Anatomy Basic Structures

8/18/2019 Anatomy Basic Structures

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Joint

A joint is the location at which two ormore bones make contact.[1] They are

constructed to allow movement (except

or skull bones! and provide mechanicalsupport" and are classi#ed structurally

and unctionally

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone


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$lassi#cation

• Joints are mainly classi#ed structurally andunctionally. %tructural classi#cation isdetermined by how the bones connect to

each other" while unctional classi#cation isdetermined by the de&ree o movementbetween the articulatin& bones. 'n practice"there is si&ni#cant overlap between the two

types o classi#cations.• Terms endin& in the sux )sis are sin&ular

and reer to *ust one *oint" while )ses is thesux or plurali+ation.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffix


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Structural classifcation

• %tructural classi#cation names and divides *ointsaccordin& to how the bones are connected to eachother.[,] There are three structural classi#cations o

*oints-

• #brous *oint ) *oined by dense irre&ular connectivetissue that is rich in colla&en #bers []

• cartila&inous *oint ) *oined by cartila&e

• synovial *oint ) not directly *oined ) the bones have a

synovial cavity and are united by the dense irre&ularconnective tissue that orms the articular capsulethat is normally associated with accessoryli&aments.[]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrous_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartilaginous_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartilagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synovial_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synovial_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartilagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartilaginous_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrous_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint


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Biomechanical classifcation

• Joints can also be classi#ed based on theiranatomy or on their biomechanical properties.Accordin& to the anatomic classi#cation" *oints

are subdivided into simple and compound"dependin& on the number o bones involved" andinto complex and combination *oints-[3]

• %imple Joint- 4 articulation suraces (e.&.

shoulder *oint" hip *oint!• $ompound Joint- , or more articulation suraces

(e.&. radiocarpal *oint!

• $omplex Joint- 4 or more articulation suraces andan articular disc or meniscus (e.&. knee *oint!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarpal_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarpal_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articular_dischttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articular_dischttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meniscus_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kneehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kneehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meniscus_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articular_dischttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articular_dischttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarpal_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarpal_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint


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Joint stability

• The capacity o a *oint to return to it:s 0normal0position" remainin& consistent and steady. Joints remainstable due to the restin& tension o the deep (shunt!muscles that act to hold one bone a&ainst the next. As

each *oint has speci#c motions that it is desi&ned to do"these deep shunt muscles are also important in &uidin&the *oint throu&h the proper ran&es o motion. ;necommon example o a *oint stability issue occurs in a

whiplash in*ury. The hi&h de&ree o orce imparted onthe neck can dama&e these deep muscles and prohibitthem rom doin& their *ob. As a result o their ailure"the neck *oints become unstable allowin& the *oints tomove in an unnatural way potentially causin& urtherdiscomort.


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Joint disorders

• A *oint disorder is termed an arthropathy" and when involvin& inerentcause. The most common orm o arthritis"osteoarthritis (also known asde&enerative *oint disease! occurs ollowin& trauma to the *oint" ollowin&an inection o the *oint or simply as a result o a&in&. ?urthermore" there isemer&in& evidence that abnormal anatomy may contribute to earlydevelopment o osteoarthritis. ;ther orms o arthritis arerheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis" which are autoimmune diseases in which the body is attackin& itsel. %eptic arthritis is caused by *ointinection. @outy arthritis is caused by deposition o uric acid crystals in the

*oint that results in subseuent in


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erve supply o *oints

• The sources o nerve #bres to a *oint conorm well to8iltonBs lawCthe nerves to the muscles actin& on a

*oint &ive branches to that *oint as well as to theskin over the area o action o these muscles. Thus"

the knee *oint is supplied by branches rom theemoral" sciatic" and obturator nerves" which amon&them supply the various muscles movin& the *oint.%ome o these nerves &o to the #brous capsule andli&amentsD others innervate this capsule and reachthe synovial membrane. %ome o these nerves aresensoryD others &ive both motor and sensory #bresto the arteries that accompany them.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/320231/kneehttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/320231/knee


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Articular blood and lymph vessels

• The *oints are surrounded by a rich network o arteries and veins.

The arteries in the vicinity o a synovial *oint &ive o> subdivisionsthat *oin (anastomose! reely on its outer surace. ?rom thenetwork o vessels so ormed" branches lead to the #brous capsuleand li&aments and to the synovial membrane. Elood vessels tothe synovial membrane are accompanied by nerves" and" when

these vessels reach the subsynovial membrane" they prolierate toorm another anastomotic network rom which capillaries &o to allparts o the membrane. These subsynovial arteries also ramiy tothe atty pads and the nonarticulatin& parts o the articularcartila&e" disks" and menisci. one" however" &o to the

articulatin& part o an articular cartila&e" which thereore dependsupon the synovial


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li&aments


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• 'n anatomy" a ligament is the#brous tissue that connects bones toother bones and is also known

as articular ligament " articular larua"[1] fbrous ligament " or true ligament .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy


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• Ligament can also reer to-

• Peritoneal ligament - a old operitoneum or other membranes.

• Fetal remnant ligament - theremnants o a tubular structure romthe etal period o lie.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritoneumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritoneum


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• The study o li&aments is known asdesmolo&y (rom @reek FGHIK" desmos" 0bond0D and )

LMNOP" -logia!• Qi&aments are similar to tendons

and asciae as they are all made o

colla&en except that li&aments *oinone bone to another bone" tendons

*oin muscle to bone and asciae

connect muscles to other muscles.

http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/desmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-logyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-logyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/desmology


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Articular li&aments

• 0Qi&ament0 most commonly reers toa band o tou&h" #brous densere&ular connective tissue comprisin&

attenuated colla&enous #bers.Qi&aments connect bones to otherbones to orm a *oint. They do not

connect muscles to bonesD that is the *ob o tendons. %ome li&aments limitthe mobility o articulations" or

prevent certain movements

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collagenoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collagenoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissue


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• $apsular li&aments are part o thearticular capsule that surroundssynovial *oints. They act as

mechanical reinorcements. 5xtra)capsular li&aments *oin to&ether andprovide *oint stability. 'ntra)capsular

li&aments" which are much lesscommon" also provide stability butpermit a ar lar&er ran&e o motion.

$ruciate li&aments occur in pairs.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synovial_jointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruciate_ligamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruciate_ligamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruciate_ligamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruciate_ligamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synovial_joint


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• The term 0double)*ointed0 reers topeople with more)elastic li&aments"allowin& their *oints to stretch and

contort urther. %uch as a &ymnast. The medical term or describin& suchdouble)*ointed persons is hyperlaxity.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlaxityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlaxity


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• The conseuence o a broken li&ament can beinstability o the *oint. ot all brokenli&aments need sur&ery" but" i sur&ery is

needed to stabilise the *oint" the brokenli&ament can be repaired.%car tissue mayprevent this. ' it is not possible to #x thebroken li&ament" other procedures such as

the Erunelli procedure can correct theinstability. 'nstability o a *oint can over timelead to wear o the cartila&e and eventuallyto osteoarthritis.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granulation_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granulation_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunelli_procedurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunelli_procedurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoarthritishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoarthritishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunelli_procedurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunelli_procedurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granulation_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granulation_tissue


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ERS%A5

• 1 a #brous sac between certain tendonsand the bones beneath them. Qined witha synovial membrane that secretes

synovial


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%;7'AQ %85AT

• The membrane linin& the cavity obone throu&h which a tendon moves.

• The American 8erita&eU /edicalVictionary

• synovial sheathany one o themembranous sacs enclosin& a

tendon o a muscle and acilitatin&the &lidin& o a tendon throu&h a#brous or a bony tunnel" such as that

under the


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blood vessels

• The blood vessels are the part o thecirculatory system that transports blood throu&hout the body. There are three

ma*or types o blood vessels- the arteries"which carry the blood away rom theheartD the capillaries" which enable theactual exchan&e o water and chemicals

between the blood and the tissuesD andthe veins" which carry blood rom thecapillaries back toward the heart.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_system


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•

The arteries and veins have di>erent structures" veins havin&two layers and arteries havin& three-

• Tunica intima (the thinnest layer!- a sin&le layer o simplesuamous endothelial cells &lued by a polysaccharide intercellular matrix" surrounded by a thin layer osubendothelial connective tissue interlaced with a number ocircularly arran&ed elastic bands called theinternal elastic lamina.

• Tunica media (the thickest layer!- circularly arran&ed elastic#ber" connective tissue" polysaccharide substances" thesecond and third layer are separated by another thick elastic

band called external elastic lamina. The tunica media may(especially in arteries! be rich in vascular smooth muscle"which controls the caliber o the vessel.

• Tunica adventitia- entirely made o connective tissue. 't alsocontains nerves that supply the vessel as well as nutrient

capillaries (vasa vasorum! in the lar&er blood vessels.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunica_intimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunica_intimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotheliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_elastic_laminahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunica_mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_smooth_musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunica_adventitiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasa_vasorumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasa_vasorumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasa_vasorumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasa_vasorumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasa_vasorumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunica_adventitiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_smooth_musclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunica_mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_elastic_laminahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotheliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunica_intimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunica_intima


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• $apillaries consist o little more thana layer o endothelium andoccasional connective tissue.

• 6hen blood vessels connect to orma re&ion o di>use vascular supply itis called an anastomosis (pl.

anastomoses!. Anastomoses providecritical alternative routes or blood to


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Types

•

There are various kinds o blood vessels-• Arteries

– Aorta (the lar&est artery" carries blood out o theheart!

– Eranches o the aorta" such as the carotid artery"the subclavian artery" the celiac trunk" themesenteric arteries" the renal artery and theiliac artery.

• Arterioles• $apillaries (the smallest blood vessels!

• 7enules

• 7eins

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotid_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subclavian_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subclavian_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celiac_trunkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesenteric_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliac_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arteriolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arteriolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliac_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesenteric_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celiac_trunkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subclavian_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subclavian_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotid_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artery


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Qymphatic system

• The lymphatic system parallels thecardiovascular system . Thelymphatic system is uniue" in that it

is a 1)way system that returns lymph


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• The lymphatic system consists o theollowin&-

• ?luid" known as lymph

• 7essels that transport lymph

• ;r&ans that contain lymphoid tissue(e&" lymph nodes" spleen" andthymus!


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The lymphatic systemBs mainunctions are as ollows-

• Sestoration o excess interstitial


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The nervous system

• The nervous system is anor&an system containin& a network o speciali+ed cells called neurons

that coordinate the actions o ahuman and transmit si&nals betweendi>erent parts o its body.

• the nervous system consists o twoparts" central and peripheral.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_system


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• The central nervous system contains the brain

" spinal cord" and retina. Theperipheral nervous system consists o sensoryneurons" clusters o neurons called &an&lia"and nerves connectin& them to each other and

to the central nervous system. These re&ionsare all interconnected by means o complexneural pathways. The enteric nervous system"a subsystem o the peripheral nervous system"

has the capacity" even when severed rom therest o the nervous system throu&h its primaryconnection by the va&us nerve" to unctionindependently in controllin& the

&astrointestinal system.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganglionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteric_nervous_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagus_nervehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagus_nervehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagus_nervehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagus_nervehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteric_nervous_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganglionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system


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• $entral neurons" which in vertebrates&reatly outnumber the other types" make allo their input and output connections with

other neurons. The interactions o all thesetypes o neurons orm neural circuits that&enerate an or&anism:s perception o theworld and determine its behavior. Alon& with

neurons" the nervous system contains otherspeciali+ed cells called &lial cells (or simply&lia!" which provide structural and metabolicsupport.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glial_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glial_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glial_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glial_cell


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autonomic nervous system

• The autonomic nervous system (A%! is avery complex" multiaceted neural networkthat maintains internal physiolo&ic

homeostasis. This network includescardiovascular" thermore&ulatory"&astrointestinal (@'!" &enitourinary (@R!"and ophthalmolo&ic (pupillary! systems .

@iven the complex nature o this system" astepwise approach to autonomic disordersis reuired or proper understandin&.


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"ross Anatomy

• #entral integration

• The central autonomic network is a complexnetwork in the central nervous system ($%!that inte&rates and re&ulates autonomicunction. The network involves the cerebralcortex (the insular and medial prerontalre&ions!" amy&dala" stria terminalis"hypothalamus" and brainstem centers(periaueductal &ray" parabrachial pons"nucleus o the tractus solitarius" andintermediate reticular +one o the medulla!.


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A$erent path%ays

• The a>erent pathways havereceptors residin& in the viscera andare sensitive to mechanical"

chemical" or thermal stimuli. Theyconduct alon& somatic andautonomic nerves and enter the

spinal cord throu&h the dorsal rootsor the brainstem throu&h cranialnerves. 'mpulses initiate local"

se&mental" or rostral re


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&$erent path%ays

• The autonomic nervous system (A%!consists o the sympathetic andparasympathetic nervous system. Thesympathetic nervous system (%%!descends to the intermediolateral andintermediomedial cells in the thoracolumbarre&ions o the spine" extendin& rom T' to Q4.

Wre&an&lionic axons exitin& the spinal cordenter the white rami communicantes to *oina network o prevertebral and paravertebral&an&lia.


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% b


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%erous membrane

• 'n anatomy" serous membrane (or serosa! is a

smooth membrane consistin& o a thin layer o cells"which secrete serous


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bones

• Anatomists talk about both bone and bones. Theormer is a type o connective tissue made up ocells suspended in a matrix- the colla&enousmatrix in bone *ust happens to be heavily

impre&nated with minerals. ou will learn aboutbone cells elsewhere" but here is a picture o acast o one" *ust to prove they exist . Thisosteocyte has characteristic lon& processes which

run throu&h the bone puttin& it in touch both withother cells and with blood vessels and nerves.Eones are discrete or&ans made up o bonetissue" plus a ew other thin&s.


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• The main misconception about bones then"is that they are made up o dead tissue.

This is not true" they have cells" nerves"

blood vessels and pain receptors. Eoneconstituents" or&anic and inor&anic matrixand cells all turn over at a airly rapid rate.' we treat a bone with various solvents we

can remove the inor&anic matrix and leavethe


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• The true structure o bone lies somewhere

between these ima&es. 'n tensile stren&th boneis rather like cast iron" althou&h around 1X, o thewei&ht" in bendin& stress it behaves like steel"althou&h only hal as stron& and in compression

it can withstand the orces exerted by a runnin&man (euivalent to a dead wei&ht o 43Yk&!.5ven in standin& the compressive orce on thehip *oint" which you mi&ht expect to be hal thebodywei&ht on each side" is multiplied by a actoro around six by muscular pull" since we are notin euilibrium when standin&


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'etermination o shape

• The shape and structure o bones is &overned by manyactors" &enetic" metabolic and mechanical. @eneticdetermination o primary shape can be demonstratedby or&an culture o bone rudiments" which

subseuently &row into reco&nisable bones" i.e.rou&hly the #nished shape in all ma*or respects. ?inetunin& is by muscular action. The muscles are active inutero" althou&h it is dicult to isolate their e>ect atthis sta&e. Ater birth" however" and up to adolescence

there is a correlation between activity and &rowth. thisis seen in reverse i we look at people who arebedridden" or who have paralyses (such aspoliomyelitis!


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• /etabolic actors are also important-calcium" phosphorous" vitamins A"$ and Vand the secretions o the pituitary" thyroid"parathyroid adrenals and &onads are allinvolved. Vwarves and &iants are controlledby aberrant hormones" but there is muchvariation in normal hei&ht. Absence o

adeuate supplies o vitamin V may lead torickets" and absence o calcium in the diet toweek bone liable to racture.


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• ,)Wrotective\ This is oten uoted in books- in act

protection a&ainst outside orces is rarely needed" andi it is we usually wear a cyclin& helmet" or a crash hat"or a hard hat. ;r sit in a very stron& structure like aormula 1 carbon #bre tub or a 7olvo. %o the bonecan:t be that &ood. 'n practice these are exceeded by

the almost continuous lar&e orces exerted by our ownmuscles. Sespiratory movements need ribs. ' a thi&hbone or a humerus ractures the pull exerted by themuscles" even thou&h not in active use" will be enou&hto overlap or otherwise displace the broken ends and

we need considerable orce" traction" to reduce theracture i.e. to un)overlap the bits so that they can belined up. The orce exerted by the masticatory musclesis sucient to support the bodywei&ht.


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• )As a marrow holder. This issecondary to production o maximumstren&th or minimum wei&ht- thecavities produced in unstressed

areas (like the holes in the tubes o abicycle rame! are used or marrow"or in some places (mastoid! *ust or

air stora&e. ;ccurrence o bone intwo main orms" compact andcancellous. Eoth can be seen in our

old lady:s vertebra.


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#lassifcation o bones

• The skeleton is made up o manybones which chan&e in proportionbetween man and his close relatives

but are easily reco&nisable. Theeasiest way to classiy bones is byshape.


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Long bones

• Typical o limbs" and a &ood place to start. They consist o a central" usually hollow"tubular re&ion" the diaphysis linked tospecialised ends (epiphysis! by a *unctional

re&ion (metaphysis!. Qook at the shat #rst. Tubular" a bit like a bicycle rame tube.@alileo was the #rst to write sensibly aboutthis" notin& that a hollow tube was stron&er"

wei&ht or wei&ht than a solid rod" and thatthe dimensions had to be related to bodywei&ht rather than area-


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Short bones

• %hort bones are ound in the wristand ankle" carpals and tarsalsrespectively. They have no shat" as

they do not increase dramatically insi+e in one dimension durin& &rowth"and tend to be cuboidal in shape.

They are rather like a /alteser inconstruction" with cancellous bone inthe centre and a hard outer shell ocompact bone.


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Flat bones

• ?lat bones like those o the craniumor the scapula are sandwiches ospon&y bone between two layers o

compact bone. They are usuallycurved" so we can reer to an innerand outer table with diploe between

them. These diploe" especially in theskull" may become pneumatised" i.e.#lled with air. A rin& o acial sinusesaround the nose may become


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(rregular bones

• Any bones which don:t #t thesearbitrary cate&ories (bones o theace" vertebrae! are reerred to as

irre&ular.


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Sesamoid

• %esamoid bones are interestin&because they occur in tendon"especially where a tendon turns a

corner" and is thus exposed toriction. 6e shall come across thesea&ain when we talk about muscles.


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adult human skeleton

• consists o 4Y2 bones. 'ndividualsmay have more or ewer bones thanthis owin& to anatomical variations.

The most common variations includeadditional (i.e. supernumerary!cervical ribs or lumbar vertebra.

%esamoid bone number can also varybetween individuals.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adulthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_ribhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbar_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbar_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_ribhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult


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Facial bones (14)

• mandible

• maxilla (4!

• palatine bone (4!

• +y&omatic bone (4!

• nasal bone (4!

• lacrimal bone (4!

• inerior nasal conchae (4!

• vomer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mandiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxillahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatine_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygomatic_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygomatic_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacrimal_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacrimal_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_nasal_conchaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_nasal_conchaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_nasal_conchaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_nasal_conchaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacrimal_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacrimal_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygomatic_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygomatic_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatine_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxillahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mandible


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iddl ( )

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_earhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_ear


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In te middle ears (")#

• malleus (4!

• incus (4!

• stapes (4!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_earhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stapeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stapeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_ear


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I t t ($%)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_thoraxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_thorax


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In te torax ($%)-

• sternum or breastbone" comprisin&the body o sternum (&ladiolus!"manubrium" and xiphoid process (1!

• ribs (4 x 14!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_thoraxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sternumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_sternumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manubriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiphoid_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiphoid_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rib_cagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rib_cagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiphoid_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiphoid_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manubriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_sternumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sternumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_thorax


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In te vertebral column

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_columnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_column


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In te vertebral column ($4)-

• cervical vertebrae (3!• thoracic vertebrae (14!

• lumbar vertebrae (=!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_columnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoracic_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbar_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbar_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoracic_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_vertebraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_column


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In te arms ($)-

8umerus (4!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humerushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humerushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm


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In te &orearms (4)-

radius (4!

ulna (4!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forearmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radius_(bone)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulnahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulnahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radius_(bone)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forearm


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In te ands excluding sesamoid

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_boneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_boneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand


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g

bones (%4)-•

$arpal (wrist! bones- – scaphoid bone (4!

– lunate bone (4!

– triuetrum bone (4!

– pisiorm bone (4!

– trape+ium (4! – trape+oid bone (4!

– capitate bone (4!

– hamate bone (4!

• /etacarpus (palm! bones- – metacarpal bones (= ^ 4!

• Vi&its o the hands (#n&er bones or phalan&es!- – proximal phalan&es (= ^ 4!

– intermediate phalan&es ( ^ 4!

– distal phalan&es (= ^ 4!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_boneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_boneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaphoid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaphoid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triquetralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triquetralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisiform_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisiform_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezium_(bone)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezoid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacarpushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacarpal_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximal_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distal_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distal_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximal_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacarpal_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacarpushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezoid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezium_(bone)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisiform_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisiform_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triquetralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triquetralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunate_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaphoid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaphoid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_boneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_boneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand


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In te pelvis (4)#

sacrum [1]

coccyx or tailbone [1]

os coxae or hipbone" comprisin& theused ilium" ischium" and pubis (4!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_pelvishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccyxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_coxaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_coxaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilium_(bone)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubis_(bone)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubis_(bone)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilium_(bone)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_coxaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_coxaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_coxaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccyxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_pelvis


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In te tigs ($)-

?emur(4!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thighhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thigh


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In te legs (")-

patella (4!

tibia (4!

#bula (4!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_leghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patellahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patellahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_leg


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In te &eet excluding sesamoid

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_boneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_bones


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bones (%$)-

• Tarsal (ankle! bones- – calcaneus or heel bone (4!

– talus (4!

– navicular bone (4!

–

medial cuneiorm bone (4! – intermediate cuneiorm bone (4!

– lateral cuneiorm bone (4!

– cuboid bone (4!

• /etatarsus bones- – metatarsal bone (= ^ 4!

• Vi&its o the eet (toe bones or phalan&es!- – proximal phalan&es (= ^ 4!

– intermediate phalan&es ( ^ 4!

– distal phalan&es (= ^ 4!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_boneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcaneushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talus_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navicular_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navicular_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuboid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuboid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metatarsushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metatarsalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximal_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distal_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distal_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximal_phalangeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metatarsalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metatarsushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuboid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuboid_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_(anatomy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navicular_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navicular_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talus_bonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcaneushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesamoid_bones


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$ells that constitute the bone


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marrow stroma are-

• #broblasts (reticular connective tissue!• macropha&es

• adipocytes

• osteoblasts

• osteoclasts

• endothelial cells" which orm the sinusoids. Thesederive rom endothelial stem cells" which are alsopresent in the bone marrow.[,]

• /acropha&es contribute especially tored blood cell production" as they deliver iron orhemo&lobin production.

cartila&e

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibroblastshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticular_connective_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipocyteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoblastshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoclastshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endothelial_cellshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusoid_blood_vesselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endothelial_stem_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_marrowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoglobinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoglobinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_marrowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endothelial_stem_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusoid_blood_vesselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endothelial_cellshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoclastshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoblastshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipocyteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticular_connective_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibroblasts


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cartila&e

• $artila&e is a type o connective tissuecomposed o special cells known aschondrocytes alon& with colla&en or

yellow elastic #bers. The #bers and thecells are embedded in a #rm &el likematrix rich in mucopolysaccharides.

$artila&e is not as hard and ri&id asbone. 't is much more


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• There are three types o cartila&eD• 8yaline cartila&e

• ?ibrous cartila&e

• 5lastic cartila&e

+yaline cartilage*


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• This type o cartila&e has very thin#bers havin& same reractive indexas the matrix o the cartila&e and

thus these #bers are not seen.8yaline cartila&e is the articularcartila&e o lon& bones" sternum" ribs

etc. 'ts color is bluish white and it is


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• This type o cartila&e has numerouswhite #bers. 't is present in thesymphysis pubis" and

sternoclavicular *oint etc. 'ts color is&listenin& white and the appearanceis opaue.

&lastic cartilage*


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• This type o cartila&e has numerousyellow elastic #bers. 't is present in theear pinna" external auditory meatus"

5ustachian tubes" and epi&lottis etc.'ts color is yellowish and theappearance is opaue.


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Sadio&raphic anatomy


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Sadio&raphic anatomy


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Date post:	07-Jul-2018
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Anatomy Basic Structures

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