I., ' rt:HNA nON AL J 01 ' H :-.' AL 0,- LH'HOS) Volume 43 . Numoer 2 Prilltet! ill till' U. S .A .
An Overview of Research on the History of Leprosy
Part 1. From Celsus to Simpson, Circa. 1 A.D. 1,2
Part 2. From Virchow to M011er-Christensen, 1845-1973
J 3
Philip A. Kalisch
The histo ry of leprosy, important as it undoubtedly is, rece ives sca nt a ttention from leprologists today. Occas iona ll y, a significant article may appear in Danish, German , French, and in iso lated instances British a nd American periodicals , but on the whole the production is but a trickle and largely remains unnoticed. This void is unfortunate because the study of leprosy history makes it possible for today's leprologist to immerse himself in the lives and times of the great leprosy investigators of the past, their accomplishments and id eas, and their influence on their own and subsequent periods. In this way the leprologist can identify himself with the mature minds of yesteryear and consider himself a link in the great chain of tradition that shapes his work.
Moreover, because the history of leprosy has critical medical, social, cultural, psychological and educational functions; because leprologists are all prisoners of the past, in the sense that their options are limited by what has gone before and their preferences are shaped by their image of who they are and what leprosy has meant to mankind, it is of the utmost importance that they try to free the history of leprosy from the myth and error that surrounds it. The following bibliographical survey of works on the history of leprosy seeks to stimulate additional research in the field by identifying some of the significant works upon which the contemporary leprologist may build.
PART 1
At the time of Christ, what was known as leprosy or elephantiasis had elicited a nebu-
I Received for publica tion 23 May 1973. 1 Part 2 of thi s pa per was presented a t the Tenth In
te rna tio nal Leprosy Co ng ress , Bergen , No rway, 17 August 1973 .
) P. A. Ka li sch, M.A., Ph . D., Associate Professor and Resea rch Scie nti st , Histo ry of Nurs ing Research Project , University of Michiga n Medica l Center , 428 Victor Vaughan Building, Ann Arbo r, Michiga n 48104.
lo us a nd now controve rsial literature accumulated during an unbroke n co ntinuit y of more than a th ousa nd years , perhaps even severa l millenniums. With thi s disputed a rcheological a nd semanti c problem we are not conce rned . Needless to say a recent implicatio n th a t lep rosy ex ist ed in ancient Egypt has not go ne unchallenged (11 2). Be tha t as it may, the Roma n writer Celsus ( 37 ), who was born in 25 B. C. , a nd th e R oma n politician , Plinius Sec undus, born in 23 A. D. (191), both had many antecedent writings to aid them in their fairly distinct descripti ons of leprosy as .did the la ter Greek physicians. Galenus ( 83 ), Aretaeus (1 0), a nd Soranus, of Ephesus ( 223 ).
The advance of kn ow ledge co nce rning leprosy was abruptly halted by the collapse of the Roman world after 300 A.D., and by three centuries later th ere was almost no medical knowledge available concerning the disease in the Wes tern world. Although copies of the preceding works and other treatises were probably extant, by 600 A.D. practically no layman could read tho se books. Thus, the embryo of leprology was dead in western Europe, a casualty of the semi barbaric hordes who had no tradition of learning.
The knowledge of leprosy had never sunk so low in the East during these centuries as it had in western Europe. Constantinople survived successive attacks by the Arabs and preserved its libraries, and the Greeks who peopled it had a high regard for learning, which was resumed when conditions permitted. During this time such physicians as Aurelianus (15), Aetius, of Amida (3), Paulus Ageineta (1 86), and Oribasius of Pergamun (1 81) substantiated the existence of the disease and traced it to prehistoric times. Oribasi us very much praised the eating of vipers, for he writes that this gave a wonderful help and relief to "lepers." The Arabs, though they lacked the tradition of scholarship, were an able people whose ancestors
129
130 International lournal of Leprosy 1975
had lived on the edge of all the great civilizations of antiquity, and they respected erudition. Once firmly in control of a vast empire, the Moslems supported learning, and the great caliphs, including Haroun-al-Raschid , had camel caravans laden with Greek and Latin books brought to Baghdad, where they engaged Nestorians, Jews, and Persians to translate these works containing knowledge of leprosy into Arabic as documented by the laborious efforts of Janus Damascenus (48), Issac Israeli (11 3), the great Rhazes (196), Ali Abbas ( 6), Avicenna (1 8), Abulcasis ( 2), Avenzoar (1 6), and Averroes (1 7). This knowledge was available to the new schools which arose at Baghdad, at Cairo, and finally at Cordova in Spain. Collectively, the Arabs not only helped to preserve the ancient knowledge of leprosy but may have made important additions to it. By and large, however, the Arabic writers seem to have never entirely abandoned the notion that they were but humble disciples following in the footsteps of great masters, whom they were bound to revere, imitate, and quote, but never overthrow. Thus, they excelled in the synthesis of prior accumulated knowledge rather than in original findings.
Meanwhile, Christian Europe slowly struggled to lift itself out of barbarism and superstition aided by Jewish physicians who circulated Greco-Arabic knowledge throughout the Christendom and by translations of Greek and Arabic medical treatises into Latin. About \060, Constantinus Africanus (45) brought a cargo of Islamic medical lore to Salerno and with the aid of his translations of Greek and Arabic works in medicine spurred the resurrection of such knowledge in Italy. His description of leprosy under the title "De morborum cogni.tone and curatione" with its theory of four species of leprosy was heavily borrowed from an Arabic work by A vicenna ( 18) who in turn had borrowed it with a little alteration from the Greeks themselves. Platearius, a 12th century s ucce sso r to Constantinus, diligently followed up this theory in his compendium entitled Practica 10. Serapionis (190).
The author of the most popular encyclopedia of medieval medicine, in the 13th century, the Franciscan Bartholomaeus Anglicus (21) testified that persons afflicted with leprosy have "redde whelks and pymples in the face , out of whom oftenne runne blood and matter; en such the noses swellen, and
ben [become] grete, the vertue of smellynge faylyth , and the brethe stynkyth ryght fowle," and when the disease is advanced they are "unclean, spotyed, glemy, and quythery [watery], and the nosethrille s ben stopye, the wasen of the voys is rough and the voys is horse, and the heere falls ." Some 200 years later in the late 1400's Valesco de Taranta, a physician of Montpellier, strongly recommended castration as the cure for leprosy si nce the disease was caused by too great a dryness and by the removal of the testicles the body would be moistened ( 240 ). Many of his contemporaries held views that were just as far fetched. They included Bartolomeo Montagnana of Padua (1 71), Pietro d' Argellata of Bologna (I I), Ferrari de Gradi of Pavia ( 75 ), and Hans von Ger sdorff of Strassbourg ( 84).
An early 20th century historian of leprosy, Hans Carlowitz (36) completed a dissertation under the direction of Karl Sudhoff which compared most of the important 13th and 14th century commentators on leprosy including Teodorico Borgognoni (230), Gilbert, the Englishman ( 86 ), Guglielmo da Saliceto (95), Arnaldus de Villanova (12), Lanfranco , of Milan (134), Bernard de Gordon ( 23 ), Vitalis de Furno (245), John of Gaddesden (125), Henry de Mondeville (170), and Guy de Chavliac (97). Carlowitz found that the authors differed from each other only slightly and that all except those who lived before Bernard (ca. 1285-1308) made use of Bernard's U/ium medicinae. He noted that Henry of Mondeville and John of Gaddesden were particularly alike as they frequently used the same phraseology, for example. Carlowitz concluded that all these physicians relied less upon their own observations than upon the work of such famous Arabian physicians as Rhazes, Ali Abbas, Avicenna, and their 11th century commentator, Constantinus Africanus. The most original of the accounts appeared to be those by Gilbert and Bernard de Gordon.
Throndike, Sarton, and Singer have all remarked on the fact that no notable contributions were made to medical literature, including that pertaining to leprosy ( 5), for more than a century after the Black Death. The effects of the cataclysmic plague pandemic that killed an estimated 43 million people in the Christian world during the mid 1300's, are impossible to assess. It is important to note , however, that an added obstacle
43 , 2 P. A. Kalisch: Research on the History 0/ Lepros.\' 13 1
during that time was implicit in the lack of the printing press to foster th e di stributi o n of the know ledge tha t did ex ist. Boo ks were written by ha nd and copies were ex pensive. Time a nd time aga in an advance had bee n made in medica l knowledge o nl y to be lost , or to be known only to a few who did not pass o n the informa tion . The chief book s on ancient leprosy and medicine were nea rl y all written in class ical Greek , those o f the Arab and J ewis h phys icians in Arabic and He brew, a nd no ne of these la nguages was widely kn ow n in western Europe. Such transla ti o ns as exis ted were very imperfect. Then in the la te 1400's a knowledge revolution was facilitated when mova ble ty pe was d ev ise d and by 1500 Ital y a lo ne had 73 presses employing mova ble type. By about the middle o f the 16th century a n educated medica l profess ion in western Europe had access to nea rl y all the accumulated medical and scientific litera ture that was then available and was again in full com mand of ancient medicine a nd lep rosy as it had bee n passed down . But it had take n a full 1,000 years o f fumbling effo rt to recove r the leprosy knowledge that it had so unwittingly abandoned in the 6th century. Thus, at the onset of the Renaissance (ca. 1500) , leprosy was soo n attacked by an outpouring of new books that touched on the subject. The physician, physicist , and poet Girolamo Fracastoro' s (19) work on syphili s helped to differenti a te between that di sease a nd leprosy. Other general treati ses of the period that touched on leprosy were authored by Philippus von Hohenheim , known as Paracelsus ( 184), Girolamo Cardano ( 35 ), Julien Le Paulmier de Grentemesnil (142), Henrik Smith ( 222 ) and Ha ns Christensen Bartsker (42).
Concomitantly, the first se parate books, either so lely devoted to leprosy or heavily oriented toward that disease, appeared. In 1540 the French physician Pierre Bocellin wrote a 47-page treatise concerning the contagiousness and infectious nes s of leprosy ( 25 ). This was soon followed by a tract entitled "Examen leprosarum" in Conrad us Gesner's collection, De Chirurgia Scriptores .. . , published in 1555 ( 85 ). One of the best works of the great French military surgeon Ambroise Pare entitled Traicte de fa Peste ... avec une Bre/ve Description de fa Lepre, a bly dealt with leprosy (1 85 ). It was printed in Paris in 1568 and an altered edition was
tran s la ted int o Engli sh in 1630. Philippus Schopff of Augsburg published a not her speciali zed effor t in 1582 (21~ ) followed four yea rs la ter by a 28-page doctoral stud y by Andreas Scholl ( W ) entitled, Theses de rat ione exp forandi, et judicandi feprosos . .. , which was written under the direction of Johann Vischer. At the end of the 16th century Guillaume Des Innoce ns ve ry effectivel y synthesized what little was known about the disease oy draw ing from the works o f the Greeks , Romans, Arabs , as well as Renaissa nce writers. This 132-page compilation probabl y contains the first substantial history of leprosy ( 54 ).
Little a dva nc e in the writing of leprosy hi story occurred during the 17th century. As hi storical source ma teria l, Wilhelm Fabricus Von Hilden's observations on leprosy, contained in hi s Opera observationum et curationum medico-chirurgicarum quae extant omnia, published in 1646, are of little value (63). The Danish phys icia n, Thomas Bartholin (20) gathered a more substantial body of knowledge in 1671. Other worthwhile works, almost a ll of which contain the traditional interpretations of the leprosy's antecedents include those by Luia (146), Sieboldt ( 217), Helvetius ( 103 ), and De Spina ( 53 ).
Moving into the 18th century, Helyo t of France wrote a s plendid account of the Knights of St. Lazarus, who always had a "leper" for their Grand Master (102). Helpful as constituting indicators of the then popular thinking on leprosy treatment are the accounts of Ovseel (1 83 ), Voight (247), Brooke ( 29 ), With of ( 255 ), Peysso nel (1 89 ), Udman ( 238 ), Murray (1 76 ), Schilling ( 210), Max ymovycz ( 155), Gislesen ( 87 ), and Scherb ( 209 ). Indeed the slight advance in knowledge concerning the malad y was revealed in an official report to the Roya l Society of Medicine of Paris in 1782 when two investigators cited Gilbert's 13th century de sc ription as the most clear exposition of leprosy that they had uncovered ( 38 ).
The initial attempt at a singularly historical stud y of leprosy was made by Raymond of France in 1767 (194) . His uncritical use of sources and shallowness of much of hi s resea rch , however, reduced the va lue of an otherwise valuable work. John Howard's less ambitious account of the principal lazarettos of Europe is also superficial. This effort was followed in 1790 by the first success-
132 International Journal of Leprosy 1975
ful a tt empt to reco rd the hisro ry of leprosy. It was pu b li shed by Ph ilipp Gab ri el Hensle r, F irst Phys ic ia n to the King of De nmark, a nd Professor of Phys ics, Uni ve rsity o f Kie l ( 105). Unli ke hi s predecessbrs, Hens ler inte nse ly stud ied o rigina l so urces from the G reeks dow n to his own time.
In his fi rs t cha pter H e ns le r inves tiga tes the traces of leprosy fo und in t he wo rk s of a ncient phys ic ia ns a nd then s u bseq ue n t ly desc ribes le p rosy in the W es t durin g the middle ages. He ins ists tha t lep rosy was not bro ught int o the Wes t by the C rusades but ra ther nad re ma ined there from the times of the Ro ma ns. He d oes not d e n y, h oweve r, tha t leprosy raged with grea ter vio lence fo llowing the ho ly wa rs a nd ci tes M a tth ew Pa ri s' now questi o na ble estima te of 19,000 " leper ho uses" in the who le of Euro pe. In expla ining the dec line of leprosy in the West, Hensler notes tha t the sympt o ms of true leprosy gradua ll y va nished as o ther cuta neous a ffectio ns beca me mo re comm o n towa rd the end of the 15th ce ntury. He further suggests tha t a t length the lepro us co nstitutio n passed into the syphilitic . Appended to the wo rk a re ex tracts fro m a ncient a nd medieva l write rs a lo ng wi th severa l 18th century accounts o f leprosy in va rio us pa rts of the wo rld . Hensler's wo rk was r e print e d in 1794 a nd has se rved as a point of depa rture for scho la rly effo rts in leprosy hi sto ry for nea rly two centuries (105).
At the beginning of the 19th century the sta ndard clinica l wo rk o n leprosy was tha t of Alibert ( 5). A rou nd the sa me time A lefe ld (4 ), Ottner ( 182 ), Vieira (241) , Brown (31 ), Be rge rn o n ( 22 ), a nd Bre hm ( 27 ) prefaced their m o re spec ia li zed derma to logic studies with a few histo rica l references perta ining to leprosy in a ncient times. Brief hi sto rica l accounts by Lejeune co nce rn i ng the ea rly hi sto ry of the leprose rie in C h a rtres (139 ), Lehma ier o n the Biblica l refe rences to leprosy ( m ), a nd S hafter o n the lep rosy o f the middle ages ma rked the ascenda ncy of the cl ass ica l stud y of leprosy histo ry to a new high ( 216). It o nl y re m a in e d fo r Jam es Y. Simpso n ( 218) to publish his la ndma rk " Antiqua ri a n Notices of Leprosy a nd Leper H ospita ls in Scotla nd a nd Engla nd" a nd it s successo r a rtic les o n the "Nosological Na ture of the Di sease" a nd the "Etio logica l Histo ry," to ma rk the culmina ti on o f the c lassical approach to leprosy a nd its history which
stretched bac k mo re tha n 1,800 yea rs to the time o f Ce lsus.
Wha t then sha ll we say o f the yea rs I A.D. to 1845? Fo r kn owledge rega rdi ng leprosy, they we re pe r io d s o f s low evo luti o n, fo llowed by near di sso luti o n, a nd subsequent evoluti o n. T he 17th century ha d suppli ed a scientifi c m e th o d fo r le pro log ica l hi sto ry, the 18th ce ntury had provided a n accumulati o n of fac ts with which to beg in wo rk , a nd the firs t ha lf of the 19th century sa w the fruiti o n o f cl ass ica l hi sto ri ca l sc ho la rs hip a nd the initi a ti o n o f the sc ienti fic a pp roac h.
PART 2
T he hi sto ri ca l ma te ria l inse rt ed a t the beginning of ma ny present-d ay sc ienti fic leprosy mo nogra phs a nd a rti c les, offers a n exce ll ent illustra tio n of w ha t has bee n fo r ma ny centuries the prima ry fo rm a nd a lm ost exclusive source fo r the histo ry o f leprosy. T hat traditio na l genre a ppea red in the accounts o f Da nie lssen (4~), Wilso n ( 254) , Ne isse r (1 77 ), Ka pos i (1 01), Le lo ir (14(1), J ea nse lme (11 5), Klin g mull e r ( 13 1), R oge rs a nd Muir ( 20 1), a nd Co~ hra ne ( 44) in the las t ha lf o f the 19th century a nd first six decades o f the 20th century. It had prev io usly enj oyed a continuo us hi sto ry fro m the Rena issa nce o n up into the 18th century, when the sco pe was much ex panded by the burgeoning co llecti on o f fac ts co ncerning t he di sease in different pa rts of the wo rld . As prev io usly indica ted , fr o m the las t 50 yea rs of the 18th century co me the ea rli est hi sto ri ca l studies tha t a re so metimes still used as such, a mo ng them the se mina l trea ti ses by Raymo nd ( 194 ) a nd Hensle r (105).
From a pr e limin a ry litera ture exa min atio n, we ca n conclude tha t the o ldest a nd the traditio nal fo rm o f leprosy hi sto ry was narra tio n buttresse d by occas io na l measurements. Fro m the Eu ro pea n inceptio n o f specia li zed leprosy hi story in the la te 18th a nd ea rly 19th ce ntu r ies, however, bo th Phil ipp Hensle r in Germa ny a nd J a mes Y. Simpson in Engla nd sought to deve lo p it with out reli a nce on the yet to come scientific a pproach to derma to logy . Mo reover, they seemed to ho ld tha t the centra l pr o bl e m s o f le prosy histo ry, a lth o ug h they might be st a t ed in term s of a particula r hi sto rica l phase, were in essence independent of socia l, econo mic, a nd politica l hi sto ry. With few exceptio ns, this general view permeated the writing o f
43. 2 P. A . Kalisch: Research on the Historr 0/ Leprosy 133
leprosy history in the world until the mid- ' 1900's. While numerous facts a nd stati stical data were collected they were se ldom a nalyzed or used to test sociological propositions, and ex ha usti ve monographic eva luations of the long-term soc ial impact of leprosy were practically unknown.
Germa n-trained Ie p ro 10 gis t-h is toria ns, who in their rebellion against English classicism called th e mse lv es "scientists," reinforced this empirica l, pos iti vistic tre nd . Works such as those of Virchow (243), Ehlers ( 5~ . W), and Hirsch (109) were large, useful studies, full of factual detai l a nd stati stics, but generally devoid of theo retical interpretations. As a scientist writing history, Virchow insisted that hypothes is had only a transitory value, that is, to elicit new facts . Hypotheses could not rest without adequate proof or without verification. He condemned speculative thinking and emphasized the sacred ness of fact s.
Mean w h i Ie , the epidemiological-oriented studies of leprologists such as Bidenkap (24), Rogenhagen (200) and Dehio ( 50. 51), and the reports of the Royal College of Phys icians and the India Leprosy Commission (144), along with numerous papers presented at the Berlin Leprosy Congress (161), marshalled statistics to prove the contagious nature of leprosy . Like so many movements, that of the epidemiologists against deductive, neoclassic leprosy history went to extremes and in some instances resulted in antitheoretical attitudes that prevented development of new hypotheses. In the minds of many of these empiricists, including Jeanselme ( 11 5.124 ), Zambaco (256·260 ), and Ashmead (13. 14) , there was an assumption that factually based theory would emerge from the data when it became sufficiently complete, but, except for limited propositions, it never did . Several epidemiologist-oriented historians of leprosy did , however, brilliantly fulfill their role as fact gatherers. Scores of articles and a still greater number of reports from various leprosaria form by far the largest part of the scientifically collected and prepared quantitative record of world leprosy history.
Both the scientific historiographic tradition of Virchow and the subsequent epidemiological-oriented tradition that followed , produced occasional monumental studies such as the prize essays by Newman (1 80 )
a nd Ehlers ( 59). But the major objecti ve of these two traditi ons was to clarify and deepen the unders ta nding of contem porary leprology by tra c in g its evo luti o n. Thus, 75 years ago most of those who wrote the history of leprosy were practicing leprologists, so met imes eminent ones like Hansen (98). Usually leprosy history was for them a byproduct of clinical practice or applied resea rch . . Moreover, they saw in it , besides intrinsic value, a mea ns to substantiate concepts of their current investigations by citing historical a ntecedents.
Since the turn of the century, within the field that might be loosely rega rded as leprosy history, there appea rs to be five major su bdisciplines: I) medical leprologica l history; 2) the expe ri ence of leprosy in various politica l unit s; 3) medieva l leprosy history; 4) "Biblical leprosy"; and 5) individual leprosaria hi s tory. We will briefly consider some of the most productive efforts within each.
The medical history of leprosy, systematically begun by Hensler, has tended to be scientific rather than therapeutic in its major emphases. Armauer Hanse n and Albert Neisse r have been studied in detail ( 78. 90), while the work of such other important leprologists as Arning in Hawaii , and Rake in Trinidad have received scant attention. Historical output since World War II has centered around the seminal paleopathological studies of Vii helm M~ller-Chri s tensen ( 162.169). His work has facilitated a most productive marriage between science and history and has in spired an unexcelled school of historical research on leprosy history as evidenced by the monumental work of Andersen ( 8), and the more limited study by Brothwell (30). Other illuminating efforts in thi s area include tho se by Dokrr (55), Bourges (26), Fite and Mansfield (77), Goerke (88), and Schmitt (212).
While the national, provincial , and municipal history of leprosy had isolated early precedents, such as those of Minkh (1 60) and Buhler ( JJ), the development of scholarly investigation of governmental reaction to the disease is notable in the late 19th century work of Sederholm (215) in Sweden, and Mouritz (174) in the Hawaiian Islands. Other studies devoted to the history of leprosy in various political units are those by Araujo (9) , Montoya y Florez ( 172 ), Ketting (1 29),
•
134 International Journal of Leprosy 1975
Haug (' 00 ), Denney ( 52 ), McCoy (1 56), Faget ( 64 ), Abee (I) , Spenesberger ( 224 ), Enna ( 61), San Martin Bacaicoa (206 ), Klovekorn ( 132 ), Chirakadze ( 41 ), Tolivar ( 2.1 1. m ), Vogelsand ( 245.246 ), Trevien (234), Richards (1 97), and Kalisch (1 26 ). Some of the most detailed nationalistic work has been done on Cuba by Gonzalez Prendes (91), and on France by Fay ( 65.7 1 ). Similar political unit studies include Maurano on Sao Paulo, Brazil ( 15.1. IS.) ) ,
Frohn on the German Rheinland ( XO·X2 ), Cougoul on Fra nce, Gonzalez Urena on Mexico, and Wellman on the Kingdom of Hawaii .
Leprosy in medieval Europe has fascinated numerous investigators among whom the work of Virchow ( 242. 24.1 ), Wickersheimer ( 252.253 ), MacArthur ( 14X. 150 ), Chaussinand ( .19. 4U ), and Brody ( 2M) is outstanding. Other useful work has been completed by Lecouvet (135), Lutolf ('47), Sa letes (205), Herey (104), Neret ( m. 179 ), Mercier ( 158 ), LeGrand ( 1.16. 1.1 7), Lallemand ( 133 ), Duliscouet ( 58 ), Remy (1 95), Pooth (1 92 ), Pawletz (1 87 ). Although largely devoted to the 16th century, Keussen's history of leprosy inspections in Cologne from 1491-1664 is a very careful compilation of notes and documents.
The controversy over the so-called leprosy mentioned in the Bible has produced an enormous amount of interest beginning with Essinger's 1843 study (62), continuing with those of Horsford (110) , Finaly (16) , Munch ( 175), Schamberg ( 208 ), Sack ( 204) , Fels (14), Unna ( 239 ), Dubreuilh and Bargues ( 57), Hill (107), Jastrow (114), Vorner ( 249), Trenel ( 233), Drogendij k ( 56 ), Lie (145), Gramberg (93), Landrum ('4 ' ), Cochran ( 43. 44), Goldman ( 89) and concluding with Browne's ( 32 ).
Leprologists' and medical historians' interests in recording the history of individual leprosaria are evidenced by the abundant accounts of such institutions from all quarters of the globe. Emphasizing the unique social conditions that created and sustained these unique institutions, are studies such as those by the eminent medical historian, Karl Sudhoff who ably dealt with various European leprosaria from the 13th to the 19th centuries. Similar approaches were employed by Pazzini (1 88 ), Harmand (99), Puech (193), Hildenfinger (106) , Kalisch (1 28 ), and Russell ( 203). The interesting organizational story of The Mission to Lepers 1874-19 17, has been compiled by Miller ( 159) .
Several other topical strands in the history of leprosy are worthy of note. Leprosy as
depicted in art through the ages has been a compelling topic with Virchow initiating this inquiry in 1862 (242), followed by Meige (1 57 ), Richer (1 99 ), Sassy ( 207), Hollander (l iN ), Van And~l (7 ), Gr~n ( 'I,)), Tricot-Royer ( 237), Martin (1 52 ), Frohn ( 80 ), and Vogt ( 247). Among the handful of attempts to write a popular world history of leprosy are the less than successfu l accounts of Weymouth ( 25 1), Mouritz (1 73 ), and Feeny ( 72 ). Other broad accounts that deal heavily with European leprosy history and elicit specia l notice are those by Barbez ieux ( 19 ), Zubriczky ( 26 1), Leo (1 42), a nd Burnet ( 34). Most recently, dissertations by Sch lotter (211) , and M a let (1 51), offer a rather general treatment but suffer from an inadequate bibliographical base .
In a ll the previously discussed efforts , medical or institutional, religious or social , the reader cannot help but be impressed by the lack of manifest ideology. Traditional leprosy rationale appears to be based on an empirically based objectivity, which in practice mean s accepting existing folkways, mores, and institutions as the framework for ana lysis. Almost t9tally lacking is historical research that open ly argues for a new leprosy ideology or shows a missionary bias in favor of radical change in existing conve ntions.
To say a word about methodology, at one extreme the antiquarian approac h, which simply necessitates the co llecti ng of bits and pieces of data , more or less without regard to their importance or interrelationships, is much in evidence. At the other extreme, the highly schematized or focused analytical model, which is all articulation and interrelationships, is se ldom employed. As a result, most leprosy hi stories are essentially descriptive in nature a nd fall toward the lower end of this continuum. Although the history of leprosy is first and foremost a story, there are all kinds of stories: dull or exciting, scrupulously careful or wild ly imaginative, painfully naive or subtly interpretive. Whereas much of this quality depends on the artistic ability of the leprosy historian, needless to say, the affective possibilities of the subject of leprosy are limitless.
The proper course for future work appears to lie not in moving back toward descriptive narration, but rather in broadening the scope and variety of leprosy history to encompass the findings of social research. So-
43,2 P. A. Kalisch : Research on lhe Hislor)' oj'Lepros.\' 135
ciological and anthropological th eo r y may ex plain, for exa mple, why a nd how irra tional motives based on lepropho bia led to total institutional respon ses, but only by interference may explain why one leprosa rium succeeded and its neighbor failed under approximately the same circumstances. Indeed , why did the various leprosaria in the British Empire of the 19th century yield such mixed medical and social results? Yet the historia n should be interested as much in the social incentives as in the actual result s. To bring order into thi s analysis of the total si tua tion it is nece ssa ry for him to use theoretical models and knowledge from the behavioral sciences. The value of such an approach has been borne out by the studies of Skinsnes ( 219-22/ ) , and those of Gussow and Tracy (96). Out of imaginative but scholarly monographic research on these and other topics, on an international level it will begin to be possible to build a convincing synthesis of leprosy history, a synthesis independent of purely emotional responses.
SUMMARY
This overview attempts to evaluate, in general , the results of nearly 2,000 years of writings on the history of leprosy. The ancients, although prone to confuse other skin diseases with leprosy, laid the emotional foundation for later work in superstition and lore. Their efforts were faithfully copied for hundreds of years and provided at least an accumulation of facts and a documentation of the state of the art. The da wn of scientific medicine in the mid-nineteenth century and the following 125 years has brought an increasing specialization of research in the history of leprosy that might be usefully divided into medical , political, Biblical, institutional, and medieval aspects. Some of the most productive efforts within each of these areas are considered . The challenge of the future is to develop models of analysis and evaluation based on the findings of social scientific research rather than relying totally on pure narration. This is the way in which to free the history of leprosy from much of the myth and error that surrounds it.
RESUMEN Esta revisidn trata de evaluar, e{l ge neral , los
resultados de cerca de 2.000 alios de escrituras sobre la historia de la lepra . Los antiguos, aunque
tendfan a confundir la lepra con otras enfermedades de la pie I. colocaron los fundamentos emocionales para trabajos posteriores en 10 que respecta a supersticid n y conocimientos. Sus esfuerlOS fueron copiad os fie lmente durante cientos de a li os y proporcionaron por 10 menos una acumulacidn de hechos y una documentacidn sobre el es tado del a rte. EI desarrollo de la medicina cientlfi ca a mediad os del siglo diecinueve los s iguientes 125 a nes han tra ld o un incremento de especia li zacidn en la investigacidn de la historia de la lepra, que puede SCI' dividida ven tajosamen te en aspectos medicos, politicos, B(blicos, institucionales y medioevales. Se consideran a lgunos de los esfuerzos mas productivos dcntro de cada una de es tas a reas . EI desaflo del fu turo es ta en dcsan-o llar modelos de a na lisis y eva luacidn basa dos en los ha lla zgos de investigaciones socio ldgicas, mas bien que dependicndo totalmcnte de la nar racid n pura. Es te es e l medio por el cual se puede liberar la historia de la lepra de muchas de las fabulas y errores que la rodean.
Cet a percu ten te d'evaluer, d'une mani~re generale, tou t ce qui a ete ecr it sur l'hi stoirc de la f~pre pendant 2.000 ans. Ma lgre qu'ils aien t eu une tendance a confo ndre la lepre avec d'autrcs ma ladies de la peau, les a ncie ns au teurs o nt pose les fondations emotives pour tou t ce qui a sui vi, empreint d e superstiti on et de frayeur. Leurs efforts o nt ete final ement pendant de siecles, produisa nt en fin de co mpte un e acc umul ati on de faits et une large d oc umentation conce rnant ce probl~me . A l'aube de la med ecine scient ifique, vers la moitie du di x-neuvieme sj~cl e, et dans les 125 annees qui o nt suivi s, o n a assis te a une speciali sa tion acc ru e de la rec he rc he co ncernant I'hist o ire dc la lepre. Ces recherches peuven t etre utilement di visees en medical es, politiques, bibliques, instituti o nnelles et medieva les, d'apres les different s as pects tra ites. Quelques-un s des efforts les plus va la bles, da ns chacun de ces d omaines, sont passes en revue. Le defi qui se pose aux a uteurs futurs est de develo pper des modeles d'analyse et d'evaluati on qui seron t bases sur les resultats d'une rec herche socia Ie scientifique, et non pas uniquement sur l'anecd ote o u la descripti o n. Ceci est Ie se ul moyen de liberer l'histoire de la I~pre de to us les mythes et les erreurs qui I'encombrent.
NOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY I. AnEE, H ORST OTTO VIK TOR M AX. Die L..ep
rosenhauser del' era/echa/i Mark , Frankfurt, 1947,3 1 p.
2. An u LcAS IS . Methodus medendi certa , clara et brevis, pleraque quae ad medicinae partes omnes, praecipue quae ad chirurgiam requiruntur /ibris III exponens ... AWore Albucase
136 Int ernational Jo urnal of' Lepras.\' 1975
... Rolandi . .. Uh . 1/1/ in quihus ... traclit rationem l11edelldi /l lOrhi.\· .. . hwnani corporis. /? oKer ii Liher ... de olllnil/III I'enarum phlehofOlllia . .. COllstalltilli Aji'imni De hulIIalla natura lih . I. It elll ejusdelll De elephantia lih. I. Et De relllediorwlI ex animalibus lIIateria lih I. A l1fonii Ca::ii quo lIIedicamenfOrU III genere pLllxationesjieri debeant lib. I. , Basi leae, 1541.
3. AETIl 'S, OF AMIDA . COl1fractae ex I'e teribus medicinal' tetrahihlo.l', hoc est quaternio, id est lihri unil'er.l'Ole.\· quatuor. singuli quatuor serlllones cO /llplec ten tes, LIf sil1f ill summa quatuor .I'emlOnUIII quaterniones, hI est ser/l1O//es XV I. per JanulII COl'l1ariull1 .. . Latine conscripti. Basil eae, 1542,32 p.
4. ALE!'ELD, J . A. T. C. Dissertation leprae historial1l succinnalll et hinas leprosormn nuper obsen'atorull1 hisfOrias cO/llplexa, G iessae, 1800.
5. AUBERT, J . L. Description des Maladies de la Peau, Paris, 1806.
6. 'A LI IB I\: AL-'ABBAS [H ALY HEI\: ABBAS). Liber totius medicine necessaria cominens quem sapiemissimus HaIr .filius Abhas dis cipulus Ahimeher Moysi.filii Seiar edidit : regique ins('l'ipsit unde et regalis dispositionis nomen assulllpsit. Et a S tephano philosophie discipulo ex Arabi(,(1 lingua in Latinall1 . .. reductus. Necnon a dOlllino Michaele de Capel/a .. . fecundis sinonilllis a multis et dil'ersis aLlforibus ab eo co l/ectis il/us tratus summaque diligemia impressus, Lugduni, 1523, 3 19 p.
7. AI\DEL, M. A. \'A I\: . The leprous in plastic art. Ned. Tijkschr. Geneeskd. 81 (1937) 3848-3854.
8. AI\:DERSEN, J . G. Studies in the Medieval Diagnosis o/,Leprosy in Denmark: an Osteoarchaeologim/, Historical, and Clinical Stud)" Copenhage n, 1969, 142 p.
9. ARA UJO, H. C. DE S. Historia da Lepra no Bra si l, Rio de J anei ro, 2 vo ls., 1946-1948, 581 p.
10. ARETAE US. De ca us is a nd sign is ac utorum morborum. In: Medicae Artis Principes, Genevae, 1567.
II. ARGELLATA, PI ETRO 0'. Chirurgia Argelate cum Albucasi. Eximmi anium & medicine ... Petri de Largelata . . . libri sex: novissime post omnes impressiones ubique terrarum excussas: col/atis multis exemplaribus: apprime recogniti: cunctisque mendis & erroribus expurga ti. Adjuncta etiam Chirurgia . . . AIbucasis cum ('{Juteri is & instrumemis suis figuraliter appositis: que in aliis hactenus impressis minime reperies, Venetiis, 1531, 159 p.
12. ARI\:ALDUS DE VILLANOVA. Hecsul1f opera . .. que in hoc volumine cOl1f inel1fur, Lugduni, 1504, 398 p.
13. ASHMEAD, A. S. Leprosy in America before
the adven t of the Spaniards and the negroes. JAM A 23 ( 1894) 847-849.
14. ASIIMEAD, A. S. Pre-Co lumbian lep rosy. .lAMA 24 ( 1895) 622ft.
15. AURELl Al'Il 'S, CAELIl 'S. De anlfis morbis. Lib. /II. De diu tumis. Lib . V. Adji'delll exelllplaris manuscripti castigati. & annotationibus illustrati .... Lugduni, 1567,554 p.
16. AVENZOAR. Abhomeron. Cell'linum de meclica facultate opus, studiosi.l' omnibus Llfilissil1Ium, alterLlln Ahhollleron Ah\'l1::ohar. Col/iget A l'erro.l'.I' reliquLIIII nuperrime diligemer correctulII , et lIIarginalihus adnotamentis nunquam hactenu.\· adjatis il/ustratum. Addita est preterea Llfrique operi propria tabula . .. , Lugduni, 1531.
17. AVER RO ES. Col/ige/. To III us Il onus [Omnium operum ArislOtelis] in quo lIIagni A verrois ... septelll libri Co I/iget , & A vicenllae Cantica cum ejusdem A vel'. expositione ad rem medicam aninentes ... Adsunt quoque Sectiones tres co l/ectaneorum ejusdem, a Joanne Bruyerino Call1pegio Latinitate nitidissimae donatio His inseruimus . .. A ristotelis Problemaw, nee non . . . A lexandri Aphrodisei Problematum lihros duos .. . , Venetiis, 1560, 380 p.
18. AVI CENNA [IBN SI1'A). Libel' Canonis Avicenne rel'isus & ab omni errore m endaque purgatus sun7ll1'aque cum diligentia impressus, Venetiis. 1505 , 453 p .
19. BARBEZIEUX. G. Contr ibution a I'etud e de I'histoire de la lepre. La lepre dans la plus haute antiquite. Janus 19 (19 14) 132-149 .
20. BARTHOLI N, T II OMAS. Domus AnalOmica Ha/niensis Brevissill1e Descripta, Hafniae, 1662.
21. BARTI-fOLOMAE US A:-JGLlClIS. Berth%meus De proprietatibus rerum, Londini , 1535 , 388 p.
22. BERGER ON, J . J. Du mal /?ouge, Observe a Cayenne, et Compare a t£lephantiasis, Paris, 1823.
23. BERNARD De GORDON, Opus Lilium medicinae inscriptum, de morborul7I prope omnium curatione, septem particulis distribUlum, una cum aliquot aliis ejus libel/is . .. omnia quam un quam antehac, emendatiora, Lugduni, 1550, 920 p.
24. BIDENKAP, J . Om Speda lskhed som endemisk Sygdom i No rge, C hri s tiania , 1860 , 208 p.
25. BOCE LLl N, PI ERRE. La practique de maistre Pierre Bocel/in, chy rurgien, & citoyen de la noble cite de Bel/eys en Savoye, sur la matiere de /a cOl1fagieuse & i!~lect i ve maladie de lepre, Lyon, 1540, 47 p.
26. BOURGES. M. Essa i sur tHistoire de la Lepre: du Concept Lepreux a la Microscopie Electronique, Clermont, 1968,230 p.
27. BREHM, E. G. Nonu l/a de elephal1fiasi nodosa universali, in Livonia et Esthon ia obvia, Dorpati Li vo norum , 1828.
43, 2 P. A. Kafisch : Research U /1 !he J-lislUrr ol Lep ro.IT 13 7
28. BR ODY. S. N. The Diseases u/ lhe Su ul: A Sludy in Ihe Moral A ssoeial loll.\' u/ Lepro.IT in Mediel'{i/ Lileralure. Ithaca. New York . 1974. 223 p.
29. BROOK E. R. A surprising acc ident a l cure: a ge ntleman labouring und er a ve ry obstina te leprosy was eured by using asses' milk , wh o wa tered fr om a stone trough in whieh a pieee of erocus meta ll o rum was placed fo r the cure of mange in hound s. Ge ntlemen's Mag. His\. Chro n. 2J ( 1753) 39.
30. BROTIIWELL. D. R. Ev idence of leprosy in British a rc ha eo log ica l matcri a l. Med. His\. 17 (1958) 287-291 .
31. BROW N. G. C. De elephallliasi graecorwlI I'el lepra A rabulII . Edinburgh. 18 18. 38 p.
32. BROW NE. S. G. Lepros.\' in Ih e Bihle. Lond on. 1970. 20 p. .
33 . BUIILER. F. Del' A lissal :: in del' Sehll ·ei::. Medicinisch-histurisehe S IUl lien . Z urich. 1902.
34. BURi'iET. E. La Lepre: Legem/e. /-lis lo ire. Acutualile , Pa ris. 1932. 185 p.
35 . CAR DANO. G IR OLA MO. Qua ed alll opuscula , artem m edicam exereem ibus utilissima, ut sUnl , De aqua & aelh ere: De c I'na radice, seu, De decoct is, nunc lopcup lelalUm & casligalum: ConsiliulII p ro illuslI'i /-lieron.\'I1 /o Pala vieino . . . eli/l imit ale spirandi laboranIe: ConsiliulII pro .f7uxu sanguinis coercenc/o: Consilium pro ManlUano lepram paliente: Medicine en CO l11illlll . Praelerea ejusdem in calumnialorem liboru/JI de sublililale. aClio, Basileae, 1559. 210 p.
36. CARLOWIT Z. H. Der Lepraabschnill aus Bernhard von C o rdon s "Iilium m ediciniae" in mill e lall e rficher deutscher Ue berse l zung, Leipzig, 1913.
37. CELSUS, A ULLIS CO Ri'iELl lJS. Medicine libri oc-10 no viler emenelali el impressi: CUIll labula repertoria cuj uslibel lihri & capiluli. Lugdunl. 1516, 106 p.
38. C HAMPSAUR. A. a nd COQlJE REA U. C. J. L. Elephantiasis leg itima. His\. Soc. Roy. Med. (Paris) 7 (1 782-83) 200.
39. CHA USS INAN D, R. L'expansio n de la lepre de I'a ntiquite a nos j ours. Acta Trop. 6 (1949) 105-119.
40. CHA USS INAi'i D, R. La lepre, Pa ri s, 1950, 212 p.
41. CHIR AKADZE. G. P. K voprosu iSlOril lepry v Cruzii, Tbili si, 1964, 94 p.
42 . CHRI STENSEN BAR TS KER, HA Ns. En fide l wnderuisning m egil n\'lIelig oc Iff/l slelig, sam vel f o rl1l/Jden er, huorledis m ennisken skal holde oc skicke sig , naar denne f o rgUflige peslilenlze k o lde siuge beginder al sprede sig wd ibland m ennisken, IiI al f orgiflue, fo rdrif/ue oc fo rde lJlue m ennis k en , huorledis m ennisk en i n ogen maade kand gi¢ire den m odsland, oc bek omme hielp , tr¢iSI oc raad em od denne f orlerdelige oc f orskreckelige siuge, Schleszwig, 1596, 70 p.
43. COCII RAi'iE. R. G. The history of leprosy a nd il s spread thro ugho ut the wo rld. III : Leprosy in Theory a nd Prac ti ce. Bristo l. 1964. pp 1- 12.
44. COCIIR AN E. R. G. BihlicaI Lepros.\' : A Sugges led Int erprelal iUIl . Lond o n. 196 1. 16 p.
45 . COi'iSTANT Ii'i I'S A VR ICA'\ (·s. Opera , conquisita undique lIIagnu sludio, jalll {JrimulII ll p is e l'Lilgata , praeler paucli la quedalll quae im pressa ./uerwu , sed & ipsa a nohis ad l'e IUSI issim orulII ex e lll p la I' i UlII IIwnuscriplOruII I l'eritaJell/ lanta cll ra casliga lll . W hll jus aW oris alllelwe nihil aedilu II I I'ellseri {Jossil . Bas i Icae. 1536. 387 p.
46. COUG O( JI. . J . G. IAl I.epre dall s 1'A ll cienn e France, Bordea ux. 1943. 158 p.
47. CZAPLE WS KI. Alb e rt Ne issc r und di e Ent deckung des Lepra batillus. Arch. DermalO l. Sy phil. 124 (1 9 17) 5 13-530.
48. DAM;\SCEl\' (IS. J M, ( 'S [Y IIII A,'\l\'A IH l\' SERA-1'1 01\ ]. PraClica }o . Serapionis. Illdex operum in ;'01' I'olwllille CO l7lell lOrWII . Praclica ./oannis Serapionis aliler Bre l'iariwlI nuncupa/a. Liber Scrap. De silllpli. m edi. Sumpta a planlis: mineralibus & animalibus. Libel' Caleni Ad Papiam de vir/we eenlauree. Pra (elica) ./0. Plaleari .. .. Libel' de simpliei meel. ejusdem Plalearii I'ulgariler Circa ins/ans dielus. Thesaurus pauperum ah }o(anne) X X. Pan. Max. qui anl e Pelr us /-li sp anus d iceha lUr mu//a cOl7linens a di l'ersis auclOrihus /IIedicine scripta nunquam al7l(,(1 illlpressus. Cum la bula .. . rece l1l e r addil a. Lu gduni. 1525. 272 p.
49. DA NIELSSON. D. C. a nd BOEC K, W. Traile de la Spedalskhed on Dephantiasis des Crecs, Pa ri s, 1848. 535 p.
50. DEli 10. KARL. Del' Aussa tz' cinst a nd je7.t. Lassa r's Derma to l. Z. 3 (1 896) .
51 . DEIII O, KARL. Pro ka ::a I' p roshlo ll1 j naslo I'ashlshem i b o rba S lI el'U [L e prosy in the Pas t a nd Present a nd the Stru ggle with It]. St. Petersburg. 1896.
52. DENN EY. O. E. The history of leprosy in Louisiana. Public Hea lth Rep. 51 (1936) 1029-1034.
53. DE S PI NA. P. De £/ephal1lias i, Lugduni. 1685.
54. DES INNOCENS. G UILLAUME. E'((Jmen des Elephal1liques on Lepreu x. Rec ue ill l' de Plusiew's bans el Renolllll?e:: AU/heLl;'s, Crecs, L(lfins, Arabes el Fran co is . . ., Lyon, 1595. 132 p.
55. DOKE R, WILII ELM. Uber den A LissalZ im A Ilel'lum und in der Cege/1l\'Qrt , Heidelberg, 1948, 21 p.
56. DR OGEND IJK. A. C. Is the Biblica l leprosy a purely religious conce ption') Genesskd. Gid s. 16 (1938) 824ff.
57. D UBR EU ILII , W. a nd BARGUES. A. La lepre de la Bible. Lepra 15 (1914) 5- 15.
58. D ULI scouET, E. H. Les Lepreux au Moyen-
138 International Journal of Leprosy 1975
Age en France. Bordea ux, 1906, 64 p. 59. EII LERS, EDVARD. Danish Lazar Houses in
Ihe Middle Ages. Lond on, 1901 . 60. EII LERS, EDVARD. On the conditi ons under
which le prosy has' dec lin ed in Iceland. In: Prize Essays on Leprosy, Lo nd on, 1895 .
6 1. ENNA, C. D. a nd BYRD, C. F. T he history and deve lopment of the Na ti ona l Leprosa rium in the United States. I nt. Surg. 52 ( 1969) Suppl. 11 - 14.
62. ESS INGER, DAV ID. Ueher den Zaraalh des Moses oder den weissen Aussal z. Tubinge n, 1843, 50 p.
63. FA BRICI US VON HI LDEN, WI LII ELM. Opera Observalionum el Curalionum quae eXlant Omnia. Frankfurt , 1646,973 p.
64. FAGET, G. H. T he sto ry o f lepr osy in th e United S ta tes. Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 30 ( 1941-42) 349-360.
65. FAY, HEN RI MARCE L. Hisloire de la Lepre en France: Lepreux el Cagols du Sud-Ouesl. NO les Hisloriques. Medicales. Philologiques. suivies de Documenls; avec une Preface du Prof esseur G. &Jllel. Pa ris, 19 10,784 p.
66. FAY, HEN RI MARCEL. Conlribution a I' Elude de I' Hisloire de la Lepre en France. La Lepre dans Ie Sud- Ouesl de la France. Les CagOls. Paris, 1907, 106 p.
67. FAY, HENR I MARCEL. Notes pour servir a I'h is toire de la lepre en France; les cagots, gaffoes et cassots. Bull. Soc. Fr. H ist. Med . 4 (1905) 69-109.
68. FAY, HEN RI MARCEL. Notes pour servir a I'hi stoire de la lepre en France; les chrestiaas. France M ed. 52 (1905) 407ff.
69. FAY, HEN RI M ARCEL. Les lepreux a Plombieres. Bull. Soc. Fr. Hist. Med. 5 (1906) 152-159.
70. FAY, HEN RI MARCEL. Quelques sa ints guerisseurs de la lepre dans Ie Sud-Ouest de la France. France Med. 54 ( 1907) 317 .
7 1. FAY, HEN RI MARCEL. Notes pour servir a I'histoire de la lepre en France. Bull. Soc. Fr. Hist. Med. 4 (1905) 208-229.
72. F EEN Y, PATRI CK. The Fighl Against Leprosy. London, 1964, 191 p.
73. FELDMAN, W. H. Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen. What did he see a nd when? Int. J . Lepr. 33 (1965) Suppl. 412-416.
74. FELS, J . "Zaraath" of the Hebrew Bible: contribution to the history of leprosy. Prezeglad Lek. 40 ( 190 I) 509ff.
75. FE RR ARI DE GR AD I, GI OVANN I MA TTEO Consilia Secundum viam A vicen. Ordinala ... Nunc Secundo Recusa Lucidantur. Lugduni, 1535, 106 p.
76. FI NA LY, SIGMUN D. Uber die wahre Bedeutung des Aussatzes in der Bibel. Arch. Dermatol. Syphil. 2 (1 870) .
77. FITE, G. L. and MANSFIELD, R. E. The role of hi s to logy in the stud y of leprosy. Arch.
Derma tol. I()O ( 1969) 478-483. 78. FITE, G. L. and WADE, H. W. T he contribu
ti on of Ne isse r to the esta blishment of the Hansen bac illus as the eti ologic agent of leprosy a nd the so-ca lled Hansen-Neisse r controversy. Int. J. Lepr. 23 ( 1955) 41 8-428.
79. FRASCASTO RO, G IROLA MO. De sympalhia el antipalhia rerum liber unus. De contagione el contagiosis morbis el curalione libri iii. v enetii s, 1546,76 p.
80. FROII N, WI LIlELM . Arzl und Lepra im Rheinlande. Bonn , 1929,32 p.
8 1. FROHN, WI LIlE LM . Der Aussalz im Rheinland; sein Vo rk om men und seine Bekamp/ung. J ena, 1933,3 11 p.
82. FROHN, WI LHELM. Lepradarstellungen in der Kunsl des Rheinlandes. Berlin , 1936, 105 p.
83. GALENUS. Des tumeurs oullre Ie coustumier de nalure. Opuscule nouvellement Iraduict de Grec en Latin: & de Lalin en Francoys. Lyo n, 1542, 26 p.
84. GERSDORFF, HANS VON. Feldlbuch der Wun darl zney. sampl vilen Instrwnenlen der Chirurgey uss dem A lbucasi conlrafay t. Chiromantia l o. Indagine. Das ist. die Kunst der Handlbesehung. Nalurliche Astrologey. nach warem Laui/ der Sonnen. Physiognomey. uss des Menschens Anblick und Glyderen. sein an ge born e Neygung zu erlernen. Complex ion Buch. £ins yeden Natur zu erkennen. durch der Planeten. und xii uffsteigenden Zeychen Geburtsrund. Canones. oder Regelen eins yeden Kranckheyt warlich zu erkundigen. Wie auch, und wenn sich der Arlzney zugebrauchen. Strasszburg, 1540, 212 p.
85. GESNER, CON RADUS. Chirurgia. De chirurgia script ores optimi quique ve teres e t recentiores, p/erique in Germania antehac non editi. nunc primwn in unum conjuncti volumen . .. , Tiguri, 1555, 406 p.
86. GIL BE RT, THE ENG LI SHM AN. Compendium medicine Gilberti Ang/ici tam morborum universalium quam particu/arium nondum medicis sed & cyrurgicis utilissimum . '" Lugduni, 1510, 361 p.
87. GISLESEN, J ONAS. De Elephanliasi Norvegiea, Havniae, 1785 , 63 p.
88. GOE RK E, H. Ein Leprabericht eines Linneschulers aus dem Jahre 1765. Z . Haut Geschlechtskr. 42 (1967) 161-166.
89. GOLDM AN, L. , MORAIT ES, R. S. and KITZMILLER, K. W. White spots in Biblical times. A background for the dermatologist for participation in discuss ions of current revisions of the Bible. Arch. Dermatol. 93 (1966) 744-753.
90. GONZAL EZ PR EN DES, MI GUEL ANGE L. Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen (1 841-1912). Lepr. Rev . 35 (1964) 127- 147.
91. GONZA LEZ PR EN DES, MI GUE L ANGEL. Historia de la Lepra en Cuba. Havana, 1963, 415 p.
43. 2 P. A. Kalisch: Research on the Historr of Leprosy 139
92. GONZALEZ URlIEi':A. J. La l.Rpra en Mexico. Buenos Aires. 194 1. X09 p.
9:1. GRMIBI,RG. K. P. I.epro~y and the Bible. Trop. Geogr. Med. 20 ( 1959) 127-139.
94. GROi':. K. F. Leprosy in litcr<Jture and art. Med. Rev. 4~ ( 1927) 460-4XO.
95. Gl'GLlEUvIO DA S.·\LICETO. La Crrurgie ... , Paris. 1512.275 p.
96. Gussow. Z. and TRACY. G. S. Stigma and the leprosy phenomcnon: the socia l history of a disease in the nineteenth and twentieth centu ries. Bull. Hi,!. Med. ~~ ( 1970)425-449.
97. Gil), DE C II ;\I II.IAC. Th(' qlles/runarr OJ'C,l'rurg\,('I/S, II'ilh Ihe FOl'llwlarr oj' /rIel! Curdo in crrurgie, wilh Ihe speClacles ul' crrurgrens nell'i,l' added, II 'ilh Ihe jlJllrth huke uj'lhe Terapenlyke [sic] ur Melhude curalyj'e oj' Claude Call·en ... lI 'ilh a srnguler Irealy oj' Ihe cure (~j' IIlceres, London. 1542. 240 p.
98. H ANSE~ . G. A. Dic Gcschichte del' lepra 111
N orwegen. Lepra 8 (1909) 314-340. 99. HARM '\~D. AlIG1 'STE. NUlice Hislurique sur
la Leproserie de la Ville de Tru,l'es, Troyes. 1849.
100. HA UG. R. Lepra in Wurtlemherg: Medizinisch- His/Urischer Ueherh lick his ::Ulll 17, }ahrhundert, TUbingen. 1935, 16 p.
101. HEBRA. FERD I ;-':A~!). On Diseases of lh e Skin, In c ludin g Ihe Exan lh ema la . . . , C. Hilton Fagge ... , cd. & tra ns .. London, 1866-1 880,5 vo ls.
102. H EL YOT, PI ERRE. HiSlO ire des ordres sonasliques, religieux el ailitaires, el des con egalions seculieres de {'un & de {'aUlre sexe, qui 0 171 ele elablies jusqu'a presel7l; COl7lenal7l ... Les vies de leurs /ondaleurs & de leurs re/ormaleurs: avec des .figures qui represenlel7l /U us les di!lerens hahil!emens Ie ces orders & de ce; "('ongrega lions . .. , Paris, 1721 ,8 vo ls.
103 . HELV ETIUS, J OII ANN FRIEDRICH. Disserlalio de Elephal7liasi, Amstelodami, 1678.
104. HER Y, R. Les Leproseries dans /'an cienne France, Paris, 1896.
105. HENSLER, PHILIPP GABRIEL. Vom abendlandischen Aussalze im Millelaller, nebsl cinem Beitrage zur Kenl7lniss und Geschichle des Aussalzes, Ham burg, 1790,533 p.
106. H ILD ENF INGER, PAUL. La Leproserie de Reims du X lie au X Vile Siecle, Reims, 1906.
107 . HILL, H. W. The no n id enti ty of modern leprosy and Biblica l leprosy. Am. J. Publ ic Health 4 (1914) 605-608.
108. H IRSC II , A UGUST L Handhook of Geographical and Hislorical Palhology, London: New Sydeham Society's Translation, 1885, vol. 2.
109. HOLLANDER, EUGEN . Die Medizin in der Klassischen Malerei, Stuttgart, 1913.
110. HORSFORD, E. N. Remarks ex planatory of a part of the 14th chapter of Leviticus, in which are desc ribed the signs and treatment
of Icprosy. Proc. Am . Acad. Arts Sci. -' ( 1852-57) 34-J6.
III. HOWARD. JOII ~ rIll- PIIILA;-': 'I IIROI'IST . An Accou/1l ol' Ihe Prillcipal 11J::arel/o.l' in t.LI/'Ope: lI 'illi Various Papers Relalil 'e /U Ihe Plague: Togelher lI'ilh Further Oh.l'er\'aI ions on Some Foreign Prisuns and Hospitals: and Addilional Relllarks un Ihe Presenl Slale ol' Those ill Greal Brilaill and Ireland, Warrington. 1789.259 p.
11 2. Hl ' I;SI:. E. V. Lcprosy and ancient Egypt. Lancet II ( 1972) 659. 1024- 1025.
113 . ISRAEL I, ISAAC. Olllllia opera Ysaac .. CWII qllihusdalll alii.l' (JliII.I·(·lIlis. Liher de deji'niliol1ilms. Uh('l' de elelllenlis. Uher dietarulII unil'er.wlilllll: CIIIII COIIIIl/enlU Pelri Hisp(Jni. Liher dil'll/rulII particulariulII: cum CUllllllel1lU ejusdelll. Uher de urinis CLI/ll 1'01111111'1110 ejusdelll. Liher de jehrihu.l'. Pal1-lechni decelll lihri Iheoricl's: el decem p raclices: cum Iraclaw de Kradi hus medicinarum Cunslanlini. Vialicum Ysaac quod Conslal1linus sihi allrihuil. Liher de oculis Conslal1lini. Liher de slOmacho COl1slal1lini. Uher virtU/um de sil1lplici medicina Conslanlini. Compendium Megalechni Galen i a Conslal7lini composilum . . " Lugduni. 151 5, 226 p.
114. JASTROW, MORRIS. The so-called "leprosy" laws. An a nalysis of Leviticus, chapte rs 13 and 14. J ewish Q. Rev. 4 (1914) 357-4 18.
115 . J EANSELME. E. La Lepre. Paris, 1934.679 p. 11 6. J EANSELME, E. Comment l'Europe. au mo
yen-age, se protegea contre la lep re. Brux. Med. 10 (1930) 1293ff.
11 7. J EANSELME. E. La lepre en France au moyen-age. Rev. Tech. Med. (1925) 985-993.
11 8. JEANSELME. E. and J ACOIISO II N. La lepre a Jerusa lem. Lepra 3 (1903) 2 17-224.
119. J EANSELME, E. La lep rc dans I'histoire. Chron. Med. 30 (1906) 180- 183.
120. JEANSELME. E. La lepre a trave rs les ages. Prog. Med. 44 (1929) Suppl. 73-80.
121. J EANSELME, E. Repa rtiti on de la lepre dans la presq u'ile Indo-Chinoise et dans Ie Yunnam . Presse Med. 1 (1901) 7- 10.
122 . J EANSELME, E. La lutte con tre la lepre dans 1'1 nd o-China fra nca ise; projet de reglementa tion co nce rn a nt la prophylaxie. Presse Med. 1 (1901) 105 .
123. JEA NSELME, E. Rapport sur la lepre en France et dans ses co lonies, In : Mitt. und Verh. de r Int. Wissenschaftlichen LepraConf. Zll Berlin , Oct. 1897, Berlin , 1898, part 3, pp 143- 148.
124. J EANSl:LME, E. a nd TISSIER. H istoire des leproseries a la Guyane. Rev. Med. Hyg. Trop, S (1908) 79-87.
125. JOli N OF GADDESDEN. Pra.xis medica, Rosa anglica dicla, qualuor lihris dislincla: de morbis particu/arib: de /ebribus, de chirur-
140 International Journal of Leprosy 1975
gia & pharmacopoeia. emendaliore & in meliorem redacta ordinem. recens edita opera ac studio . ... Augustae Vindelicorum, 1595, 11 88 p.
126. K ALISCH, P. A. Federa l reacti on to leprosy in the United States, 1889- 1920: a study in stigma. Loui siana Studies: An Interdisciplinary J. South 12 ( 1973) 489-53 1.
127. KALI SCH, P. A. The stra nge case of J ohn Ea rly: a stud y in the stigma of leprosy. Int. J . Lepr. 40 ( 1972) 291 -305.
128. KALI SCH, P. A. Tracadie and Penikese leprosa ria : a comparati ve ana lysis of societa l res po nse to le pr osy in New Brun swick, 1844.: 1880 a nd Massac hu se tt s, 1904-192 1. Bull. Hist. Med. 47 ( 1973) 480-5 12.
129. KETTING, G. N. A. Bijdrage tot de Geschiedenis van de Lepra in Nederland. s'Gravenhage, 1922, 298 p.
130. KEUSSEN, HERM AN . Beitrage zur Geschichte der Kolner lepra-untersuchungen. Lepra 14 (191 3) 80- 11 2.
131. KU NGMULLE R, V. Die Lepra. Berlin , 1930, 907 p.
132. KLOVEKORN, G. H. Del' A ussar z in Ko ln. Munchen, 1967.
133. LALLEMAND, L. La Lepre et les Leproseries du X au X VI Siecle. Pa ris, 1905.
134. LANFRAN CO, OF MILAN. A Most Excellent and Learned Woorke of Chirurgerie, called Chirurg ia par va Lanf ran ci . . . redu ced from dyvers translations to our vulgar or usuall frase, and now jirst published in the Englyshe pry nte by John Halle ... who hath therunto necessarily annexed. A table. as weI of the names of diseases and simples with their vertues. as also of all other tennes of the arte opened . .. And in the ende a compendious worke of anatomie . . . An historiall expostulalion also against the beastly abusers. both of chyrurgerie and phisicke in our tyme ... All th ese faithfully gathered, and diligently set f orth. by the sayde John Halle, Lond on, 1565.
135. LECOUVET, F. F. J . £Ssai sur la Condition Sociale des Lepreux au Moyen-Age, Principalement en Belgique et dans Ie Pays Limitrophes. Ga nd , 1865.
136. LE GR AN D, L. Les Maisons- Dieu et Leproseries . .. de Paris, 14 Siecle, Paris, 1898.
137. LE GRAN D, L. StatUls d'Hotels-Dieu et de Leproseries; Recneil de Textes du XII au X IV Siecle, Pa ris, 190 I.
138. LEHM AIER, J . Ueber den iu del' Bibel Erwahnten Aussatz, Nurnberg, 1838 .
139. LEJEUNE. Notice Historique sur la Fondation de la Maladrerie ou Leproserie du Grand-Beaulieu, an Diocese de Chartres en 1054. par Thibault III. comte de Chartres. Orleans , 1833.
140. LELOJR, H. Traite Pratique et Theorique de la Lepre. Pa ri s, 1886.
141. LENDR M, F. C. T he name " leprosy." Am. J . Trop. Med. Hyg. 1(1952) 999- 1008.
142. LEO, A. J . Beitrag zur Geschichte der Lepra. Leipzig, 1870.
143. LE PAULM IER DE GRENTEMESNIL, J ULIEN. De Morbis Contagiosis Libri Septem . ... Pa risiis, 1578, 443 p.
144. Leprosy in India . Report of Leprosy Commission, 1890-1 891 , Ca lcutta, 1892.
145. LI E, HANS PETER. On Leprosy in the Bible. Lepr. Rev. 9 (1938) 25 fr.
146. LUIA, G. A. De Elephal1liasi Graecorum, Lugduni , 1662 .
147. LUTOLF, A. De leprose n und ihre VerpOegung in Luce rn und del' U nige bund . Mitt. des Hi sto ri sc h. Verc in s del' funf Orte 16 ( 1860) 125fr.
148. MAC ARTH UR, W . Medieva l " leprosy" in the British Isles. Lepr. Rev. 24 (1953) 8- 19.
149. MACARTHUR, W. Some notes on old-time leprosy: the case of King Robert the Bruce. J . Roy. Army Med. Corps 46 ( 1926) 32 1-330.
150. MACARTHUR, W. Some notes on old-time leprosy in Engla nd and Ireland . J. Roy. Arm y Med. Corps 45 ( 1925) 410-422.
151. MALET, CHRI STIAN. Histoire de la Lepre et son Inf7uence sur. la Litterature et les Arts, Paris, 1967, 285 p.
152. MARTIN, ALFRED . The representation of leprosy and of lepers in minor art, particularly in Germany. Urol. Cutaneous Rev. 21 (1921) 445453.
153. M AU RANO, F LAV IO A. Histaria da Lepra em Sa o Paulo, Sao Pa ul o, 1939, 2 vo ls., 551 p.
154. MAU RANO, FLAV IO A. Historia da Lepra no Brasil e sua Distribuicao Geograjica, Ri o de Janeiro, 1944, 209 p.
155. MACY MOV YCZ, J. De Lepra Graeca el Arabica, Regiomonti , 1773 .
156. Mc Coy, G. W . History of leprosy in the United States. Am . J . Trop. Med. 18 (1938) 19-34.
157. MEIGE, HEN RY. La lepre dans l'art. Norwelle Iconogr. Sa ltpetriere 10 (1 897) 41 8-470.
158. MERCIER, C. A. Leper Houses and Medieval Hospitals; Being the Fitzpatric Lectures, London, 1915.
159. MILLER, A. D. An Inn Called Welcome; the Story of the Mission to Lepers, 1874-191 7, London, 1965, 241 p.
160. MI NKH , G. N. Istoriya Proka zi v Tersk o i Oblasti [History of Leprosy in the Prov ince of Terek), Kiev, 1894.
16 1. Mittheilungen und Verhandlungen der Internationalen Wissenschaf tlichen LepraConferenz zu Berlin im October 1897, Berlin, 1897.
43 , 2 P. A. Kalisch: Research on the HislOry of Leprosy 141
162. MOLLER-C II RISTENSEN, V. Bone Changes in Leprosy. Co penhagen. 1961 , 5 1 p.
163. MOLLER-CI IIU STENSEl':. V. Die Gesehichte der lepra und Probleme ihrer Erforschung. Berl . Med. 16 (1965) 882-886.
164. MOLLER-CI IRI STENSEN, V. Evidence of leprosy in ea rli er peoples . In : Diseases of Antiquity, by D. R. Brothwell and A. Sandison, Spr ingfie ld , III., 1967, pp 295-306.
165. MOLL ER -CIIRISTENSEN, V. New knowl edge of leprosy through pa leo pat hology. I nt. J. Lepr. 33 (1965) Suppl. 603-610.
166. MOL LER-CIiRI STENSEl':. V. Ten Lepers /rom Naes lved in Denmark: A Sludr o/Skelelons
/rom a Mediel'al Danish Leper Hasp ilOl. Ha ns Anderse n. tra ns. fr om Danish, Copenhagen. 1953. 160 p.
167 . MOLLE R-CIIRI STENSEN. V. and FAllER, B. Leprous changes in a materia l of medieva l ske le ton s from the S\. George's Court, Naestved. Acta Radiol. 37 (1952) 308-3 17.
168. MOLLER-CHRISTENSEN, V. a nd INKSTER, R. G. Cases of leprosy and sy phili s in the osteological co llection of the depa rtment of anatomy, University of Edinburgh. with a note on the skull of King Robert the Bruce. Dan. Med . Bull. 12 (1965) 11-1 8.
169. MOLLER-CIIRI STENSEN, V. a nd J OPLI NG, W. H. An examination of the skull s in the catacombs of Paris. Med . His\. 8 ( 1964) 187-188.
170 . MO NDEVILLE, HE NRI DE, IN VI CARY, THOMAS. The Englishemans treasure, or treasor for Englishmen: with the true anatomye of mans body compi led by .. . Thomas Vicary ... Wherunto are annexed many secrets appertaining to chirurgery, with divers excellent approved remedies for a ll diseases the which are in man or woman, with emplasters of speciall cure with other potions and drinkes approved in phisike. Also the rare tresor of the English bathes, written by William Turner ... Gathered and set forth for the benefit of hi s friendes and countrimen in England by William Bremer ... , London, 1586, 115 p.
17 1. MONTAGNANA, BARTOLOMEO. Consilia Montagnane. Consilia Magistri Martholomei Montagnane. Tractatus Ires de balneis Pata vinis. De composilione & dosi medicinarum . Antidotarium ejusdem. Consilia Domini Antonii Cermisoni. Tra ctatus de theriaca a Francisco Cabal/o edit us. Cum tabula consitiorum et numero f oliorum recenter addita. Lugduni, 1525, 545 p.
172. MONTOYA Y FLORE Z, J . B. Contribucion al £Studio de la Lepra en Colombia. Medellfn, 1910, 455 p.
173 . MOURITZ, A. A. St. M. A Brief World History of Leprosy . Honolulu , 1943, 139 p.
174. MOURITZ, A. A. S\. M. The Path of the Destroyer; a History of Leprosy in the Ha wai-
ian Islands and 771irly Yea rs Research into the Means hr Which il has Been Spread. Honolulu . 1916.
175. M UNC II , G. N. Dic Zaraath (lepra) der hebrai sc he n Bibel: ein leitung in di e Geschichte des Aussatzes. Monatsh. Pra ktische Dermatol. 2 ( 1893) 1-167.
176. MURRA Y, J. A. De Vennibus in Lepra Obviis Jun cla Leprosi Historia et de Lumbricorum Selis Observaliones. Gotlingae. 1769.
177. NAGAYO, M. Rec he rch es sur la lepre a u Jap o n (1890-1928) . .l a p. J . Ex p. Med. 9 ( 1931) 403-482.
178. NEISSER, A. Leprosy. In: Ziemssen's Cyclopaedia of the Practice of Medicine. A. H. Buck, tra ns., From: Ha ndbuch der spec iellen Pathologic und Therapie, Lond on, 1875-1879, 20 vo ls.
179. NERET, E. La Prophy laxie de la Lepre au Moyen-Age. Paris, 1896.
180. NEWMAN, G . On the history of the decline and final extinction of leprosy as an endemic disease in the British Island s. In : Prize Essays on Leprosy, London, 1895, pp 1-149.
18 1. ORIBASIUS .. Opera. quae eXlant ol11nia. Iribus tomis digesra, Joanne &Jplisla Rasario interprele . .. , Basileae, 155 7, 3 vo ls.
182. OTTNER, L. Dissertation contineus observala quaedam in historiam leprae. subjuncto casn recenliori leprae Graecorum . Tubingae, 1805.
183. O USEE L, P. De Lepra cutis Hebraeorum. Francquerae, 1709.
184. PARA CE LSUS [VON HOHENHEIM , PHILIPPUS]. Opus chyrurgicum. warha/ft e unnd vol/komne Wundarrzn ei ... darinn begriffen wie die Wunden. oj/i1en Schaden. Gewachs. Gebreslen. Fram zosen. Blatern. Beulen. Lahmi. aI/erIe)' Zufal/ unnd Kranckheiten. auch kalrer unnd warmer Brandl. Fislel und Wolf]: mit naturlicher Ordnung curierr werden sol/end . .. Durch Adamen von Bodenstein. zusamm en . .. gefurderet. unnd aus seinen Expensis in Druck gebracht. Strassburg, 1564, 516 p.
185. PARE, AMBROI SE. Traicte de la Pes Ie, de la Petite Verol/e & Rougeolle: avec une Brefve Descript ion de la Lepre.. .. Paris, 1568, 275 p.
186. PA ULUS AEGINETA. Libri septem quibus dextra medendi ratio ac via lam in diaetetico. guam pharmaceutico & chirurgico genere compendio continetur. per Albanum Torinum . .. partim re cogniti. partim recens Latinitate donali ,. , Cum annotalionibus non poenitendis in calee . . ' . Basileae, 1538, 637 p.
187. PAWLETZ, ALOIS, Lepradiagnostik im Mittelaller und Anweisungen zur Leprasehau, Leipzig, 1915,
142 In/emotional Jou/nal oj Leprosr 1975
188. PAZZ IN I, A. Historia ecclesiae et hospitalis S. Lazari leprosorum de Mont e Malo; comrihuto allo studio della storia della lebhra in Roma. Roma, 193 1. 54 p.
189. PEYSSONEL, J . A. An acco unt of a visitation of the lep ro us persons in the Isle of Guadaloupe. Phil os. Trans. R oy. Soc. Lond. 1 (1757) 38-48.
190. PLA TEAR IUS , JO ANNES. Practica Jo. Serapionis. Index operum in hoc volumine contem orum . Practica Joannis Serapiunis aliter Breviarium nuncupata . Libel' Serap. De simpli. medi. Sumpta a plamis: lIIineralibus & animalibus. Libel' Galeni Ad Papiam de virtute centauree. Pra(ctica) Jo. Plateari ... Libel' de simplici l17edi. ejusdem Platearii vulgariter Circa instans d(ctus. Theasaurus pauperum ah Jo(anne) X X. Pun . Max. qui ame Petrus Hispanus dicebatur multa cominens a diversis auC/oribus medicine scripta nunquam amea impressus. Cum tabula . . . recem er addita. Lugd uni, 1525, 270 p.
191. PLI NIUS SECUN DUS, C. Historiae naturalis lihri. xxxvii. ab Alexandro Benedicto Ve. Physico Emendatiures Redditi . n.p., 1507. 279 p.
192. POOHI, P. Leprosa ria in medieval West Pomerania . In t. J . Lepr. 7 ( 1939) 257-268.
193. PUECH , A. La Leproserie de Nimes (1163-1663), d'apres des Documem s Inedits; avec I'Anall'se de Denx Livres de Raison et la Liste des Lepreu x an XVI Siec le. Nines, 1888.
194. RAYMOND, F. HislOire de f' Elephantiasis. Co ntenant Anssi COrigine du Scorbut. du f en St. Amoine. de la Verole. etc.. avec un Precis de f'Histoire Physique des Tems. Lausanne, 1767 .
195 . REMY, PA UL. La lepre, theme litteraire au moyen age: commentaire d'un pa ssage du Roman provencal de Jaufre. Le Moyen Age 52 (1946) 195-242.
196. RHA ZES [M UHAMMAD IBN ZAKARIYA, ABU BAKR, AL-RAZ I). Comenta in hoc volumine. Liber Raisis ad Almansorem. Divisiones ejusdem . Liber de juncturarum egritudinibus ejusdem . Liber de egritudinibus puerorum ejusdem . Aphorismi ips ius. Antidotarium quoddam ipsius. Tra ctatus de preservatione ab egritudine lapidis ejusdem. Imroductorium medicine ejusdem . Liber de sectionibus & cauteriis et vemoisis ejusdem. Casus quidam qui ad manus ejus prevenerunt . Sinonima ejusdem. Tabula omnium amidotorum in operibus Rasis com em orum. De proprietatibus ju vamentis et nocumentis sexagima animalium. Hieronymi Manfredi .. . Cent iloquium de medicis et infirmis . .. Aphorismi Rabi Moysi. Aphorismi Damasceni. Liber secretorum Ipo. Liber pronosti-
cat iunis seculldulII IUlla1l1 ill .I·ignis et aspecIU planetarulII Ipu. Liher qui dicilUr Capsula eburnea Ipo. Liher de elelllemis sil'e de hulIIana natura Ipocratis. Liher de aere et aqua et regionihus Ip o. Liher de /arma ciis Ipo. Liber de insomniis Ipo. Lihellus Zoar de cura lapidis. Venetiis, 1508, 160 p.
197. RI CHARDS. PETER. Leprosy in Scandinavia . Centaurus 7 (1960) 101-1 33.
198. RI CIlER , PA UL. Beitrage zur Gesc hichte des Aussa tzes. Verh. Ges. Dtsc h. Na turforsch. Aerzte 82 ( 191 1) 98-100.
199 . RI CIlER. PAUL. C Art et 10 Medecine. Pa ri s, 1902, pp 273-3 13.
200. ROGEN II AGEN, C. Die Elephamiasis Graecorum in dell Ostseeprol' in ::en Russland.\·. Dorpat, 1860.
20 1. ROGERS, L. and MUIR. E. Leprosy. Bristol , 1940,260 p.
202. Roya l College of Phys icia ns. Report on Leprosy br the . .. Prepared / or Her Majesty's Secretary 0/ State/or the Colonies. London, 1867.
203. RUSSELL, W. H. The Flowering Wilderness; the Stor! ' 0/ the Fai::ahad Leprosr Hom e and Hospital. Lond on, 1967,88 p.
204. SACK, A. Was ist die Zaraath (lepra) der he brai sc he n Bibel? Arch . Pathol. Anat. Ph ys iol. Klin . Med. 144 ( 1896) Supp l. 20 1-223. .
205. SALETES, F. La lepre dans f'Antiquit e et au Moyen-Age. Paris, 1877 .
206. SAN MARTI N BACAI COA , I. La Lepra en la Espana del Siglo X I X. Va lencia, 1966, 164 p.
207. SASSY, J . Poklosok a muveszetben. Gyogyazat 42 ( 1902) 33 Iff.
208. SCHAM BERG, J. F. The nature of the leprosy of the Bible. Philadelphia Polyclinic 7 ( 1898) 532ff.
209. SCHERB, J. C. Disserration sistens leprosarum duarum historias. junctis epierisibus. Stuttgardiae, 1791 .
210. SCHILLI NG , G. G. De Lepra Commentationes. Leyden, 1778.
211. SCHL OTTE R, O SKAR. Die Geschichte der Lepra und Pock en in Europa. Munchen, 1966, 224 p.
2 12. SCHMITT, G. Grundlinien der Lepra/orschung in del' Deutschen Medizinischen Literautr des 19. Jahrhundert s. Berlin, 1969, 171 p.
213. SCI-lOLL , ANDREAS. TI1eses de Ratione Explorandi. et Judi candi Leprosos .... Tubingae, 1586, 28 p.
2 14. SCHorFF, PHILIPP US. Kurt zer aber d och ausz/uhrlicher Bericht von dem Aussatz. auch dessen Ursachen. Zeychen und Cura[ion. Item wie die jenige so auJl die Schau kommen. von den DD. Medicinae und Chirurgis welchen dises Werck zu verrich[en
43, 2 P. A. Kalisch: Research on Ihe Hislory of Leprosy 143
gehurt . sollen prohiert lI ·erden. aU5Z vileN herrlichen Scriptorihu.l' ge:ogen und :usam/lien gehracht . ... Straszburg. 1852, 110 p.
2 15 . SEDER II OLM. E. History of lep rosy in Sweden. Lepra 8 (1909) 34 1-36 1.
216. SHAFTER , T. A fe ll' Ohserl'{uions on the Leprosy in the Middle Ages. Exeter. 1835.
217. S IEBOLDT, J. De Efep hantias i. Altdorffi , 1662.
218. S IMPSON. J . Y. Part I. Antiquarian notices of leprosy and leper hospita ls in Sco tland a nd Engla nd : Pa rt II. T he noso logica l 'nature of the disease: Part III. The eti ologica l hi stor y of thc di sease. Edinburgh Med. S urg. J . 56 ( 1841) 301-330: 57 ( 1842) 121-156, 394-429 .
2 19 . SK INSNES, O. K. Leprosy in society: leprosy has a pp ea red on the face. Lepr. Rev. 35 ( 1964) 21-35.
220. SKINSNES, O. K. and ELVOVE, R. M. Leprosy in society: leprosy in Occid enta l literature. Int. J . Lepr. 38 (1970) 294-307.
22 1. SKI NSNES. O. K. Leprosy 111 soc iety: the pa ttern of concept a nd reaction to leprosy in Orienta l antiquity. Lepr. Rev. 35 ( 1964) 106- 122.
222. SM ITH, HENR IK. En bog 0111 pes telent zis aarsage. Iorvaring och legedom der emod, tilsammen lest a./l lerclemens brpger, aif Henrick Smidt i Malmrp . oc /'tPrst udgaait vid pre/Hen. Anno M. D. xxxv. Nu o/fverseet. Iorl/lget , oc Iorbedret anno M. D. Lvii ... , K~benhaffri , 155 7, 20 p.
223. SORANUS, OF EPHES US. Medici al1liqui omnes qui latinis lilleris di versorum morborum genera & remedia persecuti SUI1l, undique conquisiti, & uno volumine comprehensi, ut eorum qui se medicinae studio dediderunt co m m odo consulatur .. . , Venetiis, 1547, 320 p.
224. SPENESRERGER, HERMANN. Zur Geachichte des AU5satzes in Ra vensb urg, Munchen, 1952, 46 p.
225 . SUDHOFF, KARL. Dokumante wr Ausubung der Lepraschau in Frankfurt a. Main im XV. Jahrhundert. Lepra 13 (1913) 141-170.
226. S UDHOFF, KARL. Einige Dokum ente wr Geschichte der Lepraprophylaxe in Sud italien in der 2. Halfte des 13 . Jahrhunderts. Arch. Ges. Med. 8 (1914) 424-429.
227. SUDI'IOFF, KARL. Lepraschaubriefe aus dem 15 . Jahrhundert. Arch. Ges. Med . 4 (1910-II) 370-378.
228. SUDHOFF, KARL. Origina le von Lepraschaubriefen aus dem 16. und 17. Jahrhundert. Lepra 12(1911) 15-20.
229. S UDH OFF, KARL. Wurzacher Lepraschaubriefe aus den Jahren 1674-1 807. Arch. Ges. Med . 5 (1911-12) 424-434.
230. TH EODO RI C OF CERVIA. The Surgery of Theodoric, Eldridge Campbell and James
Colton. trans .. New York. 1955- 1960, 2 vols. 23 1. TOLIVAR FAES, J. Hospitales de Leprosos
en ASlUrias durant e las Edades Media ,II Moderna. Oviedo. 1966, 461 p.
232. TOLI VAR FAES. J . H ospitales de leprosos en Asturi as durante las edades media y moderna . Cuad. Hist. Med. Ex p. 5 (1966) 129-180.
233. T RENEL, M. Caraath, la lepre biblique, Le chapi tre XIII du Lev itique et Ie traite NegaiY I)1 · Pa ris Med. 73 (1930) 159, 471, 544; 80 (1931) 85, 325. 48 1; 82 (1931) 101 , 167.
234. TR EV IEN. M. Conrrihution a (, Etudes des Leproseries et de la Vie des Lepreu x en Bretagne. Rennes, 1968, 232 p.
235. TRICOT-ROYE R. Le nombre des lepreux dans I'a ncien duche de Brabant. Bull. C lasse Sci. Acad. Roy. Belg. 8 (1928) 342-349.
236. TRICOT- RoYE R. Un point d'hi stoire; quelles etaient les affections qualifees de lepreuses dans I'ancien duche de Brabant? Memoires Acad. Roy. Belg. 23 (1926-27) 65-78.
237. TRICOT- RoYE R. Les slgnes distinctifs des le pre ux en Belgique. Aesc ul a pe 19 (1929) 215-226.
238. UDDMAN, L. Lepra. Upsa liae, 1765. 239. UNNA, P. G. Ein typi scher Fall von Papier
wissenschaft. Lepra 13 ( 1912-13) 218-236. 240. VALESCO DE TARANTA. Philonium phar
maceuticum , et cheirurgicum, de medendis omnibus, cum il1lernis, tum externis humani corporis aIIectibus: a Valesco de Taranla . .. ante ex xc. annos concinnatum: nunc vero POSI Guidonis Desiderii edilionem, 10-cis infinilis emendatum, varie aUClum, nolisque il/uslratum, opera & studio Joannis Harlmanni Beyeri . .. , Francoforti, 1599, 677 p.
241. VI EIRA, J . A. De Elephantiasi, Edinburgi, 1811.
242. VIR CHOW, R UDOLF. Das Holbeinsche Aussatzbild . Arch . Patho!. Anat. Physio!. Klin. Med . 23 (1862) 194-196.
243 . VIR CHOW, R UDO LF. Zur Geschichl e des Aussalzes und der Spita ler, besonders in Deutschland, Berlin, 1861 .
244. VITALIS DE FURN O, CARDINAL. Pro conservanda sanilale, luendaque prospera valeludine, ad 10lius humani corporis morbos el aegritudines, salutarium remediorum, curalionumque fiber Uliliss. jamprimum in SIUdiosorum utililalem e lenebris erUlus, el a silu quamum licuil, vindicalus ... , Moguntiae, 1531, 271 p.
245 . VOGE LSANG, T. M. Lepro sy in Norway. Med . Hist. 9 (1965) 29-35.
246. VOGELSANG, T. M. The old leprosy hospitals in Bergen. I nt. J . Lepr. 32 (1964) 306-309.
247. VOGT, H. Dermatologie und Kunst. Die Lepra in Mitteleuropa. Ein historischer
144 International Journal of Leprosy 1975
Abriss in Bildern. H au tarzt 17 ( 1968) 423-428.
248. VOIGT, J. C. De Lepra, DispUlalio, Erla ngae, 1750.
249. VOR NER. Zur Kenntnis der Zaraath, des alttestamentlichen Aussa tzes. Dermatol. Z. 22 (1915) 470-478.
250. WELLMANN, K. F. Notizen zur Geschichte des Aussatzes im Konigreich Hawai i. Sudhoffs Arch. 52 (1968) 22 1-256.
25 1. WEYMOUTH, A. Through lhe Leper Squint , London, 1939,286 p.
252. WICHERS II EIM ER, ERNEST. Beitrage zur Geschi'chte des Aussatzes in Frankreich und in den be nac hba rt en Land e rn . Arch. Ges. Med. 5 (1911) 144-153.
253. WICKERSHEIMER , ERNEST. Les accusati ons d'empoisonnement portees pendant la premiere moitie du X IVe siec le contre les lepreux et les juifs; le ur s re lation s avec les epidem ies de peste. In: Comptes-Rendus du Quatri eme Congres Internati ona l d' H istoire de la Medecine, Tricot-Royer and LaignelLavastine, eds., Anver, 1927.
/
254. WILSO N, ERASM US. On the nature and treatment of le pr osy, a ncienl a nd mod er n, including the Jew ish leprosy, leprosy of the middle ages, leprosy of the Crusades, leprosy of the Arabians, a nd elephantiasis of the Greeks; with a desc ripti on of the form under which leprosy ex ists in Britain at the present day. Lancet I (1856) 32ff.
255. WITHOF, F. T. De Leprosoriis Velerum Heb raeorum Mele lema, Duisburgi and Rhen, 1756.
256. ZAMBACO, D. A. La lepre da ns l'a ntique Egypte. Presse Med . Egy pt 5(191 3) 57-59.
257. ZAMBACO, D. A. La lepre en Turquie. Bull . Acad. Med. 22 (1 889) 148- 164.
258. ZAMBACO, D. A. La Lepre a Travers les Siecles el les COl1lrees, Paris, 1914, 845 p.
259. ZAMBACO, D. A. Les Lepreux Ambulal1ls de Conslal1linople , Paris, 1897, 446 p.
260. ZAMBACO, D. A. Memoire sur la lepre observee a Consta ntinople. Memoires Acad. Med. 35 (1887) 1-80.
261. ZUBRICZKY, ALADAR. Histo ire de la gra nde epidemie de lepre en Europe. Materiaux pour l'Etude des Ca lamites 3 ( 1926) 233-243; 4 ( 1927) 133- 148,23 1-240.