t ic le s , l ik e f in a l sentence p a r t ic le s , are extrem ely
v a r ia b le in shape. In the fo llo w in g three examples, the
commonest allomorphs precede,
1 ) /nae__ ~ nee_ - neh_ /
2 ) /q e e _ - q44__ - q©h_ /
3 ) /qadon_ - qeden_ - den__ /
I t i s d i f f i c u l t to assign g lo s s e s to pause p a r t ic le s , but
th ese p a r t ic le s have the general meaining ' l e t me see now',
or ' th at i s to s a y , . , ' ,
1 6) / q e e y l - q e y l /
17) / s o h ' /
18 ) / l a e y l /
19) / s o h - l a e y | /
2 0 ) / t e e - s o h - l a e y l /
2 1 ) / t e e - t a o t /
2 2 ) / t a e l - t e h l /
23) / 4 i a e y - r 4 I - n o w t /
2l±) /m ea l-to w t „ m etowi/
25) /m een-nehl ~ m enehi/
y e t or not?'
perhaps'
r e a l l y ! '
a t a l l (a fte r n e g a tiv e s) '
at a l l (a fte r n e g a t iv e s ) 1
at a l l (a fte r n e g a tiv e s ) '
at a l l (a fte r n e g a tiv e s ) '
p o l i t e q uestion p a r t ic le '
th a t 's a l l (d isavow al)'
emphatic p a r t ic le '
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5 .0 Syntax
Syntax d ea ls w ith the arrangement o f lexemes and in -
to n a tio n a l morphemes in u tter a n c e s . I t i s assumed th a t
every u tteran ce con ta in s at le a s t one sen ten ce , A sentence
i s any sequence o f lexemes which occurs in sim ultaneous
construction;:w ith an in to n a tio n . An in to n a tio n i s any
sequence o f in to n a tio n a l morphemes whose f in a l morpheme
in clu d es the in to n a tio n a l phoneme / . / . Thus the immediate
co n st itu e n ts o f any sentence are a segm ental co n stitu e n t and
an in to n a tio n .
Examples* / t o w I . / ‘ [He’ s ] g o in g .’
Segmental co n stitu e n t: / to w / ' t o go'
In tonation: /I,/ 'end o f statement*
/b a a tJ kee n iyeoy th a a l to w I ./
resp on sive he say th a t go
'Y es, he sa id th a t [h e 's ] g o in g .'
Segmental c o n stitu e n t:
/b a a t kee n iyeey thaa tow /
In tonation: /\\\ ,/ 'th ree-p h ra se statem ent'
The minimum segm ental sy n ta c t ic co n stitu e n t i s a
lexem e. Any sequence o f more than one lexem e, in any
con text in which i t i s not a sen ten ce , i s a sy n ta c tic
phrase. A sy n ta c tic c la u se i s any verb or verb phrase,
w ith or w ithout a su b je c t , whose c o -c o n st itu e n t a lso con
ta in s a verb or verb phrase.
198
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199
Although the p rocess o f immediate co n st itu e n t a n a ly s is
a n a ly t ic . proceeding from the sentence through the syn
t a c t ic phrase to the minimum sy n ta c t ic c o n s t itu e n t , or
lexem e, the order o f p resen ta tio n adopted here i s s y n th e t ic ,
proceeding from lexeme c la s s e s (I4..O) to co n stru ctio n s (5 . 0 )
to sen ten ces (6 . 0 ) .
F ollow ing i s a l i s t o f the major co n stru ctio n types
d iscu ssed in t h is chapter, and the symbols used to id e n t i fy
them.
5 .1 Uncentered co n stru ctio n s
5 .1 1 S u b ject-p red ica te co n stru ctio n s ( J
5 .1 2 P a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( 0
5*13 O b j e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( » )
5 .U 4. R e la tio n a l co n stru ctio n s ( ^
5 .1 5 Completive co n stru ctio n s ( j
5 .2 Centered co n stru ctio n s
5 .2 1 P ost-posed a ttr ib u te s ( <
5 .2 2 Preposed a t tr ib u te s ( >
5 .3 Coordinate co n stru ctio n s
5 .3 1 C u m u la t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( ,
5 .3 2 A ltern a tiv e co n stru ctio n s • ( /
5 .3 3 A p p o s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( t5 .3 ^ I n c l u s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( . , .
5.14- Numerical co n stru ctio n s
5.1+1 A dd itive co n stru ctio n s ( +
5 . ^ 4 2 M u lt ip lic a tiv e co n stru ctio n s ( x
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200
*>< 1 U n c e n te re d c o n s t r u c t i o n s
An u n c e n t e r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n i s any c o n s t r u c t i o n whose
form c l a s s i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f any o f i t s c o n s t i t u e n t s .
5*11 S u b j e c t - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( | )
A s u b j e c t - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a> noun o r
noun p h r a s e , o r a v e r b o r v e rb p h ra s e ^ a s a s u b j e c t , f o l l o w
ed by a v e r b o r v e r b p h r a s e a s a p r e d i c a t e ( d e f i n e d i n I*.,3 )*
5 .1 1 1 A c t iv e s u b j e c t - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a v e an a c t i v e
v e r b (V t /V i) o r a c t i v e v e r b p h r a s e a s p r e d i c a t e .
E x am p le s : / p r o h | n a m l . / (man | e a t ) 'T h e man i s e a t i n g . 1
/ rao n u h -p ro h b e y n eeq nuh. jk o m p u g -tae tw ee q w e y f . /
man t h r e e p e r s o n t h a t | i n - p r o c e s s - o f do what
'W hat a r e t h o s e t h r e e men d o in g ? '
/knom | m in - to e n b aan tow d a e l e e g k h a e t n u h ! . /
I | n o t - y e t a b l e go w a lk p l a y p r o v in c e t h a t
• I ' v e n e v e r h a d th e c h a n c e t o v i s i t t h a t p r o v i n c e . '
/ p h e k s r a a | tw ee qaoy knom s r o w e i j ! . /
d r i n k a l c o h o l J make t h a t I d i z z y
• D r in k in g a l c o h o l makes me d i z z y . '
"5 .112 A d j e c t i v a l s u b j e c t - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a v e an
a d j e c t i v a l v e r b o r a d j e c t i v a l v e r b p h r a s e a s p r e d i c a t e .
E x am p le s : / s r e y nuh j i q o o l , /
woman t h a t | p r e t t y
'T h a t woman [ i s ] p r e t t y . '
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201
i
/ p l e e g d a e l k e e kompug l e e g q e y le w - n ih | p i r u e h s d a p l , /
song w h ieh t h e y p r o g r e s s i v e p l a y now | p l e a s i n g h e a r
•The song t h e y ' r e p l a y i n g now i s p r e t t y . ( t o h e a r ) . '
/tw es srae J pibaaq n a h i . /
do r i c e f i e l d | d i f f i c u l t v e r y •
• R ic e - f a r m in g [ i s ] v e r y d i f f i c u l t . ’
5 .1 2 P a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( 0 )
P a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose c o
c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e . j u x ta p o s e d com plem ents w hich s t a n d i n an
a s s o c i a t i v e o r co m p lem en ta ry r e l a t i o n s h i p . In t h e c a s e o f
e q u a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s (5 . 1 2 1 2 ) , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s m arked
- by a c o p u l a t i v e r e l a t o r r a t h e r th a n by s im p le p a r a t a x i s .
5 .1 2 1 E q u a t io n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a noun o r noun
p h r a s e a s t o p i c f o l lo w e d by a noun o r noun p h r a s e a s a
synonymous com plem ent. E q u a t i o n a l . c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e e i t h e r
unm arked o r m arked by ono o f t h e c o p u l a t i v e r e l a t o r s (i|..6 5 ) .
In t h e exam ples b e lo w , su ch m a rk e rs a r e w r i t t e n t o t h e r i g h t
o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n sym bol, s i n c e t h e y o c c u r i n t h e same,
p h o n o l o g ic a l p h r a s e a s t h e s e c o n d com plem ent.
5 .1 2 1 1 Unmarked e q u a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s
E xam ples: / n i h J q w s y f . / ( t h i s 0 w h a t) ‘What [ i s ] t h i s ? '
•'* ■' .♦ •> f » .» *' •
/monuh nuh Q qewpuk knom I . /* ' » - r ; \ ‘ I . ' ■ !
person t h a t B f a t h e r my
•T h a t person [ i s ] my f a t h e r . '
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202
5*1212 Marked e q u a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s
E xam pless /s l© w -phow n i h 0 k44 kbuen p r o w o o t t e s a a h J - . /
book t h i s Q i s t e x t h i s t o r y
•T h is book i s a h i s t o r y t e x t . 1
/b o o g - p r o h knom D ce© k r u u { . /
e l d e r - b r o t h e r my 0 i s t e a c h e r
'My e l d e r b r o t h e r i s a t e a c h e r . '
5 .1 2 2 T opic-com m ent c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a n o u n , noun
p h r a s e , v e r b , v e r b p h r a s e , o r p r e d i c a t i o n a s t o p i c , an d a
p r e d i c a t i o n , p r e d i c a t e , o r n o n - p r e d i c a t e a s comment. The
t o p i c may be e i t h e r t h e s u b j e c t o r t h e o b j e c t o f t h e s e n t e n c e ,
b u t i t i s t y p i c a l l y t h e o b j e c t . T o p ic s may e i t h e r p r e c e d e
o r f o l l o w t h e comment. P o s t - p o s e d t o p i c s i n d i c a t e r e d u c e d
em p h as is o f t h e t o p i c , and a r e a lw ay s , f o l lo w e d by t h e i n t o
n a t i o n a l m o rp h e m e \ /_ * / ’ e m o t i o n a l ly u n i n v o l v e d ' , i n c o n t r a s t
w i t h t h e r e g u l a r f i n a l i n t o n a t i o n a l morpheme o f s t a t i v e
u t t e r a n c e s , A p r e p o s e d t o p i c , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s t y p i
c a l l y f o l lo w e d by t h e p h r a s e c o n to u r ; / ' f / ,
5 .1 2 2 1 P re p o s e d t o p i c s
Exam ples? /k o o n n u h f 0 qaayuq pram c n a m j . /
c h i l d t h a t 0 age f i v e y e a r s
•T h a t c h i l d i s f i v e y e a r s o l d , '
/qowpuk knomf 0 koet k i t qaoy knom tw©9 k r u u -p e e t l ,/
f a t h e r my 0 h e p l a n t h a t I do d o c to r
'My f a t h e r , (h e ) p l a n s f o r me t o be a d o c t o r . '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
203
/ lo o k . twee-kaa t i i - n u h f 0 baan praq-khao ponmaan?,/
you work t h e r e fl g e t s a l a r y how-much
’How much s a l a r y do you g e t , w o rk in g t h e r e ? ’
/ p i i pnum-p£n tow s i s r a - r e e p t 0 pohmaan k i l o o m a e t ' t . /
from Phnora-Penh go S ie m -re a p D how-many, k i l o m e t e r
•How many k i l o m e t e r s i s i t v f r o m Phnom Penh t o S ie m re a p ? ’
5 .1 2 2 2 P o s t - p o s e d t o p i c s
E x am p les : / l q o o n a h J ' B s r e y n u h _ . /
p r e t t y v e r y 0 woman t h a t
’ [ S h e ’ s ] v e r y p r e t t y , t h a t w om an.’
/knom rain t u k - c e t t e e i Q monuh n u h _ . /
I n eg a tiv e tr u s t em p h a tic -p a rtic le D person th a t
’ I don’ t tr u s t [him ], that m an.’
/knom q e t n i y e e y qwey s o h 4 D knom__./
I n e g a t i v e s a y a n y th i n g a t - a l l 0 m y s e l f
• I . d i d n ’ t s a y a n y th in g a t a l l , m y s e l f . ’
5 .1 2 3 E x c la m a to r y c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t i s an i n t e r j e c t i o n ( I p . l l ) . Such p r i o r c o n s t i t u e n t s
a r e s e p a r a t e d fro m t h e i r c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s by a p h r a s e c o n t o u r .
E x am p le s ; / m a e t Q kdaw n a h l , /
i n t e r j e c t i o n - o f - a n n o y a n c e Q b e - h o t v e r y
’ Gee, [ i t ’ s ] r e a l l y h o t l 1
/ t a e -I 0 l o o k qonceefi tow n a a f . /
i n t e r r o g a t i v e - i n t e r j e c t i o n 0 you p o l i t e - A u x , go where
'P a r d o n me, w here a re you g o i n g ? ’
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20k
R e sp o n s iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t i s a r e s p o n s i v e ■(k*1 2 ) . R e s p o n s iv e s a r e
t y p i c a l l y s e p a r a t e d f ro m t h e i r c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s by th e
p h r a s e c o n to u r / J - / .
Exam ples* / b a a t i D l q o o l ; /
p o l i t e r e s p o n s i v e u s e d by men 8 b e - p r e t t y
•Y es, [ i t ' s ] p r e t t y . ' '
/ c a a h I D knom t r o l o p roaok p i i p s a a h a e y J ' . /
p o l i t e r e s p o n s i v e u s e d by women 0 I r e t u r n come from
m a rk e t a l r e a d y
'Y e s , I 'm b a c k from t h e m a r k e t . '
5>.12£> V o c a t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s one o f whose
c o n s t i t u e n t s i s a p e r s o n a l name, k i n s h i p te r ra , o r t i t l e
whose f u n c t i o n i s t o i d e n t i f y t h e a d d r e s s e e . Such c o n s t i t u e n t s
may e i t h e r p r e c e d e o r f o l lo w t h e i r c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s , and a r e
s e p a r a t e d from them by a p h r a s e c o n to u r .
Exam ples* / s i r a t 0 n e e q k i t tow p s a a q 'o g k a l i . . /
Sim B you p l a n go m a rk e t when
'S im , when do you p l a n t o go t o t h e m a r k e t? '
/ l o o k - p u u t fi knom som l e e h a e y l . /
u n c l e 1 I beg t a k e - l e a v e a l r e a d y
'U n c le , I m ust s a y goodby now; 1
/ k r a o k l a e g 0 n a e l l . /
r i s e up Q N el
'G e t u p , N e l l »
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205
When a v o c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s p r e c e d e d by an i n t e r
j e c t i o n , t h e r e s u l t i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n i s e x c la m a to r y , and t h e
f i r s t IC c u t i s made a f t e r t h e i n t e r j e c t i o n , as i n t h e
exam ple : / h e e l fl k r a o k l a e q n a e l ! . /
i n t e r j . - f o r - a t t r a c t i n g a t t e n t i o n B r i s e up N el
'H e y , g e t u p , N e l l 1
When t h e c o - c o n s t i t u e n t o f a p o s t - p o s e d v o c a t i v e i s an
i n t e r j e c t i o n o r a r e s p o n s i v e , t h e f i r s t c o - c o n s t i t u e n t w i l l
d e te rm in e t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
E x am p les : / h e e l I s im ! . / 'H ey , S im ! ' (E x c la m a to ry )
/ b a a t l fl l o o k ! . / ’Y es , s i r . ' (R e s p o n s iv e )
5 .1 2 6 T e r m in a t lv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose
s e c o n d c o - c o n s t i t u e n t i s a f i n a l p a r t i c l e . P i n a l p a r t i c l e s
a r e c o - c o n s t i t u e n t w i th a l l t h a t p r e c e d e s them i n t h e same
p h o n o l o g ic a l p h r a s e .
E xam ples: / n e e q nuh 0 t e e f * /
person th a t Q em p h atic -p artic le
' [ I s ] th a t the person?'
/knom sok-sopbaay Q t e e ! . /
I w e l l - a n d - h a p p y 8 e m p h a t i c - p a r t i c l e
1 I 'm q u i t e w e l l . '
/ t h o o n yo ek b a a y b o n te c t i e t 8 t o w ! , /
Than t a k e r i c e some more B p o l i t e - i m p e r a t i v e
'T h a n , go ahead and t a k e some more r i c e ! '
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206
5 .1 2 7 Embedded p a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s
Pour d i f f e r e n t p a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n - ty p e s a r e
embedded i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e , i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
h i e r a r c h y *
r e s p o n s i v e Q c h i l d my 6 age f i v e y e a r 0 e m p h . - p a r t , 0 Sim
•Y es, my c h i l d i s r e a l l y f i v e y e a r s o l d , Sim.*
£ .1 3 O b j e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( » )
O b j e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a t r a n s i t i v e v e rb
f o l lo w e d by a n o u n , noun p h r a s e , o r p r e d i c a t i o n a s o b j e c t .
E x am p les : / b a e k » t w e e f . / (open » d o o r ) 'O pen t h e d o o r . '
/ s o m la p » t e e h e e n t e e g - q o h knoQ k o n la e g n u h /
k i l l » s o l d i e r a l l i n p l a c e t h a t
• k i l l e d a l l t h e s o l d i e r s i n t h a t p l a c e 1
/k h e e n » rnonuh nuh r u o t c en p i i p t e e h /
s e e » p e r s o n t h a t r u n l e a v e f ro m h o u se
•saw t h a t man r u n o u t o f t h e house*
When t h e o b j e c t o f a v e r b i n c l u d e s b o th an i n d i r e c t
and a d i r e c t o b j e c t , t h e i n d i r e c t o b j e c t p r e c e d e s t h e
d i r e c t , as f o l lo w s *
qaayuq pram cnam
f e r r a i n a t i v o
T opic-com m ent
V o c a t iv e
/ q a e ^ 0 koon knom t Q qaayuq pram cnam I t e e 'l' 0 s&a
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
207
/ q a o y » knom b a a y - c h a a rauey e a a n 'I ' . /
g i v e » me f r i e d - r i c e one p l a t e
'G iv e me a p l a t e o f f r i e d r i c e . '
i>,llj. R e l a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( 4 )
R e l a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t i s a p r e p o s i t i o n o r s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n
w h ic h i n d i c a t e s , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i n w h ich
i t o c c u r s t o a c o - c o n s t i t u e n t .
5>.H|JL P r e p o s i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a p r e p o s i t i o n a l
r e l a t o r a s f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t , f o l lo w e d by a s u b s t a n t i v e o r
s u b s t a n t i v e p h r a s e a s se c o n d c o n s t i t u e n t . The r e s u l t i n g
c o n s t r u c t i o n i s a p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e . P r e p o s i t i o n a l
p h r a s e s o c c u r a s a t t r i b u t e s o f n o u n s , c l a u s e s , and p r e d i
c a t i o n s , and a s t o p i c s o r comments i n to p ic -c o m m e n t c o n
s t r u c t i o n s . In c th e - - . fo l lo w in g e x a m p le s , t h e p o r t i o n s o f
u t t e r a n c e s w h ic h do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n -
b e in g i l l u s t r a t e d a r e e n c l o s e d i n p a r e n t h e s e s .
/ ( d a q ) kno$ 4 h e p /
( p u t ) i n 4 box
' p u t [ i t ] i n t h e box*
/ ( k o e t tw e e - k a a ) k r a o y 4 p t e o h .4 . /
(he w o rk ) b e h in d 4 h o u se
'H e ' s w o rk in g b e h in d t h e h o u s e . '
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208
/ ( r o d o w kdaw m ean) t a g - p i i 4 k h a e -m e e q k e ra a •
to w - d o l 4 k h a e -m in e e 'J ' . /
( s e a s o n h o t e x i s t ) s t a r t i n g - f r o m 4 J a n u a r y u p - t o 4 March
'T h e h o t s e a s o n l a s t s fro m J a n u a r y t o M a rc h . '
/ p i i 4 s i e m - r e e p tow 4 q o g k o e -w o e t^ p r o h a e l 4 prammuey
k i l o o - r a a e t 4 . /
f ro m 4 S ie m - re a p t o 4 Angkor-W at a b o u t 4 s i x k i l o m e t e r
'P rom S ie m re ap t o Angkor Wat [ i s ] a b o u t s i x k i l o m e t e r s . '\
5.11^2 S u b o r d in a te c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a s u b o r d i n a t i n g
c o n j u n c t i o n a s f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t f o l lo w e d by a v e r b , v e r b
p h r a s e , o r p r e d i c a t i o n a s se c o n d c o n s t i t u e n t , a s f o l lo w s :
/ (k n o m m in : deq > h th aa ! 4 looksm abk- t Q a y - h i h ^ . /
( I : n e g . know) that? 4 y o u come to d a y
'X d i d n ' t know ( t h a t ) you w ere com ing t o d a y . '
/ ( k e e :baok k h ao -q aaw ) qaoy 4 s q a a t ' l ' . /
( t h e y wash c l o t h e s ) i n - o r d e r - t h a t 4 c l e a n
'T h e y wash c l o t h e s ( su c h t h a t [ t h e y a r e ] ) c l e a n . '
/ d o l 4 k ru u c o o l knog b o n t u p f (k o o n - s e h chup s a s c d o m r o o g l . ) /
when 4 t e a c h e r e n t e r i n room ( s t u d e n t s t o p l a u g h r i g h t - a w a y )
'When t h e t e a c h e r e n t e r s t h e room , t h e s t u d e n t s s to p
l a u g h i n g i m m e d i a t e l y . '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
209
£.15> C o m p le t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( j )
C o m p le t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f an i n i t i a t i n g v e r b
a s a f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t and a c o m p le t iv e v e rb (h*3 5 ) a s a
s e c o n d c o n s t i t u e n t . In n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s t h e n e g a t i v e
a u x i l i a r y p r e c e d e s t h e c o m p le t iv e v e r b . Where d i s c o n t i n u o u s
c o n s t r u c t i o n s o c c u r in t h e fo l lo x y in g e x am p le s , t h e c o n
s t r u c t i o n sym bol i s p l a c e d be tw een t h e i n i t i a t i n g v e r b ( p h r a s e )
and t h e c o m p le t iv e v e r b ( p h r a s e ) .
/ (m d a a y ) . kompug d e ek j l u e q l , /
(m o th e r ) i n - p r o c e s s - o f l i e - d o w n j s l e e p
•M other i s s l e e p i n g . 1
/ ( y u p m i n t knom) d e ek j min l u o q s o h j . /
( n i g h t l a s t I ) l i e -d o w n j n e g a t i v e s l e e p a t - a l l
• L a s t n i g h t I c o u ld n ’ t s l e e p a t a l l ! •
/ (k n o m ) h o t p k a a n i h j m in thura qwoy s o h l . /
( I ) s n i f f f lo w e r t h i s j n e g a t i v e s m e l l a n y th in g a t - a l l
•T h is f l o w e r h a s no o d o r a t a l l . 1
/(yoaJD) tow nam -baay now p t e o h con j koo baan d a e ' t . /
(we) go e a t - r i c e a t shop C h in e s e j t h a n a b l e a s - w e l l
•We c an go e a t a t C h in e s e shop i f you w ish .*
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210
5 , 2 C e n te r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n s
C e n te r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n w h ich
one im m e d ia te c o n s t i t u e n t i s a h e a d , and t h e . o t h e r im m e d ia te
c o n s t i t u e n t i s an a t t r i b u t e ,
5 .2 1 P o s t - p o s e d a t t r i b u t e s ( < )
5 .2 1 1 Noun p h r a s e s
A l l c e n t e r e d noun p h r a s e s c o n s i s t o f a noun h e a d .
f o l lo w e d by one o r m ore p o s t - p o s e d a t t r i b u t e s . Noun
•p h ra se s o c c u r a s a t t r i b u t e s o f l a r g e r noun p h r a s e s , and
a s s u b j e c t s , t o p i c s , and o b j e c t s .
5 .2 1 1 1 Q u a l i f i e d noun p h r a s e s c o n s i s t o f a noun h e a d and
one o r more o f t h e f o l lo w in g a t t r i b u t e s *
1 ) a noun o r noun p h r a s e
/ p t e a h < c h e e / (house < wood) 'w ooden h o u s e '
/ k r o s u e g < p r i y s e n i i /
d e p a r tm e n t < p o s t o f f i c e
• p o s t o f f i c e d e p a r tm e n t
/ s r a y < rauk l q o o /
woman < p r e t t y f a c e
'woman [ w i th a ] p r e t t y f a c e '
2 ) an a d j e c t i v a l v e r b o r a d j e c t i v a l v e r b p h r a s e
/ p t e e h < l q o o /
h o u s e < p r e t t y
' p r e t t y h o u s e '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
/ s r a y < lq o o c e a g - k e e /
woman < p r e t t y m ost
' t h e p r e t t i e s t woman'
/ r a u a n t r e y < thum sombaam/
m i n i s t e r < b i g im p r e s s iv e
' v e r y i m p o r t a n t o f f i c i a l '
3 ) an a d j e c t i v e
/ p t e e h < d o d a e l / (h o u se < sam e) ' t h e same h o u s e '
/ p t e a h < t i i - b a y / (h o u se < t h i r d ) ' t h e t h i r d house*
Ij.) an a c t i v e v e r b o r v e r b p h r a s e
/ p t e a h < l u a q / (h o u se < s e l l ) ' t h e h o u se [w h ich i s ] s o l d '
/ p t e a h < tw ee daoy r i h s e y /
h o u s e < make w i t h bamboo
• t h e h o u s e made o f bamboo'
S>) a p r e p o s i t i o n o r p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e
/ p t e a h < l a e / (h o u se < a b o v e ) ' t h e u p p e r h o u s e '
/ p t e a h p i i < l a e pnura/
h o u s e two < on m o u n ta in
• t h e two h o u s e s on t h e m ounta in*
/m onuh t e e g - q o h < knoq p i i - p h o p - l o o l c /
human a l l < i n w o r ld
'e v e r y b o d y i n t h e w o r ld '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
212
6 ) a c l a u s e i n t r o d u c e d by a r e l a t i v e p ronoun
/ p t e e h < d a e l min meen n e e q - n a a now /
h o u se < w hich n e g . h av e anybody r e s i d e
‘ t h e h o u s e w hich h a s no one l i v i n g [ i n i t ] ’
£ .2 1 1 2 Q u a n t i f i e d noun p h r a s e s c o n s i s t o f a noun o r noun
p h r a s e a s h e a d , fo l lo w e d by a q u a l i f i e r ( e i t h e r n u m e r ic a l
o f n o n - n u m e r i c a l ) , a q u a l i f i e r p l u s s p e c i f i e r ( s p e c i f i e r
p h r a s e ) , o r a q u a n t i t a t i v e p r e p o s i t i o n i n c o n s t r u c t i o n w i th
w i t h a s p e c i f i e r p h r a s e , a s a t t r i b u t e .
E xam ples t •
/ p t e e h < b e y / (h o u se < t h r e e ) ’ t h r e e h o u s e s ’
/ k r u u < b e y n e e q /
t e a c h e r < t h r e e p e r s o n
’ t h r e e t e a c h e r s ’
/ k o o n - s e h < t e e g pram n e e q /
s t u d e n t < i n c l u d i n g f i v e p e r s o n
’ a l l f i v e s t u d e n t s '
£ .2 1 1 3 G e n i t i v a l noun p h r a s e s c o n s i s t o f a noun o r noun
p h r a s e a s h e a d ( p o s s e s s e d ) , f o l lo w e d by a p ro n o u n , noun ,
o r noun p h r a s e a s a t t r i b u t e ( p o s s e s s o r ) . The p o s s e s s o r
may o r may n o t be p r e c e d e d by th e g e n i t i v a l p r e p o s i t i o n
/ r o b o h / ' o f , b e lo n g in g t o ’ , b u t / r o b o h / a lw ays o c c u r s i f
t h e p o s s e s s o r i s s e p a r a t e d from t h e p o s s e s s e d by a n o th e r
a t t r i b u t e .
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213
E xam ples :
/ p t e e h < knom / (h o u se < my) 'my h o u s e '
/ p t e e h lq o o < r o b o h qew puk-m daay/
h o u s e p r e t t y < o f f a t h e r - m o t h e r
' p a r e n t s ' p r e t t y h o u s e '
/ b o o q - p r o h p i l n e e q < ro b o h raonuh n u h /
e l d e r - b r o t h e r two p e r s o n < o f p e r s o n t h a t
' t h a t m a n 's two e l d e r b r o t h e r s '
The a t t r i b u t e o f a g e n i t i v a l noun p h r a s e may i t s e l f be
a g e n i t i v a l noun p h r a s e , e . g . :
/ p t e e h < qe u k < knom /
h o u se < f a t h e r < my
'my f a t h e r ' s h o u se
5.211l|. D e m o n s t r a t iv e noun p h r a s e s
D e m o n s t r a t iv e s s t a n d i n a t t r i b u t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h
p r e c e d i n g n o u n s , and w i th e n t i r e noun p h r a s e s . D e m o n s t r a t
i v e s o c c u r i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n i n any noun p h r a s e i n w hich
th e y o c c u r , e . g . :
/ p t e e h < n i h / (h o u se < t h i s ) ' t h i s h o u s e '
/ p t e e h lq o o < n u h /
h o u se p r e t t y < t h a t
' t h a t p r e t t y h o u s e '
/
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211|
/ p t e e h lq o o b e y < n u h /
h o u s e p r e t t y t h r e e < t h a t
' t h o s e t h r e e p r e t t y h o u s e s '
£ .2 1 1 5 O rd e r o f a t t r i b u t e s i n noun p h r a s e s
. • The o r d e r o f a t t r i b u t e s i n c e n t e r e d noun p h r a s e s i s
a s f o l l o w s : 1 ) noun (N)
o l d e r - s i s t e r < p r e t t y < t h r e e p e r s o n < o f me < t h a t
' t h o s e t h r e e p r e t t y ( o l d e r ) s i s t e r s o f m in e 1
I f t h e A1 p o s i t i o n i s n o t f i l l e d by a q u a l i t a t i v e
a t t r i b u t e , i t may be f i l l e d by a n o n - p h r a s a l g e n i t i v e :
2 ) s i n g l e - l e x e m e a t t r i b u t e
3 ) q u a n t i f i e r a t t r i b u t e
I4.) p h r a s a l a t t r i b u t e
5>) d e m o n s t r a t i v e
(A l)
(X)
(AS)
(D)
E x am p le : N Al X A2 D
/ b o o n - s r o y < lo o p < b e y n e e q < ro b o h knom < nuh,
N Al X D
/ m i t < knom < boy n eeq < nuh,
f r i e n d < my < t h r e e p e r s o n < t h a t
' t h o s e t h r e e f r i e n d s o f m in e '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
21S>
I f t h e q u a n t i f i e r a t t r i b u t e does n o t i n c l u d e a
s p e c i f i e r , i t may o c c u r b e f o r e t h e A1 p o s i t i o n , e . g . :
N X A1 A2 D
/ p t 'e e h < bey <i;thum < ro b o h lo o k < n u h /V ~ ~r -y- — y— y -'^ =^ 2=L J
h o u se < t h r e e < l a r g e < o f you < t h a t
• t h o s e t h r e e l a r g e h o u s e s o f y o u r s 1
A d e m o n s t r a t i v e i s som etim es a t t r i b u t i v e t o an immedi
a t e l y p r e c e d i n g n o u n , r a t h e r th a n t o t h e e n t i r e noun p h ra s e *
N A1 X A2
/m 4 t < thum < p i i neeq < ro b o h ^ monuh < n u h /TI—Z T ~7" lE z lo r
L j . / . t /
f r i e n d < l l a r g e < two p e r s o n < o f ^ ro&n < t h a t
' t h a t m a n 's two l a r g e f r i e n d s '
F r e q u e n t l y t h e h e a d t o w h ich t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e i s
a t t r i b u t i v e i s s t r u c t u r a l l y am b ig u o u s , a s i n t h e f o l l o w in g
exam p le : / c k a e thum p i i knog p t e o h n u h /
dog b i g two i n h o u se t h a t
T h is s e n t e n c e i s s u b j e c t t o e i t h e r o f two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s :
1 ) ' t h o s e two b i g dogs i n t h e h o u s e '
2 ) ' t h e two b i g dogs i n t h a t h o u s e '
I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r e i s a t h i r d and more a c c u r a t e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in some c a s e s - t h a t t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e r e f e r s
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o b o th h e a d s . I n o t h e r w o rd s , t h e
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216
s t r u c t u r a l a m b ig u i ty may. w e l l r e f l e c t a s e m a n t ic a m b ig u i ty .
5 .2 1 2 R e l a t i v e p ronoun p h r a s e s c o n s i s t o f a r e l a t i v e p r o
noun (!4. ,235>) a s h e a d , w i th a v e r b , v e r b p h r a s e , o r p r e d i
c a t i o n a s a t t r i b u t e . The r e l a t i v e p rono un may be e i t h e r
t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e o b j e c t o f t h e v e r b . R e l a t i v e p ro noun
p h r a s e s o c c u r a s a t t r i b u t e s o f noun p h r a s e s , and a s i n d e
p e n d e n t s u b j e c t s , t o p i c s , o r o b j e c t s . In t h e f o l lo w in g
exam ples / d a e l / i s a r e l a t i v e p rono un m ean ing ' t h a t w h ic h 1 .
/ l o o k /1 meen » d a e l < lq o o 1- r i i f . /aeJL < i q t
you j have » that-w hich < p r e tty 0- q u e s tio n -p a r tic le
'Do you. have any p re tty ones?1
/knom I trow-kaa » dael I meon » bonkan < w ee n } .// / 7 t /
I j n e e d » th a t -w h ic h . | h av e » h a n d le < lo n g
' I n e e d one w i th a lo n g h a n d l e . 1
✓B oth a r e l a t i v e p ro n o u n and t h e p e r s o n a l p ro nou n s u b
j e c t o f i t s m o d ify in g p r e d i c a t i o n may r e f e r t o th e same
noun h e a d . In t h e f o l l o w in g exam ple , b o th / d a e l / 'w ho '
and / k o s t / ' h e ' r e f e r t o t h e noun o b j e c t / b o o g - p r o h /
' o l d e r b r o t h e r ’ i n t h e m ain c l a u s e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
217
//knom | tow rook » bo* roh < dael < koet D cee k r u u l . /
L /
7I | go h u n t - f o r » o l d e r - b r o t h e r < who < h e D i s t e a c h e r
' I ' m g o in g t o v i s i t [my] o l d e r b r o t h e r who i s a t e a c h e r . '
5 .2 1 3 V erb p h r a s e s
I n c e n t e r e d v e r b p h r a s e s c o n s i s t i n g o f a v e r b h e a d
f o l lo w e d by a p o s t - p o s e d a t t r i b u t e , im m ed ia te c o n s t i t u e n t s
may be?
1 ) a c t i v e v e r b < a c t i v e v e rb
/ d a e < l e e g / (w a lk < p l a y ) 'w a lk a ro u n d , amuse o n e s e l f '
/ l o e < m e e l / ( t r y < lo o k ) ' t o t r y t e n t a t i v e l y '
/m aok < t a a m / (come < f o l lo w ) ' t o come a lo n g b e h in d '
When p h r a s e s o f t h i s t y p e a r e n e g a t e d , t h e n e g a t i v e
a u x i l i a r y p r e c e d e s t h e f i r s t v e r b o f t h e s e q u e n c e , i n c o n
t r a s t w i t h c o m p le t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s (5 . 1 5 ) i n w hich t h e
n e g a t i v e p r e c e d e s t h e s e c o n d ( c o m p le t iv e ) v e r b .
2 ) a c t i v e v e r b < a d j e c t i v a l v e r b o r a d j e c t i v a l v e r b p h r a s e
/ d a e < l i e n / (w alk < f a s t ) ' t o w a lk f a s t '
/ c r i e g < p i r u e h n a h /
s i n g < p l e a s i n g - t o - h e a r v e ry
' t o s i n g v e r y b e a u t i f u l l y 1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
218
/L e e g < pukae c e e g - k e e /
p l a y < b e - s k i l l f u l m o s t - o f - a l l
' t o p l a y t h e m ost s k i l l f u l l y '
In n e g a t i v e p h r a s e s o f t h e above ty p e , t h e n e g a t i v e
a u x i l i a r y o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e a t t r i b u t e , and t h e n e g a t e d
a t t r i b u t e i s i n a t t r i b u t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n : w i t h t h e h e a d
v e r b :
/w a y < m in k l a g / ( h i t < n e g . h a r d ) ' t o h i t l i g h t l y '
When t h e h e a d v e r b i s s e p a r a t e d from i t s a t t r i b u t e by
an lr ife rven ing o b j e c t , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s d i s c o n t i n u o u s *
/w ay ( s k o e ) < k l a g n a h /
h i t (drum ) < h a r d v e r y
' t o h i t t h e drum v e r y h a r d '
3 ) a c t i v e v e r b < a d j e c t i v e o r a d j e c t i v e se q u e n c e
/ n l y e o y < r i o y - r i e y /
s p e a k < c o n t i n u a l l y
' t o t a l k c o n t i n u a l l y '
/ t w e e - k a a < n ik - n o o p n a h /
w ork < q u i c k l y v e r y
' t o w ork v e ry q u i c k l y '
I n v e r b p h r a s e s i n v o l v i n g a s e r i e s o f n o n - c o o r d i n a t e
a d j e c t i v e s , e a c h s u c c e e d in g a d j e c t i v e i s a t t r i b u t i v e t o a l l
t h a t p r e c e d e s , .e .g .*
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219
/ n i y e o y < b o n t s c ^ tow < t i e t /
t a l k < a - l i t t l e < on < f u r t h e r
• t a l k on a l i t t l e l o n g e r ’
When a s e r i e s o f a d j e c t i v e s i s c o o r d i n a t e , t h e e n t i r e
s e r i e s i s a t t r i b u t i v e t o t h e v e r b h e a d , e . g . :
/da© < r u u t - r e © h + n4k-no©p + p r o n a p - p r o n a l , /
. 1 t o r u s h '
Ij.) a c t i v e v e r b < p r e p o s i t i o n o r p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e
/ t o w < 1 ©©/ (go < ab o v e ) ' t o go a b o v e '
/ d a q < knog h © p / ( p u t < i n b ox ) ' p u t i n t h e box '
/no w < qae p t e e h / ( re m a in < a t h o u s e ) ' t o be a t home'
When an o b j e c t i n t e r v e n e s b e tw een t h e h e a d v e r b and
i t s a t t r i b u t e , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s d i s c o n t i n u o u s , e . g . :
/ d a q (siewphow n i h ) < 1 ©© t o k /
p u t (book t h i s ) < on t a b l e
' p u t t h i s book on t h e t a b l e *
5 ) a d j e c t i v a l v e rb < a c t lv re v e r b
/ l q o o < m e© l/ ( p r e t t y < s e e ) ' p r e t t y t o lo o k a t '
/ s r u o l < tw©©/ (e a s y < d o ) ' e a s y t o d o '
/ p i r u e h < s d a p / ( p l e a s i n g ( t o t h e e a r ) < h e a r )
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
w alk < e n e r g e t i c a l l y + q u i c k l y + h u r r i e d l y
'p l e a s i n g t o h e a r '
220
6 ) a d j e c t i v a l v e r b < noun
/ c h 44 < k b a a l / ( i l l < h e a d ) ' t o have a h e a d a c h e '
/ s o p b a a y < c o t / (happy < h e a r t ) ' t o be h a p p y '
/ p r o k < s l s k - t n a o t / ( t h a t c h e d < s u g a r -p a lm l e a v e s )
' t o be t h a t c h e d w i t h s u g a r - p a lm l e a v e s '
. 7 ) a c t i v e v e rb < noun o r p ro n o u n
/ t w e e - k a a < y u p / (work < n i g h t ) ' t o work aJb n i g h t '
/da© l e e q < p t e e h m i t / (w alk p l a y < h o u se f r i e n d )
' t o go v i s i t i n g [ a t a ] f r i e n d ' s h o u s e '
I f an o b j e c t i n t e r v e n e s , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s d i s c o n
t i n u o u s , e . g . :
/ tw s© (mhoop) < k l u e n - q a e g /
m a k e ^ (fo o d ) < o n e s e l f
' t o do o n e ' s own c o o k in g '
8 ) a c t i v e v e rb < s p e c i f i e r p h r a s e
/h a w < b e y m a t /
c a l l < t h r e e u t t e r a n c e s
• t o c a l l t h r e e t im e s '
/ (k n o m ) m ae l (siowphow n u h ) < b e y cop h a e y , / . /
( I ) r e a d (book t h a t ) < t h r e e c o m p le t io n a l r e a d y
' I ' v e r e a d t h a t book t h r e e t i m e s , '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
221
£*2114- P o s t - p o s e d s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s a r e a t t r i b u t i v e t o a l l
t h a t p r e c e d e s them, i n t h e same u t t e r a n c e .
/raaok < qaoy l i o n ! . /
come < i n - o r d e r - t h a t f a s t
•Come q u i c k l y ! '%
/knom tow rain baan < p i p r u a h mean k a a tw o s 4 . /
I go n e g . a b le < b e c a u s e h a v e work do
' I c a n ’ t go b e c a u s e [ I ] h a v e work t o d o . ’ *
/ y a a g tow n a a k o o -d a o y < k o ra -q a o y - ta e l a a n k h o o c i . /
we go anyw here a t - a l l < o n l y - i f - n o t c a r b e -b r o k e n
’We c a n go anyw here a t a l l so l o n g a s t h e c a r d o e s n ’ t
b r e a k d o w n . '
5 .2 2 P re p o s e d a t t r i b u t e s ( > )
5 .2 2 1 A u x i l i a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f an a u x i l i a r y (I4. . 6 )
a s p r e p o s e d a t t r i b u t e , f o l lo w e d by a v e r b , v e r b p h r a s e , o r
p r e d i c a t i o n a s h e a d . E x am p le s :
/ t a a p - t a e > raaok d o l p r o t e e h k m ae /
j u s t now > come a r r i v e c o u n t r y Cambodia
’ h a s j u s t now a r r i v e d i n C am bodia’
/ (k n o m ) min > k i t tow t e e ! . /
( I ) n e g . > t h i n k go (em p h a tic p a r t i c l e )
’ I ’m n o t p l a n n i n g t o g o . '
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222
/ k u e - t a e > l o o k t r p l o p tow p lew n i h i l ' . /
p r o p e r l y > you r e t u r n go way t h i s
•You s h o u ld go b a c k t h i s w a y .1
I n s e q u e n c e s o f p r e v e r b a l a u x i l i a r i e s , t h e n e g a t i v e
a u x i l i a r y f o l l o w s a l l o t h e r a u x i l i a r i e s , t h e i n c i p i e n t
a u x i l i a r y p r e c e d e s t h e n e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r y , and a l l o t h e r
a u x i l i a r i e s p r e c e d e t h e i n c i p i e n t a u x i l i a r y . E ach member
o f t h e s e q u e n c e i s s u c c e s s i v e l y a t t r i b u t i v e t o a l l t h a t
f o l l o w s , e . g . *
/ ( t g a y - n i h knom) c i t > n i g > min raaok tw ae-lcaa t e e ' k /t
( t o d a y I ) n e a r l y > f u t u r e > n e g . > come w ork ( e m p h . p a r t . )
' I n e a r l y d i d n ’ t come t o work t o d a y . 1
5 .2 2 2 Modal v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a m odal v e r b a s
p r e p o s e d a t t r i b u t e , f o l lo w e d by a v e r b o r v e r b p h r a s e as
h e a d . Exam ples*
/ k i t > t o w / ( t h i n k > g o ) ’ p la n t o g o ’
/ c a p > tw a a - k a a t i i - m i h /
b e g in > w ork t h e r e
’ b e g in w o rk in g t h e r e ’
/ (k n o m ) t l o e p > tow mdoog h a Q y 'k /
( I ) h a v e e v e r > go once a l r e a d y
' I ' v e ‘gone once a l r e a d y . ’
In s e q u e n c e s o f m odal v e r b s , e a c h member o f t h e s e
quence i s s u c c e s s i v e l y a t t r i b u t i v e t o a l l t h a t f o l l o w s .
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223
In t h e f o l l o w in g ex am p le , / d a e l / , / b a a n / , and / r i e n / a r e
m odal v e r b s .
/ (k n o m r a in - to e n ) d a e l > baan > r i a n > n iy e e y y p h e e s a a can I . . /
( I n o t - y e t ) e v e r > g e t - t o > l e a r n > s p e a k la n g u a g e C h in ese
• I ’ ve n e v e r y e t h a d t h e c h an ce t o l e a r n t o sp e a k C h i n e s e . ’
I f a m odal v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n a c o n t a i n s an i n d i r e c t
s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t , b u t n o t a d i r e c t o b j e c t , t h e i n d i r e c t
o b j e c t f o l lo w s t h e m a in c v e r b ^ - a s f o l l o w s :
If . , h o w ev er , t h e m odal v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t a i n s b o th a
d i r e c t and an i n d i r e c t o b j e c t , t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t f o l lo w s
t h e m ain v e r b , and th e i n d i r e c t o b j e c t i s p r e c e d e d by th e
d i r e c t i o n a l v e r b / q a o y / ’ t o givej* t o , f o r ' , a s f o l l o w s :
5 .2 2 3 A t t r l b u t e > c l a u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f an a d v e r b
i a l (I4..I4- ) , p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e , o r a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e
a s a t t r i b u t e , w i t h a l l t h a t f o l l o w s i n t h e same c o n s t r u c t i o n
a s h e a d . S u b o r d i n a te c l a u s e a t t r i b u t e s may be m arked by a
s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n (!+. 7 2 ) o r t h e y may be unm arked .
/
/ c u e y > l e a p » l o o k /
h e l p > p a i n t » you
• h e l p you p a i n t '
/ c u e y > l e e p » ro b o o g < qao y » l o o k /
h e l p > p a i n t » f e n c e < f o r » you
' h e l p you p a i n t t h e f e n c e '
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
22k
P re p o s e d a t t r i b u t e s a r e t y p i c a l l y s e p a r a t e d f ro m t h e h e a d
w h ich f o l lo w s by t h e r i s i n g p h r a s e c o n to u r / t / .
A d v e r b i a l ? / q o n c e g l 1 > tow I . /
i n - t h a t - c a s e > go\
• I n t h a t q a s e , [ l e t ' s ] g o . 1
/ t Q a y - n i h f > .knom m in -sew so p b a a y t e e / . /
t o d a y > I h a r d l y w e l l em p h a tic p a r t i c l e
' I 'm n o t so w e l l t o d a y . '
P re p o s e d a d v e r b i a l a t t r i b u t e s m o d ify a f o l l o w in g c l a u s e
a s t o mode;1 p l a c e , and t im e . When more th a n one s u c h a t t r i
b u t e o c c u r s , m odal a t t r i b u t e s t y p i c a l l y p r e c e d e l o c a t i o n a l
' a t t r i b u t e s , and l o c a t i o n a l a t t r i b u t e s p r e c e d e te m p o r a l
a t t r i b u t e s , and e ach i s i n t u r n a t t r i b u t i v e t o a l l t h a ti
f o l l o w s , a s in t h e f o l lo w in g example?
/ th o o m m ed a a f > t i i - n u h t > k h a e - m in a a f > q a ak a ah kdaw n a h / . /
7 ~u s u a l l y > t h e r e > m onth-M arch > w e a th e r b e - h o t v e r y
*Th6: w e a th e r i s u s u a l l y v e r y h o t t h e r e in M a rc h . '
P r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e a t t r i b u t e ?
/knoQ p r o t e e h n u h f > r o o k - s i i p ib a a q n a h / . /
i n c o u n t r y t h a t > e a r n - a - l i v l n g b e - d i f f i c u l t v e r y
' I n t h a t c o u n t r y , i t ' s v e ry d i f f i c u l t t o e a r n a l i v i n g . '
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225
/ k r a o y - p i i t g a y nuh m aokf > knom min khaan monuh nuh t i e t ^ . /
a f t e r day t h a t onward > I n e g . s e e p e r s o n t h a t a g a in
1 Prom t h a t day o n , I n e v e r saw t h a t man a g a i n . 1
S u b o r d in a te c l a u s e a t t r i b u t e i
/ b a a l o o k cog tow ^ > knom tow cea -m uey lo o k koo b a a n | . /
i f you w ant go > I go w i th you t h e n a b l e
1 I f you w an t t o g o , t h e n I can go w i th y o u . 1
/ l o o k can p i i s r o k n i h h a s y 'f > k i t tow q a e - n a a t i e t 4 . /
you l e a v e from d i s t r i c t t h i s a l r e a d y > t h i n k go w here more
•When you l e a v e h e r e , w here e l s e do you p l a n t o g o ? 1
~ -;'i ' I n t h e f o l l o w i n g a t t r i b u t i v e c l a u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e
c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e m arked by c o r r e l a t i v e c o n ju n c t i o n s
Oi.721)./ d b e t qawpuk mean p r a q f > t a e knom min s o m - t e e l . /
~7~ T ~a l t h o u g h f a t h e r h a v e money > b u t I n e g . a s k - f o r f i r r a l - p a r t ,
’ A lth o u g h [my] f a t h e r h a s money, n e v e r t h e l e s s I d o n ’ t a s k
[h im ] f o r [ i t ] . ’ .
5 . 2 Z \ S p e c i f i e r p h r a s e s c o n s i s t o f a q u a n t i f i e r (L}..2l|.) o r
s e q u e n c e o f q u a n t i f i e r s (n u m e r a ls ) a s p r e p o s e d a t t r i b u t e ,
f o l lo w e d by a s p e c i f i e r a s h e a d . S p e c i f i e r p h r a s e s , e x c e p t
t h o s e i n v o l v i n g in d e p e n d e n t s p e c i f i e r s (ty.2 2 3 ) , a r e i n t u r n
a t t r i b u t i v e t o a noun o r v e rb h e a d .
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226
E x am p les : / (m o n u h <) b oy > n e a q /
(human < ) t h r e e > p e r s o n
' t h r e e p e r s o n s '
/ ( r u a t - y u a n k r o l a p < ) b a y > t r o l o p ^ . /
( c a r o v e r t u r n < ) t h r e e > r e v o l u t i o n s
'T h e c a r o v e r t u r n e d t h r e e t i m e s . '
/ ( k o a t t i f i s iaw phow < ) c r a a n > k b a a l 'K /
(h e buy book < ) many > volume
* He b o u g h t many b o o k s . 1
S p e c i f i e r p h r a s e s i n v o l v i n g i n d e p e n d e n t s p e c i f i e r s
may o c c u r w i t h o u t a h e a d a s t o p i c s , s u b j e c t , o b j e c t s , and
a t t r i b u t e s :
As t o p i c :
/ p i i > k h a e t n u h t 0 knom ra in -sew s k o a l t e e l . /
two > p r o v i n c e t h a t 0 I h a r d l y know f i n a l - p a r t .
'T h o se two p r o v i n c e s , I 'm n o t v e r y f a m i l i a r w i t h . '
As s u b j e c t :
/ b a y :> lp la e n i h | m in -sew l q o o t e e I . /
t h r e e > f r u i t t h i s | h a r d l y good f i n a l - p a r t .
'T h e s e t h r e e f r u i t s a r e n o t so good .*
As o b j e c t :
/k nom co$ t i n >> pram > k i l o o l . /
I w ant b u y » f i v e > k i l o
' I ' d l i k e t o buy f i v e k i l o . '
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227
As a t t r i b u t e :
/ p i i > cnara h a o y > knom baan tw oe-dom nae tow b a r a g ’k /
two > y e a r a l r e a d y > I a b l e t r a v e l go P ra n c e
'Two y e a r s a g o , I g o t t h e c h a n c e t o go t o P r a n c e . 1
5 . 3 C o o r d in a te c o n s t r u c t i o n s
C o o r d in a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s any o f
w hose im m e d ia te c o n s t i t u e n t s can s u b s t i t u t e s y n t a c t i c a l l y
f o r t h e e n t i r e c o n s t i t u t e .
5 ,3 1 C u m u la t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( , )
C u m u la t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose
m ean ing i s t h e sum. o f t h e m ean in g s o f i t s c o o r d i n a t e c o n
s t i t u e n t s .
5 .3 1 1 C u m u la t iv e noun c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose
c u m u la t iv e c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e nouns o r noun p h r a s e s . S eq uences
o f two c u m u la t iv e c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e u s u a l l y s e p a r a t e d by a
c o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n (Li-.7lj-) m ean ing ' a n d ' o r 'w i t h * .
I f a s e q u e n c e o f m ore th an two c o n s t i t u e n t s i n c l u d e s a
c o o r d i n a t i n g r e l a t o r , i t o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e l a s t c o n s t i t u e n t .
Such r e l a t o r s o c c u r i n . th e same p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e w i th
t h e c o n s t i t u e n t t h e y p r e c e d e , and so a r e w r i t t e n t o t h e
r i g h t o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n ; symbol i n t h e ex am ples be low :
/knom , h a e y - n i g lo o k (tow cee -rau o y -k n eo s e n '! '.) /
I , and you (go t o g e t h e r p o l i t e - i m p e r a t i v e )
' L e t ' s you and I go t o g e t h e r . '
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228
/ ' ( k o o t mean) l a a n kmaw mu©y4 , l a a n krohoom m u o y l . /
(he h a v e ) c a r b e - b l a c k one , c a r b e - r e d one
•He h a s a b l a c k c a r [arid] a r e d c a r . '
/ (k n o m t r o w - k a a t i n ) s k o o f , q o g k o o f , h a o y - n i g t a e l . /
( I n e e d buy) s u g a r , h u s k e d - r i c e , and t e a
' I h a v e t o buy s u g a r , r i c e , and t e a . 1
£ .3 1 2 C u m u la t iv e v e rb c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s vrhose
c u m u la t iv e c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e v e rb s o r v e r b p h r a s e s .
/ ( k e e ) raaok pnum -pin , r o o k k a a tw o © I . /
( t h e y ) come Phnom-Penh , h u n t - f o r w ork do
1 They come t o Phnom Penh and f i n d w o r k .1
/ ( t i k ) t l e o q maok l o o t ra o o l , hoo w in f , qogkan lq o o n a l r k . /
( w a te r ) f a l l come on r o c k , f lo w b a ck , r i p p l e p r e t t y v e ry .
•The w a te r f a l l s down on t h e r o c k s and f lo w s away, r i p p l i n g
v e r y p r e t t i l y . 1
/ (k n o m t ro w ) t i n ro b o h p s e e g - p s e e g t , h ao y k a t s o q l . /
( I m u s t) buy t h i n g s v a r i o u s , and c u t h a i r
• I hav e t o buy s e v e r a l t h i n g s and g e t a h a i r - c u t . ’
5 .3 1 3 C u m u la t iv e a d j e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
whose c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e a d j e c t i v e s i n c u m u la t iv e r a t h e r th a n
a t t r i b u t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n ; Such c o n s t r u c t i o r s u s u a l l y i n v o lv e
t h e c o n c a t e n a t i o n o f r o u g h ly synonymous a d j e c t i v e s w i t h an
i n t e n s i f i e d m ean in g , a s in t h e f o l l o w i n g ex am p les :
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229
/ ( p r o h nuh c e h - ta e dae le e g ) h i i - h a a , caefl-maeij ( n e h l . ) /
(man t h a t always walk p la y ) s e l f - im p o r ta n t , proud P
{That man always goes around in a s e l f - im p o r ta n t and
fflam boyant m anner. '
/ ( k e e dae) r u u t - r e e h , p a t - n a t , p ro n ap -p ro n a l ( tow K ) /
(he walk) e n e r g e t i c a l l y , q u ic k ly , h u r r i e d ly (p ro g re s s iv e )
•He was w alking along h u r r i e d ly and e n e r g e t i c a l l y . 1
£•31^ Cumulative c la u se c o n s t ru c t io n s a re c o n s t ru c t io n s /
whose cum ula tive c o n s t i tu e n t s a re c la u s e s . The c o n s t ru c t io n
may o r may n o t be marked by a c o o rd in a t in g r e l a t o r .
/ l o o k tow munt , knom. maok ta a m K /
you go b e fo re , I come fo llo w
•You go f i r s t , and I ' l l f o l lo w . '
/knom cee k ru u f , haoy-n&Q boog ceo k r u u - p e e t l . /
I be te a c h e r , and e ld e r be d o c to r
' I ' m a te a c h e r , and [my] e ld e r [ b ro th e r ] i s a d o c t o r . '
-■$•31^1 In th e fo llo w in g c o n s t ru c t io n , th e c o o rd in a te c la u s e s
a r e marked by p a i r e d c o o rd in a t in g c o n ju n c t io n s (Ij., 7k2)t
/p room -teeq knom tw ee-kaa baek-boo t a q s i i i , h ao y -n in propuen
tw99-kaa lu e q p s a a l . /
a t - th e -s a m e - t im e I work d r iv e t a x i , and w ife work s e l l
market
' I .work d r iv in g a t a x i , and a t th e same tim e [my] w ife s e l l s
t i n ] th e m a rk e t . '
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230
5>,32 A l t e r n a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
A l t e r n a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose
c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e s e m a n t ic a l t e r n a t i v e s , Such c o n s t r u c t i o n s
may o r may n o t be m arked by t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g r e l a t o r / r i i /
' o r ' . I f a s e q u e n c e o f a l t e r n a t i v e s i n c l u d e s t h e a l t e r n a t i v e
m a rk e r / r 4 i / , i t o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e l a s t member o f t h e s e
q u e n c e . / r 4 4 / i s a p u r e m a rk e r , and d o e s n o t e n t e r i n t o t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n w hich i t m ark s . I t t y p i c a l l y o c c u r s s im u l
t a n e o u s l y w i t h r-the p h r a s e c o n to u r / f / , and i s t h u s t h e s o l e
c o n s t i t u e n t o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e . Where i t o c c u r s i n
t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s , i t i s p r e c e d e d a n d f o l lo w e d by t h e
c o n s t r u c t io n ^ s y m b o l .
/ b e y / buen ( t q a y t i e t ) /
t h r e e / f o u r (d ay m ore)
' i n t h r e e Lor] f o u r d a y s '
/ ( t l a y ) h a a - s e p / r 4 4 / h o k - s e p ( r i e l p o n n o h l , ) /
( b e - w o r th ) f i f t y / o r / s i x t y ( r i e l o n ly )
' [ I t ' s ] w o r th o n ly f i f t y o r s i x t y r i e l s . '
/ p r o h \ / s r e y ' t . /
m a le / f e m a le
' [ I s i t ] a boy [ o r i s i t ] a g i r l ? '
/ ( ra e e n p o e ) k r o h o o m f / / k h i e w t / r 4 4 / (p o e ) s o o f . /
(have c o l o r ) r e d / b lu e / o r / ( c o l o r ) w h i te
'[W e] h av e r e d , b l u e , o r w h i te c o l o r s . '
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231
/ { l o o k k 4 t tow ) taam k o p a l - h o h / r i i / ta a m k o p a l t . /
(you t h i n k g o ) by a i r p l a n e / o r / by s h i p
•Do you p la n t o go by p l a n e c o r by s h i p ? 1,
5 .3 2 1 In t h e f o l lo w in g a l t e r n a t i v e c l a u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e
c o o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s a r e m arked by p a r a l l e l c o o r d i n a t i n g
con . ju n c t io n s (lj..7i £ ) .
/ r i i f knom tow s r o k b a r a g s a e h / r i i f knom tow s r o k q o g k le e h 'J ' . /
o r I go c o u n t r y F re n c h / o r I go c o u n t r y E n g l i s h
• I 'm g o in g e i t h e r t o F ra n c e o r t o E n g la n d . '
5 .3 2 2 In t h e f o l l o w in g c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e a l t e r n a t i v e
c l a u s e s a r e m arked b y p o s t - p o s e d p a r a l l e l c o o r d i n a t i n g -
con . ju n c t io n s (1| . 71+2 ) .
/ q 9w proom. kdey t / m in proom kdoy f (knom tow h a © y | . ) /
f a t h e r a g r e e w h e th e r / n e g . a g r e e w h e th e r ( I go p e r f . - p a r t . )
'W h e th e r F a t h e r a g r e e s o r d o e s n ' t a g r e e , I 'm g o in g
. n e v e r t h e l e s s . '
5 .33 A p p o s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( : )
A p p o s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t i s a noun o r noun p h r a s e and whose se c o n d c o n
s t i t u e n t i s a s u p p le m e n ta ry i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t .
E x am p le s : / l o o k : s i m /
p o l i t e - t i t l e : Sim
'M r. Sim'
1Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
232
/m onuh y e eg * t e e g k ro o , t e e g r i h /
human we * i n c l u d i n g p o o r , i n c l u d i n g r i c h
’ we hum ans, b o th t h e p o o r and t h e r i c h 1
In s e q u e n c e s o f a p p o s i t i o n s , e a c h s u c c e e d in g a p p o s i t i o n
i s a p p o s i t i v e t o a l l p r e c e d in g a p p o s i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s :
/ ( n i h 0 ) lo o k : s im » m i t knom ̂ .7
zzz_z- -y-( t h i s 0) Mr. : Sim : f r i e n d my
’ T h is ( i s ] Mr. Sim, my f r i e n d . '
5 > . I n c l u s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( . . . )
An i n c l u s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n ; - i s any c o n s t r u c t i o n w h ich
i n c l u d e s one o f t h e pause p a r t i c l e s ( 1+*8 2 ) o r any o t h e r
i n s e r t e d m a t e r i a l a s a c o - c o n s t i t u e n t o f a d i s c o n t i n u o u s
s e n t e n c e . In t h e f o l l o w i n g e x am p le s , t h e i n c l u s i v e c o n
s t r u c t i o n sym bol i s p l a c e d on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e i n c l u d e d
c o - c o n s t i t u e n t .
/d o o c c n o h y o e $ . . , n a e . . . c u e y p r o t e e j i y e e g b a a n i1. /
th u s w e . . . e r . . . h e l p c o u n t r y o u r a b l e/*
'T h u s w e . . . e r . . . c a n h e l p o u r c o u n t r y . '
/k n o m . . , k 4 4 - t h a a . . . ra in -sew s k o e l b o o r iw e e n n i h t e e ’K /
I . . . t h a t - i s - t o - s a y . . . h a r d l y know a r e a t h i s f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
' I . . . t h a t i s t o s a y . . . d o n ' t know t h i s a r e a v e r y w e l l . '
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233
5,lj. N u m e ric a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s
S eq u e n ce s o f n u m e r ic a l lex em es (lj.;2l4l) s t a n d i n e i t h e r
a d d i t i v e o r m u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n , i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
p a t t e r n :
1 ) a l a r g e r n u m e ra l f o l lo w e d by a s m a l l e r n u m e ra l a r e
i n a d d i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n :
2 ) a s m a l l e r n u m e ra l f o l lo w e d by a l a r g e r n u m e ra l a r e
. i n m u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
5.U1 A d d i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( + )
/m o p h iy + m uey / ( tw e n ty + o n e ) ' t w e n t y - o n e 1
/ r o o y + h a a - s e p / ,
o n e -h u n d re d + f i f t y
'o n e h u n d re d and f i f t y '
5 . i |2 M u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( x )
/p ra m 7: r o s y / ( f i v e x 100) ' 5 0 0 '
/p ra m x p o e n / ( f i v e x 1 0 0 0 ) ' 5 0 0 0 '
The n o n - n u m e r ic a l q u a n t i f i e r s /p o n m a a n / 'how many' and
/ c r a e n / 'm any ' s h a r e w i th t h e n u m e ra ls f o r t h e num bers 1 -9 '
t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o c c u r r i n g a s m u l t i p l i e r s :
/ (m o n u h ,n u h meen p r a q ) c ra o n x poen ( r i o l ) i . /
(man t h a t h a v e money) many x th o u s a n d ( r i e l )
•T h a t man h a s many th o u s a n d s o f r i e l s . '
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23k
$ , k 3 Any n u m e ra l c o n s t r u c t c o n t a i n i n g more t h a n two n u m e ra l
le x e m e s i n v o l v e s b o th a d d i t i v e and m u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ,
e . g . *
/ b e y x meen + pram x poen + pram bey x r o e y + h a a - s e p - p r a m // / / / l / / Z . /
z----------zt h r e e x t e n - t h o u s a n d + f i v e x th o u s a n d + e i g h t x h u n d re d +
f i f t y - f i v e
•38,855'
Im m ed ia te c o n s t i t u e n t a n a l y s i s
In t h e f o l l o w i n g two im m e d ia te c o n s t i t u e n t d ia g r a m s ,
a l l t h e m a jo r c o n s t r u c t i o n t y p e s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r
a r e i l l u s t r a t e d , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e i n c l u s i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n ty p e ( f o r w h ich s e e 5 . 3^-)*
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced
with perm
ission of the
copyright ow
ner. Further
reproduction prohibited
without
permission.
1 ) / b a a t I monuh < y e e g : t e e n 4 p r o h > t e e n 4 s r e y I. t r e w > cencem » c i i w i t ' k // j zJLLy / l___ ___ /
/ 7----------
' ■ - . - T -........7
j
y e s Q human < we * I n c l u d i n g 4 m a le , i n c l u d i n g : 4 f e m a le j m u s t > s u p p o r t » l i f e
'Y e s , we hum ans, b o t h men an d women, m u s t e a r n a l i v i n g . 1
2 ) / b a e 4 l q o o > knom | q ao y » p i i x r o e y + h a a - s e p > r i e l j b a a n l . // / / / L____ /Z z /
z 1
i f 4 p r e t t y > I | g i v e » two x h u n d r e d + f i f t y > r i e l j a b l e
’ I f [ i t ’ s ] p r e t t y , I c a n g i v e two h u n d re d f i f t y r i e l s [ f o r i t ] . ’
ruwvn
236
6 .0 S e n te n c e Types ^
6 .1 M ajor s e n t e n c e s
A m a jo r s e n t e n c e i s any s e n t e n c e w h ich c o n t a i n s a . ; ly
p r e d i c a t i o n ( l | . ,3 ) .
6 .1 1 S im p le s e n t e n c e s '
A s im p le s e n t e n c e i s any s e n t e n c e w h ich c o n t a i n s o n ly
one p r e d i c a t i o n .
E xam ples:
. / t o w ! . / (go) ' [ L e t ’ s ) g o ! '
( / l a a n lo o k poo q w o y 'h / ) / k r o h o o m l . /
( c a r you c o l o r w h a t) r e d
('"What c o l o r i s y o u r c a r ? ' ) ' [ . I t ! 6] r e d . '
/kom p h iy n o h ! . /
d o n ' t b e - a f r a i d e x h o r t a t i v e - f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
'D o n ' t be a f r a i d , n o w . '
/ k o o t tow h a o y I . /
h e go a l r e a d y
'H e ’ s a l r e a d y g o n e . '
/ r i o Q kon n u h f knom m4n d a e l b aan khoon t e e I . /
s t o r y f i l m t h a t I n e g . e v e r g e t - t o s e e n e g . - f i n . - p a r t .
'T h a t m o v ie , I ' v e n e v e r h a d a c h a n c e t o s e e . '
1 . S e n te n c e i s d e f i n e d in 5 .0 .
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237
6 .1 2 Complex s e n t e n c e s
A com plex s e n t e n c e i s any s e n t e n c e w h ich c o n t a i n s a t
l e a s t one s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e . I n t h e f o l l o w in g e x a m p le s ,
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tw een t h e c la u p e s ^ i . s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e
a p p r o p r i a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n sym bol.
/c a m < d o l knom m ao lc^ ./
w a i t < u n t i l I come
’W ait u n t i l I c o m e .1
/knom khoon » monuh nuh r u o t con p i i p t e o h l . /
I s e e » man t h a t ru n e x i t f rom h o u s e
* I saw t h a t man ru n o u t o f th e . h o u s e . ’
/ b a o l o o k cog t i n qwoyl* > qoncoon t o w l . /
i f you w ish buy so m e th in g > ' i n v i t e ’ e x h o r t a t i v e - p a r t i c l e
1 I f you w ant t o buy s o m e th in g , go a h e a d . ’
/ tum room knom k ro o f ' > ba© qowpuk meon p r a q l >
t a e knom min heon som t e e l . /
e v e n - i f I b e - p o o r > i f f a t h e r my h a v e money >
b u t I n e g . d a re a s k - f o r n e g . - p a r t i c l e
’Even th o u g h I ’m p o o r , i f my f a t h e r h a d money,
I w o u ld n ’ t d a re a s k [ f o r som e].*
/ r a i t tow k d o y i / min tow k d o y t > knom tow d a e l , /
f r i e n d go w h e th e r / n o t go w h e th e r > I go anyhox-j
’W hether you ( f r i e n d ) go o r n o t , I ’m g o in g a n y h o w .’
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238
6 .1 3 Compound s e n t e n c e s
A compound s e n t e n c e is- any s e n t e n c e w h ic h c o n t a i n s a t
l e a s t two c o o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , n e i t h e r o f w h ich i s i t s e l f a
c o n s t i t u e n t o f a l a r g e r s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e ( s e e t h e l a s t
exam ple under. 6 , 1 2 ) . Such c l a u s e s a r e e i t h e r c u m u la t iv e
( 5 . 311J-) o r a l t e r n a t i v e (5 . 3 2 ) i n c o n s t r u c t i o n i
Exam ples}
/ l o o k tow / r i i f / m in t o w f . /
you go / o r / n e g . go
'A r e you g o in g o r n o t ( g o i n g ) ? 1
/ p i i yup m i n f y o e g tow m ea l k o n t , r u e c tow nam b i y e o 'K /
f ro m n i g h t l a s t we go s e e f i l m , t h e n go e a t / d r i n k b e e r
'L a s t n i g h t , we w en t t o s e e a f i l m , t h e n w ent and
d r a n k b e e r . *
/ b a e l o o k co g tow s q a e k f knom tow b a a n ^ ,
p o n t a e knom tow t g a y - n i h min b aan t e e f . /
i f you w an t go tom orrow I go a b l e , b u t I go to d a y
n e g , a b l e n e g a t i v e - f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
' I f y o u w ant t o go tom orrow , I c an g o , b u t I c a n ' t go
t o d a y . *
<6.2 M inor s e n t e n c e s
A m in o r s e n t e n c e i s any s e n t e n c e w hich do es n o t c o n t a i n
a p r e d i c a t i o n . I t may c o n s i s t o f any s i n g l e lexem e o r
s y n t a c t i c p h r a s e ( o t h e r t h a n a p r e d i c a t i o n ) w h ic h f u l f i l l s
t h e s e n t e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t o f s im u l t a n e o u s o c c u r r e n c e w i t h an
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
I n to n a t i o n ( 5 . 0 ) .
Exam ples*
/ m a e t . /
i n t e r j e c t i o n o f s u r p r i s e o r annbyance
1 W e i l l 1
( / l o o k tow q o g k a l f . / ) / s q a e k ' k /
(you go when) tom orrow
('V/hen a r e you g o i n g ? ' ) 'T o m o rro w .1
( / l o o k mean koon ponmaah n e s q 'f ' . / ) / b a y n e a q p o n n o h 'l ' . /
(you h a v e c h i l d how-many p e r s o n ) t h r e e p e r s o n o n ly
.(•How may c h i l d r e n do you h a v e ? ' ) 'O n ly t h r e e . '
/ l a a n kmaw n i h 0 l a a n ro b o h knom I . /
c a r b l a c k t h i s 0 c a r o f me
'T h i s b l a c k c a r [ i s ] ray c a r . 1
/ k o o n - p r o h knom f 0 qaayuq pram c n a m i . /
c h i l d - m a l e my 0 ag e f i v e y e a r
'My son [ i s ] f i v e y e a r s o l d . '
6 , 3 S e n te n c e f r a g m e n ts
A s e n t e n c e f r a g m e n t i s any u t t e r a n c e w hich o c c u r s w i th
an in c o m p le te i n t o n a t i o n as a r e s u l t o f an u n a n t i c i p a t e d
i n t e r r u p t i o n . Such f r a g m e n ts do n o t q u a l i f y y a s s e n t e n c e s .
Any u t t e r a n c e , h o w e v e r , w h ich i s i n t e n t i o n a l l y i n t e r r u p t e d
o r s u s p e n d e d o c c u r s w i t h t y p i c a l p a u s e i n t o n a t i o n , and i s
t h u s a m in o r s e n t e n c e t y p e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX A
1 . 0 Com partson o f t h e Takeo D i a l e c t w i t h S t a n d a r d Cambodian
1 .1 S ta n d a r d Cambodian
S ta n d a r d Cambodian i s h e r e d e f i n e d a s t h e fo rm o f th e
n a t i o n a l w r i t t e n la n g u a g e w h ich i s t a u g h t i n t h e s c h o o l s ,
sp oken by e d u c a te d s p e a k e r s , and u s e d f o r mass co m m u n ica tio n .
W hile t h i s i d e a l i z e d fo rm o f t h e la n g u a g e p e rh a p s doe's n o t
o c c u r a s a c o l l o q u i a l d i a l e c t i n any r e g i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y ,
i t seems t o be b e s t r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e d i a l e c t s sp o k en i n
t h e p r o v in c e s im m e d ia te ly s u r r o u n d in g K and a l ( t h e p r o v in c e
i n w hich Phnom Penh i s l o c a t e d ) , s u c h a s P re y Veng, Kampong
Speu , Kampong Chhnang, and Kampong Cham,'*'
The d i a l e c t s o f Cambodian a r e r e m a r k a b ly hom ogeneous,
and t h e d e g re e o f d i a l e c t v a r i a t i o n seem s t o be r o u g h ly
c o m p a rab le t o t h a t be tw een t h e v a r i o u s d i a l e c t s o f A m erican
E n g l i s h , Even t h e Cambodian d i a l e c t s sp o k e n i n . n o r t h e a s t e r n
T h a i la n d and w e s te r n S o u th V ie tnam a p p e a r t o be m u tu a l ly
c o m p re h e n s ib le w i th t h e d i a l e c t s sp o k en i n Cambodia, t h e
d i f f e r e n c e s b e in g p e rh a p s on t h e o r d e r o f t h o s e b e tw een
B r i t i s h and Am erican E n g l i s h ,
The lo c u s o f g r e a t e s t d i a l e c t v a r i a t i o n i s t h e vow el
sy s te m , and i t i s w i th r e g a r d t o t h e vow el sy s te m t h a t t h e•r
d i a l e c t d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o r e g o i n g w ork d i f f e r s m ost from
S ta n d a rd Cambodian,
1 , N o t, how ev er , t h e p r o v in c e o f K an da l i t s e l f ; s e e b e low ,
2k.O
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
■ 2 ia
I n t h e Cambodian w r i t i n g s y s te m , t h e r e a r e two d u p l i c a t e
s e t s o f c o n s o n a n ts w h ich a r e p h o n e t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l i n p r o
n u n c i a t i o n . A l th o u g h some c o n s o n a n t sy m b o ls l a c k a c o u n t e r
p a r t i n t h e o p p o s i t e s e t , t h e y can b e c o n v e r t e d b y t h e u s e
o f s p e c i a l d i a c r i t i c s . The vow el sym bols t h e n r e p r e s e n t one
s e t o f v o w e ls when w r i t t e n w i t h one s e t o f c o n s o n a n t s , and
a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f vo w els when w r i t t e n w i t h t h e o t h e r s e t o f
c o n s o n a n t s . H enderson^ h a s t e rm e d t h e s e two s e t s o f vow els
’ • f i r s t r e g i s t e r ’ ’ and ’ ’ se c o n d r e g i s t e r ’ ’ v o w e ls . F i r s t
r e g i s t e r vo w els a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a t e n s e n e s s o r
p h a r y n g e a l i z a t i o n p ro d u c e d by c o n s t r i c t i o n o f t h e p h a ry n x ,
w h i l e se c o n d r e g i s t e r vow els a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l a x n e s sare,
o r b r e a t h i n e s s p ro d u c e d by l o w e r i n g t h e l a r y n x , a n s l i g h t l y
h i g h e r i n q u a l i t y t h a n t h e i r f i r s t r e g i s t e r c o u n t e r p a r t s .
S in c e t h e s e t o f c o n s o n a n t sym bo ls w hich s i g n a l s se c o n d
r e g i s t e r vow els c o r r e s p o n d s t o s o n a n t s i n t h e I n d i e a l p h a b e t
from w h ich t h e y a r e d e r i v e d , Cambodian may o r i g i n a l l y h ave
h a d a s e r i e s o f v o i c e d s t o p s w h ich l a t e r c o a l e s c e d w i t h t h e
v o i c e l e s s s e r i e s , t h u s m aking t h e vo w el a l l o p h o n e s p h o n em ic .
A se co n d p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t t h e f o r m u l a t o r ( s ) o f t h e f i r s t
Cambodian a lp h a b e t d e c id e d t o r e p r e s e n t a com p lex vow el
sy s te m by a d o p t in g an o t h e r w i s e u n n e c e s s a r y s e r i e s o f s t o p s ,
r a t h e r t h a n by p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f vow el sy m b o ls , o f w h ich t h e
I n d ie w r i t i n g sy s te m would h a v e p r o v i d e d a m ea g e r s o u r c e .
W hichever may h a v e been t h e c a s e , t h e r o l e o f r e g i s t e r
1 . ’ ’ The Main F e a tu r e s o f Cambodian P r o n u n c i a t i o n ’ ’ , p . l f ? l .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2142
v a r i e s from d i a l e c t t o d i a l e c t . In some d i a l e c t s i t can be
a n a ly z e d a s phonem ic j ' i n o t h e r d i a l e c t s i t i s p h o n e t i c a l l y
p r e s e n t b u t s t r u c t u r a l l y i r r e l e v a n t , and i n s t i l l o t h e r s i t
d o e s n o t o c c u r even p h o n e t i c a l l y (a s i s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e
T akeo d i a l e c t ) . I n no d i a l e c t i s t h e d ich o to m y b e tw e e n f i r s t
and se c o n d r e g i s t e r v o w e ls c o m p le te . F u r th e r m o r e , r e g i s t e r
d i s t i n c t i o n s seem t o be r e l a t e d t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t o t h e
l e v e l o f t h e s p e a k e r ’ s e d u c a t i o n and t h e f o r m a l i t y o f t h e : ;.v
s o c i a l c o n t e x t . In t h e s c h o o l s , t h e two s e r i e s o f c o n s o n a n ts
a r e p ro n o u n c e d w i t h d i f f e r i n g 11 i n h e r e n t 11 v o w e ls , and
s y l l a b l e s w r i t t e n w i th c o n s o n a n t s o f t h e f i r s t s e r i e s a r e
c a l l e d *’ l i g h t ' 1 s y l l a b l e s ( / s r a a l / ' l i g h t ' o r / q a k h o o s a q /
' v o i c e l e s s ' ) , and s y l l a b l e s w r i t t e n w i t h c o n s o n a n ts o f t h e
s e c o n d s e r i e s a r e c a l l e d ' ' h e a v y 1' s y l l a b l e s ( / t ^ u o n / 'h e a v y '
o r / k h o o s a q / ' v o i c e d ' ) . H en derson ^ l i s t s t h e two s e t s o f
l o n g v ow els s c h e m a t i c a l l y , i n d i c a t i n g s e c o n d r e g i s t e r vow els
w i t h a g r a v e a c c e n t , a s f o l l o w s :« \ 4i tu U
e e o o .
ae e y o ao
a a r o
To t h i s i n v e n t o r y m u st b e added t h e vow el / © / , w h ich o c c u r s
i n a l i m i t e d num ber o f w ords o n l y , su c h a s /m o o n / '1 0 , 0 0 0 '
and / c r o o n / 'm uch , many' (Phnom Penh d i a l e c t ) . I f one adds
t o t h e l i s t t h e t h r e e com plex n u c l e i / i © / , / i © / (H e n d e r s o n 's
d t . . p . l £ 9 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
21)3
/& © /) , a n d /u © / , w h ich a r e i n d i f f e r e n t t o r e g i s t e r , * 1 an d t h e
se c o n d r e g i s t e r d ip h th o n g /o © / , w hich o c c u r s i n a l i m i t e d
num ber o f w o rd s , s u c h a s / t h o e / 'd h a rm a , law* and /p o © /
• c o l o r 1, t h e r e a r e a t o t a l o f 20 lo n g n u c l e i c o n t r a s t s ,
a s f o l l o w s :
i ' i (H .u t)2 u
1© 4© u©
e , e . ©, © (H .J ) o , o
e a o© o , o
a e a©(H.aar) ao
" G i v e n ' t h i s i n v e n t o r y , a t l e a s t two d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s
s u g g e s t t h e m s e lv e s . The f i r s t s o l u t i o n i s t o a r r a n g e t h e
s im p le n u c l e i i n n i n e c a r d i n a l p o s i t i o n s , and a b s t r a c t t h e
o c c u r r e n c e o f s e c o n d r e g i s t e r a s a phoneme o n ly i n t h o s e
p o s i t i o n s w here i t i s t h e p r im a r y d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e b e
tw een two v o w e ls , a s f o l l o w s :
Complex n u c l e i a r e shown by a r ro w s . N o t i c e t h a t t h e 20
c o n t r a s t s a r e p r e s e r v e d . The .a d v an tag e s o f t h i s t r e a t m e n t
1,- In no d i a l e c t w ere t h e s e t h r e e d ip h th o n g s fo u n d t o o c c u r w i t h a r e g i s t e r c o n t r a s t .2 . Read (H e n d e rso n 1 s tu ) .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
z k k
a r e t h e sym m etry o f t h e 3 x 3 vow el s y s te m , and t h e economy
r e s u l t i n g from r e d u c i n g t h e o r i g i n a l tw e n ty lo n g vowel c o n
t r a s t s t o t e n phonem es, c o n s i s t i n g o f n i n e c a r d i n a l v o w e ls
and a phoneme o f r e g i s t e r . The o n ly asym m etry l i e s i n t h e
skew ed ness o f t h e r e g i s t e r c o n t r a s t i n t h e low b a ck p o s i t i o n ,
A se c o n d p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n i s t o t r e a t t h e c o n t r a s t s
i n v o l v i n g r e g i s t e r p u r e l y i n te rm s o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
vow el q u a l i t y , how ever s l i g h t , i g n o r i n g t h e c o n c o m ita n t
f e a t u r e s o f r e g i s t e r . T h is i s t h e s o l u t i o n a d o p te d by
M a r t i n i , ' 1’ a s f o l l o w s *
1 i
&9i e ( H . i o )
t (H .e )
e
e
ae
a
• / Tt A \w A*i. V)
A ( H .a r )
u
u o (H .u o )
XT (H .o )
o
0 (H .o )
1 (H .ao )
(H .o )
H ere a g a in m ust be ad d ed t h e m id c e n t r a l c o n t r a s t / © / : / ? /
( M a r t i n i ’ s / © / , H e n d e rs o n ’ s / y / ) , and t h e d ip h th o n g / o o / .
T h is sy s te m c o u ld thein be a r r a n g e d s y m m e t r i c a l ly a s fo l lo w s *
i
i
e
e
a
1 . ’ ’A per§u p h o n o lo g iq u e du c am b o d g ien ’ ' , p . 116 .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
T h is s o l u t i o n seems t h e more p l a u s i b l e when o ne c o n s i d e r s t h e
f a c t t h a t w i th t h e s h o r t n u c l e i , w h ic h a r e much m ore l i m i t e d
i n d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a n a r e t h e lo n g n u c l e i , r e g i s t e r d i s t r i -
b u t i o n i s even l e s s c o n s i s t e n t th a n w i t h t h e lo n g n u c l e i .
In t h e f o l lo w in g l i s t o f t h e s h o r t n u c l e i o f S t a n d a r d
Cam bodian, t h o s e v o w els w h ich o c c u r o n l y a f t e r t h e s e t o f
c o n s o n a n t sym bols w hich p ro d u c e s e c o n d r e g i s t e r ' c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s i n t h e lo n g n u c l e i a r e m arked w i t h a g r a v e a c c e n t :
i
e
S©
Among t h e s h o r t n u c l e i , h o w e v e r , r e g i s t e r d i f f e r e n c e s show
up w e a k ly , i f a t a l l , and i n f a c t t h e s h o r t d ip h th o n g s / e © /
and / 3 e / a r e n o t i c e a b l y t e n s e , w h ich i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
f i r s t r a t h e r t h a n se co n d r e g i s t e r v o w e ls . The lo n g s e c o n d
r e g i s t e r vow els / i v e 0/ h a v e no s h o r t c o u n t e r p a r t s , u n l e s s
one t r e a t s t h e s h o r t d ip h th o n g s /e© u e 5©/ a s c o u n t e r p a r t s
o f t h e l o n g n u c l e i / e v 0/ r e s p e c t i v e l y , l e a v i n g a g ap o n ly
i n t h e / Y / p o s i t i o n . ^
One c o u ld t h e n r e p r e s e n t t h e s h o r t vow el sy s te m a s
f o l lo w s :
1 . In no d i a l e c t e n c o u n te r e d was t h e r e a c o n t r a s t / Y / t / Y / o r / i / s / e / . Such a c o n t r a s t m ig h t v e r y w e l l t u r n u p , h o w e v e r , i n a more d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
u1V
8
a
OLt
u e+ 0o%wo©
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
21*6
r • * «
? v
e © o
S a o** ‘Qj
T h is s o l u t i o n p r o v i d e s f o r a n e a t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw een
t h e lo n g and s h o r t v o w e l - s y s te m s . «
W hile i t i s p e r h a p s d o u b t f u l t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
v o w el h e i g h t i n v o lv e d i n t h e l o n g vow el c o n t r a s t s / i / - x / e / ,
/ $ / i / s / t and / v / x / o / w ould be s u f f i c i e n t t o t h e e a r o f a
Cambodian s p e a k e r w i t h o u t t h e c o n c o m ita n t f e a t u r e s o f
r e g i s t e r , t h e r e i s no r e a s o n why t h e c o n t r a s t s c a n n o t be
t h u s r e p r e s e n t e d p h o n e ra ic a l ly . In t h e c o n t r a s t / o / i / & /
(w h ich i s a r e g i s t e r c o n t r a s t / o / s / 0/ i n H e n d e rso n ’ s
t r e a t m e n t ) , / a / , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e g i s t e r d i f f e r e n c e ,
i s c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o n t e r th a n / o / .
1 . 2 D i a l e c t s
D i a l e c t s d i f f e r p r i m a r i l y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e
o f t h e f o u r c o n t r a s t s d i s c u s s e d above ( r e g i s t e r c o n t r a s t s
i n t h e f i r s t s o l u t i o n ) . In d i a l e c t s i n w h ich su c h c o n t r a s t s
o c c u r , t h e y a r e much more p ro n o u n ce d i n r e c i t a t i o n o r fo rm a l
s p e e c h th a n i n no rm al o r c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h . However, some
o f t h e c o n t r a s t s w ere fo u n d t o o c c u r even i n t h e s p e e c h o f
i l l i t e r a t e c y c l o - d r i v e r s i n Phnom Penh , some o f whom came
from Phnom Penh , and some o f whom came from o u t e r p r o v i n c e s .
G e n e r a l l y s p e a k in g , i f an i n f o r m a n t ’ s sp e e c h h a s o n ly one o f
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
t h e f o u r c o n t r a s t s , i t i s / © / x / a / j i f i t h a s tw o, t h e y a r e
u s u a l l y / o / x / o j and A / j / © / , b u t som etim es / o / : / o / and
/ v / t / o / t i f i t h a s t h r e e , t h e y a r e / © / : / & / , A/*/©/» and
/ v / x / o / j A/*/©/ t h e l e a s t f r e q u e n t i n o c c u r r e n c e .
On t h e b a s i s o f vowel sy s te m s and o t h e r p h o n o l o g ic a l
c r i t e r i a , f o u r g e n e r a l d i a l e c t a r e a s a r e p o s t u l a t e d w i t h in
Cambodia p ro p e r?
1 . C o l l o q u i a l S ta n d a r d Cam bodian, i n w h ich a l l f o u r o f -
t h e above c o n t r a s t s o c c u r , w h ich i s spoken in t h e p r o v in c e s
b e tw een K and al and t h e s o u t h e r n end o f t h e T o n le Sap, su c h
a s P re y Veng, Kampong Speu , Kampong Chhnang, and Kampong Cham
2 . The d i a l e c t spoken in Phnom Penh and t h e im m e d ia te ly
s u r r o u n d in g a r e a . The Phnom Penh d i a l e c t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by d l o s s , i n c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h , o f t h e / i / : / e / and / v / i / o /
c o n t r a s t s , and by a h i g h l y d i s t i n c t i v e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e
/ r / phoneme, w hich i s p ro n o u n c e d as a v o ic e d u v u l a r f r i c a t i v e
(a s o pp osed t o sm oo th ) s p i r a n t [ H i ] . T h is / r / c o n d i t i o n s
v a r i o u s c h an g e s i n f o l lo w in g v o w e ls , and p ro d u c e s a s o - f a r
non -p hon em ic l o w - r i s i n g to n e on t h e s y l l a b l e i n w hich i t
o c c u r s .^ - S in c e t h e / r / c a r r i e s a h i g h f u n c t i o n a l l o a d i n
Cam bodian, b o th a s an i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t and a s t h e se co n d
member o f c o n s o n a n t c l u s t e r s , t h i s
1 . N oss, h ow ev er , i n 11 The T re a tm e n t o f &/R/ i n Two ModernKhmer D i a l e c t s * ' , i n Norman H. Z id o , e d . , S t u d i e s i n Comp a r a t i v e A u s t r o a s l a t l c L i n g u i s t i c s , (The Hague, Mouton and Co. 19 66 ) p . 8 9 , f i n d s t h a t / r / i s l o s t e n t i r e l y i n t h e Phnom Penh d i a l e c t , and th u s a n a ly z e s to n e as phonem ic . However, i n no i d i o l e c t e n c o u n te r e d in my a d m i t t e d l y s u p e r f i c i a l s u r v e y o f t h e Phnom Penh d i a l e c t d id to n e o c c u r a s t h e s o l e r e f l e x o f / r / .
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2i|£
v a r i a n t p r o n u n c i a t i o n p r o d u c e s a v e r y n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t .
T h is f e a t u r e o f t h e Phnom Penh d i a l e c t h a s s p r e a d t o t h e
a d j a c e n t a r e a s o f t h e p r o v i n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g K a n d a l , a n d even
t o t h e p r o v i n c i a l c a p i t a l s o f some p r o v i n c e s i n t h e s t a n d a r d
c o l l o q u i a l a r e a , s u c h a s Kampong Cham. The i n d i c a t i o n s a r e
t h a t i t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o s p r e a d ,
3 i T h e v d i a l e c t s sp o k en i n B a ttam b an g and S ie m re a p p r o
v i n c e s , T h ese d i a l e c t s l a c k t h e / i / j / e / an d / v / : / o / c o n t r a s t s ,
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