Analyzing Organizations: Analyzing Organizations: Developing Cognitive ComplexityDeveloping Cognitive Complexity

MPA 8002

Organization Theory

Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Characteristics of organizations...Characteristics of organizations...

Because human interactions are fluid, changing, and in a constant state of flux depending on personalities and circumstances...

…one can never be quite sure exactly how other people are going to respond in an interaction

what one might predict will be a logical outcome...

...is frequently just not the case

one can never be absolutely sure that what someone says...

...is the whole truth and nothing but the whole truth

as one looks about the organization, what one sees...

...is not able to be identified and classified easily

Characteristics of organizations...Characteristics of organizations...

In contrast to one’s expectations of order and clarity, organizations are characterized by:

surprise deception ambiguity (Bolman & Deal, 2008)

complexity

Most sources of this chaos and Most sources of this chaos and confusion can be attributed to...confusion can be attributed to...

a fundamental lack of clarity:

what the issue is what really is happening what we want to accomplish the way we will accomplish it how we will assess and evaluate success or failure

Another source of this confusion Another source of this confusion and chaos can be attributed to...and chaos can be attributed to...

limitations in the organization:

scarce resources

ill-defined responsibilities

basic incompetence

This lack of clarity and This lack of clarity and organizational limitations...organizational limitations...

renders individuals and groups:

unclear about what the facts are

what their roles and responsibilities are

whether and how they will be held accountable

Consequently, people spend their Consequently, people spend their energies dealing with...energies dealing with...

fearsdoubtsworries

The origins of these irrational thoughts and paranoia oftentimes originate in rumors, distorted half-truths or, worse yet, lies and deceit...

But, this dynamic only increases But, this dynamic only increases wonderment about...wonderment about...

various schemes and scenarios

And, as Weick (1977) notes, people then start to enact this perceived reality...

imagined alternatives and probabilities

grand conspiracies

For the organizations and its For the organizations and its members, this dynamic increases...members, this dynamic increases...

confusion

uncertainty

anxiety

paranoia

And further increases the And further increases the probability of generating...probability of generating...

messes

mistakes

chaos

failure

In light of these factors, it is In light of these factors, it is much easier to...much easier to...

fault other people

blame the bureaucracy

complain about one’s powerlessness

become an organizational “drone”

...than it is for people to......than it is for people to...

take responsibilitydevelop resolutions

overcome obstacles

lead others to a preferred future

In plain language, to engage in “self-change,” the precursor to managing and leading others...

Organizations are characterized Organizations are characterized by...by...

complexityReflective practice (Sergiovanni, 1986) reminds managers and leaders that the fundamental issue is:

ambiguity

surprise

deception The mindscapes and action platforms of managers and leaders—as well as most people in organizations— direct them to believe that organizations should be characterized by precision and order.

The cognitive dissonance implicit in this The cognitive dissonance implicit in this organizational reality provides a focus for the organizational reality provides a focus for the self-change needed to...self-change needed to...

avoid self-deception, blame-finding, and self-protective behaviors

overcome the impediments to organizational improvement

enact self-correcting behaviors

The concept...The concept...

cognitive complexity:

...the refined intellectual ability to utilize a variety of theories of practice to examine practice episodes

the intellectual ability of a manager or leader to envision the organization from multiple and competing perspectives so as to develop a depth of organizational understanding that is at least equal to the factors impacting its functioning

cognitive complexity enables managers and leaders to examine organizational phenomena from diverse perspectives, each of which “complicates” how managers and leaders understand “what is.”

a tool that managers and leaders can use in reflective practice to expand their understanding of what is transpiring in practice episodes

cognitive complexity: unitary cognition:

Contrasting cognitive complexity Contrasting cognitive complexity and unitary cognition...and unitary cognition...

focuses on alternatives

addresses fundamental issues while dealing with recurring problems

is proactive

facilitates ethical decision making

focuses on the long term and resolutions

looks for quick answers

addresses recurring problems

is reactive

focuses on the short term and solutions that work

seeks easy answers to complex issues

cognitive complexity: unitary cognition:

Metaphorically speaking...Metaphorically speaking...

enables managers and leaders, like physicians, to “heal the disease”

enables managers and leaders, like a fire chief, to focus on “fire prevention”

provides band-aids for managers to “ameliorate the symptoms” of the disease

focuses managers and leaders on “putting out the fires”

Contrasting cognitive complexity Contrasting cognitive complexity and unitary cognition...and unitary cognition...

to know what one sees

to envision alternatives

to create the best possible pathway through the messes and chaos

to exercise authority

see what one knows

dictate a solution

impose the solution

use power

cognitive complexity enables managers and leaders:

unitary cognition makes managers and leaders:

The critical question for The critical question for managers and leaders...managers and leaders...

“practice episodes” can obfuscate

How is one to know if what one sees is really there?

Reflective practice reminds

managers and leaders

that:

subjective “antecedents” can obscure

“theories of practice” can foreclose objectivity

Integrating reflective practice and Integrating reflective practice and cognitive complexity...cognitive complexity...

Reflective practice and cognitive complexity require intellectual exercise and discipline

Cognitive complexity utilizes a wide variety of theories of practice to support reflective practice

Reflective practice focuses upon practice episodes to ascertain how one’s beliefs and assumptions as well as one’s background and experiences impact organizational functioning

Cognitive complexity and Cognitive complexity and organizational analysis...organizational analysis...

Recall Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four-frame model identifying common theories of practice:

the structural frame

the human resources frame

the political frame

the symbolic frame

Analyzing organizations through four frames inculcates in managers and leaders the cognitive complexity they need in order to diagnose the fundamental issues underlying the many pesky problems emerging in organizations.

Organizational analysis:Organizational analysis:Bolman & Deal’s four-frame model…Bolman & Deal’s four-frame model…

the structural frame

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

Managerialand

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Factory Machine

Rules Roles Goals Policies Technology Environment

Socialarchitect

ChiefExecutiveOfficer

President

Attunestructure totask,technology,environment

Align people,process, andtechnology

the human resources frame

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

ManagerialAnd

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Family Tribe Clan

Relationships Self-Interest Needs Feelings Skills

Empowerment Liberation Fulfillment Self-

Actualization

Attuneorganizationaland humanneeds

the political frame

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

ManagerialAnd

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Jungle Self-Interest Power Conflicts Competition Politics Intrigue

Advocate Referee Mediator

Developagenda

Formcoalitions andbuild powerbase

Acquire goodintelligence

Dispenseinformationwisely

the symbolic frame

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

ManagerialAnd

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Carnival Cathedral or

Temple Opera and

Theatre

Culture Meaning Metaphor Ritual Ceremony Stories Heroes and

heroines Common

good

High priestsand priestesses

Tribal Chieftans Clan Chieftans

Inspire Create faith Define beauty Identify

meaning

the symbolic frame

the political frame

the human resources frame

the structural frame…objective

Cognitive complexity:Cognitive complexity:contributions of the four frames...contributions of the four frames...

…personal

…personal

…realistic

…logical

…practical

…practical

…meaningful

the symbolic frame

the political frame

the human resources frame

the structural frame

…impersonal

Cognitive complexity:Cognitive complexity:limitations of the four frames...limitations of the four frames...

…impractical

… naïve

…impersonal

…overly simplistic…pessimistic

…optimistic

…cynical

…overly complex

how managers and leaders think using unitary frames:

how managers and leaders think using cognitive complexity:

Looking at the clutter and confusion...Looking at the clutter and confusion...

value certainty

assume rationality

fear ambiguity, paradox, and “going with the flow”

emphasize control

develop creativity take risks approach matters

playfully focus on right

questions engender faith

how managers and leaders think using unitary frames:

how managers and leaders think using cognitive complexity:

As problems inevitably arise...As problems inevitably arise...

limited view of organizational functioning

look for short-term solutions

reduce issues to problems

utilize a holistic framework

inquire into fundamental issues

consider long-term resolutions

how managers and leaders think using unitary frames:

how managers and leaders think using cognitive complexity:

When confronting problems...When confronting problems...

choose rational solutions

emphasize facts, logic, restructuring

strive for objectivity

a palette of options

inquire into fundamental issues

bargain, train, celebrate, re-engineer

who think using unitary frames:

who think using cognitive complexity:

What people see in managers and What people see in managers and leaders...leaders...

always looking for the “one best way”

stunned by resistance

reacting to events

unwavering in upholding principles

flexible when applying principles

understanding of other points of view

demanding the “one right answer”

blaming others for turmoil

responsive

This module has focused on...This module has focused on...

...the refined intellectual ability to utilize a variety of theories of practice to examine practice episodes

cognitive complexity

References...References...

Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Bolman, L., & Deal, T. (2008). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Schön, D. A. (1991). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Sergiovanni, T. J. (1986). Understanding reflective practice. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 1(4), 353-359.

Weick, K. E. (1977). Enactment processes in organizations. In B. M. Staw & G. R. Salancik (Eds.), New directions in organizational behavior (pp. 267‑300). Chicago, IL: St. Clair Press.