Can. Insi. Food Sci. Technol. J. Vol. 17, No. I. pp. 004-013, 1984

TECHNICAL

An Overview of Energy Use in Food and Agriculture l

Daphne Sidaway-Wolf

Engineering and Statistical Research InstituteResearch Branch

Agriculture CanadaBldg. 94

Central Experimental FarmOttawa, Ontario

KIA OC6

AbstractThe agrifood system provides Canadians with an abundant and

varied food supply yet uses only 804 Pl or 11.3070 of the total energyused in Canada. Primary production including fishing uses only3.4010; processing and packaging, 2.4070; transportation and retail­ing, 2.0070; and food storage and preparation, 3.5070.

In this report each of the four main steps in the agrifood systemis broken down to detail the amounts of energy consumed. This isdone for agricultural production and fish catching. Many otherdetails are presented, such as: fuel type, quantity, and cost of fuelused by the food and beverage processing industries; the energy valueof all packaging used by the food industry; food transportationenergy by mode; total food retail energy; and food storage andpreparation energy consumed at home and away-from-home.

Resume

Le systeme agro-alimentaire apporte aux canadiens un approvi­sionnement abondant et varie d'aliments tout en n'utilisant que 804P J ou 11.3070 de la consommation nationale d'energie. La produc­tion primaire incluant les pecheries n'utilise que 3.4070; la transfor­mation et I'emballage, 2.4070; Ie transport et la vente au detail, 2.0070;et l'entreposage et la preparation des aliments, 3.5070.

Ce rapport presente les quantites d'energie consommee dans cha­cune des quatre etapes principales du systeme agro-alimentaire. Celaest fait pour la production agricole et pour les captures de poissons.Le rapport traite de plusieurs autres details comme la sorte de car­burant, la quantite et Ie caut du carburant utilise dansles industriesde tranformation des aliments et boissons; la teneur energetique detous les emballages utilises en industrie alimentaire; l'energie de dif­ferents modes de transport des aliments; I'energie totale utilisee pourla vente au detail; et I'energie consommee a la maison et ailleurspour l'entreposage et la preparation des aliments.

IntroductionEnergy inputs are required at all steps in the food

production chain from soil to table. Thus any analysisof energy consumption in the Agrifood system is com-

I Contribution No. 1-506 from the Engineering and Statistical Research lnstitute. ResearchBranch, Agriculture Canada, Onawa, Ontario KIA OC6

plex. Over the past decade a number of studies havebeen completed, culminating in the recent study of aspecial task force of the Canadian AgriculturalResearch Council. The purpose of this report is toassemble the latest available information on whereenergy is used. Such data is important for decisionmaking by managers throughout the industry and par­ticularly for those involved in research.

Priority setting for actions addressing energy con­cerns is in itself a complex issue. Viewpoints rangefrom a national concern for energy self-sufficiency tomaintaining a profitable and competitive industry.This leads to conflicting priorities. However, theenergy situation, in the long term, is not expected tochange. The end of the era of cheap energy suppliesupon which Canada's food production system wasdeveloped has made it vital that new approaches tofood production be undertaken in order to maintaindomestic supplies and export capacity. A positiveoutlook is required because energy inputs present a realopportunity to change the situation of rising produc­tion costs and take action on maintaining the prof­itability and competitiveness of the industry.

An abundant and varied food supply is a necessityfor the well-being of Canadians. All parts of theagrifood system, from primary production to process­ing, packaging, distribution, and finally preparationrequire energy.

Canadian farmers are among the most productivein the world. Although the energy input in primaryproduction is crucial, farmers produce food fordomestic consumption and export using only 3.1 % ofthe nation's total energy consumption.

Processing and packaging are vital to the agrifoodsystem, as unprocessed foods such as fruits andvegetables cannot meet all our requirements, and pro­cessed foods such as milk, bread, butter, and freshmeat are staples which are in great demand.

Copyright ~ 1984 Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology

4

Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J. Vo!. 17, No. I. pp. 004-013, 1984

TECHNICAL

An Overview of Energy Use in Food and Agriculture l

Daphne Sidaway-Wolf

Engineering and Statistical Research InstituteResearch Branch

Agriculture CanadaBldg. 94

Central Experimental FarmOttawa, Ontario

KIA OC6

AbstractThe agrifood system provides Canadians with an abundant and

varied food supply yet uses only 804 PJ or 11.3070 of the total energyused in Canada. Primary production including fishing uses only3.4010; processing and packaging, 2.4070; transportation and retail­ing, 2.0010; and food storage and preparation, 3.5070.

In this report each of the four main steps in the agrifood systemis broken down to detail the amounts of energy consumed. This isdone for agricultural production and fish catching. Many otherdetails are presented, such as: fuel type, quantity, and cost of fuelused by the food and beverage processing industries; the energy valueof all packaging used by the food industry; food transportationenergy by mode; total food retail energy; and food storage andpreparation energy consumed at home and away-from-home.

Resume

Le systeme agro-alimentaire apporte aux canadiens un approvi­sionnement abondant et varie d'aliments tout en n'utilisant que 804P J ou 11.3070 de la consommation nationale d'energie. La produc­tion primaire incIuant les pecheries n'utilise que 3.4070; la transfor­mation et l'emballage, 2.4070; le transport et la vente au detail, 2.0010;et l'entreposage et la preparation des aliments, 3.5070.

Ce rapport presente les quantites d'energie consommee dans cha­cune des quatre etapes principales du systeme agro-alimentaire. Celaest fait pour la production agricole et pour les captures de poissons.Le rapport traite de plusieurs autres details comme la sorte de car­burant, la quantite et le cout du carburant utilise dansles industriesde tranformation des aliments et boissons; la teneur energetique detous les emballages utilises en industrie alimentaire; l'energie de dif­ferents modes de transport des aliments; l'energie totale utilisee pourla vente au detail; et l'energie consommee it la maison et ailleurspour l'entreposage et la preparation des aliments.

IntroductionEnergy inputs are required at all steps in the food

production chain from soil to table. Thus any analysisof energy consumption in the Agrifood system is com-

I Contribution No. 1-506 from the Engineering and Statistical Research lnstitute. ResearchBranch, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ontario KIA OC6

plex. Over the past decade a number of studies havebeen completed, culminating in the recent study of aspecial task force of the Canadian AgriculturalResearch Council. The purpose of this report is toassemble the latest available information on whereenergy is used. Such data is important for decisionmaking by managers throughout the industry and par­ticularly for those involved in research.

Priority setting for actions addressing energy con­cerns is in itself a complex issue. Viewpoints rangefrom a national concern for energy self-sufficiency tomaintaining a profitable and competitive industry.This leads to conflicting priorities. However, theenergy situation, in the long term, is not expected tochange. The end of the era of cheap energy suppliesupon which Canada's food production system wasdeveloped has made it vital that new approaches tofood production be undertaken in order to maintaindomestic supplies and export capacity. A positiveoutlook is required because energy inputs present a realopportunity to change the situation of rising produc­tion costs and take action on maintaining the prof­itability and competitiveness of the industry.

An abundant and varied food supply is a necessityfor the well-being of Canadians. All parts of theagrifood system, from primary production to process­ing, packaging, distribution, and finally preparationrequire energy.

Canadian farmers are among the most productivein the world. Although the energy input in primaryproduction is crucial, farmers produce food fordomestic consumption and export using only 3.1 % ofthe nation's total energy consumption.

Processing and packaging are vital to the agrifoodsystem, as unprocessed foods such as fruits andvegetables cannot meet all our requirements, and pro­cessed foods such as milk, bread, butter, and freshmeat are staples which are in great demand.

Copyright (l 1984 Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology

4

Fig. 2

Table I. Energy consumed in the Canadian agrifood system (1980).

WHEAT POTATOES OATS BARLEY

110

100

90

80

70

'" 60"!.,:::!E 50

40

30

20

10

0

Due to different climates, soils, and productionmethods, the energy input for protein production isless for Canadian crops than for those grown in theU.S.A. or the U.K. (LeRoux, 1980). Figure 3 comparesthe differing input requirements for the threecountries.

FISH CATCHINGMACHINERY ENERGYDEPRECIATION 2%

AGR ICULTURALMACHINERY ENERGYDEPRECIATION 12%

Fig. 3

Wheat producers use over 20% of the direct energyconsumed in agricultural food production. Work onzero tillage and nitrogen fixation could significantlyreduce energy requirements in this segment of theagricultural production sector.

Primary production of food consists of agriculturalproduction of food plus the harvesting of fish. Fishcatching required roughly 520 ML of fuel in 1980 (Per­sonal Communications with Mike Bowser, Depart­ment of Fisheries and Oceans, May, 1983; Anon,1982). This is equivalent to an energy consumption of20.1 P J. Figure 4 shows the breakdown of the primaryproduction energy requirements which is discussedbelow.

30211831

100

Proportionof FoodSystemenergy

consumed

3.42.42.03.5

11.3

Proportionof Canada's

energyconsumed

244170143247

804

Energyconsumed

(Pl)

STORAGE ANDPREPARATION 31%

Area of Consumption

Transportation, retailing, storage and preparationof food are other steps essential to providingwholesome, appealing food to the Canadian con­sumer.

The Canadian agrifood system (including fish pro­duction) in 1980 used 804 PJ (Petajoule = 1015 J), or11.3070 of the total energy consumed. In 1980 the totalenergy consumed was 7,136 P J and the total energyproduced in Canada was 9,522 PJ (Statistics Canada1981a). This energy use is detailed in Table 1 and il­lustrated graphically in Figures 1 and 2.

Fig. I

'Primary productionProcessing and packagingTransportation and retailingStorage and preparation

Total

Energy Use in Primary Production of all Foods

Primary production uses 3.4% of the total energyconsumed in Canada, or 30% of the Canadian agri­food system energy consumption, Le. 244 PJ (StatisticsCanada, 1983c; Calver, 1982). Some authors (e.g.Calver, 1982) have included the energy consumed bythe farmer for home and personal transportation aspart of the agricultural production energy. This resultsin overestimating the actual energy used in 1980 by 68P J, or 1% of the national energy consumption. Energyused for non-food agricultural production (e.g.,flowers) is not included here in primary productionenergy.

Fig. 4

Direct Energy Consumption in Primary ProductionOf the total energy used for the primary production

of food and feed, 145 P J (125 Pl for agricultural pro­duction, 20 PJ for fishing) or 59% is consumed directly(Statistics Canada, 1983c; Calver, 1982). If the energyattributable to agricultural and fishing machinerydepreciation (30 and 5 P J respectively) is added to this,the total represents 180 P J or 74% of the total energyused for feed and food production. This energy usagefor some crops or products is given for 1979 in Table2 (Calver, 1982).

Can. Ins!. Food Sci. Techno!. J. Vol. 17, No. I, 1984 Sidaway-Wolf / 5

Fig. 2

WHEAT POTATOES OATS BARLEY

110

100

90

80

70

'" 60"!.,::lE 50

40

30

20

10

0

FISH CATCHINGMACHINERY ENERGYDEPRECIATION 2%

AGRICULTURALMACHINERY ENERGYDEPRECIATION 12%

Due to different climates, soils, and productionmethods, the energy input for protein production isless for Canadian crops than for those grown in theU.S.A. or the U.K. (LeRoux, 1980). Figure 3 comparesthe differing input requirements for the threecountries.

Fig. 3

Wheat producers use over 20070 of the direct energyconsumed in agricultural food production. Work onzero tillage and nitrogen fixation could significantlyreduce energy requirements in this segment of theagricultural production sector.

Primary production of food consists of agriculturalproduction of food plus the harvesting of fish. Fishcatching required roughly 520 ML of fuel in 1980 (Per­sonal Communications with Mike Bowser, Depart­ment of Fisheries and Oceans, May, 1983; Anon,1982). This is equivalent to an energy consumption of20.1 PJ. Figure 4 shows the breakdown of the primaryproduction energy requirements which is discussedbelow.

30211831

100

3.42.42.03.5

11.3

Proportionof Canada's

energyconsumed

244170143247

804

Energyconsumed

(Pl)Area of Consumption

Table I. Energy consumed in the Canadian agrifood system (1980).

Proportionof FoodSystemenergy

consumed

STORAGE ANDPREPARATION 31%

Transportation, retailing, storage and preparationof food are other steps essential to providingwholesome, appealing food to the Canadian con­sumer.

The Canadian agrifood system (including fish pro­duction) in 1980 used 804 P J (Petajoule = 1015 J), or11.3070 of the total energy consumed. In 1980 the totalenergy consumed was 7,136 PJ and the total energyproduced in Canada was 9,522 PJ (Statistics Canada1981a). This energy use is detailed in Table I and il­lustrated graphically in Figures 1 and 2.

Fig. 1

Primary productionProcessing and packagingTransportation and retailingStorage and preparation

Total

Energy Use in Primary Production of all Foods

Primary production uses 3.4070 of the total energyconsumed in Canada, or 30070 of the Canadian agri­food system energy consumption, i.e. 244 PJ (StatisticsCanada, 1983c; Calver, 1982). Some authors (e.g.Calver, 1982) have included the energy consumed bythe farmer for home and personal transportation aspart of the agricultural production energy. This resultsin overestimating the actual energy used in 1980 by 68PJ, or 1070 of the national energy consumption. Energyused for non-food agricultural production (e.g.,flowers) is not included here in primary productionenergy.

Fig. 4

Direct Energy Consumption in Primary ProductionOf the total energy used for the primary production

of food and feed, 145 P J (125 PJ for agricultural pro­duction, 20 PJ for fishing) or 59070 is consumed directly(Statistics Canada, 1983c; Calver, 1982). If the energyattributable to agricultural and fishing machinerydepreciation (30 and 5 PJ respectively) is added to this,the total represents 180 PJ or 74070 of the total energyused for feed and food production. This energy usagefor some crops or products is given for 1979 in Table2 (Calver, 1982).

Can. Inst. Food Sei. Teehnol. J. Vo/. 17. No. 1. 1984 Sidaway-Wolf / 5

Table 2. Examples of energy use by crop type, in Canada (1979).

Table 3. Total energy used for primary production of food, inCanada (1980).

Use (Pl)

Direct agricultural production energy 125Agricultural machinery energy depreciation 30Fish catching energy 20Fish machinery energy depreciation 5Fertilizer 60Pesticides 4Total 244

Adapted from Statistics Canada, 1983c; Calver, 1982

Seventy-four percent of the direct energy consumedfor food and feed production, plus machinery energydepreciation, is in the form of gasoline or diesel fuel.

The use of gasoline and diesel fuels has had a greatimpact on agricultural production, since over 50% ofthe energy consumed for primary production is for theoperation of mobile equipment and machinery depre­ciation. The farm sector consumes 3.7070 of the na­tion's gasoline and 11.3% of the diesel (StatisticsCanada, 1981b, 1983c). Since the advent of mechan­ized agriculture, there has been a direct relationshipbetween agricultural production and energy inputs.Thus, petroleum products have become crucial toprimary production, and it will require majortechnological innovations such as the introduction ofhydrogen as an energy currency to make any signifi­cant change in this situation.

Indirect Energy Consumption in Primary ProductionThe remaining energy used for food and feed pro­

duction is 64 Pl. This is 26% of the total energy forfood and feed production, and can be broken downinto energy for fertilizer (60 P1) and pesticide (4 P1)production as indicated in Table 3.

Energy used in the manufacture of nitrogen fer­tilizers for food production is 60 P1 or 27% of the total

primary production energy. The energy cost of fer­tilizers is projected to quadruple to 233 Pl by 1990(Beaton, 1980 and Agriculture Canada, 1981). Thesefertilizers are used to maintain present levels of soilfertility and to meet the demand for increased produc­tion of agricultural crops. Maximum use of the fer­tilizer by crops (Calver, 1982) and the extension ofnitrogen fixation to crops other than legumes' couldresult in considerable energy savings.

Energy Use in Food Processing and Packaging

The processing and packaging of food in Canadarequired 170 P1 in 1980, or 2.4% of the total domesticenergy consumption. This sector has, until recently,been considered responsible for the consumption of4.8% of the domestic energy consumption (Tung andSmith, 1982a; Finn, 1979). The Strategy for EnergyResearch, Development and Demonstration in theAgriculture and Food System Committee (1983) es­timates that only 3% of Canada's domestic consump­tion is used for processing and packaging. Kennedy(1983) reports that the food and beverage processingindustries have had a 5.3% net decrease in energy con­sumption from 1972 to 1979 through conservationmeasures. This is based on the energy required to pro­duce one dollar of output, in constant 1971 dollars.Taking this into consideration, some decrease in pro­cessing and packaging energy should be expected forsubsequent years as industry adopts available energyconservation measures.

Food Processing EnergyThe food, beverage, and feed industries energy con­

sumption by fuel type adapted from Statistics Canada(1983a) is shown in Table 4.

The total of 108.5 P1 includes the feed industry,which will not be included in the total food andbeverage processing energy but will be accounted forunder primary production. As well, 90% of thegasoline and diesel energy is estimated as being usedfor the transportation of goods of own manufacture,and thus will be included under transportation energy.The resultant energy consumption for food andbeverage processing is 91.1 Pl, which is 1.3% of thetotal domestic energy consumption.

Tung and Smith (1982a) suggest a number of waysto evaluate energy use. For example, the dairy industryexpends the most money for energy and uses the mostenergy (Table 4), but the energy used per unit of pro­duction is fairly low (Table 5), whereas the cost ofenergy per value added or per value of goods is closeto average (Table 7). Another comparison of interestis the cost of energy. The bakeries have a high costper unit energy of $6.48/01, whereas sugar processorspay an average of $2.78/01. The fish products in­dustry uses relatively little energy per kilogram of pro­duct (4.18 Ml/kg), whereas distilleries expend roughly19.9 Kl/L of product, resulting in the second mostenergy intensive food after confectionary products.

Table 5 shows that the four largest processing energyconsumers of the food and beverage industry in 1980were miscellaneous food processors, using 13.7 Pl; the

17.77.71.8

29.82.4

12.311.0

.114.62.5

.2

.91.6.8

10.412.5

.I5.42.0

10.2

Total energyuse (1979)

(Pl)Production(106 tonne)

11.64.10.8

21.61.84.35.9

0.125.214.00.91.32.00.71.90.60.00.4

5 x 108 doz7.8

Crop orProduct

Adapted from Calver, 1982

BarleyOatsRyeWheatMixed GrainsOil seedsGrain CornBeans andBuckwheatHayFodder CornSugar BeetsPotatoesVegetablesFruitBeefPorkLambPoultryEggsMilk

6/ Sidaway-Wolf J. Inst. Can. Sci. Technol. Aliment. Vol. 17, No. I, 1984

Table 2. Examples of energy use by crop type, in Canada (1979).

Table 3. Total energy used for primary production of food, inCanada (1980).

Use (pJ)

Direct agricultural production energy 125Agricultural machinery energy depreciation 30Fish catching energy 20Fish machinery energy depreciation 5Fertilizer 60Pesticides 4Total 244

Adapted from Statistics Canada, 1983c; Calver, 1982

Seventy-four percent of the direct energy consumedfor food and feed production, plus machinery energydepreciation, is in the form of gasoline or diesel fuel.

The use of gasoline and diesel fuels has had a greatimpact on agricultural production, since over 500;0 ofthe energy consumed for primary production is for theoperation of mobile equipment and machinery depre­ciation. The farm sector consumes 3.7% of the na­tion's gasoline and 11.3% of the diesel (StatisticsCanada, 1981b, 1983c). Since the advent of mechan­ized agriculture, there has been a direct relationshipbetween agricultural production and energy inputs.Thus, petroleum products have become crucial toprimary production, and it will require majortechnological innovations such as the introduction ofhydrogen as an energy currency to make any signifi­cant change in this situation.

Indirect Energy Consumption in Primary ProductionThe remaining energy used for food and feed pro­

duction is 64 P1. This is 26% of the total energy forfood and feed production, and can be broken downinto energy for fertilizer (60 Pl) and pesticide (4 Pl)production as indicated in Table 3.

Energy used in the manufacture of nitrogen fer­tilizers for food production is 60 P1 or 27% of the total

primary production energy. The energy cost of fer­tilizers is projected to quadruple to 233 P1 by 1990(Beaton, 1980 and Agriculture Canada, 1981). Thesefertilizers are used to maintain present levels of soilfertility and to meet the demand for increased produc­tion of agricultural crops. Maximum use of the fer­tilizer by crops (Calver, 1982) and the extension ofnitrogen fixation to crops other than legumes' couldresult in considerable energy savings.

Energy Use in Food Processing and Packaging

The processing and packaging of food in Canadarequired 170 P1 in 1980, or 2.4% of the total domesticenergy consumption. This sector has, until recently,been considered responsible for the consumption of4.8% of the domestic energy consumption (Tung andSmith, 1982a; Finn, 1979). The Strategy for EnergyResearch, Development and Demonstration in theAgriculture and Food System Committee (1983) es­timates that only 3% of Canada's domestic consump­tion is used for processing and packaging. Kennedy(1983) reports that the food and beverage processingindustries have had a 5.3% net decrease in energy con­sumption from 1972 to 1979 through conservationmeasures. This is based on the energy required to pro­duce one dollar of output, in constant 1971 dollars.Taking this into consideration, some decrease in pro­cessing and packaging energy should be expected forsubsequent years as industry adopts available energyconservation measures.

Food Processing EnergyThe food, beverage, and feed industries energy con­

sumption by fuel type adapted from Statistics Canada(1983a) is shown in Table 4.

The total of 108.5 P1 includes the feed industry,which will not be included in the total food andbeverage processing energy but will be accounted forunder primary production. As well, 90% of thegasoline and diesel energy is estimated as being usedfor the transportation of goods of own manufacture,and thus will be included under transportation energy.The resultant energy consumption for food andbeverage processing is 91.1 Pl, which is 1.3% of thetotal domestic energy consumption.

Tung and Smith (1982a) suggest a number of waysto evaluate energy use. For example, the dairy industryexpends the most money for energy and uses the mostenergy (Table 4), but the energy used per unit of pro­duction is fairly low (Table 5), whereas the cost ofenergy per value added or per value of goods is closeto average (Table 7). Another comparison of interestis the cost of energy. The bakeries have a high costper unit energy of $6.48/Gl, whereas sugar processorspay an average of $2.78/Gl. The fish products in­dustry uses relatively little energy per kilogram of pro­duct (4.18 Ml/kg), whereas distilleries expend roughly19.9 Kl/L of product, resulting in the second mostenergy intensive food after confectionary products.

Table 5 shows that the four largest processing energyconsumers of the food and beverage industry in 1980were miscellaneous food processors, using 13.7 P1; the

17.77.71.8

29.82.4

12.311.0

.114.62.5

.2

.91.6.8

10.412.5

.15.42.0

10.2

Total energyuse (1979)

(pJ)Production(106 tonne)

11.64.10.8

21.61.84.35.9

0.125.214.00.91.32.00.71.90.60.00.4

5 x 108 doz7.8

Crop orProduct

Adapted from Calver, 1982

BarleyOatsRyeWheatMixed GrainsOil seedsGrain CornBeans andBuckwheatHayFodder CornSugar BeetsPotatoesVegetablesFruitBeefPorkLambPoultryEggsMilk

6 / Sidaway-Wolf J. Inst. Can. Sel. Teehnol. Aliment. Vo!. 17, No. I, 1984

Table 4. Energy and dollar value of fuel and electricity purchased by all manufacturing industries, the food and beverage sector and by allfood, feed and beverage industries in Canada (1980).

Industry Coal and Natural Gasoline Kerosene Diesel Light Heavy Liquid Electricity Other Total TotalCoke Gas and Oil Fuel Fuel Petroleum Fuel Energy2 Cost2

Stove Oil Oil Oil Gas(TJ) (fJ) (fJ) (Tn (TJ) (fJ1 (TJ) (fJ) (fJ) (TJ) (fJ) ($'000)

Toi'. all indo 38,781.6 590,098 21,381 2,502.0 21,978 26,419 277,245 8,781.0 328,855 65,880.0 378,779 4,448,858Food & Bev. Ind. 211.5 53,153 7,548 708.4 6,071 4,781 16,821 1,213.2 17,040 991.6 108,530 422,007Siaug. & Meat Proc. 0.0 6,456 876 38.9 854 351 1,990 138.6 2,588 168.5 13,458 54,341poultry Proc. 0.0 683 336 77.5 168 247 298 18.8 732 10.7 2,571 12,652Fish Prod. Ind. 5.0 337 271 115.5 1,982 603 1,242 63.1 1,259 16.5 5,895 33,288FnJit & Veg. Can. & Prelerv 39.9 3,060 155 17.9 133 211 1,199 61.5 591 9.9 5,478 18,530Froz. Fruit & Veg. 0.0 875 77 5.9 35 21 1,383 44.2 674 3.5 3,118 13,260Dairy Prod. Ind. 0.0 4,990 2,004 133.0 805 788 3,728 514,0 2,452 61.9 15,476 64,196Flour & BreakfastCereal Prod. Ind. 0.0 1,074 28 5.8 58 54 25 2.0 895 0.0 2,141 9,708Feed Industry 5.3 2,503 600 114.3 678 600 469 53.6 1,210 28.9 6,262 28,586BisCuits Mfgrs. 0.0 964 43 0.0 29 30 101 1.4 255 0.0 1,393 5,234Bakeries 4.2 2,459 1,406 129.9 350 702 III 42.9 818 2.8 6,025 28,524Confect. Mfgrs. 0.0 1,012 82 2.0 34 88 259 5.2 497 0.0 1,978 8,235Cane & Beet Sugar 138.2 3,421 17 0.0 44 65 1,581 1.9 166 411.9 5,818 15,856Veg. Oil Mills 0.0 2,798 7 0.0 II I 29 0.4 562 0.0 3,408 10,835Misc. Food Proc. NES' 18.9 9,343 489 7.7 213 359 1,471 158.8 1,966 352.0 14,369 49,411Soft Dring Mfgrs. 0.0 1,041 952 50.6 290 234 238 61.1 500 0.0 3,365 18,011Distilleries 0.0 7,426 46 0.0 3 141 1,891 1.2 572 105.6 10,183 24,456Breweries 0.0 4,482 129 2.2 3,695 240 805 43.0 1,243 0.0 10,638 25,069Wineries 0.0 228 27 8.1 15 46 0 1.6 90 0.0 416 1,807

'NES = Not elsewhere specified2Totals may not match due to roundingAdapted from: Statistics Canada, 1983a, 1983b

9dairy industry, 12.9 PJ; slaughtering and meat pro- scessors, 11.9 PJ; and the distilleries, 10.1 PJ. These ... 7four industries account for 53.3070 of the processing ...

::I 6energy used in the food and beverage sector. 0 FOOD & BEVERAGE.,c( 5Cl

Inequalities exist in the cost of energy for various I ~ 4industries (see Table 5). The fish products industry 1Il

a:

pays an average of $8.76/GJ, followed by the soft 5 3...drink manufacturers who pay $8.l8/GJ. The distil- 8 2

leries on the other hand pay the least - $2.421GJ (seeFigure 5). These inequalities are a reflection of: fuel Fig. 5 0

Table 5. Food & beverage industry processing energy, energy cost, and cost per unit energy, and energy per unit product, in Canada (1980).

Industry Processingenergy

(PJ) ($)

Energy cost

($/GJ)

Energy used I

(MJlkg orMJIL)

Food & Beverage Industry 91.1 422,007,438 4.63Slaughtering & Meat Proc. I\.9 54,341,673 4.54 9.48Poultry Processors 2.1 12,652,151 6.02 4.45Fish Products Industry 3.8 33,288,541 8.76 4.18Fruit & Veg. Can. Preserv. 5.2 18,530,259 3.56 3.56Froz. Fruit & Veg. Proc. 3.0 13,260,798 4.42 3.56Dairy Prod. Ind. 12.9 64,196,908 4.98 2.22Flour & Breakfast Cereal Prods. Ind. 2.1 9,708,350 4.26 \.02Biscuits Manufacturers 1.3 5,234,028 4.02 19.7Bakeries 4.4 28,524,999 6.48 3.76Confectionery Mfgrs. \.8 8,235,491 4.58 22.9Cane & Beet Sugar Proc. 5.7 15,856,565 2.78 7.31Vegetable Oil Mills 3.4 10,835,336 3.19 2.44Misc. Food Proc. (NES)2 13.7 49,411,134 3.61 17.6Soft Drink Mfgrs. 2.2 18,011,073 8.18 2.61Distilleries 10.1 24,456,587 2.42 19.9Breweries 7.1 25,069,319 3.53 3.31Wineries 0.4 1,807,390 4.51 4.42

'Different production bases were used to develop this column. Figures are therefore not directly comparable, but only given as a guideline.Late 1970's average.2NES = Not elsewhere specified.Adapted from: Statistics Canada, 1983a; Tung and Smith, 1982a

Can. lnsf. Food Sci. Technol. J. Vol. 17. No.1. 1984 Sidaway-Wolf /7

Table 4. Energy and dollar value of fuel and electricity purchased by all manufacturing industries, the food and beverage sector and by allfood, feed and beverage industries in Canada (1980).

Industry Coal and Natural Gasoline Kerosene Diesel Light Heavy Liquid Electricity Other Total TotalCoke Gas and Oil Fuel Fuel Petroleum Fuel Energy2 Cost2

Stove Oil Oil Oil Gas(TJ) (TJ) (TJ) (TJl (TJ) (TJ1 (TJ) (TJ) (TJ) (TJ) (TJ) ($'000)

::rot. all ind. 38,781.6 590,098 21,381 2,502.0 21,978 26,419 277,245 8,781.0 328,855 65,880.0 378,779 4,448,858Food & Bev. Ind. 211.5 53,153 7,548 708.4 6,071 4,781 16,821 1,213.2 17,040 991.6 108,530 422,007Slaug. & Meat Proc. 0.0 6,456 876 38.9 854 351 1,990 138.6 2,588 168.5 13,458 54,341poultry Proc. 0.0 683 336 77.5 168 247 298 18.8 732 10.7 2,571 12,652Fish Prod. Ind. 5.0 337 271 115.5 1,982 603 1,242 63.1 1,259 16.5 5,895 33,288FnJit & Veg. Can. & Prelerv 39.9 3,060 155 17.9 133 211 1,199 61.5 591 9.9 5,478 18,530Froz. Fruit & Veg. 0.0 875 77 5.9 35 21 1,383 44.2 674 3.5 3,118 13,260Dairy Prod. Ind. 0.0 4,990 2,004 133.0 805 788 3,728 514,0 2,452 61.9 15,476 64,196Flour & BreakfastCereal Prod. Ind. 0.0 1,074 28 5.8 58 54 25 2.0 895 0.0 2,141 9,708Feed Industry 5.3 2,503 600 114.3 678 600 469 53.6 1,210 28.9 6,262 28,586BisCuits Mfgrs. 0.0 964 43 0.0 29 30 101 lA 255 0.0 1,393 5,234Bakeries 4.2 2,459 1,406 129.9 350 702 III 42.9 818 2.8 6,025 28,524Confect. Mfgrs. 0.0 1,012 82 2.0 34 88 259 5.2 497 0.0 1,978 8,235cane & Beet Sugar 138.2 3,421 17 0.0 44 65 1,581 1.9 166 411.9 5,818 15,856Veg. Oil Mills 0.0 2,798 7 0.0 11 I 29 0.4 562 0.0 3,408 10,835Mise. Food Proc. NES' 18.9 9,343 489 7.7 213 359 1,471 158.8 1,966 352.0 14,369 49,411Soft Dring Mfgrs. 0.0 1,041 952 50.6 290 234 238 61.1 500 0.0 3,365 18,011Distilleries 0.0 7,426 46 0.0 3 141 1,891 1.2 572 105.6 10,183 24,456Breweries 0.0 4,482 129 2.2 3,695 240 805 43.0 1,243 0.0 10,638 25,069Wineries 0.0 228 27 8.1 15 46 0 1.6 90 0.0 416 1,807

'NES = Not elsewhere specified2Totals may not match due to roundingAdapted from: Statistics Canada, 1983a, 1983b

9dairy industry, 12.9 PJ; slaughtering and meat pro- scessors, 11.9 PJ; and the distilleries, 10.1 PJ. These ... 7four industries account for 53.30/0 of the processing ...

::I 6energy used in the food and beverage sector. 0 FOOD & BEVERAGE..,c( 5Cl

Inequalities exist in the cost of energy for various I i2 4industries (see Table 5). The fish products industry III

lr

pays an average of $8.76/GJ, followed by the softc( 3......

drink manufacturers who pay $8, 18/GJ. The distil- 8 2

leries on the other hand pay the least - $2.421GJ (seeFigure 5). These inequalities are a reflection of: fuel Fig. 5 0

Table 5. Food & beverage industry processing energy, energy cost, and cost per unit energy, and energy per unit product, in Canada (1980).

Industry Processingenergy

(pJ) ($)

Energy cost

($101)

Energy used I

(MJlkg orMJIL)

Food & Beverage Industry 91.1 422,007,438 4.63Slaughtering & Meat Proc. 11.9 54,341,673 4.54 9.48Poultry Processors 2.1 12,652,151 6.02 4.45Fish Products Industry 3.8 33,288,541 8.76 4.18Fruit & Veg. Can. Preserv. 5.2 18,530,259 3.56 3.56Froz. Fruit & Veg. Proc. 3.0 13,260,798 4.42 3.56Dairy Prod. Ind. 12.9 64,196,908 4.98 2.22Flour & Breakfast Cereal Prods. Ind. 2.1 9,708,350 4.26 1.02Biscuits Manufacturers 1.3 5,234,028 4.02 19.7Bakeries 4.4 28,524,999 6.48 3.76Confectionery Mfgrs. 1.8 8,235,491 4.58 22.9Cane & Beet Sugar Proc. 5.7 15,856,565 2.78 7.31Vegetable Oil Mills 3.4 10,835,336 3.19 2.44Misc. Food Proc. (NES)2 13.7 49,411,134 3.61 17.6Soft Drink Mfgrs. 2.2 18,011,073 8.18 2.61Distilleries 10.1 24,456,587 2.42 19.9Breweries 7.1 25,069,319 3.53 3.31Wineries 0.4 1,807,390 4.51 4.42

'Different production bases were used to develop this column. Figures are therefore not directly comparable, but only given as a guideline.Late 1970's average.2NES = Not elsewhere specified.Adapted from: Statistics Canada, 1983a; Tung and Smith, 1982a

Can. Inst. Food Set. Technol. J. Vo!. 17. No. 1. 1984 Sidaway-Wolf /7

Table 6. Value of goods and value added compared to the cost of energy for the processing of food and beverages in Canada (1980).

Industry Value Value Cost of Energy costl Energy costlof goods added energy value of goods value added($ x 106) ($ X 106) ($ X 106) (%) (%)

Siaug. & Meat 6,944 1,184 54.3 0.78 4.6Poultry Proc. 989 224 12.6 1.27 5.6Fish Prod. Ind. 1,465 478 33.2 2.27 6.9Fruit & Veg. Can. & Preservers 1,554 617 18.5 2.04 5.1Froz. Fruit & Veg. Proc. 13.2Dairy Prod. Ind. 4,309 940 64.1 1.49 6.8Flour & Breakfast Cereal Prod. Ind. 923 254 9.7 1.05 3.8Biscuits Mfgrs. 373 186 5.2 1.40 2.8Bakeries 1,189 616 28.5 2.40 4.6Confect. Mfgrs. 779 377 8.2 1.06 2.2Cane & Beet Sugar Proc. 777 141 15.8 2.03 11.2Veg. Oil Mills 727 86 10.8 1.49 12.6Misc. Food Proc. (NES)I 2,876 1,125 49.4 1.72 4.4Soft Drink Mfgrs. 1,072 480 18.0 1.68 3.8Distilleries 679 422 24.4 3.59 5.8Breweries 1,205 842 25.0 2.08 3.0Wineries 170 87 1.8 1.06 2.1INES = Not elsewhere specifiedAdapted from: Statistics Canada 1982a, f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u

Table 7. Cost and energy content of packaging for the food andbeverage industries in Canada (1980).

Inote t = tonneAdapted from: Boston, 1983; Statistics Canada, 1981a, 1982a

marketing reasons can be found (e.g., the 284 mLCoca-Cola bottle weighs 40% more than a strictlyfunctional bottle of the same volume), it has beenestimated (Boston, 1983) that less than 5% of packag­ing energy is solely market oriented. To further sup­port this position, Boston (1983) reports that in oneautomated food distribution centre physical damageto grocery products in one year affected 133,000 casesof product resulting in a loss of $435,000. He alsoestimates that 3-5% of food products are lost due toinsufficient packaging. Thus, there is strong justifica­tion for investing packaging energy to protect theenergy invested in the product.

The food and beverage industry spent $2.02 billionon packaging in 1980, which was 56.7% of the totalspent on packaging in Canada. On an energy basis 78.4

9.5532.2795.550

13.0903.2641.4870.1140.00020.Q780.007LOll2.2841.1094.5692.2550.4091.338

78.395

Energycontent by

packagetype (PJ)

33982824

1232933

5858

17476

144144295858

Unit energycontent(GJ/t l )

278,602530,350263,753278,93174,77238,2797,802

1231,205

18834,32490,42119,81577,08199,09215,89143,646

1,854,275

Expenditures($ x 103)Package Type

Corrugated boxesMetal cansFolding boxesGlass bottlesTransparent filmPaperWooden boxesCrating lumber, etc.Metal barrels & drumsMetal staples, wire, etc.Lead, tin, alum. foilMetal & plastic closuresPlastic bottlesPlastic containersLabels & tagsTextile bagsMisc. & unspecified

Total

Qwg 10«w;j 8..J«~ 6

~U 4>offi 2Zw

Fig. 6

12

o

type used, some energy sources being more expensivethan others; location, as fuel and electricity costs varyacross Canada; and steadiness of consumption, aslarge seasonal variations can result in surcharges.

The percent energy costs per value added for variousfood and beverage industries, shown in Table 6, rangefrom 2.1010 for wineries, 2.2% for confectioners to11.2% for cane and beet sugar processors and 12.6%for vegetable oil mills. This is also illustrated in Figure6.

The industries which are large consumers of energy(dairy, miscellaneous, meat slaughtering and process­ing), or use large quantities of energy per unit of pro­duct produced (confectionary, distillery, biscuit), orhave large energy costs per value added (vegetable oilmills, cane and beet sugar processors) would be likelycandidates for energy conservation measures thatwould concentrate on their particular energy problems.

Food Packaging EnergyPackaging, in some form, has been used since man

started transporting or storing food. In the foodsystem packaging plays many roles such as maintain­ing food sterility, aiding in handling and, at the retaillevel, marketing.

Allegations of significant overpackaging appear tobe unfounded. While cases of over-packaging for

8/ Sidaway-Wolfe J. [nst. Can. Sci. Technol. Aliment. Vol. 17, No. I, 1984

Table 6. Value of goods and value added compared to the cost of energy for the processing of food and beverages in Canada (1980).

Industry Value Value Cost of Energy costl Energy costlof goods added energy value of goods value added($ x 106) ($ X 106) ($ X 106) (%) (%)

Slaug. & Meat 6,944 1,184 54.3 0.78 4.6Poultry Proc. 989 224 12.6 1.27 5.6Fish Prod. Ind. 1,465 478 33.2 2.27 6.9Fruit & Veg. Can. & Preservers 1,554 617 18.5 2.04 5.1Froz. Fruit & Veg. Proc. 13.2Dairy Prod. Ind. 4,309 940 64.1 1.49 6.8Flour & Breakfast Cereal Prod. (nd. 923 254 9.7 1.05 3.8Biscuits Mfgrs. 373 186 5.2 1.40 2.8Bakeries 1,189 616 28.5 2.40 4.6Confect. Mfgrs. 779 377 8.2 1.06 2.2Cane & Beet Sugar Proc. 777 141 15.8 2.03 11.2Veg. Oil Mills 727 86 10.8 1.49 12.6Mise. Food Proc. (NES)I 2,876 1,125 49.4 1.72 4.4Soft Drink Mfgrs. 1,072 480 18.0 1.68 3.8Distilleries 679 422 24.4 3.59 5.8Breweries 1,205 842 25.0 2.08 3.0Wineries 170 87 1.8 1.06 2.1INES = Not elsewhere specifiedAdapted from: Statistics Canada I982a, f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u

Table 7. Cost and energy content of packaging for the food andbeverage industries in Canada (1980).

Inote t = tonneAdapted from: Boston, 1983; Statistics Canada, 1981a, 1982a

marketing reasons can be found (e.g., the 284 mLCoca-Cola bottle weighs 40% more than a strictlyfunctional bottle of the same volume), it has beenestimated (Boston, 1983) that less than 5% of packag­ing energy is solely market oriented. To further sup­port this position, Boston (1983) reports that in oneautomated food distribution centre physical damageto grocery products in one year affected 133,000 casesof product resulting in a loss of $435,000. He alsoestimates that 3-5% of food products are lost due toinsufficient packaging. Thus, there is strong justifica­tion for investing packaging energy to protect theenergy invested in the product.

The food and beverage industry spent $2.02 billionon packaging in 1980, which was 56.7% of the totalspent on packaging in Canada. On an energy basis 78.4

9.5532.2795.550

13.0903.2641.4870.1140.00020.0780.0071.0112.2841.1094.5692.2550.4091.338

78.395

Energycontent by

packagetype (PJ)

33982824

1232933

5858

17476

144144295858

Unit energycontent(GJ/t l )

278,602530,350263,753278,93174,77238,2797,802

1231,205

18834,32490,42119,81577,08199,09215,89143,646

1,854,275

Expenditures($ x 103)Package Type

Corrugated boxesMetal cansFolding boxesGlass bottlesTransparent filmPaperWooden boxesCrating lumber, etc.Metal barrels & drumsMetal staples, wire, etc.Lead, tin, alum. foilMetal & plastic closuresPlastic bottlesPlastic containersLabels & tagsTextile bagsMise. & unspecified

Total

Qwg 10«w;j 8.j

«~ 6~u 4>Cl

ffi 2zw

Fig. 6

12

o

type used, some energy sources being more expensivethan others; location, as fuel and electricity costs varyacross Canada; and steadiness of consumption, aslarge seasonal variations can result in surcharges.

The percent energy costs per value added for variousfood and beverage industries, shown in Table 6, rangefrom 2.1070 for wineries, 2.2% for confectioners to11 .2% for cane and beet sugar processors and 12.6%for vegetable oil mills. This is also illustrated in Figure6.

The industries which are large consumers of energy(dairy, miscellaneous, meat slaughtering and process­ing), or use large quantities of energy per unit of pro­duct produced (confectionary, distillery, biscuit), orhave large energy costs per value added (vegetable oilmills, cane and beet sugar processors) would be likelycandidates for energy conservation measures thatwould concentrate on their particular energy problems.

Food Packaging EnergyPackaging, in some form, has been used since man

started transporting or storing food. In the foodsystem packaging plays many roles such as maintain­ing food sterility, aiding in handling and, at the retaillevel, marketing.

Allegations of significant overpackaging appear tobe unfounded. While cases of over-packaging for

8/ Sidaway-Wolfe J. Inst. Can. Sci. Technol. Aliment. Vot. 17, No. I, 1984

PJ were used for the manufacture of food packaging,which is 63010 of the energy spent in 1980 for packag­ing in Canada (Statistics Canada, 1982a; Boston, 1983)and is 1.1 % of Canada's 1980 energy consumption.

Containers and other packaging supplies accountedfor roughly 3.6% of the cost of all materials and sup­plies used in all the manufacturing industries (StatisticsCanada, 1982a), and is similar for the food andbeverage processing industries.

Table 7 shows the cost and energy content ofpackaging used by the food and beverage industry.Thelargest dollar and energy expenditures were for metalcans ($530.4 million, 32.3 PJ), followed by glass bot­tles ($278.9 million, 13.1 PJ), and corrugated boxes($278.6 million, 9.6 PJ). The proportions of varioustypes of packaging consumed by the food and beverageindustry are shown in Table 8. Note that this industryuses well over 80% of the metal cans and glass bottlesand 74% of all transparent film consumed in Canada.

The energy requirement for packaging given abovedoes not take into account the energy required fordisposal of packaging waste produced at a rate of 400kg/person/year, nor does it consider the fact that somecontainers can be used many times.

When the average energy to deliver a constantvolume in various containers was compared with thatof to-trip returnable glass containers, the followingratios were developed showing the 10-trip returnableglass container to be at least twice as energy efficientas any other container (Figure 7).

In general, food packaging, with a 1980 energy con­sumption of 78.4 PJ, used almost as much energy asthe processing of food (91.1 PJ), for a total (round­ed) energy consumption of processing and packagingof 170 PJ.

Energy Used in Food DistributionFood distribution, here meaning transportation of

goods from the processor to the retailer and the retailoperations, is another vital step in the food chain. Withspecific types of food produced in different areas ofthe country, an efficient transportation network tobring various products to retail centres and exportoutlets is a necessity. Retail outlets themselves holdfood at the optimum quality, and provide a wide

Table 8. Annual food and beverage industry package consumption,by type, in Canada (1977 and 1980).

RATIO

~~ 4a.

~ 3

::a: 2wZCi 1I-Z

8 0CONTAINER

Fig. 7

choice of food and beverage products directly to theconsumer.

Food Transportation EnergyFood in Canada is carried by 3 modes: truck, rail

and ship. Trucks carry by far the most food products,followed by freight trains and then ships. The totalenergy cost of transportation in Canada was estimatedat 126.8 PJ for 1980, 1.8% of the total energy con­sumed in Canada that year (Table 9). This includesimported and exported food and beverage productstransported to or from the Canadian border, insideCanada.

The transportation energy figure includes thetransport of agricultural commodities such as grainand livestock, as well as the transport of processed andpackaged food and beverages, but does not includetransportation of food by the consumer, which isestimated by the author as being very small, in theorder of 0.5 PJ, nor tansportation of food outsideCanada.

Truck transportation accounted for 68% of thetransportation energy for food and beverages in 1980,rail for 25% and ships 7%. Truck transport is onethird as energy efficient as rail, but is more flexiblethan rail which is best for long distance transport ofnon-perishables. The energy required to transport foodand beverages varies according to the product, asrefrigerated (or heated) transport requires more energythan non-conditioned transport.

Care must be taken in interpreting the energy valuesassigned to each mode. For example, the for-hiretrucking value results from a very detailed survey ofa fairly small sample of loads. The truck transporta­tion of goods of own manufacture is based on theassumption that 90% of the gasoline and diesel pur-

Adapted from: Boston, 1983; statistics Canada, 1981a, 1982a.

Food & beverageFood & beverage proportionconsumption (%) of total mfg. use (%)

Metal cans 26 29Corrugated boxes 15 15Glass bottles 14 15Folding & set-up boxes 13 14Transparent film 8 4Paper 5 2Other 19 21

Total 100 100

Table 9. Transportation energy for the food and beverage industryin Canada (1980).

74.1

12.231.39.2

126.8

Transportation energy(Pl)

Mode

Trucks for hireTruck transportation ofgoods of own manufactureFreight train)Ship

Total

)Assuming 6.75 x 105 lit • kmAdapted from: Statistics Canada, 1982b,d,v, 1983a; CanadianTransport Commission, Trade and Tariffs Branch, 1982, 1983;Anon., 1973

85448853744738

(1980)

82458755785437

(1977)(1977) (1980)Package type

Can. lnsi. Food Sci. Technol. J. Vol. 17, No. I, 1984 Sidaway-Wolfe / 9

PJ were used for the manufacture of food packaging,which is 63010 of the energy spent in 1980 for packag­ing in Canada (Statistics Canada, 1982a; Boston, 1983)and is 1.1 % of Canada's 1980 energy consumption.

Containers and other packaging supplies accountedfor roughly 3.6% of the cost of all materials and sup­plies used in all the manufacturing industries (StatisticsCanada, 1982a), and is similar for the food andbeverage processing industries.

Table 7 shows the cost and energy content ofpackaging used by the food and beverage industry.The.largest dollar and energy expenditures were for metalcans ($530.4 million, 32.3 PJ), followed by glass bot­tles ($278.9 million, 13.1 PJ), and corrugated boxes($278.6 million, 9.6 PJ). The proportions of varioustypes of packaging consumed by the food and beverageindustry are shown in Table 8. Note that this industryuses well over 80% of the metal cans and glass bottlesand 74% of all transparent film consumed in Canada.

The energy requirement for packaging given abovedoes not take into account the energy required fordisposal of packaging waste produced at a rate of 400kg/person/year, nor does it consider the fact that somecontainers can be used many times.

When the average energy to deliver a constantvolume in various containers was compared with thatof to-trip returnable glass containers, the followingratios were developed showing the 10-trip returnableglass container to be at least twice as energy efficientas any other container (Figure 7).

In general, food packaging, with a 1980 energy con­sumption of 78.4 PJ, used almost as much energy asthe processing of food (91.1 PJ), for a total (round­ed) energy consumption of processing and packagingof 170 PJ.

Energy Used in Food DistributionFood distribution, here meaning transportation of

goods from the processor to the retailer and the retailoperations, is another vital step in the food chain. Withspecific types of food produced in different areas ofthe country, an efficient transportation network tobring various products to retail centres and exportoutlets is a necessity. Retail outlets themselves holdfood at the optimum quality, and provide a wide

Table 8. Annual food and beverage industry package consumption,by type, in Canada (1977 and 1980).

RATIO

l:let~ 40..

~ 3

5!IX 2...z<i 1I-Z

8 0CONTAINER

Fig. 7

choice of food and beverage products directly to theconsumer.

Food Transportation EnergyFood in Canada is carried by 3 modes: truck, rail

and ship. Trucks carry by far the most food products,followed by freight trains and then ships. The totalenergy cost of transportation in Canada was estimatedat 126.8 PJ for 1980, 1.8% of the total energy con­sumed in Canada that year (Table 9). This includesimported and exported food and beverage productstransported to or from the Canadian border, insideCanada.

The transportation energy figure includes thetransport of agricultural commodities such as grainand livestock, as well as the transport of processed andpackaged food and beverages, but does not includetransportation of food by the consumer, which isestimated by the author as being very small, in theorder of 0.5 PJ, nor tansportation of food outsideCanada.

Truck transportation accounted for 68% of thetransportation energy for food and beverages in 1980,rail for 25% and ships 7%. Truck transport is onethird as energy efficient as rail, but is more flexiblethan rail which is best for long distance transport ofnon-perishables. The energy required to transport foodand beverages varies according to the product, asrefrigerated (or heated) transport requires more energythan non-conditioned transport.

Care must be taken in interpreting the energy valuesassigned to each mode. For example, the for-hiretrucking value results from a very detailed survey ofa fairly small sample of loads. The truck transporta­tion of goods of own manufacture is based on theassumption that 90% of the gasoline and diesel pur-

Adapted from: Boston, 1983; statistics Canada, 1981a, 1982a.

Food & beverageFood & beverage proportionconsumption (%) of total mfg. use (%)

Metal cans 26 29Corrugated boxes 15 15Glass bottles 14 15Folding & set-up boxes 13 14Transparent film 8 4Paper 5 2Other 19 21

Total 100 100

Table 9. Transportation energy for the food and beverage industryin Canada (1980).

74.1

12.231.3

9.2

126.8

Transportation energy(Pl)

Mode

Trucks for hireTruck transportation ofgoods of own manufactureFreight train l

Ship

Total

IAssuming 6.75 x 105 lit. kmAdapted from: Statistics Canada, 1982b,d,v, 1983a; CanadianTransport Commission, Trade and Tariffs Branch, 1982, 1983;Anon., 1973

85448853744738

(1980)

82458755785437

(1977)(1977) (1980)Package type

Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J. VO!. 17, No. I, 1984 Sidaway-Wolfe / 9

chased by the food and beverage industry is used forthe transportation of goods of own manufacture (seeSections 3.0 and 3.1). The rail value is based on tonne­kilometres of various commodities transported, but asthe commodity classifications were fairly broad some10010 deviation from the true value of rail transporta­tion energy may be expected. Shipping values are basedon tonnes carried, but the actual distance each loadwas carried was estimated for some commodities.

The Canadian Agricultural Research Councilstrategy for energy research, development anddemonstration in the agriculture and food system com­mittee (1983) estimated that transportation and retail­ing require 3.5% of Canada's domestic consumption,whereas Tung & Smith (1982a) estimated the transpor­tation energy for the food and beverage industry as0.2% of the total energy consumed in 1980 (15.8 PJ).This is 100% of the gasoline and diesel fuel which theystated was used by the food and beverage industry.The proviso was made that the transportation energycalculated was strictly for company-run truck fleets,and so did not include for-hire trucking, rail and shiptransport, nor consumer food transportation.

Food Retail EnergyFood and beverage retail outlets provide easy access

for the consumer to a wide variety of products. Retailsales of food and beverages amounted to $21.56 billionin 1980, which represents 26010 of the dollar value ofall retail sales in Canada for that year (StatisticsCanada, 1981c). Roughly 5.3 x 106 m2 of floor space(Statistics Canada, 1982w) was devoted to food retail­ing, of which at least 65% was accessible to the public.Chain retail food stores account for 3.8 x 106 m2

(72%) of the total food retail floor area.The energy used for food retailing in 1980 was 16.6

PJ (Statistics Canada, 1982w; Centre for BuildingStudies' Concordia, 1982). This is only 0.23% of thetotal energy consumed in Canada in 1980. For com­parison, Pierotti et al. (1977) estimate that in theUnited States 0.38% of the energy consumed in 1972was used for food retailing.

Buchan, Lawton, Parent (1982) make a roughestimate of 36 PJ for retail energy consumption ex­trapolated from American data. As no more substan­tial information is available, 16.6 PJ will be consideredas the retail energy consumed in 1980. A detailedbreakdown of the energy consumed in an averagesupermarket is shown in Figure 8.

OUTDOORLIGHTING 2%

Fig. 8

10 / Sidaway-Wolfe

:-:-:-:-:.:-:-:-:.:-:-:\... REFRIGERATION45%

TRAINS 31.3 PJ

TRUCKS 86.3 PJ

Fig. 9

Refrigeration and other display case energy re­quirements, such as lighting, account for 69% of thetotal retail energy, whereas building heating and cool­ing and store lighting account for another 29%. Con­servation measures, some of which are presented byBuchan, Lawton, Parent (1982), directed at refriger­ation and other retail energy, are expected to resultin a 5% decrease in energy consumption in the 1980's.If a concerted effort were made, a 30% decrease couldbe achieved.

The transportation and retail, Le. distribution, offood and beverages requires a total of 143.4 PJ, or2% of Canada's total energy consumption.

Energy Required for Food Storage and Preparation

It is at the consumer level that most people interactwith the food system. Most people shop for food;everyone eats it.

Proper food storage and preparation are essentialto providing safe, nutritious, and appealing food. InCanada roughly 3.5% of the total energy consumedin 1980 was for home and away-from-home foodstorage and preparation. The energy used for thestorage and preparation of food varies enormouslywith the type of food, Le. canned, dried, frozen orfresh. Storage energy requirements of canned anddried foods are minimal, whereas for fresh and frozenthe requirements are much higher. Preparation energyis also process dependent, with canned food requir­ing the least.

Replacing frozen food with fresh would use lessstorage, preparation, processing, and packagingenergy. However, this would result in higher transpor­tation energy use due to more frequent shopping trips,increased energy due to wasted food. Food type choice(fresh, frozen, dried, canned) is based on convenienceand price, so a variety of food types will continue tobe consumed.

The energy required for warehousing of food isestimated at 1% of the energy used in the agrifoodsystem from primary production up to and includingretailing (Ogilvie Mills, 1982). This is 5.6 PJ. Figure10 shows the breakdown of food preparation andstorage energy.

Home Food Storage and Preparation EnergyProper storage and preparation are essential to pro­

viding safe, nutritious food. Wilted lettuce, rancid but-

J. InSI. Can. Sci. Technol. Aliment. Vol. 17, No.1, 1984

chased by the food and beverage industry is used forthe transportation of goods of own manufacture (seeSections 3.0 and 3.1). The rail value is based on tonne­kilometres of various commodities transported, but asthe commodity classifications were fairly broad some10010 deviation from the true value of rail transporta­tion energy may be expected. Shipping values are basedon tonnes carried, but the actual distance each loadwas carried was estimated for some commodities.

The Canadian Agricultural Research Councilstrategy for energy research, development anddemonstration in the agriculture and food system com­mittee (1983) estimated that transportation and retail­ing require 3.5010 of Canada's domestic consumption,whereas Tung & Smith (1982a) estimated the transpor­tation energy for the food and beverage industry as0.2010 of the total energy consumed in 1980 (15.8 PJ).This is 100010 of the gasoline and diesel fuel which theystated was used by the food and beverage industry.The proviso was made that the transportation energycalculated was strictly for company-run truck fleets,and so did not include for-hire trucking, rail and shiptransport, nor consumer food transportation.

Food Retail EnergyFood and beverage retail outlets provide easy access

for the consumer to a wide variety of products. Retailsales of food and beverages amounted to $21.56 billionin 1980, which represents 26010 of the dollar value ofall retail sales in Canada for that year (StatisticsCanada, 1981c). Roughly 5.3 x 106 m2 of floor space(Statistics Canada, 1982w) was devoted to food retail­ing, of which at least 6511,10 was accessible to the public.Chain retail food stores account for 3.8 x 106 m2

(72010) of the total food retail floor area.The energy used for food retailing in 1980 was 16.6

PJ (Statistics Canada, 1982w; Centre for BuildingStudies' Concordia, 1982). This is only 0.23010 of thetotal energy consumed in Canada in 1980. For com­parison, Pierotti et al. (1977) estimate that in theUnited States 0.38% of the energy consumed in 1972was used for food retailing.

Buchan, Lawton, Parent (1982) make a roughestimate of 36 PJ for retail energy consumption ex­trapolated from American data. As no more substan­tial information is available, 16.6 PJ will be consideredas the retail energy consumed in 1980. A detailedbreakdown of the energy consumed in an averagesupermarket is shown in Figure 8.

OUTDOORLIGHTING 2%

Fig. 8

IQ / Sidaway-Wolfe

::::::::::::::';';:'1- REFRIGERATION45%

TRAINS 31.3 PJ

Fig. 9

Refrigeration and other display case energy re­quirements, such as lighting, account for 69% of thetotal retail energy, whereas building heating and cool­ing and store lighting account for another 29010. Con­servation measures, some of which are presented byBuchan, Lawton, Parent (1982), directed at refriger­ation and other retail energy, are expected to resultin a 5010 decrease in energy consumption in the 1980's.If a concerted effort were made, a 30010 decrease couldbe achieved.

The transportation and retail, Le. distribution, offood and beverages requires a total of 143.4 PJ, or2010 of Canada's total energy consumption.

Energy Required for Food Storage and Preparation

It is at the consumer level that most people interactwith the food system. Most people shop for food;everyone eats it.

Proper food storage and preparation are essentialto providing safe, nutritious, and appealing food. InCanada roughly 3.5% of the total energy consumedin 1980 was for home and away-from-home foodstorage and preparation. The energy used for thestorage and preparation of food varies enormouslywith the type of food, Le. canned, dried, frozen orfresh. Storage energy requirements of canned anddried foods are minimal, whereas for fresh and frozenthe requirements are much higher. Preparation energyis also process dependent, with canned food requir­ing the least.

Replacing frozen food with fresh would use lessstorage, preparation, processing, and packagingenergy. However, this would result in higher transpor­tation energy use due to more frequent shopping trips,increased energy due to wasted food. Food type choice(fresh, frozen, dried, canned) is based on convenienceand price, so a variety of food types will continue tobe consumed.

The energy required for warehousing of food isestimated at 1010 of the energy used in the agrifoodsystem from primary production up to and includingretailing (Ogilvie Mills, 1982). This is 5.6 PJ. Figure10 shows the breakdown of food preparation andstorage energy.

Home Food Storage and Preparation EnergyProper storage and preparation are essential to pro­

viding safe, nutritious food. Wilted lettuce, rancid but-

J. Inst. Can. Sei. Teehnol. Aliment. Vo!. 17, No. I, 1984

Table 10. Energy use of food-related appliances in Canadian singlefamily homes (four people).

ConclusionThe food system used 804 PJ in Canada in 1980.

This figure includes production (3.4%), processing andpackaging (2.4%), transportation and retail (2.0%),and storage and preparation (3.5%). This does not in­clude fuel used but not purchased (e.g. food wasteburned for heat), and the energy used for food wastedisposal from homes and institutions. This represents11.3% of the total energy used in Canada in 1980.

of energy per customer. Table 11 shows the results ofa restaurant energy use survey performed by Leitchet al. of Middleton Associates under an AgricultureCanada ERDAF contract. The energy used for eachtype of restaurant on a total energy, energy per func­tion (e.g. lighting, heating, ventilating and air condi­tioning (HVAC) ), and an energy per customer basisis shown. Note that the unlicensed restaurant uses only9.9 MJ/customer, whereas the licensed restaurant usesalmost four times as much, 39.5 MJ/customer becauselarger, more sophisticated meals are usually served.

The total energy used in restaurants is estimated as61.3 PJ in 1980 (adapted from Middleton Associates,1982). Table 12 shows a breakdown of energy use byappliances for two restaurants monitored by Leitch etal. (1981).

The total energy used in food storage and prepara­tion (at home and away from home) as well aswarehousing is 246.9 PJ for 1980 in Canada (Mid­dleton Associates, 1982; Leitch et al. 1981; Tung andSmith, 1982a), which is 3.5% of the energy consumedin Canada in 1980.

6,4802,8803,2403,2401,260

90016,200

Energy(MJ/year)

FreezerElectric rangeMicrowave ovenDishwasherHot water tank

Appliance

Refrigerator - frost freemanual defrost

Tung and Smith, 1982aFig. 10

ter and putrid fish are either unsafe or very unappeal­ing, as are room temperature ice cream, cold coffee,and raw steak.

The energy used in home food storage and prepara­tion is estimated at 180 PJ per year (Tung and Smith,1982a), 2.50/0 of Canada's energy consumption in1980. Assuming a family of four, and that 150/0 of thefamily's hot water is used for food preparation andclean up, the breakdown of energy used by food re­lated appliances in a single family home is shown inTable 10.

This does not include the energy consumption ofother small appliances such as blenders and toasterovens, to which a very small energy consumption canbe attributed.

Home storage of food requires roughly 31 % of thehome storage and preparation energy, while the restis for preparation and clean up.

Energy savings may be achieved through applianceredesign and rethinking of preparation methods. Forexample, Tung & Smith (l982a) report that the Cana­dian Manufacturers Association (1981) indicates thata 30 to 40% reduction in energy consumption forrefrigerators, 50% for freezers and 2 to 8% for elec­tric stoves is technically possible by 1986. Included ina publication by McTaggart (1980) are suggestions formore energy efficient food preparation, such as: us­ing the stove top for cooking instead of the oven; or,if using the oven, cooking many or all parts of the mealin the oven; and using appropriately sized equipment(appliances and cooking vessels) for the job.

Away from Home Food Storage and PreparationEnergy

The food service industry prepares and serves mealsin a variety of outlets, each using different amounts

Table 11. Estimated average annual energy use per restaurant, by type of activity'.

Type ofRestaurant

Cooking & serving Refrigeration Washing HVACC Lighting Total Total/customer

(GJ/a) (%) (GJ/a) (%) (GJ/a) (%) (GJ/a) (%) (GJ/a) (%) (Gl/a) (MJ/cust)

Licensed 1000 38 400 IS 260 10 790 30 180 7 2600 39.5

~~~:c~~ ~~~ ~i ~1~ I~ ~f~ I~ ~~~ j~ ~~ I~ ~~~ I~:~Institutional 1100 23 470 10 260 5 260 55 320 7 4800 26.81Notes: a) Conversions to end-use assume: Cooking and serving is 56.6% electric in liquor se~vin~, 71.8% elect!ic in serving wit~out liquor,

79.2% electric in fast food, 87.1 % electnc In Institutional (on a delivered energy baSIS).Refrigeration is 100% electric.Washing is 50% electric (on a delivered energy basis).HVAC is 35% electric (on a delivered energy basis).

b) Estimates have been rounded to two significant digits.c) HVAC = Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning

Can. lnsi. Food Sci. Techno/. J. Vol. 17, No. I, 1984 Sidaway-Wolfe / 11

Table 10. Energy use of food-related appliances in Canadian singlefamily homes (four people).

ConclusionThe food system used 804 PJ in Canada in 1980.

This figure includes production (3.4%), processing andpackaging (2.4%), transportation and retail (2.0%),and storage and preparation (3.5%). This does not in­clude fuel used but not purchased (e.g. food wasteburned for heat), and the energy used for food wastedisposal from homes and institutions. This represents11.3% of the total energy used in Canada in 1980.

of energy per customer. Table 11 shows the results ofa restaurant energy use survey performed by Leitchet af. of Middleton Associates under an AgricultureCanada ERDAF contract. The energy used for eachtype of restaurant on a total energy, energy per func­tion (e.g. lighting, heating, ventilating and air condi­tioning (HVAC) ), and an energy per customer basisis shown. Note that the unlicensed restaurant uses only9.9 MJ/customer, whereas the licensed restaurant usesalmost four times as much, 39.5 MJ/customer becauselarger, more sophisticated meals are usually served.

The total energy used in restaurants is estimated as61.3 PJ in 1980 (adapted from Middleton Associates,1982). Table 12 shows a breakdown of energy use byappliances for two restaurants monitored by Leitch etal. (1981).

The total energy used in food storage and prepara­tion (at home and away from home) as well aswarehousing is 246.9 PJ for 1980 in Canada (Mid­dleton Associates, 1982; Leitch et al. 1981; Tung andSmith, 1982a), which is 3.5% of the energy consumedin Canada in 1980.

6,4802,8803,2403,2401,260

90016,200

Energy(Mllyear)

FreezerElectric rangeMicrowave ovenDishwasherHot water tank

Appliance

Refrigerator - frost freemanual defrost

Tung and Smith, 1982aFig. 10

ter and putrid fish are either unsafe or very unappeal­ing, as are room temperature ice cream, cold coffee,and raw steak.

The energy used in home food storage and prepara­tion is estimated at 180 PJ per year (Tung and Smith,1982a), 2.5010 of Canada's energy consumption in1980. Assuming a family of four, and that 15% of thefamily's hot water is used for food preparation andclean up, the breakdown of energy used by food re­lated appliances in a single family home is shown inTable 10.

This does not include the energy consumption ofother small appliances such as blenders and toasterovens, to which a very small energy consumption canbe attributed.

Home storage of food requires roughly 31 % of thehome storage and preparation energy, while the restis for preparation and clean up.

Energy savings may be achieved through applianceredesign and rethinking of preparation methods. Forexample, Tung & Smith (1982a) report that the Cana­dian Manufacturers Association (1981) indicates thata 30 to 40% reduction in energy consumption forrefrigerators, 50% for freezers and 2 to 8% for elec­tric stoves is technically possible by 1986. Included ina publication by McTaggart (1980) are suggestions formore energy efficient food preparation, such as: us­ing the stove top for cooking instead of the oven; or,if using the oven, cooking many or all parts of the mealin the oven; and using appropriately sized equipment(appliances and cooking vessels) for the job.

Away from Home Food Storage and PreparationEnergy

The food service industry prepares and serves mealsin a variety of outlets, each using different amounts

Table 11. Estimated average annual energy use per restaurant, by type of activity'.

Type ofRestaurant

Cooking & serving Refrigeration Washing HVACC Lighting Total Totallcustomer

(Glla) (%) (Glla) (%) (Glla) (%) (Glla) (%) (Glla) (%) (Glla) (Ml/cust)

Licensed 1000 38 400 15 260 10 790 30 180 7 2600 39.5Unlicensed 620 27 240 10 250 II 980 43 200 9 2300 9.9Fast food 520 32 150 9 110 7 640 39 210 13 1600 12.9Institutional 1100 23 470 10 260 5 260 55 320 7 4800 26.8INotes: a) Conversions to end-use assume: Cooking and serving is 56.6% electric in liquor se~vin~, 71.8% elect!ic in serving without liquor,

79.2% electric in fast food, 87.1 % electnc In institutIOnal (on a delivered energy baSIS).Refrigeration is 100% electric.Washing is 50% electric (on a delivered energy basis).HVAC is 35% electric (on a delivered energy basis).

b) Estimates have been rounded to two significant digits.c) HVAC = Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning

Can. Insl. Food Sei. Teehno/. J. Vol. 17, No. I, 1984 Sidaway-Wolfe / 11

Table 12. Representative consumption of energy of metered itemsin a licensed and an unlicensed restaurant

Licensed Unlicensed

Appliance Average Appliance Averageuse per day use per day

(MJ) (MJ)

Convection oven 51.5 Grill fans 184.3Dishwasher 43.2 Walk·in freezer 398.5lee machine 135.4 Make·up air fans 123.1Coffee machine 38.2 Dishwasher 26.3Steam table 113.4 Slicer 0.23Glass washer 64.4 Dessert coolers (3) 23.9Cola compressors (2)1 91.4 Juice machine 24.2Refrigerator 73.8 Gravy pots (3) 9.4Refrigerator 67.7 Lobster steamer 25.9Mixer 1.4 Heat lamps 10.8Food coolers (3) 121.9 Cash register 0.7Coffee hot water 67.7 Lighting 350.3Lighting 829.8 Other 4,254.5Other 1,281.6

Total 5,432.13Total 2,981.4

INumbers after the appliance indicate one monitored and assumedsimilar for the duplicate(s). Total energy use for each set ofduplicates is shown.Adapted from Leitch et 01., 1981.

Efforts are being made to reduce energy consump­tion in the food and beverage processing industry,primary production, retailing and the food service in­dustry. With the current stabilization of energy costssomewhat less interest is being shown in conservationin these sectors, though many companies have in­stituted "housekeeping" conservation measures. Othermore expensive changes, such as installing energy ef­ficient process equipment, are being instituted as deci­sion makers realize that reducing energy costs throughconservation will result in increased profit margins.

As research provides new and less expensive con­servation technology and techniques, even greater sav­ings can be anticipated while high productivity and ex­cellent quality of products in the Canadian food systemcan be maintained.

In the long term, energy supply changes and disrup­tions are predicted to occur; thus there will be an everincreasing need to address energy as a vital input tothe food production system.

The data presented in Table 13 provide an up to dateestimate of where energy is used in the agrifoodsystem. This provides an overview that can serve toguide policies and establish priorities for action.

ReferencesAgriculture Canada. 1981. Challenge for growth - an agrifood

strategy for Canada. Agriculture Canada. AGR-6-8IDP.July. 80 pp.

Agriculture Canada and Fisheries and Oceans. 1982. Rand D Pro­posals 1983-84. Program: 1.3 Agrifood. Task I: Energyconservation. Panel on Energy Research and Develop­ment. 44 pp.

Anon. 1977. Energy policy for the U.S. food system: a subpart ofa national energy policy. Supported by the EngineeringFoundation and the American Society of AgriculturalEngineers. March. 26 pp.

12/ Sidaway-Wolfe

Table 13. Summary of energy expenditures in the Canadianagrifood system in 1980

Energy Energy Energyused in used inCanada food system

(PJ) (%) (%)

Primary Production 244 3.4 30Mobile agricultural

equipment (fuel) 125 1.8 15.5Agricultural machinery

energy depreciation 30 0.4 3.7Fish catching energy 20 0.3 2.5Fishing machinery

energy depreciation 5 0.07 0.6Fertilizer 60 0.8 7.5Pesticides 4 0.06 0.5

Processing and Packaging 170 2.4 21Processing 91 1.3 IIPackaging 79 1.1 10

Transportation and Retailing 143 2.0 18Transportation 126 1.8 16Retailing 17 0.2 2

Storage and Preparation 247 3.5 31Home storage and preparation 180 2.5 22.3Away·from·home storage

and preparation 61 0.9 7.6Warehousing 6 0.08 0.8

Total 804 1l.3% 100%

Atlantic Provinces Economic Council. 1982. Study of the impacton the fishing industries. Prepared for the Departmentof Fisheries and Oceans. 317 pp.

Beaton, J.D. 1980. The role of N.P.K.S.. Prairie Production Sym­posium. Canadian Wheat Board Advisory Committee.Saskatoon, Sask. October.

Boston, R. 1983. An energy analysis of consumer products packag­ing. Contract Rep!. ERDAF file no. 46SZ.01843-I-EP02.Agriculture Canada. v and 191 pp.

Buchan, Lawton, Parent Ltd. 1982. The potential for energy con­servation in the food retailing sector. Contract Rept. ER­DAF file no. 34SZ.01843-0-CP04. Engineering andStatistical Research Institute, Agriculture Canada. iv and42 pp and appendices.

Calver, G.L. 1982. Energy inputs to agricultural production inCanada Research, Development and Demonstrationneeds. Rept. No. 1-353. Engineering and StatisticalResearch Institute, Agriculture Canada. September. 80pp.

Canadian Transport Commission, Traffic and Tariffs Branch. 1982.Commodity flow analysis. 1978-80. Canadian carload all­rail traffic. Reference Paper No. 1.6. xi and 126 pp.

Canadian Transport Commission, Traffic and Tariffs Branch. 1983.Commodity flow analysis. 1978-80. Carload all-rail trafficbetween Canada and the United States. Reference PaperNo. 3.5. xviii and 150 pp.

Centre for Building Studies, Concordia University. 1982. Conser­vation of energy in the retail sector. Task S3. Analysisof consumption data for 250 Steinberg stores. ContractRept. SSC file no. OZSQ.23380-1-6665-2. BuildingTechnology Support Group, Conservation and RenewableEnergy Branch, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada.October. 76 pp and appendices.

Confer Consulting Ltd. 1981. Submission prepared for the ElectricUtility Planning Council, Canadian Western Natural GasCompany Ltd. and Northwestern Utilities Ltd.

Energy, Mines & Resources Canada. 1981. Energy Update. ReportEI81-4E. The Minister of Energy, Mines & ResourcesCanada. Cat. No. MZ3-13/81-4E. ISBN 0-662-11494-9(April). 49 pp.

Energy, Mines & Resources Canada. 1982. The National EnergyProgram Update 1982. Energy, Mines & Resources 1982.ISBN 0-662-12060-4. vi and 94 pp.

J. InSI. Can. Sci. Techno/. Aliment. Vol. 17, No. I, 1984

Table 12. Representative consumption of energy of metered itemsin a licensed and an unlicensed restaurant

Licensed Unlicensed

Appliance Average Appliance Averageuse per day use per day

(MJ) (MJ)

Convection oven 51.5 Grill fans 184.3Dishwasher 43.2 Walk·in freezer 398.5lee machine 135.4 Make-up air fans 123.1Coffee machine 38.2 Dishwasher 26.3Steam table 113.4 Slicer 0.23Glass washer 64.4 Dessert coolers (3) 23.9Cola compressors (2)1 91.4 Juice machine 24.2Refrigerator 73.8 Gravy pots (3) 9.4Refrigerator 67.7 Lobster steamer 25.9Mixer 1.4 Heat lamps 10.8Food coolers (3) 121.9 Cash register 0.7Coffee hot water 67.7 Lighting 350.3Lighting 829.8 Other 4,254.5Other 1,281.6

Total 5,432.13Total 2,981.4

INumbers after the appliance indicate one monitored and assumedsimilar for the duplicate(s). Total energy use for each set ofduplicates is shown.Adapted from Leitch et al., 1981.

Efforts are being made to reduce energy consump­tion in the food and beverage processing industry,primary production, retailing and the food service in­dustry. With the current stabilization of energy costssomewhat less interest is being shown in conservationin these sectors, though many companies have in­stituted "housekeeping" conservation measures. Othermore expensive changes, such as installing energy ef­ficient process equipment, are being instituted as deci­sion makers realize that reducing energy costs throughconservation will result in increased profit margins.

As research provides new and less expensive con­servation technology and techniques, even greater sav­ings can be anticipated while high productivity and ex­cellent quality of products in the Canadian food systemcan be maintained.

In the long term, energy supply changes and disrup­tions are predicted to occur; thus there will be an everincreasing need to address energy as a vital input tothe food production system.

The data presented in Table 13 provide an up to dateestimate of where energy is used in the agrifoodsystem. This provides an overview that can serve toguide policies and establish priorities for action.

ReferencesAgriculture Canada. 1981. Challenge for growth - an agrifood

strategy for Canada. Agriculture Canada. AGR-6-8IDP.July. 80 pp.

Agriculture Canada and Fisheries and Oceans. 1982. Rand D Pro­posals 1983-84. Program: 1.3 Agrifood. Task I: Energyconservation. Panel on Energy Research and Develop­ment. 44 pp.

Anon. 1977. Energy policy for the U.S. food system: a subpart ofa national energy policy. Supported by the EngineeringFoundation and the American Society of AgriculturalEngineers. March. 26 pp.

12/ Sidaway-Wolfe

Table 13. Summary of energy expenditures in the Canadianagrifood system in 1980

Energy Energy Energyused in used inCanada food system

(PJ) (%) (%)

Primary Production 244 3.4 30Mobile agricultural

equipment (fuel) 125 1.8 15.5Agricultural machinery

energy depreciation 30 0.4 3.7Fish catching energy 20 0.3 2.5Fishing machinery

energy depreciation 5 0.07 0.6Fertilizer 60 0.8 7.5Pesticides 4 0.06 0.5

Processing and Packaging 170 2.4 21Processing 91 1.3 11Packaging 79 1.1 10

Transportation and Retailing 143 2.0 18Transportation 126 1.8 16Retailing 17 0.2 2

Storage and Preparation 247 3.5 31Home storage and preparation 180 2.5 22.3Away·from·home storage

and preparation 61 0.9 7.6Warehousing 6 0.08 0.8

Total 804 11.3% 100%

Atlantic Provinces Economic Council. 1982. Study of the impacton the fishing industries. Prepared for the Departmentof Fisheries and Oceans. 317 pp.

Beaton, J .D. 1980. The role of N.P.K.S.. Prairie Production Sym­posium. Canadian Wheat Board Advisory Committee.Saskatoon, Sask. October.

Boston, R. 1983. An energy analysis of consumer products packag­ing. Contract Rep!. ERDAF file no. 46SZ.01843-1-EP02.Agriculture Canada. v and 191 pp.

Buchan, Lawton, Parent Ltd. 1982. The potential for energy con­servation in the food retailing sector. Contract Rept. ER­DAF file no. 34SZ.01843-0-CP04. Engineering andStatistical Research Institute, Agriculture Canada. iv and42 pp and appendices.

Calver, G.L. 1982. Energy inputs to agricultural production inCanada Research, Development and Demonstrationneeds. Rept. No. 1-353. Engineering and StatisticalResearch Institute, Agriculture Canada. September. 80pp.

Canadian Transport Commission, Traffic and Tariffs Branch. 1982.Commodity flow analysis. 1978-80. Canadian carload all­rail traffic. Reference Paper No. 1.6. xi and 126 pp.

Canadian Transport Commission, Traffic and Tariffs Branch. 1983.Commodity flow analysis. 1978-80. Carload all-rail trafficbetween Canada and the United States. Reference PaperNo. 3.5. xviii and 150 pp.

Centre for Building Studies, Concordia University. 1982. Conser­vation of energy in the retail sector. Task S3. Analysisof consumption data for 250 Steinberg stores. ContractRept. SSC file no. OZSQ.23380-1-6665-2. BuildingTechnology Support Group, Conservation and RenewableEnergy Branch, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada.October. 76 pp and appendices.

Confer Consulting Ltd. 1981. Submission prepared for the ElectricUtility Planning Council, Canadian Western Natural GasCompany Ltd. and Northwestern Utilities Ltd.

Energy, Mines & Resources Canada. 1981. Energy Update. ReportEI81-4E. The Minister of Energy, Mines & ResourcesCanada. Cat. No. MZ3-13/81-4E. ISBN 0-662-11494-9(April). 49 pp.

Energy, Mines & Resources Canada. 1982. The National EnergyProgram Update 1982. Energy, Mines & Resources 1982.ISBN 0-662-12060-4. vi and 94 pp.

J. InSI. Can. Sei. Technol. Aliment. Vol. 17, No. I, 1984

Finn, P.J. 1979. Energy use in Canadian food and beveragemanufacturing and the impact of energy costs on foodprices. In: Proceedings of the Work Planning Meetingon Energy in the Food System. P.W. Voisey, ed. Rept.No. 1-143. Engineering & Statistical Research Institute,Research Branch, Agr. Can. pg. 147-159 (CARC). 231 pp.

Kennedy, B.R. 1982. An economic overview of energy use and ad­justment potential in the food processing industries. Paperprepared for the Agriculture Canada submission onenergy research to the Interdepartmental Panel on EnergyResearch and Development. Dec. 9, 1982. 29 pp.

Leitch, P., Lanczi, T. and Love, P. 1981. Energy requirements inCanadian restaurants. Middleton Associates. ContractRept. of the AERD program file 34SZ.01843-0-CP01.Engineering and Statistical Research Institute, AgricultureCanada. iv and 61 pp. and appendices.

LeRoux, E.J. 1980. Energy in agriculture. Rept. No. 1-180. Engineer­ing & Statistical Research Institute, Agriculture Canada.February. 24 pp.

Levesque, M. 1981. Bilan energetique de I'entreprise agricole. Rept.No. 1-302. Engineering & Statistical Research Institute,Research Branch, Agriculture Canada. 13 pp.

McTaggart, V. 1980. Conserve today to consume tomorrow.Agriculture Canada Publication 1707. 16 pp.

Marsh, B.B. 1977. Temperature and postmortem change: energyuse and meat quality. Proceedings of the Meat IndustryResource Conference, American Meat Industry Founda­tion. pg. 13-23

Middleton Associates. 1982. Energy conservation in restaurants. Aproject of the Conservation and Renewable EnergyBranch, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada. 49 pp.and appendices.

Ogilvie Mills Ltd. 1982. Analysis of energy utilization in the retail­ing sector of fresh produce. Contract Reports #1 and #2.May I, 1980 to April 30, 1982. AERD program file no.345Z.01843-0-CP03. Engineering & Statistical ResearchInstitute, Research Branch, Agriculture Canada. vi and134 pp.

Pierotti, Anne, Keeler, Andrews G. and Fritsch, Albert J. 1977.Energy and Food. CSPI Energy Series X. Center forScience in the Public Interest, 1755 S. Street, Northwest,Washington, D.C. 20009. Technical Information Project,1346 Connecticut Ave. Northwest, Washington, D.C.20036. 76 pp.

Special Committee on Alternative Energy and Oil Substitution, The.1981. Energy Alternatives. Third report. House of Com­mons. ISBN 0-660-10912-3. xviii and 263 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1981a. Industry Price Indexes. June 1981. Cat.62-011. Monthly. ISBN 0700-2033. 7(6). v and 78 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1981b. Quarterly report on energy supply-demandin Canada 1980 - IV. Cat. No. 57-003.514. ISSN0702-0465. December. 145 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1981c. Retail Trade. March 1981. Cat. No. 63-005.153 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1982a. Consumption of containers and otherpackaging supplies by the manufacturing industries. 1980.Cat. No. 31-212. September. ISSN 0576-0186.20 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1982b. For hire trucking survey. 1980. Cat. No.53-224. ISSN 0382-0939. September. 101 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1982c. Motor carriers - freight and householdgoods movers 1980. Cat. No. 53-222. ISSN 0705-5978.August. 165 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1982d. Railway Transport. Part V. Freight car­ried by principal commodity classes. Cat. No. 52-211.ISSN 0706-2087. May. 124 pp.

Statistics Canada, 1982e. Biscuit manufacturers. 1980. Cat. No.32-202. Jan. 6 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1983c. Farm energy use survey. Energy Unit.Agriculture Statistics Division. 9 pp.

Can. Ins!. Food Sci. Techno!. J. Vol. 17. No.1, 1984

Statistics Canada. 1982f. Bakeries. 1980. Cat. No. 32-203. March.7 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1982g. Breweries. Cat. No. 32-205. March. 7 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982h. Distilleries. 1980. Cat. No. 32-206. Jan.

6 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982i. Wineries. Cat. No. 32-207. April. x and

7 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982j. Soft drink manufacturers. 1980. Cat. No.

32-208. August. 8 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982k. Dairy products industries. 1980. Cat. No.

32-209. July. 13 pp.Statistics Canada. 19821. Confectionary manufacturers. 1980. Cat.

No.. 32-213. March. 8 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982m. Feed industry. 1980. Cat. No. 32-214.

14 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982n. Fish products industry. 1980. Cat. No.

32-216. April. 8 pp.Statistics Canada. 19810. Fruit and vegetable processing industries.

1980. Cat. No. 32-218. xiv and 14 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982p. Slaughtering and meat processors. 1980.

Cat. No. 32-221. July. 12 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982q. Miscellaneous food processors. 1980. Cat.

No. 32-224. Aug. 14 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982r. Poultry processors. 1980. Cat. No. 32-227.

Feb. 8 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982s. Flour and breakfast cereal manufacturers.

1980. Cat. No. 32-228. Jan. 8 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982t. Cane and beet sugar processors. 1980. Cat.

No. 32-222. Dec. 6 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982u. Vegetable oil mills. 1980. Cat. No. 32-223.

May. 6 pp.Statistics Canada, 1982v. Coastwise shipping statistics. 1980. Cat.

No. 54-210. Jan. 110 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982w. Retail chain and department stores. 1980.

Cat. No. 63-210. June. 107 pp.Statistics Canada. 1983a. Annual consumption of purchased fuel

and electricity by the manufacturing, logging and elec­tric power industries. 1980. Cat. No. 57-208. Annual ISSN0705-4327. To be published in 1983.

Statistics Canada. 1983b. Quarterly report on energy supply-demandin Canada. 1982. Cat. No. 57-003. 7(2). ISSN 0702-0465.145 pp.

Strategy for energy research, development and demonstration in theagriculture and food system committee. 1983. Energyresearch, development and demonstration in theagriculture and food system. Report to the CanadianAgricultural Research Council. March. 85 pp.

Tung, Marvin, A. and Smith, Trudi, 1982a. Report no. I.Background information and review of the food sectionof the agriculture - food system. For the strategy onenergy research, development and demonstration in theagriculture and food system committee. ERDAF contractfile no. 34SZ.01843-I-ECO/3. Engineering & StatisticalResearch Institute, Agriculture Canada. 29 pp.

Tung, M.A. and Smith, Trudi. 1982b. Report no. 2. Energy research,development and demonstration needs of the food sec­tion of the agriculture-food system. For the strategy onenergy research, development and demonstration in theagriculture and food system committee. ERDAF Contractfile no. 34SZ.01843-I-ECO/3. Engineering & StatisticalResearch Institute, Agriculture Canada. 25 pp.

Voisey, P.W. ed. 1979. Proceedings of the work planning meetingon energy in the food system. Rept. No. 1-43. Engineer­ing & Statistical Research Institute, Agriculture Canada.231 pp.

Accepted July 27, 1983

Sidaway-Wolfe / 13

Finn, P.J. 1979. Energy use in Canadian food and beveragemanufacturing and the impact of energy costs on foodprices. In: Proceedings of the Work Planning Meetingon Energy in the Food System. P.W. Voisey, ed. Rept.No. 1-143. Engineering & Statistical Research Institute,Research Branch, Agr. Can. pg. 147-159 (CARC). 231 pp.

Kennedy, B.R. 1982. An economic overview of energy use and ad­justment potential in the food processing industries. Paperprepared for the Agriculture Canada submission onenergy research to the Interdepartmental Panel on EnergyResearch and Development. Dec. 9, 1982. 29 pp.

Leitch, P., Lanczi, T. and Love, P. 1981. Energy requirements inCanadian restaurants. Middleton Associates. ContractRept. of the AERD program file 34SZ.01843-0-CPOI.Engineering and Statistical Research Institute, AgricultureCanada. iv and 61 pp. and appendices.

LeRoux, E.J. 1980. Energy in agriculture. Rept. No. 1-180. Engineer­ing & Statistical Research Institute, Agriculture Canada.February. 24 pp.

Levesque, M. 1981. Bilan energetique de l'entreprise agricole. Rept.No. 1-302. Engineering & Statistical Research Institute,Research Branch, Agriculture Canada. 13 pp.

McTaggart, V. 1980. Conserve today to consume tomorrow.Agriculture Canada Publication 1707. 16 pp.

Marsh, B.B. 1977. Temperature and postmortem change: energy. use and meat quality. Proceedings of the Meat Industry

Resource Conference, American Meat Industry Founda­tion. pg. 13-23

Middleton Associates. 1982. Energy conservation in restaurants. Aproject of the Conservation and Renewable EnergyBranch, Energy, Mines and Resources Canada. 49 pp.and appendices.

Ogilvie Mills Ltd. 1982. Analysis of energy utilization in the retail­ing sector of fresh produce. Contract Reports #I and #2.May I, 1980 to April 30, 1982. AERD program file no.345Z.01843-0-CP03. Engineering & Statistical ResearchInstitute, Research Branch, Agriculture Canada. vi and134 pp.

Pierotti, Anne, Keeler, Andrews G. and Fritsch, Albert J. 1977.Energy and Food. CSPI Energy Series X. Center forScience in the Public Interest, 1755 S. Street, Northwest,Washington, D.C. 20009. Technical Information Project,1346 Connecticut Ave. Northwest, Washington, D.e.20036. 76 pp.

Special Committee on Alternative Energy and Oil Substitution, The.1981. Energy Alternatives. Third report. House of Com­mons. ISBN 0-660-10912-3. xviii and 263 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1981a. Industry Price Indexes. June 1981. Cat.62-011. Monthly. ISBN 0700-2033. 7(6). v and 78 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1981b. Quarterly report on energy supply-demandin Canada 1980 - IV. Cat. No. 57-003.514. ISSN0702-0465. December. 145 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1981c. Retail Trade. March 1981. Cat. No. 63-005.153 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1982a. Consumption of containers and otherpackaging supplies by the manufacturing industries. 1980.Cat. No. 31-212. September. ISSN 0576-0186.20 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1982b. For hire trucking survey. 1980. Cat. No.53-224. ISSN 0382-0939. September. 101 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1982c. Motor carriers - freight and householdgoods movers 1980. Cat. No. 53-222. ISSN 0705-5978.August. 165 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1982d. Railway Transport. Part V. Freight car­ried by principal commodity classes. Cat. No. 52-21 I.ISSN 0706-2087. May. 124 pp.

Statistics Canada, 1982e. Biscuit manufacturers. 1980. Cat. No.32-202. Jan. 6 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1983c. Farm energy use survey. Energy Unit.Agriculture Statistics Division. 9 pp.

Can. Inst. Food Sei. Technol. J. VD!. 17, No. 1, 1984

Statistics Canada. 1982f. Bakeries. 1980. Cat. No. 32-203. March.7 pp.

Statistics Canada. 1982g. Breweries. Cat. No. 32-205. March. 7 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982h. Distilleries. 1980. Cat. No. 32-206. Jan.

6 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982i. Wineries. Cat. No. 32-207. April. x and

7 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982j. Soft drink manufacturers. 1980. Cat. No.

32-208. August. 8 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982k. Dairy products industries. 1980. Cat. No.

32-209. July. 13 pp.Statistics Canada. 19821. Confectionary manufacturers. 1980. Cat.

No..32-213. March. 8 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982m. Feed industry. 1980. Cat. No. 32-214.

14 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982n. Fish products industry. 1980. Cat. No.

32-216. April. 8 pp.Statistics Canada. 19810. Fruit and vegetable processing industries.

1980. Cat. No. 32-218. xiv and 14 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982p. Slaughtering and meat processors. 1980.

Cat. No. 32-221. July. 12 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982q. Miscellaneous food processors. 1980. Cat.

No. 32-224. Aug. 14 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982r. Poultry processors. 1980. Cat. No. 32-227.

Feb. 8 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982s. Flour and breakfast cereal manufacturers.

1980. Cat. No. 32-228. Jan. 8 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982t. Cane and beet sugar processors. 1980. Cat.

No. 32-222. Dec. 6 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982u. Vegetable oil mills. 1980. Cat. No. 32-223.

May. 6 pp.Statistics Canada, 1982v. Coastwise shipping statistics. 1980. Cat.

No. 54-210. Jan. 110 pp.Statistics Canada. 1982w. Retail chain and department stores. 1980.

Cat. No. 63-210. June. 107 pp.Statistics Canada. 1983a. Annual consumption of purchased fuel

and electricity by the manufacturing, logging and elec­tric power industries. 1980. Cat. No. 57-208. Annual ISSN0705-4327. To be published in 1983.

Statistics Canada. 1983b. Quarterly report on energy supply-demandin Canada. 1982. Cat. No. 57-003. 7(2). ISSN 0702-0465.145 pp.

Strategy for energy research, development and demonstration in theagriculture and food system committee. 1983. Energyresearch, development and demonstration in theagriculture and food system. Report to the CanadianAgricultural Research Council. March. 85 pp.

Tung, Marvin, A. and Smith, Trudi, 1982a. Report no. I.Background information and review of the food sectionof the agriculture - food system. For the strategy onenergy research, development and demonstration in theagriculture and food system committee. ERDAF contractfile no. 34SZ.01843-I-ECO/3. Engineering & StatisticalResearch Institute, Agriculture Canada. 29 pp.

Tung, M.A. and Smith, Trudi. 1982b. Report no. 2. Energy research,development and demonstration needs of the food sec­tion of the agriculture-food system. For the strategy onenergy research, development and demonstration in theagriculture and food system committee. ERDAF Contractfile no. 34SZ.01843-I-ECO/3. Engineering & StatisticalResearch Institute, Agriculture Canada. 25 pp.

Voisey, P.W. ed. 1979. Proceedings of the work planning meetingon energy in the food system. Rept. No. 1-43. Engineer­ing & Statistical Research Institute, Agriculture Canada.231 pp.

Accepted July 27, 1983

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