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1
An Analysis of Transnational Pharmacy Education
in Asia-Pacific Region
Dr. Benjamin Tak-Yuen Chan
Division of Health and Applied Sciences, SPACE, University of Hong Kong
2
Transnational Education (TNE)
Important and growing phenomenon in cross-border higher education
Mobility of programmes and institutions across national borders instead of student mobility
Growth of enrolments in importing countries/regions (offshore provision) is faster than onshore international student enrolments (in the case of UK and Australia)
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Extent of TNE
For higher education (HE) sector, 33% of Australian educational exports are offshore provisions (in 2001)
Top three sites of offshore enrolment parallel source of international student enrolments
(Singapore > HKSAR > Malaysia)
UK institutions enrolled 140,000 offshore students against 200,000 international students onshore in 1996-1997
Source: AEI 2003 & OECD 2002
4
TNE in Profile
An average 56.8% of Australian HE educational exports in these 3 countries/regions are offshore provisions
Together, they account for 79% of offshore total enrolments
Countries/ regions Onshore Offshore % offshore
Singapore 21,964 13,112 59.7%
HKSAR 19,479 12,426 63.8%
Malaysia 17,972 8,211 45.7%
Source: AEI 2003
5
Challenge of TNE
New forms of delivery and partnership involved
According to IDP (2001): Delivery modes are face-to-face teaching (40%) and
supported distance education (40%)
Partnered with private institutions or providers (51%) or public education institutions (25%)
Predominantly postgraduate (56%) and in business related subjects (51%)
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Classification of TNE Provision
Type I Locally supported distance learning- Foreign curriculum, some local teaching
Type 2 Twinning programmes- Foreign curriculum, local teaching and student mobility in upper years
Type 3 Franchise arrangement- Curriculum and teaching arrangement approved by foreign institution
Type 4 Branch campus- Curriculum and teaching wholly controlled by foreign institution
emulating home context
Source: Marginson and McBurnie (2003)
7
TNE in Health Sciences
Very few TNE provisions are in the health sciences field
Business and management make up 68.2% and IT (19%) of all external bachelor degree enrolments in Singapore. 90% of external postgraduate enrolments are in business and management (Statistics Singapore Newsletter 2001)
Notable provision in health sciences field is in nursing (both top up or degree conversion and postgraduate Masters)
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TNE in Pharmacy (1)
Evolution
Started as early as 1990 with provision of locally supported distance learning MClinPharm-Otago University by HKU SPACE (Hong Kong)
Twinning programmes (2+2) model for BPharm delivery pioneered by IMU/Strathclyde U and SIT/UniSa (Malaysia)
Branch campus model for BPharm delivery by Nottingham and Monash Universities represent latest developments (Malaysia)
Franchise arrangement applies to pharmaceutical management degrees of Bradford and Sunderland Universities (HKSAR & Singapore)
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TNE in Pharmacy (2)
Enabling factors
Shortage of pharmacists
Lack of postgraduate education & training courses
Insufficient local capacity or barriers to expansion
Commonwealth sphere of influence in pharmacist training (UK, Australia, NZ)
Government support (Malaysia) or free market access (HKSAR & Singapore)
Receptive students
Foreign degree highly valued
10
TNE in Pharmacy (3)
Benefits
Augments local capacity and achieve faster supply of graduates
Introduces new curriculum ideas and catalyses change in local sector
Encourages private investment in education
Possible side-effects
Competition and oversupply in the long run
Hinders localisation efforts
Uncertain return on private investment in education (graduates with dual registration may not work in home country)
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Overseeing TNE in Pharmacy
National governments Define national capacity (HKSAR and Malaysia in opposite
poles)
National pharmaceutical associations Connect with professionalisation strategy (achieving SPD)
Institutions offering TNE in pharmacy Quality assurance, internationisation of curriculum, proper
training and support to teaching staff, ensuring competencies of graduates
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Global Pharmacist Supply Situation
Source: FIP 2006
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Pharmacist Supply Situation in the Three Countries/ Regions
Country/ Region
Pop. (mil)
No. reg. pharmacists & pharmacists to
population ratio (2005)
% foreign trained to local educated (total
& 2005)
No. required to achieve 50:100,000
ratio
Yrs to take based on
2005 level of new
pharmacists registered
Strategy pursued
Hong Kong SAR 6.9
1,583
23:100,000
82%
60% (2005)3,450 24 None
Malaysia
26.03,965
15:100,000
-
40% (2005)13,000 24
Local capacity and
TNE in pharmacy
Singapore
4.11,330
32:100,000
17%
21% (2005)2,050 17
Local capacity
Source: P & P Board of HK, Pharmacy Board of Malaysia, Singapore Pharmacy Board
14
Global Pharmacists Employment Fields
Source: FIP 2006
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Western Pacific Pharmacists Employment Fields
Source: FIP 2006
16
Challenge for Curriculum Decision-makers in TNE To understand local context, priorities, needs and
constraints To adapt home curriculum with infusion of local
elements To orient home staff to foreign teaching environment;
identify and train local staff up to common expectation To involve local stakeholders in curriculum planning To uphold academic values over entrepreneurial
concerns of private provider
17
Curriculum Influence in Pharmacy in the Western Pacific Region
International FIP statement of policy/professional standards (Good Pharmacy
Education Practice, Pharmaceutical Care, GPP Guidelines, Code of Ethics)
US 6 year DPharm (Japan, South Korea); Postgraduate pharmacy residency training and pharmacy specialists
accreditation (Taiwan, Singapore, Thailand)British and Australia 3/4 year undergraduate education + 2 year postgraduate education
(clinical pharmacy) (NZ, HK, Malaysia, Singapore)Autochthonous Colonial heritage, but largely independent development (Philippines,
India)
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Practicalities of Curriculum
Implementation for TNE in Pharmacy Science-based and Clinical practice contents are fairly
standard as defined by universal consensus (FIP) Pharmaceutical legislations and introduction to health
system require localization Behavioral sciences and health promotion need to account
for varying beliefs about health and illness and patterns of medicines usage
Social and administrative pharmacy increasingly important as a subject (SPD, NDP, RUD, regional pharmaceutical public health issues identified by WPPF)
How to provide for multidisciplinary learning and practice placement?
19
Benefits of TNE for Exporter Country Encourage study abroad for exporter countries with low rates
of domestic student mobility (e.g. Australia’s foreign students: domestic students abroad ratio is 19.74)
Enhance staff development in international education
Foster international awareness of students through curriculum and extra-curricular activities
Move beyond mono-culturalism, deepen cultural capacities and engage with emerging nations & cultures in the region
Source: Marginson and McBurnie (2003)
20
Strategy for Curriculum Internationalization Need not involve large-scale re-casting of the curriculum of a
course
Builds on what is already in it (Levels 1 & 2 of the typology) and utilises institutional off-campus arrangements (Level 3)
Involves changing and transforming students’ perspectives from a mono-cultural view to reflection and acquisition of international literacy
Ideally complemented by providing students with skills and knowledge to perform competently in international environment
21
Edwards’ Typology of Curriculum Internationalisation
Source: Edwards et al. (2003) Higher Educ Res Dev 22(2) 183-192
22
Success of TNE in Pharmacy
When educators have done their lot, it will be incumbent on:
Governments of importing country/region
To articulate a clear vision of pharmacy development in order to reap public benefits of private investment in education (prevent brain drain)
National pharmaceutical association
To help shape TNE policy To assist graduates/ returnees in integrating into the local pharmacist
corporate To combat segregation and inequality of opportunities for TNE graduates
vis-à-vis local graduates
23
Thank you!