An Overview of Disaster Management

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2nd Edition

An Overviewof Disaster

Management

Disaster Management Training Programme


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An Overview

of Disaster

Management

2nd Edition

Disaster Management Training Programme 1992


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P A R T

Table of Contents

Foreword......................................................................................................... 7

Introduction .................................................................................................... 9

PART ONE: HAZARDS AND DISASTERS ................................................. 13

Chapter 1:Introduction to disasters ..........................................................13

The disaster problem .................................................................................... 14

Causal factors of disasters ............................................................................ 15

Chapter 2: Disaster terminology and phases ........................................... 21

Disaster terms ............................................................................................... 21

Phases of a disaster ....................................................................................... 22

Chapter 3:Linking disaster and development...........................................25

Disruption of development by disasters ....................................................... 26

How development may cause disasters ........................................................ 28

Development opportunities afforded by disasters ........................................29

Chapter 4: Natural hazards.........................................................................31

Characteristics of particular hazards and disasters....................................... 32

Chapter 5: Compound and complex disasters1.........................................47

Socio/political forces .................................................................................... 47

Displaced persons ......................................................................................... 48The role of the UN in complex emergencies ................................................ 49

Safety of relief teams in conflict zones ........................................................ 50

PART TWO: DISASTER PREPAREDNESS................................................ 51

Chapter 6 The disaster management team, roles and resources............ 53

The UN Disaster Management Team ........................................................... 53

Country Disaster Management Team ........................................................... 54

Tasks, roles and resources of the UN ........................................................... 55

Roles and resources of UNDP, UNDRO, and other UN agencies ................ 55Coordination: the resident coordinator and the UN-DMT ........................... 60

Chapter 7 Disaster preparedness.............................................................. 62

Components of disaster preparedness .......................................................... 63

Preparedness for slow onset and sudden onset disasters .............................. 66

Preparedness within the United Nations ...................................................... 67

Checklist of basic information required by a UN-DMT .............................. 68

Chapter 8 Vulnerability and risk assessment........................................... 74


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of Disaster of Disaster of Disaster of Disaster of Disaster

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PART THREE: DISASTER REPONSE......................................................... 81

Chapter 9 Disaster reponse........................................................................ 82

Aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance ..........................................83

Chapter 10 Disaster assessment................................................................ 87

Objectives of assessment .............................................................................. 87

The assessment process ................................................................................89

Assessments for different disaster types ...................................................... 89

How assessment data is used ........................................................................ 90

Chapter 11 UN reponse to disaster............................................................ 92

Principal elements and actions in response to a sudden disaster .................. 92

Sitreps-exchanging information with UNDRO ............................................ 94

Alert message and field sitreps ..................................................................... 95

The importance of coordination and information......................................... 96Chapter 12 Rehabilitation and reconstruction......................................... 98

Priorities and opportunities in rehabilitation and reconstruction1 ............... 99

A case study: Zenon hurricane ................................................................... 101

PART FOUR: DISASTER MITIGATION...................................................... 111

Chapter 13 Mitigation............................................................................... 112

Targeting mitigation where it has most effect ............................................ 113

Actions to reduce risk ................................................................................. 114

The menu of mitigation actions .................................................................. 115

Classification of mitigation measures ........................................................ 116

Timing for mitigation ................................................................................. 117

Chapter 14 UN assistance to mitigation.................................................. 118

Disaster mitigation as a development theme .............................................. 118

Appraising disaster mitigation needs, policies, and capacity ..................... 119

Sources of information: needs for technical expertise ...............................122

Project identification and formulation........................................................122

Disaster risk appraisal of all projects in hazardous areas ........................... 123Disaster risk reduction planning checklist .................................................. 124

Appendix.................................................................................................... 126

GA Resolution 46/182, Strengthening of the Coordination of Humanitarian

Emergency Assistance of the United Nations


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Foreword to the 2nd edition

The informal name for this text has been the “Foundation Module.” The

information it includes is regarded as the foundation for the much of the UNDP/

UNDRO Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP). This training

module describes the components of disaster management and their contextwithin the overall framework of United Nations agencies actively involved in

disaster and emergency issues.

This training module has been produced for the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster

Management Training Programme by the University of Wisconsin Disaster

Management Center. The Technical Operational Partners for the DMTP

provided valuable advice on the format and content. The principal sources for

the content include the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Manual and six complementary

training modules prepared for the DMTP. Intertect Training Services has edited

the material and prepared the educational components.

For those of you familiar with the first edition, you will see many changes in the

second edition. It has been significantly reorganized. The chapters which focus

on the UN have been moved adjacent to chapters on related topics–instead of

being collected together in the former Part 4.

The chapter on Natural Hazards has been condensed. Each hazard type is

described in a one-page summary. More extensive coverage is now available in

the companion module, Introduction to Hazards.

A new chapter on Compound and Complex Emergencies has been added,

highlighting this topic as an issue that has recently emerged into our collective

consciousness. Many other chapters have been modified or rewritten with new

exercises and illustrations added.


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Introduction to this training module

Purpose and scope

An Overview of Disaster Management is designed to introduce the subject of

disaster management to an audience of UN organization professionals who formdisaster management teams, as well as to government counterpart agencies,

NGOs, and donors. The training is designed to increase the audience’s

awareness of the nature and management of disasters. This should lead to better

performance in disaster preparedness and response. By questioning the

“inevitability” of disasters, we hope you can begin to see mitigation of disasters

as a component of development, and disasters as opportunities to further

development goals.

In this course we take a broad view of disasters. We will not try to separate

out problems rooted in environmental degradation as a distinct set of

responsibilities. It also includes emergencies which encompass the need to

provide assistance to large populations displaced by the forces of civil conflict or other emergencies.

Mush of the course’s content is based on the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster

Manual and follows its principles, procedures, and terminology.

Overall l earn ing objectives

The overall objectives of this training module aim to

! create interest in disaster management

! stimulate motivation

! link the learning to your work activities

! relate the learning to your values and attitudes about disaster management

We hope this will be achieved through your reading of this text and completing

the suggested exercises. Specifically, you should be able to do the following:

! describe the relationship among hazard, vulnerability and disasters

! describe the basic concepts, aims, and elements of disaster and emergency

management

! describe the range of available preparedness/mitigation measures, consider

their appropriateness, opportunities, limitations and modalities of

implementation through development activities

! clarify the purpose, function and means of response of the UN agencies

involved in the emergency scenario and particularly that of the UN Disaster

Management Team.

Q. Before you go on, write down two or three key reasons why you are studying this course on disaster management.

A.Compare your reasonswith those of others thatare on the following page.


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Importance of training for disaster management

Why are disasters and disaster management training of concern to country

governments, to the UN and, in particular, to UNDP and UNDRO? How can

governments and UNDP justify adding disaster management to their long lists of

competing priorities? There are several answers to these questions.

! Government are increasingly requesting UN agencies to in-country

coordinate all UN post-disaster assistance and sometimes all international

assistance. Therefore, governments and the UN need better communication

about their mutual needs and capabilities.

! Disasters are a growing problem. They will become of increasing concern togovernments and an increasing part of the UN’s principal activities. In

disaster-prone countries UNDP’s country programmes are inevitably

affected by disasters. Projects are set back or suffer delays as a country

recovers from the consequences of a disaster.

! Disasters are non-routine events that require non-routine responses.

Government and development agencies in general cannot rely on normal

procedures to implement appropriate responses. They need to learn and

practice special skills and attitudes.

! Disasters are closely linked with at least four other priorities for which

UNDP has accepted either a direct or supportive role: displaced persons,

refugees and returnees, women in development, and environmental protection. The issues of all these subjects overlap significantly. A training

programme in one will support the professional development of UNDP staff

in all.

! UNDRO has an established international mandate in this area. It is to

coordinate activities promoting preparedness and mitigation as well as the

response to disasters. UNDRO’s interests are represented in the field by

UNDP. It is incumbent upon both agencies to promote a marked increase of

awareness and competence in disasters, and to involve other concerned UN

agencies.

! In their role as Resident coordinators, UNDP Res Reps and field office staff

need to train with their sister agencies in the procedures of implementing a

coordinated and appropriate disaster response.

! The world community takes considerable interest in disasters. Governments

and the UN system have high profiles in these events which are observed

closely by the media. UN agencies and governments must prove their

competence in order to project a positive image of providing appropriate

support.


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P A R T

Training methods

This module is intended for two audiences, the self-study learner and the

participant in a training workshop. The following training methods are planned

for use in workshops and are simulated in the written module. For the self-study

learner the text is as close to a tutor as can be managed in print.

Workshop training methods include

" group discussions

" simulations/role plays

" supplementary handouts

" videos

" review sessions

" self-assessment exercises

You are invited to use this text as a workbook. In addition to note-taking in

the margins, you will be given the opportunity to stop and examine your

learning along the way through questions included in the text. Write down your

answers to these questions before proceeding to ensure that you have captured

key points of the text.

This text is divided into four parts. Part One describes what hazards are,

why they become disasters, and how they affect development.

Part Two identifies the scope of disaster management, what your role may be

in it, and focuses on preparedness aspects.

Part Three accepts that some disasters will occur and examines how torespond to them.

Part Four presents disaster mitigation as a set of activities that reduce the risk

and impact of disasters.

This training module is complemented by two short videos, “The UN and

disaster response,” and “Disaster mitigation: how to lessen the damage through

proper development.” You would benefit from making arrangements to view

these videos and from reviewing the accompanying discussion questions.


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P A R T

HAZARDS AND DISASTERSHAZARDS AND DISASTERSHAZARDS AND DISASTERSHAZARDS AND DISASTERSHAZARDS AND DISASTERS

After reading the material and completing the exercises you should be able to:! define the key terms of disaster management

! describe the causes of disaster vulnerability

! reproduce the disaster management continuum diagram

! identify the most important hazards and how they affect society

! distinguish between natural and human made hazards

! identify at least two ways that development can lead directly to a disaster

! describe at least four ways that disasters disrupt development

CHAPTER 1

Intr Intr Intr Intr Intr oduction to disaster oduction to disaster oduction to disaster oduction to disaster oduction to disaster sssss

Q. How do you define “hazard” and “disaster”?

A. Write your ideas in the following space, then compare your definitions with those provided in the text.

1 P A R T

LEARNING

OBJECTIVES

!


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Before going any further we should establish a common understanding of the

terms hazard and disaster.

Definition of hazard

A hazard is a rare or extreme event in the natural or human-made environment

that adversely affects human life, property or activity to the extent of causing a

disaster.

Definition of disaster

A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing

widespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability of

affected society to copy using only its own resources. Disasters are often

classified according to their speed of onset (sudden or slow), or according to their

cause (natural or man-made).

Definition of natural phenomenaThis part of the module will focus on the above two terms but we need to

examine them in relation to another term: natural phenomena. Natural

phenomena are extreme climatological, hydrological, or geological, processes that

do not pose any threat to persons or property. A massive earthquake in an

unpopulated area, for example, is a natural phenomena, not a hazard. So is the

annual flood along the Nile, an essential element to the well being of its

neighbouring inhabitants.

Definition of emergency

Another term closely related to disaster and used throughout this module is

emergency. A disaster might be regarded as a particular type (or sub-set) of anemergency. “Disaster” suggests an intense time period and level of urgency.

Whereas a disaster is bound by a specific period in which lives and essential

property are immediately at risk, an emergency can encompass a more general

period in which

! there is a clear and marked deterioration in the coping abilities of a group or

community, or

! coping abilities are only sustained by unusual initiatives by the group or

community or by external intervention.

The disaster problemThis section will describe certain phenomena leading to disasters and emer-

gencies: disaster trends, where they occur and who is most affected by them.

From the outset it is worth reminding ourselves that disasters and

emergencies are all too often regarded as aberrant events, divorced from “normal

life.” In reality, however, the opposite is true. Disasters and emergencies are

fundamental reflections of normal life. They are consequences of the ways

societies structure themselves, economically and socially; the ways that societies

and states interact; and the ways that relationships between the decision makers

are sustained. Hence a flood or an earthquake is not a disaster in and of itself.


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The disaster stems from the fact that certain communities or groups are forced to

settle in areas susceptible to the impact of a raging river or a volcanic eruption. It

is essential to make a distinction between hazards and disasters, and to recognize

that the effect of the former upon the latter is essentially a measure of the

society’s vulnerability.

The following diagram illustrates this combination of opposing forces.Vulnerability is seen as the progression of three stages:

1. Underlying causes: a deep-rooted set of factors within a society that together

form and maintain vulnerability.

2. Dynamic pressures: a translating process that channels the effects of a

negative cause into unsafe conditions; this process may be due to a lack of

basic services or provision or it may result from a series of macro-forces

3. Unsafe conditions: the vulnerable context where people and property are

exposed to the risk of disaster; the fragile physical environment is oneelement; other factors include an unstable economy and low income levels.

Causal factors of disasters

The magnitude of each disaster, measured in deaths, damage, or costs for a

given developing country increases with the increased marginalization of the

population. This is caused by a high birthrate, problems of land tenure and

economic opportunity, and the lack or misallocation of resources to meet the

basic human needs of an expanding population. As the population increases, the

best land in both rural and urban areas is taken up, and those seeking land for

farming or housing are forced to accept inadequate land. These offer less

productivity and a smaller measure of physical or economic safety. The follow-

ing section considers each of these issues.

Figure 1.1

The Disaster Crunch

Model

This material has been drawnfrom the first chapter of theforthcoming book: At Risk-Vulnerability and Disasters, byPiers Blaikie, Terry Cannon, Ian

Davis and Ben Wisner (Harper Collins, London and New York)

CHAPTER 1

Introductiontodisasters11111


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Poverty

The most important single influence on the

impact of a disaster is poverty. All other factors

could be lessened if the affected population were

not also limited by poverty. Virtually all disaster

studies show that the wealthiest of the popula-tion either survive the disaster unaffected or are

able to recover quickly. Across the broad spec-

trum of disasters, poverty generally makes

people vulnerable to the impact of hazards.

Poverty explains why people in urban areas are

forced to live on hills that are prone to land-

slides, or why people settle near volcanos or

rivers that invariably flood their banks. Poverty

explains why droughts claim poor peasant

farmers as victims an rarely the wealthy, and

why famines more other than not are the resultof a lack of purchasing power to buy food rather

than an absence of food. Increasingly, poverty

also explains why many people are forced to

move from their homes to other parts of their

countries or even across borders to survive. Such crisis-induced migration poses

considerable challenges both in terms of immediate assistance to the displaced

and of longer-term development.

Population growth

There is an obvious connection between the increase in losses from a disaster andthe increase in population. If there are more people and structures where a

disaster strikes, then it is likely there will be more of an impact. The growth of

population has been so spectacular that it is inevitable that more people will be

affected by disaster because more will be forced to live and work in unsafe areas.

Increasing numbers of people will be competing for a limited amount of resources

(such as, employment opportunities, and land) which can lead to conflict. This

conflict may result in crisis-induced migration. Such growth occurs predom-

inantly in developing countries, resulting in various contributors to disasters.

Figure. 1.2

Population growth

1750-2100Source: Thomas Merrick,

et. al., “World Population in

Transition,” Population

Bulletin, Vol. 42, No.2

(1986).

Photo credit: UNHCR/

M. Vanappelghem


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P A R T

Rapid urbanization

Rapid population growth and migration are related to the major phenomenon of

rapid urbanization. This process is also accelerated in developing countries. It is

characterized by the rural poor or civilians in an area of conflict moving to

metropolitan areas in search of economic opportunities and security. These

massive numbers of urban poor increasingly find fewer options for availabilityof safe and desirable places to build their houses. Here again, competition for

scare resources, an inevitable consequence of rapid urbanization, can lead to

human-made disasters.

Many landslides or flooding disasters are closely linked to rapid and

unchecked urbanization which forces low-income families to settle on the slopes

of steep hillsides or ravines, or along the banks of flood-prone rivers. Many

earthquake victims in urban areas have been impoverished families whose sites

have failed rather than their houses, usually through landslides onto the house or

out from under it.

unstable slope

river

river

Figure 1.4

As population

continues to grow,

settlements spread to

marginal and even

unsafe areas.

Figure 1.3

Population

projections for some

disaster-prone cities

CHAPTER 1

Introductionto disasters

11111


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Transitions in cultur al practices

Many of the inevitable changes that occur in all societies lead to an increase in

the societies’ vulnerability to disasters. Obviously, all societies are constantly

changing and in a continual state of transition. These transitions are often

extremely disruptive and uneven, leaving gaps in social coping mechanisms

and technology. These transitions include nomadic populations that becomesedentary rural people who move to urban areas, and both rural and urban

people who move from one economic level to another. More broadly, these

examples are typical of a shift from non-industrialized to industrializing

societies.

One example of the impact of these transitions is the introduction of new

construction materials and building designs in a society that is accustomed to

traditional materials and designs. This often results in new materials being

used incorrectly. In disaster prone areas, inadequate new construction

techniques may lead to houses that cannot withstand earthquakes or wind

storms (see the following figure).

Compounding this problem is the new community where the disaster survivors find themselves may not have a social support system or network to

assist in the relief and recovery from the disaster. The traditional coping

mechanisms may not exist in the new setting and the population becomes

increasingly dependent on outside interveners to help in this process.

Conflicting as well as transitional cultural practices can also lead to civil

conflict, for example, as a result of communal violence triggered by religious

differences.

Environmental degradation

Many disasters are either caused or exacerbated by environmental degradation.

Deforestation leads to rapid rain run off, which contributes to flooding. The

destruction of mangrove swamps decreases a coast line’s ability to resist tropical

winds and storm surges.

Figure 1.5

New house badly

built using modern

materials.


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The creation of drought conditions–and the relative severity and length of

time the drought lasts–is mainly a natural phenomena. Drought conditions

may be exacerbated by: poor cropping patterns, overgrazing, the stripping of

topsoil, poor conservation techniques, depletion of both the surface and

subsurface water supply, and ,to an extent, unchecked urbanization.

Lack of awareness and in formation

Disasters can also happen because people vulnerable to them simply didn’t

know how to get out of harm’s way or to take protective measures. This

ignorance may not necessarily be a function of poverty, but a lack of awareness

of what measures can be taken to build safe structures on safe locations. Perhaps

some people did not know about safe evacuation routes and procedures. Other

populations may not know where to turn for assistance in times of acute distress.

Nevertheless, this point should not be taken as a justification for ignoring the

coping mechanisms of the majority of people affected by disasters. In most

disaster-prone societies, there is a wealth of understanding about disaster threats and responses. This understanding should be incorporated into any

efforts to provide external assistance.

War and civil str if e

In this text war and civil strife are regarded as hazards, that is, extreme events

that produce disasters. War and civil strife often result in displaced people, a

target population of this training programme. The causal factors of war and

civil strife include competition for scarce resources, religious or ethnic

intolerance, and ideological differences. Many of these are also byproducts of

the preceding six causal factors of disasters.

Figure 1.6

Deforestation for

“development”

CHAPTER 1

Introductionto disasters11111


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Q. Of the seven causal factors of disasters discussed above,how would you rank them for the region in which you live?

A. List the most serious contributor first.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.


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CHAPTER 2

Disaster ter Disaster ter Disaster ter Disaster ter Disaster ter minolominolominolominolominologggggy and phasesy and phasesy and phasesy and phasesy and phases

Disaster terms

Some terminology of disaster management has already been introduced in this

module. A brief glossary follows to highlight some of these working definitions.

This glossary lists the disaster management terms as used in the Third Draft

of “A list of Disaster Management related terms with their definitions to be

included in an internationally agreed multilingual glossary” prepared by

UNDRO, and in the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual. However,

consensus does not exist among all disaster management practitioners or

academicians regarding these definitions. A standardized and universallyaccepted glossary would obviously be desirable, but is not likely to exist within

the next few years. Consequently, the following definitions represent one effort

toward developing a consensus. Users of the DMTP training materials are

encouraged to adopt these working definitions for the sake of uniformity and to

be tolerant of other groups’ definitions.

Q. Can you think of an example of how to use each of these terms? Write your example in the space below each definition.

Disaster management is the body of policy and administrative decisions and

operational activities which pertain to the various stages of a disaster at all levels.

A.

Human-made disasters are disasters or emergency situations where the

principal, direct cause(s) are identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwise.

Apart from “technological” and “ecological” disasters, this mainly involves

situations in which civilian populations suffer casualties, losses of property, basic

services and means of livelihood as a result of war or civil strife, for example.

Human-made disasters/emergencies can be of the rapid or slow onset types, and

in the case of internal conflict, can lead to “complex emergencies” as well.

A.

An even broader definition of human-made disaster acknowledges that all

disasters are caused by humans because they have chosen, for whatever reason,

to be where natural phenomena occurs that result in adverse impacts on people.

A.

11111CHAPTER 2

Disaster terminologyand phases

Disaster

management

Human-made

disaster

!


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Risk is the expected losses (lives lost, persons injured, damage to property and

disruption of economic activity) due to a particular hazard. Risk is the product

of hazard and vulnerability.

A.

Vulnerability is the degree of loss (for example, from 0 to 100 percent) result-

ing from a potentially damaging phenomenon.

A.

The following terms are key to understanding slow onset disasters and their

impact on populations.

Population displacements are usually associated with crisis-induced mass

migration in which large numbers of people are forced to leave their homes to

seek alternative means of survival. Such mass movements normally result from

the effects of conflict, severe food shortages or collapse of economic support

systems.

A.

Complex emergencies are a form of human-made emergency in which the cause

of the emergency as well as the assistance to the afflicted are bound by intenselevels of political considerations. This sort of emergency is normally associated

with the problems of displaced people during times of civil conflict or with

people in need caught in areas of conflict.

A.

Phases of a disaster

Disasters can be viewed as a series of phases on a time

continuum. Identifying and understanding these phases

helps to describe disaster related needs and to conceptu-

alize appropriate disaster management activities.

Rapid onset disasters

The definitions below correspond to the time sequence

following the occurrence of a rapid onset disaster.

See Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1.

Rapid onset disaster

management

continuum

Risk

Vulnerability

Population

displacements

Complex emergencies


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P A R T

The relief phase is the period immediately following the occurrence of a

sudden disaster (or the late discovery of a neglected/deteriorated slow-onset

situation) when exceptional measures have to be taken to search and find the

survivors as well as meet their basic needs for shelter, water, food and medical

care.

A.

Rehabilitation is the operations and decisions taken after a disaster with a view

to restoring a stricken community to its former living conditions, while encour-

aging and facilitating the necessary adjustments to the changes caused by the

disaster.

A.

Reconstruction is the actions taken to reestablish a community after a period of rehabilitation subsequent to a disaster. Actions would include construction of

permanent housing, full restoration of all services, and complete resumption of

the pre-disaster state.

A.

Mitigation is the collective term used to encompass all actions taken prior to

the occurrence of a disaster (pre-disaster measures) including preparedness and

long-term risk reduction measures. (Mitigation has been used by some institu-

tions or authors in a narrower sense, excluding preparedness.)

A.

Preparedness consists of activities designed to minimize loss of life and

damage, organize the temporary removal of people and property from a threat-

ened location, and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilita-

tion.

A.

Slow onset disasters

The sequence of a disaster continuum for slow onset

disasters is similar in framework but has important

distinctions. The following terms and definitions reflect

those additions or modifications. See Figure 2.2.

11111CHAPTER 2

Disaster terminologyand phases

Relief phase

Rehabilitation

Reconstruction

Mitigation

Preparedness

Figure 2.2.

Slow onset disaster management continuum


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Early warning is the process of monitoring situations in communities or areas

known to be vulnerable to slow onset hazards. For example, famine early warning

may be reflected in such indicators as drought, livestock sales, or changes in

economic conditions. The purpose of early warning are to enable remedial

measures to be initiated and to provide more timely and effective relief including

through disaster preparedness actions.

A.

The emergency phase is the period during which extraordinary measures have to

be taken. Special emergency procedures and authorities may be applied to support

human needs, sustain livelihoods, and protect property to avoid the onset of

disaster. This phase can encompass pre-disaster, disaster alert, disaster relief and

recovery periods. An emergency phase may be quite extensive, as in a slow onset

disaster such as a famine. It can also be relatively short-lived, as after an

earthquake.

A.

Rehabilitation is the action taken after a slow onset disaster where attention must

be given to the issues of resettlement or returnee programmes, particularly for

people who have been displaced for reasons arising out of conflict or economic

collapse.

A.

Q. Test your recall of the two disaster continuum diagrams. Label eachcircles below with the phases of a rapid onset and slow onset disaster.

A.

Early warning

Emergency phase

Rehabilitation

Slow onset disaster Rapid onset disaster


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P A R T

CHAPTER 3

Linking disaster Linking disaster Linking disaster Linking disaster Linking disaster s and des and des and des and des and devvvvvelopmentelopmentelopmentelopmentelopment 1

Introduction

This training module provides a new conceptualization of the relationship

between disasters and development. This new conceptualization has been

growing in the development community over the last few years and is a major

philosophical underpinning of the United Nations Disaster Management

Training Programme. Rarely a week goes by when a major disaster is not

reported in the media–a disaster that results in death and destruction–a

disaster that frequently wipes out years of development programming and sets

the slow course of improvement in third world countries further behind, wasting

precious resources.For a long time the cause and effect relationship between disasters and social

and economic development was ignored. Ministries of Planning and Finance and

other development planners did not concern themselves with disasters. At best,

development planners hoped that disasters would not occur and, if they did,

were most effectively handled by relief from donor countries and relief

organizations. Development programs were not assessed in the context of

disasters, neither from the effect of the disaster on the development programs nor

from the point of whether the development programs increased either the

likelihood of a disaster or increased the potential damaging effects of a disaster.

Disasters were seen in the context of emergency response–not as a part of

long term development programming. When a disaster did occur, the responsewas directed to emergency needs and cleaning up. Communities under disaster

distress were seen as unlikely places to institute development. The post-disaster

environment was seen as too turbulent to promote institutional changes aimed at

promoting long term development.

‘Sources for this chapter are Disasters and Development, a UNDP/UNDRO training module

prepared by R.S. Stephenson and Disasters and Development: a study in institution-buildingprepared for UNDP by INTERTECT, January 1991.

Figure 3.1

This figure charts

aspects of a community’s

development and

vulnerability to disaster.

It shows the various

“orientations” with

which you may analyze

the “field” of develop-

ment and disaster

vulnerability.

The field is divided into

positive and negativeaspects of the disaster/

development relationship

by the vertical axis. The

right half reflects the

positive or optimistic

side of the relationship

and the left side of the

diagram deals with the

negative aspects of the

relationship. The state-

ment in each quadrant

sums up the basic con-

cept derived from the

overlap of the two

realms.

!

11111CHAPTER 3

Linking disaster and development


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ManaManaManaManaManagggggementementementementement 1The growing body of knowledge on the relationships between disasters

and development indicates four basic themes. The themes presented in the

preceeding figure may be expanded as follows:

1. Disasters set back development programming destroying years of

development initiatives.- Infrastructure improvement e.g. transport and utility systems are

destroyed by a flood.

2. Rebuilding after a disaster provides significant opportunities to initiate

development programs.

- A self-help housing program to rebuild housing destroyed by an

earthquake teaches new skills, strengthens community pride and

leadership and retains development dollars that otherwise would

be exported to large construction companies.

3. Development programs can increase an area’s susceptibility todisasters.

- A major increase in livestock development leads to overgrazing,

which contributes to desertification and increases vulnerability to

famine.

4. Development programs can be designed to decrease the susceptibility

to disasters and their negative consequences.

- Housing projects constructed under building codes designed to

withstand high winds result in less destruction during the next

tropical storm.

Decision-makers who ignore these relationships between disasters and

development do a disservice to the people who place their trust in them.

Increasingly, around the world, forward thinking Ministries of Planning and

Finance with the support of United Nations and Non-Governmental

Organization (NGO) officials are assessing development projects in the

context of disaster mitigation and are designing disaster recovery programs

with long term development needs in mind.

Disruption of development by disasters

Disasters can seriously disrupt development initiatives in several ways, includ-

ing:

" Loss of resources

" Interruption of programs

" Impact on investment climate

" Impact on the non-formal sector

" Political destabilization


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P A R T

Loss of resources

Development resources are lost when a disaster wipes out the products of

investment–it shortens the life of development investments. The disasters affect

development through:

" Impact on capital stock and inventory

" Loss of production and provision of services due to disruption and increased

cost of goods and services

" The secondary effects of the disaster include inflation, balance of payment

problems, increase in fiscal expenditure, decreases in monetary reserves

" Other indirect losses, for example: the impact on a country’s debt position

could be that as the debt service burden increases, the country has less

resources available to invest in productive enterprises

" The outcome of these losses of resources include: loss of economic growth,

delays to development programs, cancellation of programmes, and

disincentives to new investment" There may also be a shift in skilled human resources toward high visibility

recovery activity–a diversion from long-term to short-term needs.

Interruption of programs

Disasters interrupt ongoing programs and divert resources from originally

planned uses.

Impact on investment climate

Disasters, especially when they have occurred repeatedly within a short period

of time, have a negative impact on the incentive for further investment. Investorsneed a climate of stability and certainty to be encouraged to risk their money.

The disaster further clouds the investment picture when it has caused loss of

employment, thereby depressing market demand, and resulting in a stagnation

which limits overall growth.

Impact on non-formal sector

Disasters have special negative impacts on the non-formal sector where

approximate costs of disasters are often underestimated. Disasters depress the

non-formal economy through the direct costs of lost equipment and housing

(which often also serves as business sites). The indirect costs of disasters include

lost employment, and lost income. Sometimes the importation of relief itemscreates disincentives to producers.

Political destabilization

The stress to a country caused by a disaster often results in the destabilization of

the government. This may occur for several reasons. For example, the

government may have mismanaged the disaster relief and recovery, leading to

discontent on the part of affected communities. Or the survivors may have had

unmet expectation which, for whatever reason, translate into some form of

protest. The government could also become the scapegoat for problems beyond

its control, again leading to its possible downfall. In fact, it is very common for a

government to collapse or be overthrown within two or three years of a major

disaster.

11111CHAPTER 3



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ManaManaManaManaManagggggementementementementement 1Q. Recall the most recent disaster with which you are familiar. Based on that experience, respond to the following.

A.

1. Identify a facility critical to the local economy that was knocked out of service.

2. Name one development project that was interrupted.

3. Identify one case of an investment that was withdrawn or reduced

because of the disaster.

4. Identify one case of non-formal sector employment that was lost because

disaster relief displaced the need for it.

5. Describe and example of how the government may have been

destabilized by the disaster.

How development may cause disasters

The side effects of well-meaning development efforts sometimes have disastrous

consequences. Development projects implemented without taking into account

existing environmental hazards may increase vulnerability to natural disasters.

For example, projects designed to increase employment opportunities, and thus

income, usually attract additional population growth. Low-income people may

then have to seek housing in areas previously avoided, on hillsides or in

floodplains. The costs of relief assistance after a landslide or flood can easily

outweigh the benefits to the economy of more jobs. Similarly, development projects may lead to negative political consequences that increase the

vulnerability to civil conflict.

Some types of development projects commence without fully assessing their

impact on the environment. This can occur even in programmes resulting from a

disaster, such as reconstruction projects that increase demand for wood to fortify

houses. The resulting deforestation can then bring increased vulnerability to

mudslides and possibly long-term environmental changes.

Development projects may even consciously force a choice between reducing

disaster vulnerability and economic vulnerability. A project’s design may require

a trade-off between the two and force a decision between the lesser of two evils.


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P A R T

Q. Can you describe how development can contribute to vulnerabilitybased on the following examples of negative consequences?

A.

Watershed erosion

Deforestation

Loss of biological diversity

Lack of soil and land management

Air and water pollution

Inadequate urban sanitation and waste disposal

Marine and coastal zone development

Development opportunities afforded by disasters

Despite an increasing disaster awareness in the international community, and the

recognition of the importance of developing coherent plans for relief activities, it

often takes the actual or imminent occurrence of a large-scale destructive event to

stimulate individual governments to think about a developmental approach.

Thus, a disaster can serve as a catalyst for introducing mitigation activities.

Few development workers realize the opportunities that disasters can

provide in the development field. Disasters often create a political and economicatmosphere wherein extensive changes can be made more rapidly than under

normal circumstances. For example, in the aftermath of a disaster, there may be

major opportunities to execute land reform programmes, to improve the overall

housing stock, to create new jobs and job skills, and to expand and modernize

the economic base of the community-opportunities that would not otherwise

be possible. The collective will to take action is an advantage that should not be

wasted.

Disasters can also highlight high-risk areas where action must be taken

before another disaster strikes. The realization of vulnerability can motivate

policy-makers and the public to participate in mitigation activities. Disasters may

also serve to highlight the fact that the country is seriously under-developed.

They can thus bring in funding and the attention of donor communities to apply

to long-term development needs. (Henderson, 1990)

See table on the nextpage for examples of answers to this

question.

11111CHAPTER 3



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ManaManaManaManaManagggggementementementementement 1DISASTER AND

ECONOMICS

Table 3.1

Examples of

development

leading todisasters or

increased

vulnerability

From Disasters and Development: A Study

in Institution Building,

Intertect, January, 1991.


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P A R T

CHAPTER 4

NaNaNaNaNatur tur tur tur tur al hazar al hazar al hazar al hazar al hazar dsdsdsdsds

In earlier chapters, the discussion about disasters and emergencies resulting

from natural and human-made hazards has been developed in general terms.

However, each hazard has its own characteristics. To understand the significance

and implications of a particular type of disaster we must have a basic

understanding about the nature, causes and effects of each hazard type.

The list of hazard types is very long. Many occur infrequently or impact a

very small population. Other hazards, such as severe snowstorms, often occur in

areas that are prepared to deal with them and seldom become disasters.

However, from the perspective of a disaster victim it is not particularly useful to

distinguish between minor and major disasters. Some disasters are now of

limited interest to the international community. These include avalanches, fog,frost, hail, lightning, snowstorms, and tornadoes. The international interest is

less for these hazards because their impacts affect relatively few people and the

countries in which they normally occur have sufficient resources and systems in

place to respond without external assistance.

There are several hazard types for which there is widespread concern. They

can be categorized as follows:

Sudden onset hazards –(geological and climatic hazards) earthquakes,

tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, landslides

Slow onset hazards –(environmental hazards) drought, famine,

environmental degradation, desertification, deforestation, pest

infestation

Industrial/technological –system failures/accidents, spillages,

explosions, fires

Wars and civil strife –armed agression, insurgency, terrorism, and

other actions leading to displaced persons and refugees

Epidemics-water and/or food–borne diseases, person-to-person

diseases (contact and respiratory spread), vector-borne diseases andcomplications from wounds

These hazard types are highlighted in this training material. The

international community has an interest in them because they frequently affect

large populations and the need for outside assistance is evident. Many disasters

are themselves international events and have an impact on entire regions.

A brief description of each hazard type is presented below. It will be

your responsibility to determine which hazards are of concern to your country

and then to read the material about them.

!

11111CHAPTER 4

Natural hazards


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ManaManaManaManaManagggggementementementementement 2Q. Which hazards are of concern to your country?

A. List the most important hazards in order of their severity of impact.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Now learn more about each of these hazards in the material that follows.

Geological Hazards Earthquakes

Tsunamis

Volcanic eruptions

Landslides

Climatic Hazards

Tropical cyclones

Floods

Drought

Envir onmental Hazards

Environmental pollution

Deforestation

Desertification

Pest Infestation

Epidemics

I ndustri al Accidents

Characteristics of particular hazards and disasters 1

This section provides an indication of the general characteristics of each of the

hazard types listed and the kinds of counter-disaster measures which may be

required. You should note that disasters have collateral or indirect effects that

may endure even after a particular type of disaster has been directly addressed.

The problem of displaced people after a sudden onset disaster, such as a cyclone,

may continue well after immediate relief, recovery and even rehabilitation

programmes have been implemented. Such collateral impact can turn a

seemingly rapid onset disaster into a continuing emergency situation.

1 The following material on hazards and population displacements is drawn from theUNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.


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P A R T

A further issue that must be borne in mind concerns the consequence of a

sudden onset disaster when relief assistance is stymied because civil conflict

makes access impossible. In other words, the perverse permutations are many.

Nevertheless, the basic characteristics of certain types of disasters and

emergencies and appropriate response measures can be structured as follows:

! Causal phenomena ! Typical effects! General characteristics ! Possible risk reduction measures

! Predictability ! Specific preparedness measures

! Factors contributing to vulnerability ! Typical post-disaster needs

Different types of disasters have characteristic effects while retaining unique

aspects. Risk reduction and preparedness measures, and emergency and post-

disaster response can all be facilitated by some “rules of thumb”–as outlined in

this section–but must also be tailored to the specificity of local conditions.

Remember:

(a) where different types of disaster occur in combination–e.g. floods

accompanying tropical storms–the combined effects must beconsidered; and where one disaster leads to another (for example a famine

leading to civil strife) the compound effects must be anticipated

(b) the severity of the actual impact on the society depends on human and

organization factors as well as natural and topographical ones.

Legend

# Volcanic eruptions # Land areas affected by tropical cyclones

# Shorelines exposed to tsunami waves # Desertification likely or active

# Seismic belts

11111CHAPTER 4

Natural hazards

Figure 4.1

World map of selected

hazards


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ManaManaManaManaManagggggementementementementement 2

Ear Ear Ear Ear Ear thquakthquakthquakthquakthquakeseseseses

Causal Slippage of crustal rock along a fault or area of strain and rebound to new

phenomena alignment.

General Shaking of earth caused by waves on and below the earth’s surface causing:

characteristics Surface faulting

and effects Aftershocks

Tsunamis

Tremors, vibrations

Liquefaction

Landslides

Predictability Probability of occurrence can be determined but not exact timing. Forecasting is based on monitoring of seismic activity, historical incidence, and observations.

Factors contributing Location of settlements in seismic areas.

to vulnerability Structures which are not resistant to ground motion.

Dense collections of buildings with high occupancy.

Lack of access to information about earthquake risks.

Typical Physical damage –Damage or loss of structures or infrastructure. Fires, dam

adverse failures, landslides, flooding may occur.

effects Casualties –Often high, particularly near epicenter or in highly populated areas

or where buildings not resistant. Public health –Fracture injuries most widespread problem. Secondary threats

due to flooding, contaminated water supply, or breakdown in sanitary

conditions.

Water supply –Severe problems likely due to damage of water systems,

pollution of open wells and changes in water table.

Possible risk Hazard mapping

reduction Public awareness programs and training

measures Assessing and reducing structural vulnerability

Land use control or zoning, building codes

Insurance

Specific Earthquake warning and preparedness programs

preparedness measures

Typical Search and rescue

post-disaster Emergency medical assistance

needs Damage needs and assessment survey

Relief assistance

Repair and reconstruction

Economic recovery

Impact Earthquake scales (Modified Mercalli, MSK), earthquake damage and

assessment usability forms.

tools


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P A R T

11111CHAPTER 4

Natural hazards

TTTTTsunamissunamissunamissunamissunamis

Causal Fault movement on sea floor, accompanied by an earthquake

phenomena A landslide occurring underwater or above the sea, then plunging into the water.

Volcanic activity either underwater or near the shore.

General Tsunami waves are barely perceptible in deep water and may measure 160 km

characteristics between wave crests

May consist of ten or more wave crests

Move up to 800 km per hour in deep water of ocean, diminishing in speed as the

wave approaches shore

May strike shore in crashing waves or may inundate the land

Flooding effect depends on shape of shoreline and tides

Predictability Tsunami Warning System in Pacific monitors seismic activity and declares

watches and warnings. Waves generated by local earthquakes may strike nearby

shores within minutes and warnings to public may not be possible.

Factors contributing Location of settlements in low lying coastal regions

to vulnerability Lack of tsunami resistant buildings

Lack of timely warning systems and evacuation plans

Unawareness of public to destructive forces of tsunamis

Typical Physical damage –The force of water can raze everything in its path but the

adverse majority of damage to structure and infrastructure results form flooding.

effects Withdrawal of the wave form shore scours out sediment and can collapse ports

and buildings and batter boats.

Casualties and public health –Deaths occur principally by drowning and injuries

from battering by debris.

Water supply –Contamination by salt water and debris or sewage may make

clean drinking water unavailable.

Crops and food supplies –Harvests, food stocks, livestock farm implements and

fishing boats may be lost. Land may be rendered infertile due to salt water

incursion.

Possible risk Protection of buildings along coast, houses on stiltsreduction Building barriers such as breakwaters

measures

Specific Hazard mapping, planning evacuation routes

preparedness measures Establish warning systems

Community education

Typical post-disaster Warning and evacuation; search and rescue; medical assistance; conduct disaster

needs assessment, provide food, water and shelter

Impact Aerial surveys of coastal areas, damage surveys, evaluation of warning systemsassessment and evacuation plans.

tools


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VVVVVolcanoesolcanoesolcanoesolcanoesolcanoes

Causal Magma pushed upward through volcanic vent by pressure and effervescence of

phenomena dissolved gases.

General Types of volcanoes are cindercones, shield volcanoes,composite volcanoes and

characteristics lava domes.

Magma flowing out onto surface is lava and all solid particles ejected are tephra.

Damage results from type of material ejected such as ash, pyroclastic flows

(blasts of gas containing ash and fragments), mud, debris, and lava flows.

Predictability Study of the geological history of volcanoes mainly located in a clearly defined

volcanic belt, along with seismic activity and other observations, may indicate an

impending volcano. No reliable indicator has been discovered and precursory

signs do not always occur.

Factors contributing Settlements on the flanks of volcanoes

to vulnerability Settlements in the historical paths of mud or lava lows

Structures with roof designs not resistant to ash accumulation

Presence of combustible materials

Lack of evacuation plan or warning systems

Typical Casualties and health –Death from pyroclastic flows, mud flows and possibly

adverse lava flows and toxic gases. Injuries from falling rock, burns; respiratoryeffects difficulties from gas and ash.

Settlements, infrastructure and agriculture –Complete destruction of everything in

the path of pyroclastic, mud or lava flows; collapse of structures under weight of

wet ash, flooding, blockage of roads or communication systems

Crops and food supplies –Destruction of crops in path of flows, ash may break

tree branches, livestock may inhale toxic gas or ash; grazing lands may be

contaminated.

Possible risk Land use planning for settlements around volcanoes

reduction measures Protective structural measures

Specific National volcanic emergency plans

preparedness measures Volcano monitoring and warning system

Training for government officials and community participation in search and

rescue, fire fighting

Typical post-disaster Warning and evacuation; medical assistance, search and rescue; provide food,

needs water and shelter; relocate victims; provide financial assistance

Impact Aerial and ground surveys to assess damage; evaluation of evacuation plan and

assessment emergency response

tools


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P A R T

Landslides Landslides Landslides Landslides Landslides

Causal Downslope transport of soil and rock resulting fromphenomena naturally occurring vibrations, changes in direct

water content, removal of lateral support, loading

with weight, and weathering, or human

manipulation of water courses and slope

composition.

General Landslides vary in types of movement (falls, slides,

charasteristics topples, lateral spread, flows), and may be

secondary effects of heavy storms, earthquakes, and

volcanic eruptions. Landslides are more widespread

than any other geological event.

Predictability Frequency of occurrence, extent and consequences

of landslides may be estimated and areas of high

risk determined by use of information on area

geology, geomorphology, hydrology and

climatology and vegetation.

Factors contributing Settlements built on steep slopes, softer soils,

to vulnerability cliff tops

Settlements built at the base of steep slopes, on

mouths of streams from mountain valleys

Roads, communication lines in mountain areasBuildings with weak foundations

Buried pipelines, brittle pipes

Lack of understanding of landslide hazard

Typical Physical damage –Anything on top of or in path of

adverse landslide will suffer damage. Rubble may block

effects roads, lines of communication or waterways.

Indirect effects may include loss of productivity of

agricultural or forest lands, flooding, reduced

property values.

Casualties –Fatalities have occurred due to slopefailure. Catastrophic debris slides or mudflows have

killed many thousands.

Possible risk Hazard mapping

reduction Legislation and land use regulation

measures Insurance

Specific Community education

preparedness measures Monitoring, warning and evacuation systems

Typical post- Search and rescue (use of earth removal equipment);disaster needs medical assistance; emergency shelter for homeless

Impact Damage assessment forms

assessment tools

11111CHAPTER 4

Natural hazards


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ManaManaManaManaManagggggementementementementement 2

TTTTTr r r r r opical copical copical copical copical cyyyyyccccclonesloneslonesloneslones

Causal Mixture of heat and ,moisture forms a low pressure center over oceans in tropical

phenomena latitudes where water temperatures are over 26 degrees C.

Wind currents spin and organize around deepening low pressure over

accelerating toward the center and moving along track pushed by trade winds.

Depression becomes a tropical cyclone when winds reach gale force or 117 km

per hour

General When the cyclone strikes land, high winds, exceptional rainfall and storm surges

characteristics cause damage with secondary flooding and landslides.

Predictability Tropical cyclones can be tracked from their development but accurate landfall

forecasts are usually possible only a few hours before as unpredictable changes

in course can occur.

Factors contributing Settlements located in low lying coastal areas (direct impact)

to vulnerability Settlements in adjacent areas (heavy rains, floods)

Poor communications or warning systems

Lightweight structures, older construction, poor quality masonry

Infrastructural elements, fishing boats and maritime industries

Typical Physical damage –Structures lost and damaged by wing force, flooding, storm

adverse surge and landslides.

effects Casualties and public health –May be caused by flying debris, or flooding.Contamination of water supplies may lead to viral outbreaks and malaria.

Water supplies –Ground water may be contaminated by flood waters.

Crops and food supplies –High winds and rains can ruin standing crops, tree

plantations and food stocks.

Communications and logistics –Severe disruption is possible as wind brings

down telephone lines, antennas and satellite disks. Transport may be curtailed.

Possible risk Risk assessment and hazard mapping

reduction measures Land use control and flood plain management

Reduction of structural vulnerability

Improvement of vegetation cover

Specific preparedness Public warning systems

measures Evacuation plans

Training and community participation

Typical post-disaster Evacuation and emergency shelter; search and rescue; medical assistance; water

needs purification; reestablish logistical and communication networks; disaster

assessment; provision of seeds for planting.

Impact Damage assessment forms, aerial surveys

assessment tools


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P A R T

11111CHAPTER 4

Natural hazards

F F F F Floodsloodsloodsloodsloods

Causal Naturally occurring flash, river and coastal flooding from intense rainfall or

innundation associated with seasonal weather patterns

Human manipulation of watersheds, drainage basins and floodplains

General Flash floods –Accelerated runoff, dam failure, breakup of ice jam

characteristics River floods –Slow buildup, usually seasonal in river systems

Coastal floods –Associated with tropical cyclones, tsunami waves, storm surges

Factors affecting degree of danger: depth of water, duration, velocity, rate of

rise, frequency of occurrence, seasonality

Predictability Flood forecasting depends on seasonal patterns, capacity of drainage basin,

flood plain mapping, surveys by air and land. Warning possible well in

advance for seasonal floods, but only minutes before in case of storm surge,

flash flood, or tsunami.

Factors contributing Location of settlements on floodplains

to vulnerability Lack of awareness of flooding hazard

Reduction of absorptive capacity of land (erosion, concrete)

Non-resistant buildings and foundations

High risk infrastructural elements

Unprotected food stocks and standing crops, livestock

Fishing boats and maritime industries

Typical Physical damage –Structures damaged by washing a way, becoming inundated,

adverse collapsing, impact of floating debris. Landslides from saturated soils. Damage

effects greater in valleys than open areas.

Casualties and public health –Deaths from drowning but few serious injuries.

Possible outbreaks of malaria, diarrhea and viral infections.

Water supplies –Contamination of wells and groundwater possible. Clean water

may be unavailable.

Crops and food supplies –Harvests and food stocks may be lost to innundation.

Animals, farm tools and seeds might be lost. Floodplain mapping, Land use

control

Possible risk Flood control (channels, dikes, dams, flood-proofing, erosion control)

reduction measures

Specific preparedness Flood detection and warning systems

measures Community participation and education

Development of master plan for floodplain management

Typical post- Search and rescue; medical assistance; disaster assessment; short term food and

disaster needs water supplies; water purification; epidemiological surveillance; temporary

shelter

Impact Damage survey forms; aerial surveys

assessment tools

phenomena


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Dr Dr Dr Dr Dr oughtsoughtsoughtsoughtsoughts

Causal Immediate cause-Rainfall deficit

phenomena Possible underlying causes-El Niòo (incursion of warm surface waters into the

normally colder waters of South American Pacific); human induced changes in

ground surface and soil; higher sea surface temperatures; increase of

atmospheric carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases.

General The reduction of water or moisture availability is temporary and significant in

characteristics relation to the norm.

Meteorological drought is the reduction in rainfall and hydrological drought is the

reduction in water resources.

Agricultural drought is the impact of drought on human activity influenced by

various factors: the presence of irrigation systems, moisture retention capacity

of the soil, the timing of the rainfall and adaptive behavior of the farmers.

Predictability Periods of unusual dryness are normal in all weather systems. Rainfall and

hydrology data must be carefully analyzed with influencing factors in

predicting drought, however, advance warning is usually possible.

Factors contributing Location in an arid area where dry conditions are increased by drought

to vulnerability Farming on marginal lands, subsistence farming

Lack of agricultural inputs to improve yields

Lack of seed reserves

Areas dependent on other weather systems for water resourcesAreas of low soil moisture retention

Lack of recognition and allocation of resources to drought hazard

Typical Reduced income for farmers; reduction of spending from agricultural sector;

adverse increase in price of staple foods, increased inflation rates, deterioration of

effects nutritional status, famine, illness, death, reduction of drinking water sources,

migration, breakup of communities, loss of livestock.

Possible risk Drought and famine early warning systems

reduction measures

Development of inter-institutional response plan

Typical post-disaster Measures to maintain food security: price stabilization, food subsidies,

needs employment creation programs, general food distribution, supplementary

feeding programs, special programs for livestock and pastoralists,

complementary water and health programs; rehabilitation

Impact Nutritional surveys, socioeconomic surveys, monitoring of rainfall and

assessment tools hydrological data, satellite imagery.

Specific

preparedness measures


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P A R T

11111CHAPTER 4

Natural hazards

En En En En Envir vir vir vir vir onmental pollutiononmental pollutiononmental pollutiononmental pollutiononmental pollution

Causal Air pollution –pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,

phenomena particulates, carbon monoxide, and lead from industry and transport.

Marine pollution –Sewage, industrial effluents, marine litter, petroleum spills

and dumped radioactive substances.

Fresh water pollution – Discharge of human waste and domestic wastewaters

into lakes and rivers, industrial effluents, use of irrigation and pesticides, run

off of nitrogen from fertilizers. Increased runoff from deforestation causing

sedimentation.

Possible global warming – Accumulation of Carbon dioxide from combustion of

fossil fuels, deforestation, and methane from livestock.

Ozone depletion – Chloroflorocarbons (CFCs) released into the atmospheredeplete ozone shield against ultraviolet light.

Predictability Pollution is related to per capita consumption so, as countries develop

pollution will also tend to increase. Deforestation is increasing in some countries.

Factors contributing High levels of industrialization and per capita consumption

to vulnerability Lack of regulation of pollutants

Insufficient resources to counter the impact of pollution

Typical Air pollution – Damages agricultural crops, forests, aquatic systems, structural

adverse materials and human health.

effects Water pollution – Spread of pathogens, injury to marine animals, spread of

chemicals to the environment effecting the health of humans, animals and

sealife.

Global warming – Sea level rise, climate change, temperature rise

Ozone depletion – Increase in skin cancer, cataracts, reduction in immune

system functions, damage to marine life.

Possible risk Set ambient air quality standards

Set emission limits for every pollutant

Establish protection policies for water supplies

Reduce the use of pesticides by integrated management

Reduce the rate of deforestation and increase planting of treesPromote energy efficiency

Regulate use of aerosols and disposal of refrigeration units

Prohibit manufacture and use of CFCs

Specific Establish a national environmental safety and protection plan

preparedness measures Create education programs for environmental awareness

Training of government personnel as part of development programs

Impact Aerial, remote sensing and ground surveys

assessment tools Air, water and soils testing

Comparison of climatic dataSocioeconomic surveys

reduction measures


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Def Def Def Def Def or or or or or estaestaestaestaestationtiontiontiontion

Causal The spread of farming and grazing

phenomena Firewood collection

Timber harvesting

General Contributes to other hazards by

characteristics - removing root systems which stabilize soil, acting as a filter and buffer,

allowing percolation of water into soil and retaining moisture in soil.

- removal of leaf biomass and forest products

- burning and decay of dead wood.

Predictability An increase in global focus on the hazard is expanding data base leading to an

increased awareness of the problem and to identifying where the problem exists.

Overall, the global trend is decreasing as conservation measures are enacted but

destruction of forests is rising at alarming rates in some countries.

Factors contributing Underdevelopment

to vulnerability Dependence on wood for fuel and income

Unregulated logging and land clearance

Rapid population growth

Rapid expansion of settled or industrialized areas

Typical Deforestation results in loss of free products from the forest such as fruits and

adverse medicines, and decline in traditional cultures. It stresses economies which importeffects forest products and are dependent on wood products. It contributes to other

hazards, such as:

Flooding – Deforestation of watersheds can increase severity of flooding, reduce

streamflows, dry up springs in dry seasons and increase sediment entering

waterways.

Drought – Removal of roots and leaf canopy can alter moisture levels drying soil

and decreasing precipitation.

Famine – Decrease in agricultural production due to erosion of topsoil and

collapse of hillsides may lead to food shortages.

Desertification – Deforestation and removal of vegetation lead to soil compaction

and reduction of land productivity. Environmental pollution – Increases contamination of soil and water and reduces

carbon dioxide absorption capacity. Burning of forests and decay of trees releases

carbon dioxide to the air, possibly contributing to global warming.

Possible risk Protection of forests through management, legislation, conservancies

reduction measures Reforestation

Specific Education of the communities

preparedness measures Promoting alternatives to fuelwood

Soil conservation measures

Impact Forest mapping by use of aerial or remote sensing or ground surveys. Monitoring

assessment tools of reforestation programs.


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P A R T

11111CHAPTER 4

Natural hazards

Deser Deser Deser Deser Deser tif tif tif tif tif icaicaicaicaicationtiontiontiontion

Basic conducive climatic conditions such as low or uncertain rainfall and

higher temperatures as found in dryland areas.

Poor land use management practices particularly overcultivation, overgrazing,

deforestation and poor irrigation practices.

Soil degradation by water erosion, wind erosion, soil compaction and

waterlogging (salinization and alkalinization)

Degradation of vegetation initially by reduction in density of biomass and then by

change of vegetation types to less productive forms.

Global surveillance of drylands can be achieved through remote sensing and

aerial surveys. As land use increases without measures to conserve soil and

vegetation, desertification will likely increase. One estimate claims 202,000

square km are desertified each year.

Low rainfall and high temperatures

Heavy land use

Deforested areas

Poor irrigation management

Lack of conservation measures

Poverty and lack of appropriate agricultural technologies

Desertification contributes to other hazards by reducing the productivity of the

land. These include drought and famine. Reduced productivity has

socioeconomic impacts and may reduce standards of living.

Establish community programs to meet needs and improve practices and

institutions.

Increase monitoring of desertification

Develop policies for sustainable agricultural systems

Develop agricultural institutions and train personnel

Promote projects to improve agricultural and livestock productionPromote soil and water conservation

Socioeconomic surveys are needed to ascertain needs of people and for

agricultural development. Aerial and remote sensing surveys will help

determine the rate and scope of desertification.

Causal

phenomena

General

characteristics

Predictability

Factors contributing

to vulnerability

Typical

adverse

effects

Possible risk

reduction measures

Specific

preparedness measure

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An Overview of Disaster Management

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