An Overview of Corn Processing - Amazon S3 · 2020-04-16 · An Overview of Corn Processing Kent...

An Overview of Corn Processing

Kent RauschAssociate ProfessorAgricultural and Biological EngineeringUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

GEAPS Webinar, April 16, 2020

Outline: 3 major processesØ Wet millingØ Dry millingØ Dry grind

The Corn Kernel

SoftEndosperm

HardEndosperm

Germ11.9%

Tip Cap 0.8%

Pericarp 5.3%

{82%

“Fiber”

“Fiber”

Kent Rausch University of Illinois

The Wet Milling Process

Primary objective:Make pure starch

32 lb of Starchor

33 lb of Sweeteneror

2.5 gal of Fuel Ethanoland

11.4 lb of 20% Gluten Feedand

3 lb of 60% Gluten Mealand

1.6 lb of Corn Oil

From wet milling, one bushel gives…

Corn Wet Milling: Overview

StarchGluten FeedMix / Dry

Germ Separation Germ

Protein Separation Gluten Meal

Fiber Separation Fiber

Corn Steeping Steepwater Evaporator

Fuel EthanolHigh Fructose Corn Syrup

Modified Starches

Purposes of SteepingØ hydrate germ

n makes germ resilient to millingn reduces germ densityn water soluble components move out of germ into steepwater

Ø softens kerneln eases milling

Ø breaks down the endosperm matrixn weakens the glue that holds the marbles

Steeping: Semicontinuous

1 2 3 4 5 6

SO2H2O(Fresh steep water)

Fresh Corn

SO2 reactionSO2 sorptionhydration, LA fermentation

Steeped Corn

Old steep water

Corn

Steepwater


Three Stages of the Conventional Countercurrent Steeping Process

1) Lactic acid fermentation2) Sulfur dioxide diffusion3) Sulfur dioxide reaction

These are stages from the kernel’s perspective

1) Lactic acid dominated stagen Hydration of kernel

w From 15 to 45% moisture

n Lactic acid moves into endosperm

n Lactobacillus bacteria survive at correct temperature and pH, need nutrients in steepwater

H20H20

lactic acid lactic acid


2) Sulfur dioxide diffusion stagen Lactic acid affects

rate of diffusionn SO2 reaches

endosperm matrix Gluten ”glue”

starch “marbles”

H20

SO2 lactic acidKent Rausch University of Illinois

3) Sulfur dioxide reaction stagen SO2 reacts with

disulfide bonds in endosperm protein

n Weakens matrixn Allows starch

granules to be separated cleanly from protein

solubles

Gluten ”glue”

starch “marbles”

H20

SO2 lactic acid


By the end of the steeping processØ Protein matrix weakenedØ Endosperm proteins

solubilizedØ Material has diffused out of

the kernel into steepwater n Germ solublesn Endosperm protein

Ø Watern 6 to 9 gal/bu for steeping n 3 gal/bu absorbedn 3 to 6 gal/bu becomes light

steepwatern 2.8 to 3.6 lb/bu corn solids

move to steepwater

steepwaterKent Rausch University of Illinois

Steeping Operations

process water

sulfur dioxide

corn

light steepwater EVAP heavy steepwater

COND

steepwater condensate

STEEPING

steeped corn

GERM SEPARATION

ANAEROBICSYSTEM


Condensed Fermented Corn ExtractivesØ Also called heavy

steepwaterØ Sold on a 50% total solids

basisØ Soluble proteins and

carbohydrates from steeping

Ø About 45% of solids are protein

Protein23%

NFE19%

Ash8%

Moisture50%

NFE = nitrogen free extractSource: Wright (1987)


GERM SEPARATION

wet germ

GERM DRYERGERM

PRESS

FIBERWASH

steeped corn

dry germ

Germ Separation and Processing

Ø Carefully break apart kernel so that germ can be separated using hydrocyclones

Ø Wash loose starch and gluten from germØ Good operation should result in starch content in germ of 7-10% (db)

26°Belight

steepwater EVAP heavy steepwater

COND steepwater condensate

ANAEROBICSYSTEM

5.5°Be

STEEPING


© Alfa Laval 2001

6” NYLON OR 316SS CYCLONES

Germ separation or mill stream degritting

Disk Mill: for 1st, 2nd, 3rd grind steps

Disk Mill: for 1st, 2nd, 3rd grind stepsØ closeup photo of a disk mill for 1st, 2nd grind

First Grind Material

© Alfa Laval 2001

6” Cyclone Germ Separation System

© Alfa Laval 2001

2nd Grind Dewatering & Germ Washing Screens

GERM DRYER

GERM PRESS

steeped corn

germ

Germ Processing

MILL

MILL

Fiber Wash and 3rd Grind

fresh process water

1stGrind

2ndGrind

8.5-9.5°Be

process water

A B

purity control

purity • 44 to 46% oil typical;

some fiber in germ improves pressing

• 55% oil in germ is possible

<50% m.c.

Wet GermØ Steeped germ is

40 to 50% crude fat (“oil”)

Ø Oil content is the driving factor for market value

Ø Moisture of pressed germ

Ø Slightly higher fiber n Improves germ

pressingn Reduces energy for

germ drying

Corn Germ MealØ Corn plant embryo after oil

extractionØ Specifications:

n 20% protein minimumn 1% fat minimumn 12% fiber maximum

Ø Good amino acid contentØ Carrier for micro-ingredients

in animal food formulations


Protein23%

NFE52%

Crude Fiber10%

Fat2%

Ash4%

Moisture10%

GERM SEPARATION

heavy steepwater

FEED DRYERFIBER

PRESS

FIBERWASH

wet fiber

corn gluten feed

millstarch

Fiber Processing

germ

FIBER DRYER

FIBERPRESS

CGF

Fiber Washing System

MILL

process water (clarifier)

3rdGrind

from germ washing system

process water

FEED DRYER

heavy steepwater

MILL STREAMTHICKENER

millstarch

50µ50µ 75µ Stage 6: 150µ to control m.c. to press

Washed fiberThroughs

<60% m.c.

26°Be

Pressure fed screenØ DSM screenØ Wedge bar screen

Pressure fed screen

Input

Smaller stuffBigger stuff


flow

wedge bar or profile bar

fiber

starch-protein

Corn Gluten FeedØ Mixture of fiber fraction and

heavy steepwaterØ Specifications:

n 21% protein minimumn 1% fat minimumn 10% fiber maximum

Ø Approximately 15% starch (part of NFE component)

Ø High in water soluble nutrients

Protein23%

NFE50%

Crude Fiber8%

Fat2%

Ash8%

Moisture9%

NFE = nitrogen free extract

Source: Wright (1987)

Centrifuges for Starch Recovery

fresh water

starch

MULTI-STAGE STARCH WASHING

HYDROCYCLONES

light middlings

MIDDLINGS CLARIFIER

MILL STREAMTHICKENER

PRIMARYSEPARATOR

millstarch

light gluten

16-20°Be3-7% protein

process water

process water

22°Be (~40% solids)<0.30% protein<0.01% soluble protein<0.5% fiber

11°Be

10°Be7°Be

process water

process water

GLUTEN DRYER

corn gluten mealGLUTEN

THICKENER

lightgluten

fresh water

GLUTENFILTER

heavygluten

STARCH WASHING

starch slurry

Gluten and Starch Processing

PRIMARYSEPARATOR

16-20°Be3-7% protein

3°Be 17°Be

0.2°Be

22°Be

Gluten Dewatering

Corn Gluten MealØ Specifications:

• 60% protein minimum• 1% fat minimum• 3% fiber maximum

Ø Endosperm proteins

Protein62% NFE

23%

Crude Fiber1%

Fat2%Ash

2%

Moisture10%


Multi-Stage Starch Washing

fresh water

starchMIDDLINGS CLARFIER

PRIMARY SEPARATOR

STARCH WASHING HYDROCYCLONES

4°Be

16-20°Be3-7% protein120°F

22°Be108°F


Clamshell Starch Washing System and 10 mm Cyclones

StarchØ Very high purity (>99.5% db starch)Ø Purity is required by downstream processes

n High fructose corn syrupn Starch modification

Ø Purity is not required for ethanol productionØ Poor starch-gluten separation

n Caused by improper steepingn Caused by dryer damagen Decreases starch yields or increases protein content of starch productn Starch routed to either gluten meal stream or process water streams


Gluten Meal5%

Gluten Feed23%

Oil4%

Starch68%

Starch and Coproduct YieldsØ Typical corn composition

n Starch, 72.0%n Protein, 8.8%n Oil, 4.0%

Ø Typical millhouse yieldsn Starch, 68.4%n Germ, 7.5%n Gluten, 4.9%n Fiber, 11.6%n Solubles, 6.8%


Starch

Endosperm Protein

Germ

Fiber

Steep Solubles

ProcessWater

Formation of Coproducts

CornGluten Feed

Gluten Meal

Corn Oil

Starch

Waste


Corn Dry Milling

Primary Objective: A method to get grits

Dry Milled Corn Products

Coarse Grits

Fine Grits

Flour

Germ

DefinitionØ “dry milling” should refer to process to produce grit

products, meal and flour from cornn Wet milling vs. Dry milling confusion

Ø NOT a process to produce ethanolØ NOT the same thing as “dry grind”

Dry Milling ProcessØ physical separationØ no chemical useØ minimal waterØ relatively dry processØ low capital costØ less pure separationØ low concentration of starch, protein, fiber, oil

Dry milling industry

Dry milling: ~200 million bushels per yearWet milling: ~2 billion bushels per yearDry grind: ~5 billion bushels per year

0

50

100

150

200

250

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Mill

ions

of B

ushe

ls p

er Y

ear

Year

Source: ERS (2017). Feed Grains: Yearbook Tables. Cereals and other products. USDA, Economic Research Service.

Corn Water

Tempering Chamber

Throughs

TailsBeall Degerminator

Dryer /Cooler

Dryer /Cooler

Gravity Table

Aspirator

Pericarp (Bran)

Flaking Grits

Smaller Grits

Corn Meal

Corn Flour

Hominy Feed

Corn Germ

Germ Cake

Crude Corn OilOil Expeller

Aspirator

Aspirator

Sifter

Sifter

Roller Mill

Hammer Mill

End

ospe

rm P

rodu

cts

Dry Milling


Corn Water

Tempering Chamber

Throughs


Dryer /Cooler

Dryer /Cooler

Gravity Table

Aspirator

Pericarp (Bran)

Flaking Grits

Smaller Grits

Corn Meal

Corn Flour

Hominy Feed

Corn Germ

Germ Cake


Aspirator

Aspirator

Sifter

Sifter

Roller Mill

Hammer Mill

End

ospe

rm P

rodu

cts

Dry Milling

Tempering

n chamber where corn and water are mixed and allowed to temper

n Differential moisture content between germ and endosperm is desired

Corn Water


Tempering the kernel

ØDifferential swelling of germ and endosperm

ØGerm becomes more resilient during degermination

ØNo movement of material out of kernel

Tempering

Ø Short timen ~30 min

Ø Moisture increasen From 15 to 23%

Ø Considerably different from wheat temperingn 5 to 24 hrn Tempered to 15 to 17.5% m.c.

Tempering

Corn Water

Tempering Chamber

Throughs


Dryer /Cooler

Dryer /Cooler

Gravity Table

Aspirator

Pericarp (Bran)

Flaking Grits

Smaller Grits

Corn Meal

Corn Flour

Hominy Feed

Corn Germ

Germ Cake


Aspirator

Aspirator

Sifter

Sifter

Roller Mill

Hammer Mill

End

ospe

rm P

rodu

cts

Dry Milling


Beall degerminator

n Objective:n Fracture kernel into

endosperm, pericarp and germ fragments

n Ideally, one piece each

Corn Water

Tempering Chamber

Throughs



Tails and throughs

Throughs

TailsBeallDegerminator

Corn Water

Tempering Chamber

Throughs


Dryer /Cooler

Dryer /Cooler

Gravity Table

Aspirator

Pericarp (Bran)

Flaking Grits

Smaller Grits

Corn Meal

Corn Flour

Hominy Feed

Corn Germ

Germ Cake


Aspirator

Aspirator

Sifter

Sifter

Roller Mill

Hammer Mill

End

ospe

rm P

rodu

cts

Dry Milling


Aspiration

Aspirator

mixture

Pericarp material

Endosperm, Germ

Kice Industries, Wichita, KS

Separation using terminal velocity, which is influenced by particle size, shape and density.

pericarp

Endosperm, Germ

Aspiration

Kice Industries, Wichita, KS

Pericarp

Corn Water

Tempering Chamber

Throughs


Dryer /Cooler

Dryer /Cooler

Gravity Table

Aspirator

Pericarp (Bran)

Flaking Grits

Smaller Grits

Corn Meal

Corn Flour

Hominy Feed

Corn Germ

Germ Cake


Aspirator

Aspirator

Sifter

Sifter

Roller Mill

Hammer Mill

End

ospe

rm P

rodu

cts

Dry Milling


Gravity separation

n Density separation

Aspirator

Throughs: germ, pericarp,

endosperm

Pericarp

Germ, Endosperm

Germ

Endosperm

Gravity Table


Gravity separation

Oliver Manufacturing Company

Roller milling

Sifter

Roller Mill

Endosperm Largest

Smallest (pan/flour)

Objective/Purpose:Adjust particle size distribution of endosperm products

Roller milling

Roller Mills

Sifting

Sifter

Roller Mill

Endosperm

Over (+)Through (-)

mixture

One screen

Largest

Smallest (pan/flour)

Narrower range of particle sizes makes for uniform cooking characteristicsWhen cooked, larger particles will have different textures from smaller particles

Sifting

Great Western Manufacturing, Leavenworth, KS

Expelling

Hominy Feed

Corn Germ Crude Corn OilOil Expeller

Hammer Mill

Pericarp (Bran)

Germ Cake

Expelling of corn germ is not common in the US except for small niche markets.

Yields – typical coproducts

Product particle

size range Yield %

Moisture (%wb)

Fat (%db)

Crude Fiber (%db)

Ash (%db)

Protein (%db)

Flaking grits -3.5 +6 12 14.0 0.7 0.4 0.4 8.4 Coarse grits -10 +14 15 13.0 0.7 0.5 0.4 8.4 Regular grits -14 +28 23 13.0 0.8 0.5 0.5 8.0 Coarse meal -28 +50 3 12.0 1.2 0.5 0.6 7.6 Dusted meal -50 +75 3 12.0 1.0 0.5 0.6 7.5 Flour -75 +pan 4 12.0 2.0 0.7 0.7 6.6 Oil 1 Hominy feed 35 13.0 6.3 5.4 3.3 12.5 Shrinkage 4

From: Brekke (1970).

The Dry Grind Process

Primary objective:Make fuel ethanol

Dry Grind Corn ProcessingCorn Distillation Ethanol

Centrifuge

Whole Stillage Thin

Stillage

Evaporator

Distillers Wet Grains

Distillers Solubles

Distillers Dried Grains with

Solubles (DDGS)

Grind

Cook

Liquefy

Saccharify / Ferment or

SSF

CO2

Enzyme

EnzymeDryer

Yeast

Water

Water

Water

Enzyme

Oil

Dry Grind Processing

Corn

CO2

Ethanol

DDGS

1/3

1/3

1/3

Starch (glucose)

nonfermentables


Kernel

3x Rule of Thumb: Example

Starch = 2/3 total or about 67%

Prot

ein,

10

Fat,

4

Fibe

r, 15

Ash,

4

CO2

Ethanol

DDGS

Prot

ein,

10

Fat,

4

Fibe

r, 15

Ash,

4

10+4+15+4 = 33% of total

1033 100% = 30.3

433

100% = 12.1%

University of Illinois

Golden Triangle Ethanol, Craig, MO


Centrifuge

Whole Stillage Thin

Stillage

Evaporator


Distillers Solubles


Solubles (DDGS)

Grind

Cook

Liquefy


SSF

CO2

Enzyme

EnzymeDryer

Yeast

Water

Water

Water

Enzyme

Oil

Hammermills


Centrifuge

Whole Stillage Thin

Stillage

Evaporator


Distillers Solubles


Solubles (DDGS)

Grind

Cook

Liquefy


SSF

CO2

Enzyme

EnzymeDryer

Yeast

Water

Water

Water

Enzyme

Oil

Cooking: Jet Cooker


Centrifuge

Whole Stillage Thin

Stillage

Evaporator


Distillers Solubles


Solubles (DDGS)

Grind

Cook

Liquefy


SSF

CO2

Enzyme

EnzymeDryer

Yeast

Water

Water

Water

Enzyme

Oil

Jet cooking• Gelatinizes starch granule• Allows access to starch

molecules by enzymes

Alpha amylase • Can be deactivated by heat

from jet cooking• Added before/after jet cook• Cleaves a(1,4) bonds in the

starch molecule• Cleavage degrades starch

into dextrins• Reduces viscosity of slurry

Starch Granule Changes and Viscosity

Starch granules

Swelling ingranules

Fully swollen intact granules, polymers begin to leach from granule

Granules begin to break apart, polymers continue to solubilize (decreased viscosity)

Solubilized polymers beginto reassociate (increased viscosity)

Liquefaction Tanks


Centrifuge

Whole Stillage Thin

Stillage

Evaporator


Distillers Solubles


Solubles (DDGS)

Grind

Cook

Liquefy


SSF

CO2

Enzyme

EnzymeDryer

Yeast

Water

Water

Water

Enzyme

Oil

Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF)1. Glucoamylase generates glucose 2. Yeast use glucose as it is

generated3. Reduces osmotic stress4. Allows yeast “competitive

advantage” over other organisms

5. Used by all dry grind fuel ethanol facilities

Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF)


Centrifuge

Whole Stillage Thin

Stillage

Evaporator


Distillers Solubles


Solubles (DDGS)

Grind

Cook

Liquefy


SSF

CO2

Enzyme

EnzymeDryer

Yeast

Water

Water

Water

Enzyme

Oil

Ø Distillation removes all ethanol and some water from stillage

Ø 1% = 2° proof, or 190° proof = 95% (v/v)

Distillation

Mole (molecular) sieves

Mole Sieve Beads

Molecular Sieve Beads• Pores absorb water• Pores exclude ethanol

Ethanol Loadout

Denatured ethanol• A small amount of gasoline

is added prior to shipment• Called denaturant• 2 to 5% addition of gasoline• Required by BATFE


Centrifuge

Whole Stillage Thin

Stillage

Evaporator


Distillers Solubles


Solubles (DDGS)

Grind

Cook

Liquefy


SSF

CO2

Enzyme

EnzymeDryer

Yeast

Water

Water

Water

Enzyme

Oil• Whole stillage

composition is nearly identical to DDGS composition• Some solids are

recycled as “backset”• Centrifuge, evaporator

and dryer are to remove water from stillage solids

© Alfa Laval 2001Slide 158

Whole Stillage Centrifuge

Whole Stillage

Wet Grains

Thin Stillage

Thin Stillage Evaporation


Centrifuge

Whole Stillage Thin

Stillage

Evaporator


Distillers Solubles


Solubles (DDGS)

Grind

Cook

Liquefy


SSF

CO2

Enzyme

EnzymeDryer

Yeast

Water

Water

Water

Enzyme

Oil

Production of dried material§ Oil skimmed§ Syrup blended with wet

grains§ Recycle used to control initial

moisture entering dryer§ Many plants use 2 stage

drying system (flash followed by drum)

DDGS Storage and Loadout

Recent Dry Grind InnovationsØ Oil skimming done by nearly all fuel ethanol plants

n Centrifuged from condensed distillers solubles (CDS)n Refined then made into biodiesel or sold as animal diet ingredient

Ø Other innovationsn Wet fractionationn Dry fractionation


-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

1981 1986 1991 1997 2002 2008 2013 2019

Valu

e Re

lativ

e to

Cor

n ($

/ton

)

CGF

DDGS

Hominy

Detailed information on bioprocessing

Ø Corn Processing Workshops, Urbanan January 25-28, 2021n Corn Wet Millingn New Technologies in Ethanol Productionn Kent Rausch, workshop coordinator, [email protected]

Ø Registration opens August to October 2020n Limited seats

Ø Acknowledgementsn Vijay Singh, [email protected] n Mike Tumbleson, [email protected]

Thank You!Kent [email protected] of Illinois

Bibliography: wet millingChristianson, D.D., Cavins, J.F. and Wall, J.S. 1965. Identification and determination

of nonprotein nitrogenous substances in corn steep liquor. J. Agric. Food Chem. 13:378-380.

Lee, K.M., Herrman, T.J., Rooney, L., Jackson, D.S., Lingenfelser, J., Rausch, K.D., McKinney, J., Iiams, C., Byrum, L., Hurburgh, Jr., C.R., Johnson, L.A. and Fox, S.R. 2007. Corroborative study on maize quality, dry-milling and wet-milling properties of selected maize hybrids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007:10751-10763.

Loy, D.D. and Wright, K.N. 2003. Nutritional properties and feeding value of corn and its by-products. In: Corn: Chemistry and Technology. pp. 571-603. 2nd ed. (White, P.J. and Johnson, L.A., eds.). American Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, MN.

Rausch, K.D., Hummel, D. and Johnson, L.A. 2018. Wet milling: the basis for corn biorefineries. In: Corn: Chemistry and Technology. pp. 501-536. 3rd ed. S.O. Serna-Saldivar (ed.). Elsevier. Duxford, UK.

Rausch, K.D. and Belyea, R.L. 2006. The future of coproducts from corn processing. Appl. Biochem. Biotech. 128:47-86.

Rausch, K.D., Belyea, R.L., Singh, V. and Tumbleson, M.E. 2007. Corn processing for ethanol production. Encyclopedia of Agricultural, Food, and Biological Engineering. Heldman, D.R. (ed.). Taylor and Francis / Marcel Dekker Publishers. 1:1-10.

Rausch, K.D., Raskin, L.M., Belyea, R.L., Agbisit, R.M., Daugherty, B.J., Clevenger, T.E. and Tumbleson, M.E. 2005. Phosphorus concentrations and flow in maize wet milling streams. Cereal Chem. 82:431-435.

Rausch, K.D., Raskin, L.M., Belyea, R.L., Clevenger, T.E. and Tumbleson, M.E. 2007. Nitrogen and sulfur concentrations and flow rates of corn wet milling streams. Cereal Chem. 84:260-264.

Bibliography: wet milling (cont.)Rausch, K.D., Thompson, C.I., Belyea, R.L. and Tumbleson, M.E. 2003. Characterization of

light gluten and light steep water from a wet milling plant. Bioresource Technology 90:49-54.

Rausch, K.D., Thompson, C.I., Belyea, R.L., Clevenger, T.E. and Tumbleson, M.E. 2003. Characterization of gluten processing streams. Biores. Technol. 89:163-167.

Watson, S. A. 1984. Corn and sorghum starches: Production. Pages 417-468 in: Starch: Chemistry and technologyed. Whistler, R. L., J. N. BeMiller and E. F. Paschall, eds. Academic Press: Orlando, FL.

Watson, S. A. and Hirata, Y. 1962. Some wet-milling properties of artificially dried corn. Cereal Chemistry 39:35-44.

Watson, S. A., Hirata, Y. and Williams, C. B. 1955. A study of the lactic acid fermentation in commercial corn steeping. Cereal Chemistry 32:382-394.

Watson, S. A. and Sanders, E. H. 1961. Steeping studies with corn endosperm sections. Cereal Chemistry 38:22-33.

Watson, S. A., Sanders, E. H., Wakely, R. D. and Williams, C. B. 1955. Peripheral cells of the endosperms of grain sorghum and corn and their influence on starch purification. Cereal Chemistry 32:165-182.

Watson, S. A., Williams, C. B. and Wakely, R. D. 1951. Laboratory steeping procedures used in a wet milling research program. Cereal Chemistry 28:105-118.

Wright, K. N. 1987. Nutritional properties and feeding value of corn and its by-products. In: Corn: Chemistry and Technology. S. A. Watson and P. E. Ramstad (eds.). p. 448. American Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, MN.

Yang, P. and Eckhoff, S. R. 2000. Reducing steep time by adding lactic acid during countercurrent steeping of corn with different initial moisture contents. Cereal Chemistry 77:529-534.

Bibliography: dry millingAlexander, R.J. 1987. Corn dry milling: processes, products and applications. In: Corn:

Chemistry and Technology. pp. 351-375. 1st ed. (Watson, S.A. and Ramstad, P.E., eds.). American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, MN.

Brekke, O.L. 1970. Corn dry milling industry. In: Corn: Culture, Processing Products. pp. 262-291. (Inglett, G.E., ed.). AVI Publishing, Westport, CT.

Duensing, W.J., Roskens, A.B. and Alexander, R.J. 2003. Corn dry milling: processes, products and applications. In: Corn: Chemistry and Technology. pp. 407-448. 2nd ed. (White, P.J. and Johnson, L.A., eds.). American Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, MN.

Lee, K.M., Herrman, T.J., Rooney, L., Jackson, D.S., Lingenfelser, J., Rausch, K.D., McKinney, J., Iiams, C., Byrum, L., Hurburgh, Jr., C.R., Johnson, L.A. and Fox, S.R. 2007. Corroborative study on maize quality, dry-milling and wet-milling properties of selected maize hybrids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007:10751-10763.

North American Millers' Association. www.namamillers.org. 600 Maryland Ave SW, Suite 825 West, Washington, DC 20024.

Rausch, K.D. and Belyea, R.L. 2006. The future of coproducts from corn processing. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 128:47-86.

Rausch, K. D., Pruiett, L. E., Wang, P., Xu, L., Belyea, R. L. and Tumbleson, M. E. 2009. Laboratory measurement of yield and composition of dry-milled corn fractions using a shortened, single-stage tempering procedure. Cereal Chemistry 86:434-438.

Bibliography: dry grind and coproductsEconomic Research Service, USDA. 2020. Feed grains database.

https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/feed-grains-database/. Washington, DC.

Kumar, D. and Singh, V. 2018. Bioethanol production from corn. p. 615-631. In: Corn Chemistry and Technology. 3rd ed. S.O. Serna-Saldivar (ed.). Elsevier. Duxford, UK.

Lemuz, C.R., Dien, B.S., Singh, V., McKinney, J., Tumbleson, M.E. and Rausch, K.D. 2009. Development of an ethanol yield procedure for dry grind corn processing. Cereal Chem. 86:355-360.

Rausch, K.D. and Belyea, R.L. 2006. The future of coproducts from corn processing. Appl. Biochem. Biotech. 128:47-86.

Walker, G.M., Abbas, C., Ingledew, W.M. and Pilgrim, C. (eds.). The Alcohol Textbook. 6th ed. Ethanol Technology Institute.

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