МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ПУТЕЙ СООБЩЕНИЯ (МИИТ)
Кафедра лингвистики
Л.А.ЛАШИНА
Ancient culture of Greece and Rome.
Part II. Arts.
Методические указания.
МОСКВА -2 0 0 6
№240.103-14155
Ancient culture o f Gree ce and Rorne|'06Part 11
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I IH I I I I I I I I I I ЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ_______________ 11У1ЕИ и л л и ц ь ш ш (МИИТ)____________
Кафедра «Лингвистика»
Л.А. Лашина
Ancient culture of Greece and Rome.
Part II. Arts.
Рекомендовано редакционно-издательским советом университета в качестве методических указаний для
студентов специальности
«Перевод и переводоведение»
Москва - 2006
УДК 49Л 32
Лашина Л.А. Ancient culture of Greece and Rome. Part II.
Arts., Методические указания, часть II. - M.: МИИТ, 2006. - 56 с.Методические указания предназначены для студентов высших учебных
заведений для лингвистических специальностей, в том числе для специальности «Перевод и переводоведение».
Работа содержит ряд тематических адаптированных текстов современных английских и американских антиковедов и культурологов. В первой части дан краткий исторический очерк Древней Греции и Древнего Рима, а также статьи, посвященные мифологии, истории литературы и образования этих стран.
Вторая часть включает в себя статьи о древнегреческом и древнеримском театре, об архитектуре, скульптуре и живописи античности. Работа сопровождается кратким фонетическим словарем (RP) имен собственных по данной тематике, а также снабжена наиболее характерным для этого периода иллюстративным материалом.
© Московский государственный университет
путей сообщения (МИИТ), 2006
Contents:
Introduction...............................................................................4
1. Theatre in Greece................................................................. 5
Roman theatre........................................................................8
2. Architecture........................... 10
3. Sculpture...............................................................................17
4. Painting..................................................................................24
5. Appendix 1............................................................................ 28
6. Appendix IT ,........................................................................ 41
7. Bibliography......................................................................... 55
Introduction.
A history of Greek and Roman art is the history of one of the
richest and most inventive artistic cultures, lying at the root of the European
tradition. The most interesting is the change in the different branches of
representational art as aspects of a single historical development. The
genuinely Greek and markedly different artistic tradition as opposed to art in
the Mycenaean Bronze Age appears at about 1000 B.C. and atrophies
eventually in the 1st century B.C.. Something of its afterlife as an important
strand in the art of the Roman Empire is indicated as an epilogue of Graeko-
Roman Art.
Greek and Roman art primarily deals with the great monumental
tradition, with architecture and its development and its relation to sculpture
and painting.
The marble sculptures from temples and other sanctuary buildings
are the greatest things which remain from Greek art. However the bronze
statuary was in certain periods more favored than marbie sculpture, yet our
knowledge of it is largely through the sad medium of marble copies mass-
produced centuries later under the Roman empire. Painting too was
esteemed a great art but all our knowledge of that is still more indirect and
inadequate. The arts of certain times and places (ancient Egypt, for instance
or mediaeval Europe) are dominated by rigid traditions which the
individuality of each artists can only slightly modify: in others the tradition
is a dissolving one, perpetually recreated by powerful artistic personalities.
Such has been the character of the European art since the Renaissance, and
such it was in classical Greece. To understand the development of an art of
this kind one must know something of the artist, yet we possess scarcely one
undisputed original by one of the great names in Greek sculptures, let alone
painting.
The question of how much in the art of the Roman empire was
really the work of Greeks is much discussed, but evidence allowed of no
clear conclusion. Even the arts of the eastern and western frontiers had some
of their roots in Greece, but they had grown a long way from them. In
Greece and Asia Minor which had suffered less in the troubles of the 3rd
century A.D. than other parts of the Roman empire, the tradition of classical
and Hellenistic art was less drastically modified by external influences and
new development than in Rome and in the West. When Konstantine moved
the seat of Imperia to Byzantium in 323 A.D., the court in the new capital
inherited this tradition, and classical forms linged long in its art. It was a
new art however. Christianity was to prove a more powerful catalyst of
Hellenism than had the imperial idea, and we can pursue the fortunes of the
subsequent Greek contribution no further.
1. Theatre in Greece.
The Greek theatre was originally intended for performance at the
feast of Dionysus. From the first it consisted of two principal parts: the
circular dancing-place, orchestra, with the altar of the god in the centre; and
the place for the spectators, or the theatron proper. The theatron was in the
form of a segment of a circle, greater than a semi-circle, with the seats rising
above one another in concentric tiers. The seats were almost always cut in
the slope of a hill. When the choruses had developed into the drama, a
structure called the skene was added with a stage for dramatic
representations. It was erected on the side of the orchestra away from the
spectators and at such a height and distance as to allow of the stage being in
full view from every part of the theatre.
The first stone theatre was built at Athens, the home of the Greek
drama, and the theatres in every part of the Hellenic world were constructed
on the same general principles. The building was near the east end of the
southern slop of the Acropolis and in its construction partial use was made
of the rock against which it rested. It was not, however, completed until
between 340 and 330 B.C. when Athens was under the financial
administration of Lycurgus. The remains of this theatre have been exposed
to view since the excavation of 1862. With the spread of dramatic
representations stone theatres were built in every part of the Hellenic world;
and, shortly after the time of Alexander the Great, they were practically
universal. It has been estimated that the theatre at Athens had room for
27,500 persons. Among other large theatres may be mentioned in Greece (
in Megalopolis, Sparta, and Epidaurus), in Sicily, that of Syracuse; in Asia
Minor, those of Ephesus and Miletus. There were also large theatres in
Crete.
In the Greek theatre the normal number of the stairs was even; in
the Roman it was usually uneven. In the Athenian theatre the front row of
seats were reserved for priests and other ministers of religion, and the rest
for the officials of the State. The central seat in this row was reserved for the
priest of Dionysus. The right of occupying a reserved seat in one of the front
rows was provided for public benefactors, for the orphans of those who had
fallen in war, and for ambassadors from foreign states. The judges of the
dramatic competitions sat together. They naturally had some of the best
places assigned to them. Behind the front row were placed a number of
inferior priests and priestesses. The tickets of admission were discovered in
Attica. Women were generally present at the performance of tragedies but
from that of comedies those of the higher classes usually stayed away. In the
5th century B.C. the women sat in a separate part of the theatre at the back.
Boys were admitted, slaves probably not. The provision against sun and rain
customary in the Roman theatre was unknown to the ancient Greeks.
The orchestra was considerably below the level of the stage. The
chorus entered the orchestra by means of passages on either side of the
stage. But as a general rule, the chorus remained in the orchestra at a lower
level than the stage. The scenery was very simple. Like many other things
connected with the stage it was first introduced either by Aeschylus or by
Sophocles. The principal decoration consisted of a light and movable screen
placed in front of the wall at the back of the stage. On this screen the scene
of the play was painted. In tragedy it was usually the front of a king's palace
with three doors. In connection with the action of the play accessories, such
as altars, statues and tombs were introduced when necessary. There is no
direct evidence for a drop curtain in the Greek theatre. Machinery of various
kinds was used to imitate thunder and lightning. Casks filled with pebbles
were sent rolling down bronze surfaces for that purpose. There were also
contrivances for making persons appear or disappear in the air. In order to
make the actor's voice more audible at a distance vessels of bronze of
different tones were sometimes suspended in niches in various parts of the
auditorium. Niches of the kind have been observed in the remains of the
theatre at Aizani in Phrygia and in Crete. Theatres were frequently used for
public purposes unconnected with the drama. At Athens the custom of using
the theatre for assemblies of the people prevailed from the middle of the 3rd
century B.C.
The Roman Theatre.
In Rome where dramatic representations in the strict sense of the
term were not given until 240 B.C., a wooden stage was erected in the
Circus for each performance and taken down again. The place for the
spectators was a space surrounded by a wooden barrier within which the
public stood and looked on in a promiscuous mass. In 194 B.C. a place was
set apart for the senators nearest to the stage but without any fixed seats;
those who wanted to sit had to bring their own chairs; sometimes by order of
the Senate sitting was forbidden. In 154 B.C. an attempt was made to build a
permanent theatre with fixed seats but it had to be pulled down by order of
the Senate. In 145 B.C. on the conquest of Greece theatres provided with
seats after the Greek model were erected. They however were only of wood
and served for one representation alone. Such was the splendid theatre built
in 58 B.C. by the Aemilius Scaurus, containing, among other decorations,
3,000 bronze statues, and provided with 80,000 seats. The first stone theatre
was built by Pompey in 55 B.C., a second one by Cornelius Balbus (13
B.C.) and in the same year the one dedicated by Augustus to his nephew
Marcellus was erected and called by his name. The ruins of the third above
mentioned theatre still exist. The first of these contained 17,500, the
second-11,510, and the third-20,000 seats. Besides these there were no
other stone theatres in Rome. Wooden theatres continued to be erected
under the Empire.
The Roman theatre differed from the Greek one. It the first place,
the auditorium formed a semicircle only with the front wall of the stage
building as its diameter, while in Greece it was larger than a semicircle. A
covered colonnade ran round the highest story of the theatre, the roof of
which was of the same height as the highest part of the stage.
The auditorium contained places for spectators that were, at first,
reserved exclusively for the senators and foreign ambassadors. The most
distinguished places were the two balconies over the entrances to the
orchestra on the right and left side of the stage; in one of these the giver of the
entertainment and the emperor sat, in the other the empress and the Vestal
Virgins did. In the upper part of the auditorium were the women who sat
apart in accordance with a decree of Augustus (they had formerly sat with
the men). Even children were admitted, only slaves being excluded.
Admission was free as was the case with all entertainments intended for the
people. The tickets of admission did not indicate any particular seat but only
the block of seat and the row in which it would be found.
The stage was raised five feet above the orchestra in order that the
spectators might easily overlook every part of it. It was considerably longer
and wider than the Greek stage, as in the Roman theatre there were nearly as
many actors as parts, and the Romans were very fond of splendid stage-
processions. There were two altars on the stage, one dedicated to Liber in
remembrance of the Dionysian origin of the drama, the other to the god in
whose honour the play was held.
With regard to the scenery, which certainly cannot have been
introduced before 99 B.C., and the scene-shifting, for which elaborate
machinery of various kinds existed, the Roman stage did not essentially
differ from the Greek one, except that it had a curtain. This was lowered at
the beginning of the play instead of being drawn up as with us and it was not
raised again until the end: there was also a smaller curtain which served as a
drop-scene.
H. Architecture of the Greeks.
Of the earliest efforts of the Greeks in architecture we have
evidence in the so-called Cyclopean walls surrounding the castles of king in
the Heroic Age, at Tiryns, Argos, Mycene and elsewhere. They were of
enormous thickness, some being constructed of rude colossal blocks whose
gaps were filled up with smaller stones. The others were built of stones
more or less carefully hewn, their interstices exactly fitting into each other.
Gradually they began to show an approximation to buildings with
rectangular blocks. The oldest specimen of Greeks sculpture was the famous
Lion-gate at Mycene. Among the most striking relics of this primitive age
were the tombs (treasuries) of ancient dynasties, the most considerable of
them having been the Treasure-house of Atreus at Mycene. The interior was
originally covered with metal plates, thus agreeing with Homer’s description
of metal as favourite ornament of princely houses. An open-air building
preserved from that age is the supposed Temple of Hera on Mount Ocha, a
rectangle built of regular square blocks with walls more then a yard thick,
two small windows and a door with leaning posts and a huge lintel in the
southern sidewall. The sloping roof was of hewn flagstones resting on the
thickness of the wall and overlapping each other, but the centre was left
open. From the simple shape of a rectangular house shut in by blank walls
the Greeks gradually advanced to finer and richer forms formed especially
by the introduction of columns detached from the wall and serving to
support the roof and ceiling. Even in Homer there can be found columns in
the palaces to support the halls that surround the court-yard and the ceiling
of the banqueting-room. The construction of columns received its artistic
development first from the Dorians after their migration into the
Peloponnesus about 1000 B.C., next from the Ionic. By about 650 B.C. the
Ionic style was flourishing side by side with the Doric.
Architecture had developed her favourite forms, all other public
buildings borrowed their artistic character from the temple. About 600 B.C.,
in the Greek islands and on the coast of Asia Minor one can come across the
first architects known to us by name. It was then that Rhecus and Theodorus
of Samos built the great temple of Hera in that island while Chersiphron of
Cnosus in Crete with his son Metagenes began the temple of Artemis
(Diana) at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, which was not
finished till 120 years after. In Greece a vast temple to Zeus was begun at
Athens in the 6th century B.C. and two more at Delphi and Olympia, one by
the Corinthian Spintharus, the other by the Elean Libon. Here and in the
Western colonies the Doric style still predominated. Among the chief
remains of this period in addition to many ruined temples in Sicily the
Temple of Poseidon at Pastum in South Italy should be mentioned which
was one of the best preserved and most beautiful relics of antiquity. The
patriotic fervor of the Persian Wars created a general expansion of Greek
life in which Architecture and Sculpture took a part. In the whole onward
movement a central position was taken by Athens whose leading statesman,
Cimon and Pericles, lavished the great resources of the State at once in
strengthening and beautifying the city. During this period a group of
masterpieces arose that astonished our contemporaries even in their ruins,
some of them having been in the Ionic style which had then found its way
into Attica. The Doric order was represented by the Temple of Theseus, the
Propyle built by Mnesicles, the Parthenon that was a joint production of
Ictinus and Callikrates. At the same time Erechtheum was the most brilliant
creation of the Ionic order in Attica. There were many proofs of the Attic
Architecture influence on the rest of Greece, especially in the Temple of
Apollo at Basse in South-Western Arcadia built from the design of the
above-mentioned Ictinus.
The progress of the Drama to its perfection in this period (5th
century B.C.) led to a corresponding improvement in the building of
Theatres. A stone theatre was begun at Athens even before the Persian Wars
and the Odeon of Pericles served similar purposes. The highest results was
shown by the theatres at Epidaurus, a work of Policlitus, unsurpassed as the
ancients testified, by any later theatres in harmony and beauty. Another was
built at Syracuse before 420 B.C.
In the 4th century B.C., owing to the change arisen in the Greek
mind by the Peloponnesian War, in place of the pure and even tone of the
preceding period a desire for effect became more and general both in
architecture and sculpture. The sober Doric style fell into abeyance and gave
way to the Ionic one. Side by side with it a new, the Corinthian order, have
been invented by the sculptor Callimachus with its more gorgeous
decorations and became increasingly fashionable, in the first half of the 4th
century B.C. the largest and grandest temple in the Peloponnesus arose, that
of Athena at Tegea, a work of the sculptor and architect Scopas. During the
middle of the century, another of the “seven wonders”, the splendid tomb of
Mausolus at Halicarnassus was constructed. Many magnificent temples
arose in that time, in Asia Minor, the temple at Ephesus, burnt down by
Herostratus, was rebuilt by Alexander’s architect Deinocrates. In the islands
the ruins of the temple of Athena at Priene, of Apollo at Miletus, of
Dionysus at Teos and many others, offered a brilliant testimony to their
former magnificence even to this day. Among Athenian buildings of that
age the Monument of Lysicrates was conspicuous for its graceful elegance
and elaborate development of the Corinthian style. In the succeeding age
Greek architecture showed its finest achievements in the building of
theatres, especially those of Asiatic towns, in the gorgeous palaces of newly-
built royal capitals and, in general in the luxurious completeness of private
buildings. As an important specimen of the last age of Attic architecture the
Tower of the Winds at Athens may also be mentioned.
Finally it is necessary to note that Greek columns were usually
classified according to the Orders of Greek Architecture as the Doric, Ionic
and the Corinthian ones.
Architecture of the Etruscans and the Romans.
In architecture, as well as in sculpture, the Romans were long under
the influence of the Etruscans who, though denied the gift of rising to the
ideal, united wonderful activity and inventiveness with a passion for
covering their buildings with rich ornamental carving. None of their temples
have survived for they built all the upper parts of wood, but many proofs of
their activity in building remained, in the shape of Tombs and Walls. Some
very old gateways, as at Volterra and Perugia exhibited the true Arch of
wedge-shaped stones, the invention of which was probably due to Etruscan
ingenuity and from the introduction of which a new and magnificent
development of architecture took its rise. The most imposing monument of
ancient Italian arch-building can be seen in the sewers of Rome laid down in
the 6th century B.C.
When all other traces of Etruscan influence were being swept away
at Rome by the intrusion of Greek forms of art, especially after the Conquest
of Greece in the middle of the 2nd century B.C., the Roman architects kept
alive the Etruscan method of building the arch which they developed and
completed by the invention of the Cross-Arch and the Dome. With the Arch
the Romans combined, as a decorative element, the columns of the Greek
Orders. Among these their growing love of pomp gave preference more and
more to the Corinthian style. Another service rendered by the Romans was
the introduction of building in brick.
A more vigorous advance in Roman architecture dated from the
opening of the 3rd century B.C. when they began making great military
roads and aqueducts. In the first half of the 2nd century B.C. they built on
Greek models the first Basilica which, besides its practical utility, served to
embellish the Forum. Soon after the middle of the century, the first of their
more ambitious temples in the Greek style appeared. There was simple
grandeur in the ruins of the Tabularium, or Record-Office, built in 78 B.C.
on the slope of the Capitol next the Forum. These were among few remains
of Roman republican architecture. In the last decades of the Republic
simplicity gradually disappeared. Men were eager to display a princely
pomp in public and private buildings as in the first stone theatre erected by
Pompey in 55 B.C. Then all that went before was eclipsed by the vast works
undertaken by Cesar, the Theatre, Amphitheatre, Circus, Basilica fulia,
Forum Cesaris with its Temple to Venus Genetrix.
These were finished by Augustus under whom Roman architecture
reached its culminating point. Agrippa, Augustus’s son in law, a man who
understood building, not only completed his uncle’s plans but added many
magnificent structures - the Forum Augusti with its Temple to Mars Ultor,
the Theatre of Marcellus with its Portico of Octavia, the Mausoleum and
others. Augustus could fairly boast that “having found Rome a city of brick
he left it a city of marble”. The grandest monument of that age and one of
the loftiest creation of Roman art in general, was the Pantheon built by
Agrippa, adjacent to but not connected with his Therme, the first of the
many works of that kind in Rome. A still more splendid aspect was imparted
to the city by the rebuilding of the Old Town burnt down in Nero’s fire, and
by the “Golden House” of Nero, a gorgeous pile, the like of which was
never seen before but which was destroyed on the violent death of its
creator. There was a proof of the luxurious grandeur of private building in
the dwelling-houses of Pompeii, a paltry country-town in comparison with
Rome. The progress made under the Flavian emperors was evidenced by
Vespasian’s Amphitheatre known as the Colosseum. It is the mightiest
Roman ruin in the world even as compared with the ruined Therme (Baths)
of Titus and with his Triumphal Arch, the latter being the oldest specimen of
this class in Rome. But all previous buildings were surpassed in size and
splendour when Trajan’s architect Apollodorus of Damascus raised the
Forum Traianum with its huge Basilica Ulpia and the still surviving Column
of Trajan. No less extensive were the works of Hadrian who, besides
adorning Athens with many magnificent building bequeathed to Rome a
Temple of Venus and Roma, the most colossal of all Roman temples and his
own Mausoleum.
While the works of the Antonines showed a gradual decline in
architectural feeling, the Triumphal Arch of Severus ushered in the period of
decay in the 3'd century A.D. In this closing period of Roman rule the
buildings grew more and more gigantic, as the Baths of Caracalla, of
Diocletian and the palace of the latter at Salona (three miles from Spalatro)
in Dalmatia. The Basilica of Constantine breathed the last feeble gasp of
ancient life.
But outside of Rome and Italy, in every part of the enormous
empire to its utmost barbarian borders bridges, numberless remains of roads,
aqueducts and viaducts, ramparts and gateways, palaces, villas, market
places and judgment-halls, baths, theatres, amphitheatres and temples,
attested the versatility, majesty and solidity of Roman architecture, most of
whose creations only the rudest shocks have hitherto been able to destroy.
VII. Sculpture.
The origin o f painting as an art in Greece was connected with
definite historical personages. That of sculpture was lost in the mists of
legend. It was regarded as an art imparted to men by the gods for such was
the thought expressed in the assertion that the earliest statues had fallen
from heaven. The first artist spoken of by name, Dedalus, who was
mentioned as early as Homer, was merely a personification of the most
ancient variety of art, that was employed solely in the construction of
wooden images of the gods. A series of inventions were attributed to him
that certainly separated far from each other in respect of time and place and
embraced important steps in the development of wood-carving and in the
representation of the human form. Thus he had invented the saw, the axe,
the plummet, the gimlet and glue. He was the first to open the eyes in the
statues of the gods, to separate the legs and to give freer motion to the arms
which had before hung close to the body. After him the early school of
sculptors at Athens, was sometimes called the school of Dedalus. During a
long residence in Crete he instructed the Cretans in making wooden images
of the gods.
The invention of modeling figures in clay from which sculpture in
bronze originated was assigned to the Sicyonian potter Butades of Corinth.
The art of working in metals was known early in Greece as appeared from
the Homeric poems. An important step in this direction was taken by
Glaucus of Chios who invented the soldering of iron and the softening and
hardening of metal by fire and water in the 7th century B.C. The discovery of
bronze-founding was attributed to Rhocus and Theodorus of Samos about
580 B.C. At the same time the high antiquity of Greek sculpture in stone
was represented by a work of the very earliest period of Greek civilization,
that is the powerful relief of two upright lions over the gate of castle at
Mycene (12 century B.C.).
Sculpture in marble, as well as in gold and ivory, was much
advanced by two “pupils of Dedalus,” Dipenus and Scyllis of Crete who
were working in Argos and Sicyon about 550 B.C. and founded an
influential school of art in Peloponnesus. Among their works statues of gods
and heroes were recorded that were often united in large groups.
The statues of Apollo from the island of Thera near Corinth, the
reliefs on the Harpy Monument from the Acropolis of Xanthus in Lycia, in
spite of their archaic stiffness showed an effort after individual and natural
expression though the unemotional and stony smile on the mask-like face
were common to all of them. Even after Greek sculpture had mastered the
representation of the most violent movement, it was still unable to overcome
the lifeless rigidity of facial expression. This was seen in the Trojan battle-
scenes (dated about 480 B.C.) on the Egyptian pediments. Here the figures
were represented in every variety of position in the fight and depicted with
perfect mastery (to the smallest detail), whereas the faces were entirely
destitute of any expression appropriate to their situation. From about 544
B.C. it had become usual to erect statues of the victors in the athletic
contests, Olympia especially having abounded in these. By this innovation
the art was freed from the narrow limits to which it had been confined by the
traditions of religion and led on to a truer imitation of nature.
The period of the finest art was represented by Phidias, Polyclitus
and especially by Myron, another Athenian, in whom the art attained the
highest truth to nature with perfect freedom in the representation of the
human body and was thus prepared for the development of ideal forms. This
last step was taken at Athens in the time of Pericles by Phidias. In his
creations, particularly in his statues of the gods whether in bronze or in
ivory and gold he succeeded in combining perfect beauty of form with the
most profound ideality, having fixed forever the ideal type for Zeus and
Athene, the two deities who were pre-eminently characterized by
intellectual dignity. The perfection of Attic art at this time can be realized
especially when we consider that, with all their beauty of execution, the
extant marble sculptures of the Parthenon, Theseum, Erechtheum, and the
temple of “ Wingless Victory” must be regarded as mere productions of the
ordinary workshop as compared with the lost masterpieces of Phidias.
The school of Phidias had rivals in the naturalistic school which
followed Myron. Independent of both schools stood Callimachus, the
inventor of the Corinthian order of architecture. Another school of sculpture
was founded at Argos by Phidias's younger cotemporary Polyclitus whose
colossal gold and ivory statue of Hera challenged comparison with the
works of Phidias in its materials, its ideality and its artistic form, and
established the ideal type of that goddess. He mainly devoted himself,
however, to work in bronze. His aim was to exhibit the perfection of beauty
in the youthful form. He also established a canon or scheme of the normal
proportions of the body. The first period of Greek sculpture, represented by
Myron, Phidias and Polyclitus, the schools of Athens and Argos held the
first rank beyond dispute. So it was also in the next period which embraced
the 4th century B.C. down to the death of Alexander the Great. Athens,
moreover, during this period remained true to the traditions of Phidias and
still occupied itself mainly with the ideal forms of gods and heroes though in
a spirit essentially altered. The more powerful emotions of the period after
the Peloponnesian War influenced the art enormously. The sculptors of the
time abandoned the representation of the dignified divinities of the earlier
school and turned to the forms of those deities whose nature gave room for
softer or more emotional expression especially Aphrodite and Dionysus and
the circle of gods and demons who surrounded them. The highest aim of
their art was to pourtray the profound pathos of the soul and to give
expression to the play of the emotions. With this was connected the
preference of this school for marble over bronze, as more suited for
rendering the softer and finer shades of form or expression. The art of
executing work in gold and ivory was almost lost, the resources of the States
having no longer sufficed, as a rule, for this purpose. The most eminent of
the New Attic school were Scopas of Paros and Praxiteles of Athens.
Scopas, also famous as an architect, was a master of the most elevated
pathos. Praxiteles was unrivaled master in regard to the softer graces in
female or youthful forms and in the representation of sweet moods of
dreamy reverie. In his statues of Aphrodite at Chidus and Eros at Thespie he
established ideal types for those divinities. The Hermes with the infant
Dionysus, found at Olympia, remained as memorial of his art. We have also
a copy of the Niolid group the original of which was much disputed even in
ancient times whether the author were Scopas or Praxiteles. In contrast to
the ideal aims of Attic art, the Sicyonian school still remained true to its
early naturalistic tendencies and to the art of sculpture in bronze of which
Argos had so long been the home. At the head of the school stood one of the
most influential and prolific artists of antiquity, Lyssipus of Sicyon. His
efforts were directed to represent beauty and powerful development in the
human body. Hence Heracles as the impersonation of human physical
strength was portrayed by him oftener, and with more success than any other
deity. Lysippus was also the most prolific as a portrait sculptor, a branch of
art which had been much advanced in the invention of the method of taking
plaster casts of the features by his brother Lysistratus.
After Alexander the Great the practice of the art which had thus
developed to perfect mastery of technique began to deteriorate with the
general decay of the countries of Greece and to give place to the flourishing
artistic schools of Asia Minor and the neighbouring islands.
The most productive school was that of Rhodes at the head of
whish stood a pupil of Lysippus, Chares of Lindus who designed the famous
Colossus of Rhodes, the largest statue of ancient times. Two well known
extant works in marble proceeded from this school, namely: the group of
Laocoon and his sons by Agesander, Athenodorus and Polydorus found at
Rome in 1506 being now one of the chief treasures of the Vatican Museum,
and the Farnese Bull at Naples. This last group, by Apollonius and
Tauriscus of Tralles, represented the revenge of Zethus and Amphion on
Dirce and was the largest extant antique work which consisted of a single
block of marble. Both these were admirable in skill and technique, having
embodied with the greatest vividness the wild passions of a moment of
horror but the theatrical effect and the exhibition of technical skill were
unduly exaggerated. To the Rhodian school was assigned the group
representing Menelaus bearing the body of Patrocles. It was sometimes,
however, regarded as one of the later products of the same school as the
Group of Niobe that was assigned to the early part of the 3rd century B.C.
The second in rank of the schools of this period was that of
Pergamon where the sculptors Isogonus, Phyromachus, Stratonicus and
Antigonus celebrated the victories of the Kings Eumenes 1 (263-241 B.C.)
and Attalus 1 (241-197 B.C.) over the Gauls in a series of bronze statues.
They are still extant at Venice, Rome and Naples. A magnificent figure of
Attalus, the battle of the Athenians and Amazons, the fight at Marathon, and
the destruction of the Gauls by Attalus can be seen there as well. The other
masterpiece of the school was the work popularly called the Dying
Gladiator, now identified as a Gallic warrior who had stabbed himself after a
defeat. Another one was the group in the Villa Ludovisi called Poetus and
Arria which really represented a Gaul killing his wife and himself. But the
most brilliant proof of their powers was the reliefs of the battle of the Giants
from the acropolis at Pergamon. This work belonged to the most important
artistic products of antiquity. To this period the original of the celebrated
Belvedere Apollo was also referred to. According to the legend rescue of the
temple of Delphi from the Gallic army in 280 B.C. was closely connected
with that particular statue and was supposed to be the work of the god
himself.
After the subjugation of Greece by the Romans in the middle of the
2nd century B.C. Rome became the headquarters of Greek artists whose
work though without novelty in invention had many excellences, especially
in perfect mastery of technique. The works of the artists of the lsl century
B.C. and of the early imperial times were considered more or less free
reproductions of the creations of earlier masters.
There was a revival of Greek art in the first half of the 2nd century
A.D. under Hadrian when a new ideal type of youthful beauty was created,
in the numerous representations of the imperial favourite Antinous.
The artistic work of the Romans before the introduction of Greek
culture was under Etruscan influence. The character of their art seemed
wanting in freedom of treatment and in genuine inspiration. After the
conquest of Greece Greek art took the place of Etruscan one at Rome.
Beside the Greek influence due to which many copies of the
masterpieces of Greek art were gradually accumulated in Rome, a peculiar
Roman art arose. This was especially active in portrait_sculpture. Portrait
statues were divided, according to the fact whether they were in civil togata
or military costume.
It was customary to depict emperors in the form of Jupiter or other
gods while their wives were depicted with the attributes of Juno and Venus.
Of the innumerable monuments of this description special attention must be
paid to the statue of Augustus in the Vatican and the bronze equestrian
statue of M. Aurelius on the square of the Capitol at Rome.
Among the Greeks painting developed into an independent art
much later than sculpture though it was used very early for decorative
purposes. This is proved by the evidence of painted vases belonging to the
ages for the most primitive civilization and by the mural paintings
discovered by Schliemann at Tiryns. The scanty notices in ancient authors
respecting the first discoveries in this art connected it with historical persons
and not with mythical names as in the case of sculpture. Thus it is said that
either Philocles, the Egyptian, or Cleanthes of Corinth was the first to draw
outline sketches; that Telephanes of Sicyon developed them further; and that
Eumarus of Athens (in the second half of the 6th century B.C.) distinguished
man and woman by giving the one a darker, the other a lighter colour.
Cimon of Cleona is mentioned as the originator of artistic drawing in
profile. It is further said of him that he gave variety to the face by making it
look backwards or upwards or downwards, and freedom to the limbs by duly
rendering the joints; also that he was the first to represent the veins of the
human body, and to make the folds of the drapery fall more naturally.
Painting did not however make any decided advance until the
middle of the 5th century B.C. This advance was chiefly due to Polygnotus
of Thasos who painted at Athens. He gave greater variety of expression to
the face which before had been rigidly severe. His works, most of them
large compositions rich in figures, give evidence of a lofty and poetic
conception. They were generally mural paintings for decorating the interior
of public buildings. The drawing and the combination of colours were the
chief considerations; light and shade were wanting, and no attention was
paid to perspective. Besides mural paintings there were pictures on panels
such as afterwards became common.
The Athenian Apollodorus (about 420 B.C.) was the actual founder
of an entirely new artistic style. He was the first, says Pliny, to give his
pictures the appearance of reality. He also led the way in the proper
management of the fusion of colours and their due gradation in different
degrees of light and shade.
The Attic school flourished till about the end of the 5th century B.C.
when this art was for some time neglected at Athens but made another
important advance in the towns of Asia Minor, especially at Ephesus. The
principal merits of this, the Ionic school, consisted in richer and more
delicate colouring, a more perfect system of pictorial representation. Its
principal representatives were Zeuxis of Heraclea and Parrhasius of
Ephesus; Timanthes also produced remarkable works, though not an
adherent of the same school. It was opposed by the Sicyonian school,
founded by Eupompus of Sicyon, and developed by Pamphilus of
Amphipolis, which aimed at greater precision of technical training, very
careful and characteristic drawing and a sober and effective colouring.
Greek painting reached its summit in the works of Apelles of Cos and
Protogenes of Caunos in the second half of the 411' century B.C. They knew
how to combine the merits of the Ionian and Sicyonian schools, the perfect
grace of the former with the severe accuracy of the latter.
After the age of Alexander, the art of painting was characterized by
a striving after naturalism, combined with the representation of common,
every-day scenes, and of still-life. This branch of painting was also carried
to great perfection, and Piraicus was the most celebrated for it. Among
painters of the loftier style the last noteworthy artist was Timomachus of
Byzantium.
Among the Romans a few solitary names of early painters are
mentioned, for instance, Fabius Pictor and the poet Pacuvius; but nothing is
known as to the value of their paintings, which served to decorate buildings.
The way in which landscapes were represented by a certain S.Tadius in the
reign of Augustus is mentioned as a novelty. These landscapes were mainly
for purposes of decoration. Indeed the love of display peculiar to the
Romans had led them gradually to accumulate the principal works of the old
Greek masters at Rome as ornaments for their public and private edifices
and brought about an extraordinary development of decorative art. The
principal subjects represented at these paintings were figures from the world
of myth, such as Centaurs, Satyrs, scenes from mythology and heroic
legends, frequently copies of famous Greek originals, landscapes, still-life,
animals and also scenes from real life. From a technical point of view these
works did not go beyond the limits of light decorative painting. They were
especially wanting in correct perspective. But they showed fine harmony,
varied gradation, and delicate blending of colour. Nevertheless they
frequently demonstrated a surprising depth and sincerity of expression:
qualities which characterized the lost masterpieces of the ancient artists and
gave us a very high idea of them. One of the finest mural paintings was so
cold the Aldobrandini Marriage named after its first owner. Cardinal
Aldobrandini, (now in the Library of the Vatican at Rome). It was copied
from an excellent Greek original, and represented in the style of relief the
preparations for a marriage. It exhibited several individual motives of much
beauty; its colouring was soft and harmonious; and it was instinct with that
placid and serious charm which belonged only to the antique. In technical
execution, however, the work was insignificant.
The Vatican Library also possesses an important series of
landscapes from the Odyssey, found during the excavations on the Esquiline
in 1848-1850. Landscapes of this kind were mentioned by Vitruvius among
the subjects with which corridors used to be decorated in the good old times.
They represented the adventure with the Lastrygones, the story of Circe and
the visit of Odysseus to the realm of Hades, thus they illustrated a
continuous portion of the poem. The predominant colours were a yellowish
brown and a greenish blue, and the pictures were divided from one another
by pilasters of a brilliant red. They furnish interesting examples of the
landscape-painting of the last days of the Republic or the first of the Empire
and, in point of importance stood alone among all the remains of ancient
painting. The processes of painting are represented in several works of
ancient art, e.g. in three mural painting from Pompeii.
Appendix I.
A.
Achaean /a'ki(i:)an/ ахейцы
Achilles /a'kili:z/ Ахиллес
Actium /'aektiam/ Акциум
Agamemnon /asga'memnan/ Агамемнон
Aeetes /i:'i:ti:z/ Ээт, бог солнца
Aegisthus /i:gis0as/ Эгистес
Aeneas /i(i:)'ni:aes/ Эней
Aeneid /'i:niid/ Энеида (поэма)
Aeschylus /'i:skilas/ Эсхил
Aeolus /'i(i:)aolas/ Эол (бог ветра)
Aesop /'i:sop/ Эзоп
Ajax /'aidgasks/ Аякс
Alceus /'aslkias/ Алкей
Alcinous /ael'sinauas/ Алкиной
Alexandrine Plead /aalig'zaandrain pli:d/ поэты Александрийской
Плеяды
Amores /'aemoris/ поэма Овидия
Amphitrite /'eemfitraiti/ Амфитрита
Amyntas II / 'asmintas/ Аминтас Второй, император
Anacreon /an'aakrian/ Анакреон
Anaxagoras /aenask'saegaras/ Анаксагор
Anchises /aerj'kaisi:z/ Анхиз
Andromache /агп dromaki/ Андромаха, жена Гектора
Antigone /sen tigsni/ Антигона
Antipater /aen'tipata/ дьявол
Antoninus /senta nainos/ Антонин, император
Antonius /aen'tounjas/ Антоний, император
Antoninus Pius /ffinta nainas-'paias/Антоний Пий, император
Apennines /'aepanins/ Апеннины
Aphrodite /aefra'daiti/ Афродита (рим.Венера)
Apollo /a'polou/ Аполлон (греч.Аполлон)
Appian / aepian/ Апиан
Apuleius /'aspjuleias/ Апулей
Aratus /'aerates/ Эратус
Ares /sariz:/ Apec (рим. Марс)
Argonauts/'a:gano:ts/ аргонавты
Archimedes /a:ki'mi:di:z/ Архимед
Aristophanes /aeris'tofanilz/ Аристофан
Aristotle /'aeristotl/ Аристотель
Arrian /'aerian/ Ариан
Artaxerxes II /a:tag z3:ksi:z/ Артаксеркс Второй, император
Artemis /'altimis/ Артемида (рим. Диана)
Ascanius /aes'keinjas/ Ac кап и it
Asclepius /aes'kli :pius/ Асклепий
Atellana /'aetalana/ Ателанна (фарс)
Athenae /ae0i'ni/ Афины (reorp.)lat.
Athenaeum /aeGi niam/ Атенеум
Athene /э'бкш/Афина (рим. Минерва)
Atreus /'eitriu:s/ Атрей
Attic Era /'aetik Чага/ Античная эра
Augustus, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus
/o:'gstas 'gaias 'dgirlias 'si:za ok'tevjanas/
Октавиан Август, император
Avicenna /aevi'sena/ Авиценна
В.
Bethlehem /'beGilem/ Вифлеем (reorp.)
Bithynia /'biGinia/ Бисиния (reorp.)
Boethius /bau'i:Gjas/ Боэций
Boetia /bi'aujja/ Беотия (reorp.)
bucolics/bjo(u:)koliks/ буколическая поэзия
buffoonery /ba'fu:nari/ шутовство
C.
Cailimachus /'kalimakas/ Каллимах
Caligula /кэ ligjob/ Калигула, император
Callikrates /ka'likratkz/ Калликрат
Calypso /'kaslipsau/ Калипсо
Capitoline /ka'pitalain/ Капиталийский (холм)
Carthage / ka:Gidg/ Карфаген (reorp.)
Catiline /'kastilain/ Катилина
Ceres /'siari:z/ Церера (греч. Диметра)
Chalcis /'kaelsis/ Колхида (reorp.)
Charlemagne / ’Jadamain/ Карл, император
Chios /'kaios/ Хиос (reorp.)
Cicero /'sisarau/ Цицерон
Circe /'s3:si/ Цирцея
Cleon /'klian/ Клеон
Clytemnestra /klaitim’nestra/ Климнестра
Colophon /'kolafan/ Колофон (reorp.)
Constantine /'konstantain/ Константин, император
Constantinople /konstaenti'naupl/ Константинопль
cout-de-etats /kuida'ta: / государственный переворот
Crassus /'krassas/ Kpacc
Creon /'krian/ Kpeon
Croesus /'kri:sas/ Крез
Cybele /'sibil/ Кибела (рим.Рея)
Cyclop Polyphemus / saiklop poli'fumas/ циклоп Полифем
D.
Danaus / daenasas/ Даная
defile /di: fail/ загрязнять
Delphi / delfai/ Дельфы (reorp.)
Demeter /di'mi:ta/ Деметра (рим. Церера)
Democritus /di'mokritas/ Демокрит
Demosthenes /di'mos8ani:z/ Демосфен
Diana /dai аепэ/ Диана (греч. Артемида)
Dido/'daidau/Дидона, королева Карфагена
Dionysus /daia’naisas/Дионис
Dyskolos /'diskalas/ Дискобол
E.
Eileithyia /'ailei0ia/ Илисия
Electra /i'lektra/ Электра
elegiac /eli'dgaiak/ элегия
Empedocles /em'pedaklr.z/ Эмпедокл
Eos /'i:as/ Ио (заря)
Epicurus /epi'kjuaras/ Эпикур
Epir /e'paia/ Эпир, (reorp.)
epistles /i 'pislz/ письма (lat.)
Erechteum /erek 9i:am/ Эрехтейон
Erinyes /'iarinis/ эринии
Etruscan /i'traskan/ этруски
Euboea /ju: 'bia/ Эвбея (reorp.)
Euclid / ju:klid/, Euclides / ju:klidaz/ Эвклид
Eumahus / 'jumahas/ Эмахус
Eumenides /'juminaidis/ Эвмениды
Euripides /joa'ripidi:?/ Эврипид
F.
fleece /fli:s/ овечья шерсть
forfeited / ’fo:fitid/ утраченный
Galen /'geilin/ Гален
Ganymede /'ga:nimi:d/ Ганимед
Gaul /go: 1/ Галл
georgics /'dgo:dgiks/ георгики
H.
Haemon /'heman/ Гемон
Hades /'heidiiz/ Ад (рим. Плутон)
Hadrian /'heidrian/ Адриан, император
Hebe /'hi:bi/ Гебе
Hecate /'hekati(:)/ Геката
Hecuba / 'hekjuba/ Гекуба
Hecyra / hekira/ Гекира
hegemony /hi'gemani/ гегемония
Helios /'hiilios/ Гелиос, бог солнца
Hephaestus /hi'frstas/ Гефест( рим. Вулкан)
Heraclitus of Ephesus /hera'klaitas efisas/ Гераклит Эфесский
Herackes / herakli:z/ Геракл
Hermes /'ha:mi:z/ Гермес (рим.Меркурий)
Herodotus /he'rodatas/ Геродот
Heroides /be'roudies/ царь Ирод
Hesiod /'hirsiod/ Гесиод
Hipparchus /hi'pa:kas/ Гиппарх
Hippocrates /hi pokrati:?/ Гиппократ
Hippolytus /hi'politas/ «Ипполит», пьеса Эврипида
Homer /'hauma/ Гомер
Horace, Quintus Horatius Flaccus /'horas kwintas ‘horajjas flaskas/
Гораций
i.immolate /'imauleit/-npHHOCHTb в жертву
iniquity /ГшкУ1>М/-несправедливость
Ionian /ai'ounjan/ (n.)
Iphigenia /ifidgi'naia/ Ифигения
Iris /'aiaris/ Ирис
Isis /'aisis/ Изис
Ithaca /'iGaka/ Итака (reorp.)
J.
Janus /'dgeinas/ Янус
Jason /'dgeisn/ Ясон
Juno /'dgu:nou/ Юнона (греч.Гера)
Judaea /dgui 'dia/ Иудея (reorp.)
Jupiter/'dgu:pita/ Юпитер (греч. Зевс)
jurisprudence /'dgoarispru:dens/ юриспруденция
Justinian /dgas'tinian/ Юстиниан, император
Juvenal /'dgu:vinl/ Ювенал
L.
Laestrygones /li:s'traigani:z/ Лестригоны
Lares and Penates / ’leari.z aend pe'neitirz/ Лары и Пенаты
Latinus /ta'tainas/ Латин, царь
Leda /'li:de/ Леда
Livius Andronieus /'aendro'naikas/ Ливий Андроник
Livy,Titus Livius - /"livi/ Тит Ливий
love-potion /'lav рэо!эп/-любовное зелье
Lucanus /'luikanas/ Лукан
Lucian /'lu:sjan/ Лукиан
Lucilius /lu: silias/ Луций
Lucretius, Titus Lucretius Carus /lu:'kri:fjos 'taitss Iu:'kri:jj3s 'kearas/
Тит Лукреций Кар
Lupercalia /1и:рз: 'keiljs/ праздник Луперкалий
Lyceum /lai'siam/ Ликеум
Lycurgus /lai'k3:gas/ Ликург
lyre /'laiara/ лира
M.
Maecenas /mi(i:)'si:naes/ Меценат
Marcus Aurelius /'ma.kas o:'ri:ljas / Марк Аврелий, император
Mars /ma:z/ Марс (греч.Арес)
Martial /'majjal/ Марциал
Menander /mi'naenda/ Менандр
Menelaus /meni'leias/ Менелай
Mercurius /'m3:kjurias/ Меркурий (греч. Гермес)
Metamorphoses /meta'moifauziz/ Метаморфозы, поэма Овидия
Moeroe / mo:ro:/ Мойры
Muses /mjuiziz/ Музы
Mycenae /mai'si:ni(i:)/ Микены (reorp.)
N.
Nemesis / nemisis/ Немезиды
Nereid /'niariid/ Нереид
Nereus /'niarjurs/ Нерей
Nero /'niarau/ Нерон, император
Nike /'naiki:/ Ника
О.
Oceanus /ou'sianas/ Океан
Odeon /'oudjan/ Одеон
Odysseus /a'disju:s/ Одиссей
Odyssey /'odisi/ Одиссея (поэма Гомера)
Oedipus /'i:dipas/ Эдип
Orestes /o'resti:z/ Орест
Ovid, Publius Ovidius Naso /'ovid publias ovidas ‘naesau/ Публий
Овидий Назон
P.
panegyric /paeni'dgirik/ панегирик
pantomimus /'paentamimas/ пантомимы
Parthenon /'ра:0тэп/ Парфенон
Peloponnesian /pibpo'nijan/ пелопонесский
Penelope /pi'nebpi/ Пенелопа
Pericles /'periklkz/ Перикл
Persephone /pai'sefani/ Персефона
Phaedrus/'fi:drss/ Федр
Phidias /'fidises/ Фидий
Philoctetes /fibk'ti:ti:z/ Филоктет
Plato /'pleitau/ Платон
Plautus, Titus Maccius /"plo:tas 'taibs/ Тит Макций Плавт
Plutarch /'plu:ta:k/ Плутарх
Pomona /рэ'тэипэ/ Помона
Pompeia /pom'pi(i:)3/ Помпея
Poseidon /po'saidsn/ Посейдон (рим.Нептун)
Priam /"prabm/ Приам
Priapus /prai'eipas/ Приап
Prometheus Bound /pra'mi:0ju:s baond/ Прометей прикованный
Propertius /pr3’p3:jj3s/ Проперций
Propylaeum /propi'П:эт/ Пропилеи
Protagoras /prso'tegaraes/ Протагор
Pylades /'pibdi:z/ Пилад
Pythagoras /pai'0seg3rass/ Пифагор
Q-Quirinus /kwi'rainss/ Квприны
refuge /'refju:dg/ убежище
Remus /'ri:mas/ Рем (брат Ромула)
Rhea /п:э/ Рея
Rhodes /roudz/ Родос (reorp.)
ritual hymn /'ritjusl himn/ ритуальный гимн
Romulus / ‘romjulas/ Ромул (основатель Рима)
S.
Sappho /'saefэо/ Сафо
Saturnus/'saetanus/ Сатурн
Satyrs /'sastaz/ сатиры
Scythians /skiGianz/ скифы
Selene/si'li:ni/ Селена
Seleucid Asia /si'lju:sid eija/ королевство
Servius Tiberius /'s3:vias tai'biarias/
Silvanus /sil'veinas/ Сильван
Smyrna /'sm3:na/ Смирна (reorp.)
Socrates /'sokratiiz/ Сократ
Solon /'saulon/ Солон
Sophocles / sofakli:z/ Софокл
Suetonies /swi:'taonjas/ Светоний
Syracuse /'saiarakju:z/ Сиракузы
т.Tacitus, Gaius Cornelius /'taesitas 'gaias ko:'ni:ljas/ Тацит, Гай
Корнелий
Tarquinius /ta:'kwinias/ Тарквиний
Telemachus /ti'lemakas/ Телемах, сын Одиссея
Thebes /0i:bz/ Фивы (reorp.)
Themis /Gi'mis/ Фемида
Themistocles /0i'mistakli:z/ Фемистокл
Theocritus /0i okritas/ Теокрит
Theodosius /0ia'dausjas/ Феодосий
Theseus /'0i:sjus/ Тезей
Thrace /8reis/ Фракия
Thucydides /0jo(u:)'sididi:z/ Туцидид
Tiberius /tai'biarias/ Тиберий, император
Tibullus /ti'balas/ Тибул
Titan /'taitan/ титан
Titus /'taitas/ Тит, император
Trajan / ’treidgan/ Траян, император
Triton /'traitn/ Тритон
triumvirate /trai'amvirit/
Troy /troi/ Троя
U.
Umbria /'ambria/ Умбрия (reorp.)
Uranus /juaranas/ Уран
Vergil, Publius Vergilius Maro /'v3:dgil V3:dgiljas maero/ Публий
Вергилий Марон
Venus /'viinas/ Венера, (греч. Афродита)
vernacular /va'naekjob/ местный, туземный язык
Vespasian /ves'peisjan/ Веспасиан
Vulcanus/'valkanos/ Вулкан (греч.Гефест)
X.
Xenophanes /'zenafanis/ Ксенофан
Xenophon /'zenafan/ Ксенофон
Z.
Zeno /'zi:nao/ Зенон
Zeus /zju:s/ Зевс (рим. Юпитер)
Appendix II.
Пропилеи. Восточный портик. Вид на город с Акрополя.
Архитектор Калликрат. Храм Ники Аптерос на Афинском Акрополе.
Мрамор. Закончен в 421 г. до н.э.
Афинский Акрополь. Реконструкция.
Forum Romanum,
1 - стереобат
2 - стилобат
3 - колонна
4 - база
5 - фуст - ствол колонны
6 - каннелюры
7 - энтазис
8 - капитель
9 - абак
10 - эхин
11 - волюта
12 - антаблемент
13 - архитрав
14 - фриз
15 - триглиф
16 - метопа
17 - карниз
18 - фронтон
19 - акротерий
20 -сима
1. O.Seyffert, A dictionary of classical antiquities: mythology, religion,
literature, art. Oxford university press, 1957.
2. J.J. Pollit. Art at the Hellenistic Age, Cambridge University Press, 1987.
3. Martin Robertson, History of Greek Art, Cambridge University Press,
1957.
4. John Boardman, Greek Art, London, 1975.
5. Upjohn Wingert, Manler, History of world Art, Oxford University Press,
1958.
6. The outline of art, Ed. by Sir William Orpen, London, 1957.
7. Sir Lawrence Gowing, A history of art Macmillan, London 1983.
8. H.W Janson, History of Art, New York, 1977.
9. W.J.Durant, The life of Greece, New-York, 1966.
10. O.Taplin, Greek Fire, New-York, 1990.
11. Виппер Б. P., Искусство Древней Греции, M., 1972.
12. Всеобщая история архитектуры, Т.2., М., Стройиздат, 1973.
13. Всеобщая история искусств, Т. 1. Под редакцией Чегодаева А. Д.,
М., Искусство, 1956.
Учебно-методическое издание
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Ancient culture of Greece and Rome
Part II. Arts.
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