Ancient Egypt - T.D. Van Basten

8/15/2019 Ancient Egypt - T.D. Van Basten

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EGYPTOLOGY


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T.D. VAN BASTEN

© 2016 All Rights Reserved


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© Copyright 2016 by T.D. van Basten - All rights reserved.

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INTRODUCTION

Our fascination with ancient Egypt actually extends back to the dynastic periods itself.

Royal family members and key princes during some New Kingdom eras were very

interested in the mysterious and storied history of their home land and worked to preservemonuments, stories, temples, etc. When the Arabs finally ended the Egyptian culture, for

all intents and purposes, the interest in the history of the nation did not die with the end of

dynastic Egypt. The Arabs themselves were highly fascinated with the enduring and rather

strange culture they bore witness to.

What most of us would consider to be the academic study of ancient Egypt, Egyptology, is

thought to have begun during the invasion of Napoleon and the French. We know that

Napoleon had a keen interest in ancient Egypt and after his successful invasion, he wishedto learn as much about this mystical land as he could. He sent out a bevy of scholars and

researchers to document everything they could about the monuments, culture, and

administration of this land.

The lack of ability to understand the written Egyptian language made it difficult to do

much more than try to make assumptions about these peoples based on context. We could

derive some logical conclusions from grave goods, monuments, art work, etc., but actual

details about ancient Egypt was more the stuff of speculation before the discovery andsubsequent deciphering of the Rosetta Stone, which allowed us to begin to read the words

of the ancient Egyptians themselves.

Napoleon’s love for Egypt quickly spread with the publication of The Description of

Egypt, which was the culmination of the research done by his men. This allowed the

western world its first tantalizing glimpse into the majesty of ancient Egypt and we were

immediately hooked. This book is thought to have sparked off the phenomena called

Egyptomania, which can really be said to continue to this day.

The 19th and early 20th centuries were seen by some as the heyday of Egyptology. It was

during this time that massive and sophisticated constructions were excavated from the

sands of the desert. We found amazing towns, temples, and other complex structures that

still baffle many scholars to this day. With the improvement of archaeological practices,

we learned the value of careful and thorough investigation of sites as this would add to the

richness and depth of our understanding.

Now, in the 21st century, much about the ancient Egyptians is still not known. As our

technology advances, particularly DNA analysis and non-invasive scanning, we are


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learning even more about this magical land. These technologies have given us glimpses

into the lives and deaths of the Egyptians in a way that simply could not have been imaged

a few hundred years ago. Our scans are showing a number of interesting anomalies that

beg for further investigation, as well as the tantalizing clues to, perhaps, a previously

undiscovered chamber in the tomb of the boy-King Tut, It is certainly an exciting time to

be a scholar of ancient Egypt.


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TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction

I: The Foundations of Egyptology

II: Origins

III: The Development

The Initial Findings

A Scientific FocusA Business Focus

IV: Recent Achievements

V: A Living Science of Death

Conclusion

A Note from T.D. van Basten

About the Author

Ancient Egypt Biographies


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I


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THE FOUNDATIONS OF EGYPTOLOGY

Most people understand Egyptology to be a field of study that is concerned with the

dynastic historical periods of ancient Egyptian history which includes the Old Kingdom,

Intermediate Periods, and New Kingdom. This is an accurate assumption, but the field of

study actually includes a varied number of interdisciplinary approaches. The study of

Egyptology is mainly concerned with the region of the Nile Delta from the 5th century B.C

to the 7th century A.D. This encompasses the dynastic period up until the conquest by the

Arabs.

Traditionally, Egyptology is seen as either a philosophical area of study or an

archaeological one. There are actually a number of different disciplines that are included

within the field of Egyptology and a wide array of skills that the average Egyptologist

must possess in order to do their job. While it may, at first, feel like a fairly narrow focus

of study, one finds that Egyptology is actually incredibly multifaceted.

While we think of Egyptology as a western pursuit, it actually has far older roots. We see

an interest in the study and preservation of ancient Egyptian history even back during theNew Kingdom dynastic times and after the takeover by the Greeks. Pharaohs such as

Thutmose IV are said to have restored the Sphinx (one of many times this world treasure

was dug out of the sands and repaired in various ways). One of Ramses the Great’s many

sons was known to have a passion for the restoration and preservation of the history of his

nation and was involved in the repair and restoration of many different monuments,

including the pyramids at Giza. Even Egypt’s royal families during the New Kingdom had

a fascination with their roots and history.


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The Pyramids of Giza, vintage engraved illustration. One of Ramses the Great’s many

sons was known to have a passion for the restoration and preservation of the history of his

nation and was involved in the repair and restoration of many different monuments,

including the pyramids at Giza.

In an academic sense, the earliest roots of the study of ancient Egypt and its storied history

came with the invasion of the Greeks. A number of famous Greek historians and

philosophers wrote about Egypt. The so-called “father of history,” Herodotus, wrote of

Egypt, as did Strabo. Perhaps most famously of all the Greek writers of Egyptian history is

the Ptolemaic priest, Manetho, who’s history still provides the base of a good deal of studyof ancient Egyptian history. Although, through the words of other historians, because

sadly, the writings of Manetho were lost in history. We only have others accounts of

Manetho’s works to base our understanding of this time on, but these, while they may be

incomplete, have proven invaluable in our understanding of these ancient peoples.

With the Arab conquest and the “close” of traditional ancient Egyptian history, there waseven still an interest and effort in studying the history of the country. Professors in Cairo’s

Arab academic institutions wrote of Egypt’s history and many wonders.


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We know that many people may see academic Egyptology as a western pursuit, most

would mark the beginning of the field of study we call Egyptology at some time after the

first Europeans began to visit and write about the history and monuments of the nation.

Beginning in the 13th century A.D., we start to see the first writings about ancient Egyptian

history written by Europeans. For the most part, the “study” was relegated to basic

descriptions of wondrous architecture, as well as the writing down of stories and

mythologies they were able to recover from the local people, though these were notalways reliable.

Over time, the study of ancient Egypt would become more professional, rigorous, and

scientific. The first real attempt at a scientific study of ancient Egypt that we know of was

that of John Greaves. In the 17th century A.D., Greaves would undertake measurements of

the pyramids, and these findings would culminate in an illustrated book of his findings.

This provided unbiased data and illustration that could be utilized by many other

historians and Egyptologists who wished to interpret the meaning of the monument.

The so-called “father of Egyptology” is, for many, a Jesuit priest by the name of

Athanasius Kircher. It was he who speculated that hieroglyphics held a deep importance

and significance in Egyptian culture, that they were more than mere ornamentation. He

was to associate that later version of ancient Egyptian, Coptic, to the earlier forms of

Egyptian writing. Perhaps he was inspired by readings of Ibn Wahshiyya the Chaldean,

who was studying the hieroglyphs earlier before him in the 10th century. Seeing these

connections is seen by many as the start of the understanding of the long, consistent, and

culturally resilient history of the ancient Egyptians.

Napoleon also took a keen interest in Egypt and its history. During his periods of

conquest, he sent a number of expeditions to the lands of Upper and Lower Egypt in

attempt to unlock all of the supposed secrets that the ancient land held. Many findings

were done in this particular expedition, one of the most important discoveries was the

Rosetta Stone. When the British defeated the French and took possession of Egypt, theyalso took possession of the Rosetta Stone, which would prove invaluable in the

deciphering of the hieroglyphic language. Though, perhaps ironically, it would ultimately

be a Frenchman who deciphered this important stone.

Egyptology, in the modern sense, really “came of age” somewhere around 1822. This was

when more professional and thorough studies of ancient Egyptian monuments and culture

began to flourish. It was after this time that famous monuments were discovered and

documented in great detail. The study really took a huge leap forward when theFrenchman, Jean-Francois Champollion began to decipher hieroglyphics.


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Once we were able to read and interpret the wealth of inscriptions and other written

material, our knowledge and understanding of these ancient, enduring people began to

become more clear. With the work of famous Egyptologists like William Flinders Petrie

and Howard Carter, the academic, professional study of ancient Egypt really began to take

hold in the popular culture.

What Does It Include?

It is easy to say that Egyptology is the study of dynastic ancient Egyptian history, but this

simplifies the wide knowledge base that is truly required to make an academic study of

ancient Egyptian history. The field of Egyptology requires an understanding of

architecture, art, religion, general historical time lines (including details of ancient

warfare), as well as ancient political and social administration. It requires broad

understanding and integration of knowledge from seemingly disparate fields of study tofully understand this period and culture.

How Does It Work?

Noting that there are many sub disciplines that are involved in the academic study of

Egyptology does little to clear the proverbial picture. Egyptology is an interdisciplinary

field. That means that a number of different, even seemingly unconnected, fields of studycome together to form our understanding of ancient Egypt.

When most people think of ancient Egypt, they think about the consistent art and

architectural styles that pervaded the thousands of years that encompass ancient Egyptian

history. Or, perhaps, they think about the sophisticated and layered pantheon of gods and

mythologies. Both of these areas - architectural studies or religious studies – represent

entirely separate fields of study. There are many people who specialize in general ancient

architecture, or ancient religion.

For the Egyptologist, a general grasp of both of these fields of study is necessary to

understand Egypt in context. There are many different skills that are required to

understand the workings and belief systems of an ancient society that is so different from

the world we currently live in. It shouldn’t be surprising then, that many people will

specialize in a particular field within the broad umbrella of Egyptology and make an entire

career out of it.

There are many different areas of focus for the Egyptologist. These include field work,


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religious study, art and architectural history, general history, language, or even a focus on a

specific dynastic period of time. At any level and regardless of specialty, an knowledge of

archeology, anthropology, and mythology are prerequisites to this field of study.

For those who wish to do field work, training in archaeological practices is necessary, as

well as a working knowledge of Arabic. Many recommend that Egyptologists learn eitherFrench or German (or both!) so they can read the original source documents in their native

language. For those who wish to read tales of the afterlife and Egyptian history in its

native tongue may study hieroglyphics, Demotic script, or Coptic script. Knowing these

ancient languages can help with the direct translation of ancient written material.

Due to the extensive Ptolemaic, or Greek-influenced, period of Egyptian history, many

Egyptologists will also learn Greek so as to read the very earliest historical accounts of

ancient Egyptian history. Some of the first unbiased historical descriptions of ancientEgypt were undertaken by the Greeks, who were themselves fans of history. These

descriptions gave us some of the very first glimpses into the inner workings of Egyptian

society. The Egyptologist who is focused on the language-related aspects of Egyptology is

often referred to as an Egyptian philologist, whereas those who focus on art and

architecture are called archaeological Egyptologists.


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II


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ORIGINS

For as long as we’ve been documenting history, ancient dynastic Egypt has held our

interest and fascination. This was an enduring empire with an incredibly stable culture

with an organizational and belief system that demonstrates a keen understanding of their

environment and the importance of cultural continuity. There is an air of mystery and

exotic intrigue that has seemed to catch many people’s fancy throughout the course of

history and will likely continue to enchant us for many years to come.

Wonders of the world were constructed here, some of the most famous names in historylived and died here, and Egypt has long held an air of esoteric mystery, even to those we

in modern times would consider ancient. This makes it difficult to truly pinpoint the

“origin” of Egyptology, as even ancient Egyptians had a fascination with their own

history. Such a long, enduring culture that spanned literally thousands of years is naturally

something that would fascinate people within and without Egypt.

The development of Egyptology as a field of academic study was a long evolution from

personal interest to professional preservation practices. Even in dynastic times, Egyptianswere interested in their long and storied history. They were interested in understanding

their past, the meanings of massive constructions, and the preservation of their long-

standing culture. By the New Kingdom, Egypt, as a stable culture, had been in existence

thousands of years, an amazing feat for any civilization.

The first people outside of Egypt to write extensively about the history and wonder of the

land were the Greeks. Famous Greeks such as the “father of history” Herodotus, Diodorus

Siculus, and Strabo all wrote about ancient Egypt. Herodotus’ writings are seen asparticularly important as he tried to make the understanding of history a more unbiased

pursuit.

Before Herodotus, most history was written in the form of an epic poem, such as the

works of Homer. Herodotus, however, wanted a more straightforward, unembellished,

linear account of history and this is what he sought out to do. He performed investigations

and actually went to the places he wrote of, talked to the people, and tried to construct a

more historically accurate version of history than we had previously seen. This, of course,

would cost a lot more time and effort back in the days compared to the world we find

ourselves in right now.


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What we would call “western” Egyptology originated during the time of Napoleon.

Napoleon, the famous conqueror, invaded Egypt between the years of 1798-1801. He was

immediately enchanted with the land and storied history of Egypt. Accompanying him on

his conquests was a group of scholars and researchers. He tasked this group with

documenting and exploring Egypt’s long history. While he may have involved these

scholars for more selfish personal interests, it dramatically expanded the western world’s

familiarity and interest in this storied land.

The culmination of these efforts resulted in the publication of the landmark book,

Description de l’Egypte (Description of Egypt). This was the first time that a large amount

of quality source material about ancient Egypt was available to the western world. So

great was the ensuing interest in this storied land that it launched what has been referred to

as Egyptomania.

During the invasion by Napoleon, a French engineer discovered the famous Rosetta Stone.

However, it would still be a few decades before the secrets of the Rosetta Stone were

deciphered. This discovery, however, would prove to be one of the most important in the

history of Egyptology. Without the Rosetta Stone, we may have never been able to decode

the mysterious hieroglyphic language and learn, first-hand, about the life and times of

these ancient peoples.

It was due to the fact that we could not understand hieroglyphics that there was such a

great aura of mystery surrounding ancient Egypt. There was a whole wealth of

inscriptions, writings on papyrus, graffiti, and more, that we simply could not read or

understand. This meant that we had no choice but to try to fill in the proverbial blanks

with the paltry amount of information we had at our disposal. This lead to a lot of false

assumptions and stories with large holes in them.


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The Rosetta Stone. Without this stone, we may have never been able to decode the

mysterious hieroglyphic language and learn, first-hand, about the life and times of these

ancient peoples.

After years of diligent work, Jean-Francois Champollion was able to begin deciphering theEgyptian language as he began to decode the Rosetta Stone. By 1822, he had completely

deciphered the Rosetta Stone and allowed for a much more accurate and detailed

understanding of Egyptians, their ancient culture, religious customs, means of political

organization, and more. There was a huge wealth of information that could now be

translated, thus dramatically raising our knowledge of these ancient people and taking us

beyond the realm of speculation.

Once we were able to understand the language, we became better equipped to understand

the people and the context of the times they lived in. Knowing the language helped us to

make more sense of the art and architecture of this ancient land. And while it certainly

answered a lot of the enduring questions we had about ancient Egypt, deciphering the

language also brought with it a whole new set of questions that we are, still to this day,

trying to answer. Though these were certainly incredibly exciting times to be an

Egyptologist, there was still so much more left to learn and discover. Our ability to

decipher hieroglyphics was the tip of the proverbial iceberg.


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Jean-Francois Champollion, vintage engraved illustration. By 1822, he had completelydeciphered the Rosetta Stone and allowed for a much more accurate and detailed

understanding of Egyptians, their ancient culture, religious customs, means of political

organization, and more.


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III


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THE DEVELOPMENT

Due to the continuity of the culture and all the mysteries that surround the life, art, and

architecture, we have been fascinated with ancient Egypt for thousands of years. The

development of our interest in Egyptology presents an interesting evolution of a curiosity

into an academic discipline. When Egyptology first started, it was more an internal interest

of noble Egyptians, as time progressed, it became a bastion for adventure seekers and

lovers of mystery. As time passed, we realized the need to use professional practices and

preservation efforts, and the interest in Egyptology became an academic, scientific field of

study.

It did not, however, start that way, and a lot of irreversible damage has been done as a

result. Early excavators, before the field of archeology was really established with

practices and procedures, used highly invasive ways of entering into burial chambers, old

temples, and more. It was not unheard of to literally blow your way through the opening

of a tomb to gain access to the interior. They did not have much care for the structures

themselves, merely the potential treasure that may lie inside. Both foreign explorers and

native opportunists are responsible for a large deal of degradation and destruction that we

cannot even begin to quantify. Untold amounts of architectural material were destroyed,along with untold number of inscriptions and paintings.

As the study has progressed, we have also seen a lot of infighting. There is a lot of heated

debate over who the history of ancient Egypt “belongs” to. It has long been a

predominately western field and a good deal of Egypt’s antiquities has found themselves

in European and American museums, rather than in museums within Egypt itself. This has

created a lot of tension and bitterness. This is coupled with the fact that in the earlier years

of professional Egyptology, some didn’t have the professional scruples that are now

required. This means that many had no issue with purchasing stolen or black market

antiquities, as well as secreting them out of the country despite rules banning such

activities. It is still a contentiously debated topic. Many westerners point to cultural and

political instability as a key reason that antiquities should be kept by westerners, but this is

also a rather unfair way to look at things.

Since, at the outset of the more rigorous study of Egyptology, it was the pursuit ofamateurs, rather than professionals, there was a lot of “bad archeology.” Many explorers

were what some call “dynamite archaeologists.” This means what it sounds like, these

explorers would literally blow their way into tombs to search for treasure or other finds


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that might bring them fame or fortune. Because of these poor practices, as well as a lack of

appreciation for more than just the possible finds of monetary value, a lot of history was

destroyed or simply overlooked. A lot more was poorly cataloged and ended up in the

private collections of wealthy westerners. There was little to no respect paid to the fact

that these tombs contained remains of actual people and later archaeological digs would

find human remains unceremoniously scattered and even defaced or intentionally broken

up.


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THE INITIAL FINDINGS

As mentioned earlier, the study of ancient Egypt well predates the western interest in the

subject. However, it can be fairly stated that during the 19

th

and 20

th

centuries, the study ofancient Egypt began to develop into a true field of academic study. As time passed, we

saw better excavation practices being utilized that were far less invasive and destructive,

causing much less “collateral damage”. With the introduction of western interest in

Egyptology, information about this mysterious ancient culture began to be disseminated to

other parts of the world.

With lucky finds and rigorous study, we were able to unlock the secrets of the

hieroglyphic language. This allowed the world a truly accurate and intimate glimpse intothe life and times of the ancient Egyptians, as told in their own voices. This achievement

alone is, perhaps, the most important in all of Egyptology, as we had direct source material

about the belief systems, practices, administration, and more, of these ancient peoples.

The new-found western interest in Egypt led to the categorization and documentation of

many of the wondrous art and architectural achievements of the ancient Egyptians. It led

to more and more people becoming interested in the academic study of these ancient

people and performing these studies in a means that preserved the history and did notcause undue damage to the surrounding structures. Ultimately, this increase in interest

made the field more accessible, but also more focused on preservation and reducing

damage cause by excavation.

With more and more money being poured into expeditions to Egypt to document and

discover more about the mysterious history, the west became more and more entranced

with the amazing accomplishments of peoples that thrived thousands of years before our

time. It was during this time of great discovery that we began to learn about the secrets

held within the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens. We were able to

decipher the language and thus understand the vast array of inscriptions and other writings

we had collected.

It seemed that with each passing year, another key discovery was being made in the mid-

1800s through the 1920s. It was a time when we saw our understanding of these people

and their history expand many times over. During this time, we uncovered therevolutionary and controversial city of Amarna, which was founded by the heretic king,

Akhenaten. This gave us a glimpse into one of the most unstable and revolutionary times

in Egyptian history. During the rule of the heretic king, the capital of Egypt was moved


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and the entire religious structure of the country overhauled. This unwelcome change

would mark the end of a golden age in Egypt that was never again attained.

We started to uncover the massive constructions at the holy Karnak temple complex, as

well as explore the internal structure of the great pyramids at Giza. This was the time

when we began to uncover the prolific constructions of Ramses the Great from the templecomplex at Abu Simbel, to the Ramesseum. We found the site of Hatshepsut’s famous and

beautiful mortuary temple and learned of the unlikely leadership of a female pharaoh. It

was during this time that Howard Carter uncovered the now-famous, mostly untouched,

tomb of the boy-king Tut, who would go on to become one of the most well-known of all

of ancient Egypt’s many pharaohs.


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A SCIENTIFIC FOCUS

Egyptology really began to flourish as an academic discipline after the invasion of Egypt

by Napoleon and the French. Napoleon was well known to have had an intense fascinationwith ancient Egypt. Upon the invasion and control of the country, he sent out a team of

explorers and scholars to document and learn as much about ancient Egyptian history and

culture as possible. This can be seen as the “true start” of Egyptology as a less biased,

more academic, field of study.

One of the most influential early books about ancient Egypt, The Description of Egypt,

was the culmination of the efforts of Napoleon’s researchers. This publication would bring

some of the first source material to the western world about ancient Egypt. During thistime, another discovery was made that would later become seen as the most important

archaeological discovery in the history of Egyptology. This is, of course, the mentioned

discovery of the Rosetta Stone.


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Napoleon, vintage engraved illustration. Egyptology, is thought to have begun during the

invasion of Napoleon and the French. We know that Napoleon had a keen interest in

ancient Egypt and after his successful invasion, he wished to learn as much about this

mystical land as he could.

Auguste Mariette, a French Egyptologist, established the Egyptian-based Antiquities

Service, as well as founding a museum with which to house the collected discoveries of

Egyptian history. Mariette was an early contributor to the field but seemed to have a keen

understanding for the need to protect and preserve the amazing legacy of the ancient

Egyptians. Unlike many that would follow, he would not try to secrete all his knowledge

and findings out of the country, he set up his institutions within Egypt itself. In addition to

the desire to preserve Egypt’s history, Mariette was also a strong proponent of non-

destructive and minimally-invasive excavation procedures.

Looking back on it now, many would argue that this was hardly a scientific time in the

field of Egyptology, but the professional practices had to be developed from somewhere,

from some experience, and it was these pioneers that helped establish said practices that

would go on to be refined so as to better preserve the sites being excavated. In earlyarcheology in Egypt, little heed was paid to the actual structure trying to be breeched. The

main concern was the potential treasure inside. Thus, not much respect was paid to

anything that was deemed invaluable, from countless inscriptions, to the actual remains of

ancient Egyptians themselves.

A good deal was destroyed by early invasive intrusions into ancient tombs or mortuary

temples. As interest in Egypt increased, so too did the interest of treasure seekers who had

heard the tales of the riches to be found in the many tombs of the ancients. The locals toowere looking to profit off this new interest and the subsequent tourism it provided.

There were many who helped with the evolution of the study of Egypt into an academic

discipline. One of the most important early contributors was Jean-Francois Champollion.

It was he who was ultimately responsible for the deciphering of the famous Rosetta Stone

in the 1820s. This helped move forward our understanding exponentially as we could

finally begin to translate and interpret the wealth of inscriptions and other written material

that we had, to that point, been unable to read.

Another important early Egyptologist was the Prussian, Heinrich Brugsch. It was Brugsch


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who compiled the first Egyptian dictionary, providing a great resource to future scholars

and students. He was also the first person to provide interpretations of some of the

dynastic Egyptian texts uncovered at the time.

One of the most famous, and arguably most important, early contributors to Egyptology,

was Flinders Petrie, who would later be knighted and become Sir Flinders Petrie. In 1880,Petrie began what would be a storied 40-year career of excavation and writing about the

history and architecture of ancient Egypt. He was one of the most prolific writers in early

Egyptology. He sought to develop professional “best practices” so as to reduce damage to

excavation sites and to enhance our efforts of historical preservation of the sites. He

wanted to create a methodology that could be used across the field of historical archeology

and his work did a lot to further this cause.

German Egyptologist, Adolf Erman, was one of the first historians to cover thepredynastic and very early periods of Egyptian history. He was the first westerner known

to provide a chronology for the earliest known periods of predynastic and early dynastic

times.

Prussian Egyptologist, Karl (Carl) Lepsius was conscripted by the then-king of Prussia,

Frederich Wilhelm IV. Lepsius was tasked with undertaking an expedition to Egypt for a

historical study that was along the same lines as what we saw when Napoleon invaded the

country. The result of this research trip was the publication of Denkmaler aus Aegyptenund Aethopien (Monuments of Egypt and Ethiopia). This was a 12-volume series of books

that was comprised of 900 different slides of Egyptian inscriptions with interpretations and

descriptions also provided. This was such an important piece of source material on ancient

Egypt that it was still used by students and scholars into the 20th century and is still

referred to even to this day.

French-born researcher, traveler, and historian, Emile Prisse d’Avennes wrote extensively

about ancient Egypt, as well as the ancient Arabic world in general. Most famously, he is

known for the acquisition of what would be dubbed the “Prisse Papyrus.” The Prisse

Papyrus was obtained in Thebes (now Luxor) in 1856. The document is from the 12th

dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. Though just a fragment, it contains part of the important

text, Instructions of Kagemni. The instructions are a series of utterances and maxims

pertaining to the development of virtue of character. This is one of the only known

surviving fragments of this important document and is now housed in Paris at the

Bibliotheque nationale de France.

Another famous contributor to early unbiased study of Egyptology was the English writer

Amelia B. Edwards. She wrote the famous travelogue, published in 1877, called A


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Thousand Miles Up the Nile, which was a description of a trip she took between 1873-

1874. In addition to writing about ancient Egypt, she also co-founded the Egypt

Exploration Fund (now the Egypt Exploration Society) and served as its honorary

secretary. She also gained notoriety after she went on a lecture tour across America,

discussing her experiences in Egyptology.

Gaston Maspero was a French Egyptologist – born Italian - perhaps best known for

coining the term “Sea Peoples” to refer to the mysterious invaders that regularly came

from the Mediterranean. He wrote extensively on ancient Egypt and is best remembered

for his efforts to further the understanding of the complex ancient Egyptian religion and

mythology. He found a number of French journals dedicated to Egyptology, as well as a

repository of knowledge for French Egyptologists.


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A BUSINESS FOCUS

Not all endeavors into the study of ancient Egypt were undertaken for their academic,

cultural, or social merit. It became clear pretty early on that there was a monetary aspectas well, and that the interest in Egyptology could actually be the basis for a whole business

enterprise. The western fascination with ancient Egypt was seen as a potential monetary

boon for people within and without of the country and they were quite right about this

notion.

Egypt was one of the first (but certainly not the last) historical regions that has been

pillaged, plundered, and then slowly eroded as tourist traps. We see some of the first

inklings of the business element of the fascination with Egypt shortly after the invasion ofNapoleon and the French. As a wealth of new, exciting, and mysterious information about

ancient Egypt became available to westerners, the trend of Egyptomania was sparked.

This refers to the explosion of western interest in ancient Egypt that started with

Napoleon’s conquests and could, arguable, still be said to be going on to the present day.

Unfortunately, Egypt’s gift would also be Egypt’s curse. The storied history that wasfiltering into the western media was drawing interest from adventurers and treasure

seekers alike. Wealthy explorers traveled to Egypt or funded expeditions and it was during

this time that we started to see the removal of a vast amount of Egyptian cultural

antiquities from their native land and taken back to various places in Europe.

It was not just European explorers and treasure hunters who were responsible for the

destructive pillaging that occurred in pretty much all of these ancient sites. As more and

more westerners with expendable income flocked to Egypt, the financially-strugglinglocals saw an opportunity to better their plight. Natives have been looting royal and noble

tombs since dynastic times. It was well known that pharaohs, royalty, and nobility were

buried with untold riches, making them targets of grave robbery almost as soon as the

person was entombed. As the nature of Egyptology began to change, locals began to see

that westerners were willing to pay huge amounts of money for seemingly worthless

antiquities and began to sell them on a very active black market.

There were more tomb robbers than can ever be accurately accounted for. Some of them

even went on to enjoy a marginal amount of fame for their exploits. Unfortunately, their

plundering was done without care for the historical and religious value of the places they


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were plundering. People were more than willing to skirt the law to find fame and fortune

via ancient Egypt.

Perhaps, most famously of the early westerners that became known for their lack of

scruples, was Henry Salt. Salt was a wealthy English traveler, diplomat, and collector.

During his career, he had been involved with a number of government-sponsored missionsto various places in Africa such as Ethiopia, as a means to determine whether or not there

was potential for political or economic relations with the local governments. In 1815, he

was named British consul-general to Egypt and was stationed in Cairo.

It was during his tenure as consul-general that he began to collect vast amounts of

Egyptian antiquities. Most famously was the head of Ramses the Great from the

megalithic construction, the Ramesseum. This artifact is now to be found at the British

Museum. He is also known to have purloined Ramses III’s burial sarcophagus, which isnow at the Louvre in Paris.

Among other things, Salt was known for his willingness to circumvent legalities in his

quest to collect ancient artifacts. He would benefit richly from the fame he obtained from

the donations he made to various museums, as well as the monetary benefit he received as

a result of selling portions of his vast collection to various antiquities collectors in Europe.

In addition to exploring himself, he also funded the expeditions of others. During his first

year in Cairo, Salt was fortuitously introduced to Giovanni Belzoni. Belzoni was a

Venetian strong man turned explorer. He was commissioned by Salt to help with the

physical movement of the giant head of Ramses from the site to the river where it could

then be transported back to Europe. This was no small undertaking in those days. This was

a 7 ton statue and there were no motorized machines that they could use to raise artifacts

of this size.

Belzoni was able to accomplish this daunting feat though. It took 130 men 17 days, but

with levers, ropes, and pulleys, and a lot of elbow grease, Belzoni and his men were able

to transport the giant head to the river for transport. While many in the western world see

this as an amazing feat, many Egyptians were less enthusiastic with having their temples

dismantled and removed from the country.


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deal of ancient Egypt’s history is located in other parts of the world, not Egypt. Mummies,

countless artifacts, and even monuments such as obelisks have been removed from their

native lands and can now be found in various places throughout Europe and America. On

the one hand, we can be thankful for the preservation of this history, on the other hand, we

have to be sad for all that was destroyed through primitive and financially-motivated

excavation efforts.


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RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS

It might seem like the heyday of Egyptology ended before the turn of the 20th century, but

there were a great deal of discoveries that happened after the initial explosion of findings

related to ancient Egypt. Even up through the present day, more of Egypt’s secrets

continue to unfold as we discover more constructions, more about the lives and times of

the people themselves, and this allows us to develop an even clearer picture of these

mysterious ancient peoples. It might be fair to say that we will never fully understand the

mystery and history of the lands of Upper and Lower Egypt. But with new technology,

improved methods of study, and greater knowledge sharing, we can learn as much as is

possible about a people so far removed from our modern times.

While many mark the deciphering of the Rosetta Stone by Champollion as the greatest

find in Egyptology, it is not the only find that dramatically moved our understanding

forward. When it comes to ancient history, it can be difficult to separate fact from

mythology. The more we learn, the deeper our understanding becomes, allowing us to

separate fact from fiction – reality from religion. What we have found is that, though the

technology was different, the social and religious customs quite foreign to what we have

in the modern day, they were, in many ways, also not that different from modern people.They were law-abiding, god-fearing people who wanted to raise happy and healthy

families, just like the people of today.

But for all the similarities, they were also incredibly different from us in the modern world

that they can almost seem alien. Some of the customs are still not understood, including

the development of the Egyptian culture itself. For all intents and purposes, it appears that

Egypt, as a culture, emerged fully formed from the sands of the desert at the banks of the

Nile. Logic tells us that this cannot be possible, but even to this day, there is much to

discover about ancient Egypt, both in its predynastic times, as well as during the period we

are all so familiar with.

With all that said, there have been a few discoveries that have really changed our

understanding of these ancient people, or allowed us to add a richness to our

understanding of their lives. What follows are just a few of the most important modern

and recent discoveries about ancient Egypt. The findings discussed here are by no meansthe only ones of importance, however, they are the most well-known and accepted as

having significantly furthered our ability to interpret the information and mythologies we

found.


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Perhaps the most well-known discovery during the modern history of Egyptology was the

discovery of the relatively unsullied tomb of the boy-king Tutankhamen. Discovered by

Howard Carter during excavations in 1922, this was one of the biggest finds in the history

of Egyptian archeology. It was this discovery that reignited worldwide interest in ancient

Egypt. The tomb yielded a wealth of luxurious grave goods and even the remains of the

ancient pharaoh. This would give us amazing insight into the lives and burial practices of

ancient royalty and also gave us some of the most iconic Egyptian artifacts ever found,

such as King Tut’s famous gold death mask. Recent studies of King Tut’s chamber reveal

exciting potential for future discovery and will be discussed in detail later on.

One of the major, yet unsung, finds for modern Egyptologists came with the discovery of

the town of Deir el-Medina. Deir el-Medina, which in ancient times was called Set Maat

(“The Place of Truth”), was an artisan’s village. The inhabitants of this ancient villagewere the builders and artists who constructed the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, as well

as their families. The village was inhabited continually for some 400 years during between

the 18th and 20th centuries BC (during the New Kingdom). These were, for the most part,

skilled workers and artisans, so they do not represent the peasant class of Egyptian society,

however, they do give us a detailed and unparalleled glimpse into the lives of more

“regular” citizens of the Egyptian empire, as opposed to simply the ruling class.

Excavation of this village began in 1922 by Bernard Bruyere. Unfortunately, what shouldhave been a landmark discovery was quickly overshadowed by the discovery of the tomb

of King Tut by Howard Carter during that same year. This find has been unmatched and

yet, to this day, is still a rather obscure finding. While it may not be as “sexy” as finding

gold and other riches of a pharaohnic burial, it actually provides us with tangible

information as to the daily lives of regular people. The excavation of this site gave us great

detail and insight into the lives of everyday Egyptians (albeit upper middle class skilled

workers). This was incredibly valuable information as a good deal of what we know about

the people of ancient Egypt is limited to the royal class and the priestly class. To date, no

other site like Deir el-Medina has ever been found.


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6

Deir el-Medina, which in ancient times was called Set Maat (“The Place of Truth”), was

an artisan’s village. The inhabitants of this ancient village were the builders and artists

who constructed the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, as well as their families. To date, no

other site like Deir el-Medina has ever been found.

The so-called Khufu Ship was an incredibly important find made by Kamal el-Mallakh

back in 1954. el-Mallakh discovered a pit at the base of the Great Pyramid at Giza that

contained a huge boat, remarkably well preserved some three thousand years after it wasplaced in the ground. The discovery was important as it showed us just how advanced the

ancient Egyptians understanding of the engineering of water vessels was, even back in Old

Kingdom times. This made us rethink that relative sophistication and level of

advancement we attribute to ancient Egyptians.

The boat is said to be a rather remarkable feat of engineering, especially given the

antiquity of the craft. In fact, the Khufu Ship is one of the oldest surviving boats we have

from antiquity. Boating experts claim that the ship is of a solid design such that wouldallow it to safely traverse a river or lake, even today. It was not, however, designed for

actual use, at least it does not appear so. It appears that the boat, dubbed a solar boat or


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solar bark, was intended to be symbolic of the king’s journey across the sky, similar to the

daily journey made by the sun.

Evidence to support the idea that this was intended to be a symbolic vessel, not an actual

water-going vessel, comes in the form of what is missing from the boat. There is no

indication of any rigging for sails, nor is there any room for oars or paddlers. These things

alone indicate that the boat was not actually used for travel. It does stand to reason,

though, that they had an understanding of these concepts and thus, would have been able

to build an equally well-built boat that was fitted with the proper equipment for actual use

on water.

7

The so-called Khufu Ship was an incredibly important find made by Kamal el-Mallakh

back in 1954. The discovery was important as it showed us just how advanced the ancient

Egyptians understanding of the engineering of water vessels was, even back in Old

Kingdom times.

In more recent times, new technology has allowed us to gain greater insight into the life,


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death, and inner details of the lives of ancient Egyptians. One field that has allowed us to

make new discoveries is the field of DNA testing. For a long time, all we really had in

terms of evidence to make sense of remains and other finds was contextual. Improvements

in our ability to obtain DNA and make sense of it have allowed us to peer into the actual

makeup of the ancient Egyptians.

Through DNA sequencing and other genetic techniques, we can learn of an individual’s

racial heritage, their general health, and even the means with which the mummy was

embalmed. However, due to the possibility of modern contamination of genetic samples,

making any major assumptions based on DNA sequencing data of mummies remains very

controversial.

One of the main ways we are learning about ancient Egypt during current times is through

the use of various types of scanning and other non-invasive means of peering insideancient monuments or underground. These scans have helped us to identify locations of

ancient settlements, other monuments, as well as to alert us to a variety of anomalies

present in some of the already discovered tombs and monuments which beg further

investigation.

Recent thermal scans of the Great Pyramid at Giza show some very interesting

temperature anomalies that beg further study. These scans have shown that there are three

adjacent cut stones at the base of the Great Pyramid that show significantly highertemperatures than the stones surrounding it. The two main proposed reasons for this

anomaly are the presence of a chamber or air shaft, or, perhaps, the use of different

materials (which radiate heat differently) in the construction of the monument. There were

additional temperature anomalies found in the upper portion of the Great Pyramid too,

leading to a wide array of theories as well as desire to probe deeper into these mysteries.

Infrared satellite imaging has also helped further Egyptology in that it can pick up on

underground structures that can lead archaeologists to good places for excavation.

Recently, such satellite imaging has shown the presence of some 1,000 tombs, a number of

new pyramids, and at least 3,000 different settlements. Initial excavations at these sites

have confirmed the findings of the satellite images and further excavation of these sites is

presently underway.


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8

Recent thermal scans of the Great Pyramid at Giza have shown that there are three

adjacent cut stones at the base of the Great Pyramid that show significantly higher

temperatures than the stones surrounding it, leading to a wide array of theories as well as

desire to probe deeper into these mysteries

One of the more popularized discoveries from ancient Egypt during recent times came

within just the last couple of years. British Egyptologist Nicholas Reeves performed some

scanning in the internal structure of the burial chamber of King Tut and found what he

thinks is evidence of an additional chamber within the tomb that has been undiscovered

for many thousands of years. Reeves’ claims led the Egyptian Antiquities department to

order more high tech scans of the tomb to see if there was anything to these claims.

As it turns out, sophisticated infrared and laser scans appear to confirm Reeves’ claims

that there is, indeed, another open space behind the walls of King Tut’s tomb. This finding

has led to much speculation as to what may lie on the other side of this newly discovered

doorway. Reeves and others claim that it may be the previously undiscovered remains of

the famous, beautiful Queen Nefertiti, who was King Tut’s stepmother.

Others think that the chamber may hold the remains of Kiye, who was another one of

Akhenaten’s wives. Akhenaten was, of course, the heretic king and father of the boy-king

Tut. The people who disagree with the assumption that a royal wife is to be found in this


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newly discovered chamber. They claim that even a powerful Great Royal Wife like

Nefertiti would never have been buried in the illustrious Valley of the Kings as that was

against tradition, something the ancient Egyptians took very seriously.

With the scans that seem to confirm Reeves’ initial findings of a previously unknown

chamber, plans must be made to access said chamber to see what it contains. This has tobe very carefully planned as excavation must proceed in such a way as to not damage any

potential finds behind the wall or the exiting tomb of Tut itself.


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V


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A LIVING SCIENCE OF DEATH

As with pretty much all other fields of study, the study of ancient Egypt has evolved

greatly since its earliest days. While we know that there was interest in ancient Egypt back

in dynastic times, as we have discussed along in this book, we most often consider the

start of the study of ancient Egypt as a field of academic study, to have been around the

time that Napoleon invaded Egypt and sent out a bevy of scholars to research and

document their findings.

While it may seem a bit macabre, much of what we know about ancient Egypt, we havelearned from the dead and the customs that surround death and the afterlife. For ancient

Egyptians, this was a key focus during their lives. Preparing for the afterlife was one of

the most important and enduring activities undertaken throughout pharaonic times. Death,

like birth, was seen as another beginning to the ancient Egyptians. There was a whole

other “life” after the one we experience on the physical plane and so, naturally, there is a

lot we can learn about the people based on these customs.

It is fair to say that we probably know more about the death and afterlife of ancientEgyptians than we do about their actual daily life. So much of what has stood the test of

time is either related in some way to death and rebirth, or it relates to the pantheon of

varied gods worshiped by the ancients. So much about ancient Egyptian culture was

different than our own, but this could especially be said when it comes to their feelings

and practices surrounding death. In many ways, death was a series of tests, followed by

something that was rather similar to actual life.

When we first started documenting the monuments and artwork of ancient Egypt, itbecame clear that they had a sophisticated culture surrounding death and life after death.

However, during the earliest times of Egyptology, we could only make assumptions based

on what we could see, as well as whatever context we might be able to glean from the

peoples who have long lived with these monuments. This meant that we made a lot of bad

assumptions, but we did the best we could with the limited information we had available

to us.

After Champollion deciphered the Rosetta Stone, we were actually able to read the written

word of the Egyptians and this allowed the field to become a more rigorous, scientific, and

academic discipline. We had a huge wealth of different inscriptions and documents that we


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had been unable to decipher until the time of Champollion. There was much work to be

done to translate and interpret the wealth of written material we were beginning to

discover.

In the late 19th century, the archaeological element of Egyptology really began to come

into its own. At first, our archeology was messy and destructive, but it was also still highlyinformative. Much of what we excavate is either tombs, thus related to death, religious

monuments, and in some rare cases, actual villages and settlements of skilled Egyptian

artisans. These discoveries gave us the bulk of the information we currently have related

to ancient Egypt.

As time progressed, our practices got more professional and standardized. This allowed

for easier interpretation of information, as well as an increased ability to share research

across nations. There were a great many amazing discoveries in the early 1900s that reallyshowed us just how important preparation for the afterlife was to the Egyptians. We

learned that one of the first orders of business for a newly crowned king was to begin to

plan and execute his burial chamber. Even with this advanced planning, due to the variety

of ailments and uncertainty of the times, many rulers had to be buried in tombs that were

not finished.

In many ways, it seems like the Egyptians saw the afterlife as rather similar to the life they

lived here on Earth. The journey to the afterlife would be fraught with complications,trials, and tests. Once these proverbial (and sometimes literal) waters were traversed, one

would settle into a life that had a lot in common with corporal existence. One still had to

perform work, such as farming and daily house chores. This is markedly different than

many modern ideas of the afterlife, but to the Egyptians, this made perfect sense and they

took the preparations for their version of the afterlife seriously. A king would not like to

find themselves without adequate levels of help when they become an Osiris in the sky of

the afterlife.

As no royal pharaoh would deign to take part in these humble activities of daily life, much

of the grave goods they were buried with were effigies of servants, slaves, farmhands, etc.,

that would be animated and then perform the work needed for the maintenance of the king

and his various needs. These were often called “ushabtis” and were generally made of

wood. They believed that the dead needed to be buried with all they would need in the

afterlife, which was much the same as what we need in this life: food, drink, a work force,

clothing, and, of course, a few little luxuries to make your stay in the afterlife a little nicer.

This meant that many graves were almost bursting at the proverbial seams with goods.This fact was well known by all and sundry, which is why the tombs were so often the

target of tomb robbing mere years after the tomb was sealed with the king’s remains

inside.


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What started out as a merely observation-oriented field of study has become an

increasingly-complex field of academic study where many focus on very specific subsets

of the study of ancient history, such as focusing on the religious structure of Egypt, or the

language of the nation. The professionalization of the field, coupled with advances in

technology has really allowed us to expand our understanding and is still leading to the

unweaving of ancient mysteries to this day.

9

Preparing for the afterlife was one of the most important and enduring activities

undertaken throughout pharaonic times. Death, like birth, was seen as another beginning

to the ancient Egyptians. There was a whole other “life” after the one we experience on

the physical plane and so, naturally, there is a lot we can learn about the people based on

these customs.


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CONCLUSION

We have come a long way in our understanding of ancient culture, but the more we learn,the more questions also seem to be raised. The study of ancient Egypt has been no

different. This was an enduring, complex culture that had a remarkable degree of

continuity that is pretty much unknown in any other time in history. There was a pride in

tradition, in doing things as they had always been done since Zep Tepi (“the First Time”

when the gods like Osiris ruled the land). This is something that has not been seen again in

documented history, at least not to the same degree.

Many other cultures have long been fascinated with Egypt. Many in ancient Greecethought that much knowledge and wisdom originated in ancient Egypt. This mysterious

land was able to capture the fascination of a good many people. The first known inquiries

into the history of ancient Egyptian history came during the New Kingdom dynastic times

when princes and members of the royal family became more interested in the preservation

of their cultural heritage. When the Arabs conquered the lands of Upper and Lower Egypt,

they too became fascinated with the storied history and pursued their own study of the

history and mystery of the lands on the banks of the Nile.

What we would consider Egyptology really began with the French. Napoleon was

enamored with ancient Egypt. So much so that after he conquered the country, he sent of

retinue of scholars to document everything they could pertaining to ancient Egypt. These

research efforts culminated in The Description of Egypt, a publication that would prove to

be one of the most important in the spread of interest in Egyptology. So fascinated was the

western world with this mysterious land that this publication sparked what has been

dubbed “Egyptomania,” which was the fervent interest westerners developed in the study

of ancient Egypt.

After Napoleon’s conquest, the study of ancient Egypt had officially gained traction.

Egypt attracted a good many different kinds of people: from those who were interested in

history to those who saw the opportunity to make a fortune. This led to westerners heading

to Egypt in droves to look for possible fame and fortune in the sands of Egypt.

This would end up being both a good and a bad thing. It was good in that we really began

to learn a lot about ancient Egypt with the discovery of monuments, goods, and other

materials that we could use to glean information about these ancient peoples. However,

many people did not appreciate anything outside of potential treasure. This meant that a


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lot of the methods used were rather unprofessional, including the use of what has been

called “dynamite archeology.” This type of excavation completely destroyed much of the

structure itself (most often a tomb), as well as any information that might have been

gleaned from wall paintings or inscriptions.

As the field progressed, so too did the adoption of less invasive, standardized, professionalpractices for the excavation of tombs and other monuments. During this time, a great deal

of Egypt’s storied history was spirited out of the country and into western museums and

private collections, something that would cause there to be a lot of tension between

western Egyptologists and native Egyptian Egyptologists. These tensions still pervades to

this day as there is a lot of debate as to who really “owns” the history of these people.

Once we learned how to read Egyptian hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic script, our

understanding of the inner lives and customs of the Egyptians expanded greatly. It wasafter we could translate these documents that we really learned about the traditions, the

continuity, the religion, and the administration of the lands of Upper and Lower Egypt.

Being able to read the words of the Egyptians themselves allowed us an unprecedented

glimpse into the lives of such a fascinating culture that thrived for thousands of years

before western civilization emerged.

With each passing year, we learned more and more about these people and also the

importance of preserving their history for posterity. History is not only a rich, highlyentertaining story, but it is a valuable lesson about where we came from and how we got to

be what we are today. Hundreds of years have passed since the first westerners entered

Egypt with the intent to uncover the secrets of this mysterious land. And while she has

yielded some of her secrets, there is still a great deal to be discovered about Egypt, and

also much that is probably permanently lost to the proverbial sands of time.

A new resurgence in Egyptomania has spread throughout the world in recent years due to

a variety of new and potentially dramatic discoveries. Our technology has significantly

improved and this gives us new ways to glean information about people who lived long

ago. From new, highly sophisticated, forms of DNA analysis, we can learn much about the

racial history of the individual being studied, and even much about their health and cause

of death. Non-invasive scanning procedures allow us to “look” through the ground or solid

stone to see what might be potentially found within.

Recent discoveries of temperature anomalies within various portions of the Great Pyramidat Giza has led to a new generation of people interested in uncovering the mysteries of this

massive megalithic structure. Recent scans performed in the tomb of the boy-King Tut

indicate the likelihood of the presence of additional chambers behind one of the walls that


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was, until now, unknown. There is a lot of excitement surrounding this discovery as many

scholars have speculated that there could be an undisturbed tomb behind these walls,

perhaps even the tomb of the infamously beautiful Queen Nefertiti. The coming years

prove to hold exciting things for the study of Egyptology.


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A NOTE FROM T.D. VAN BASTEN

Thank you very much for reading Egyptology, If you enjoyed it and found what you were

looking for, please be so kind to take a moment to leave a review at your favourite retailer

such as Amazon.

Leave a review

I also welcome contact from readers. You can find me on Twitter, and I would be more

than happy to get in touch with you. If you enjoy my books, you can also choose to follow

me on Twitter or Amazon to be notified of new releases.

T.D. van Basten

Follow me on Twitter

@TvanBasten

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

T.D. van Basten is a 25-year young man living in the Mediterranean region to follow hispassion and explore the old historical areas. He is a passionate lover of history. Growingup, he has always loved to learn about the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and otherhistorical events. With his power of imagination, he could almost live and see the world ashow it used to be.

After graduating from the University, he began to see and explore the world. Taking tripsto various regions himself, such as Egypt to discover the pyramids and famous tombs.Followed by spending months in Spain and the surrounding areas, where he still lives.This allowed him to see the worlds that he loved first hand. Over the years, he hasassembled an extraordinary collection of artifacts, and he is now ready to share the talesthat he always loved with you.

Visit the author page

http://www.amazon.com/T.D.-van-Basten/e/B018QYRKRM


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ANCIENT EGYPT BIOGRAPHIES

THE EGYPT OF CLEOPATRA

http://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Egypt-T-D-van-Basten-ebook/dp/B01972WEWI/ref=la_B018QYRKRM_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1452112935&sr=1-1http://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Egypt-T-D-van-Basten-ebook/dp/B01972WEWI/ref=la_B018QYRKRM_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1452112935&sr=1-1


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Cleopatra VII (69 BC - 30 BC), the last Pharaoh of Egypt, was a very educated, crafty,

ambitious and clever woman. Her intellect and charisma – far greater than her beauty and

sexuality - allowed her to keep the power for nearly twenty years by fighting against – and

allying with - the greatest power at the time, Rome. Although her history was written by

who defeated her and, therefore, modified according conveniences of them, there have

been found, in recent archaeology researches, evidences of her intellect and achievements

that portrayed her beyond her beauty and sexual power. She captivated the two greatest

Romans of her time, and destroyed herself. Cleopatra was representing everything that the

Romans didn’t like. Not only was she a woman, but she was a woman with power.

http://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Egypt-Cleopatra-Last-Pharaoh-ebook/dp/B018Q6DR4


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THE EGYPT OF NEFERTITI

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For centuries, the beautiful, mysterious Queen Nefertiti, has captured our imaginations.

We do not know very much about the woman’s origins, or her demise, which only adds to

her mysterious appeal. What we do know, however, is that she was the wife of one of the

most controversial and radical of all of ancient Egypt’s Pharaohs.

Her husband, Akhenaten, often referred to as the “Heretic King” started a revolution for

the proto-monotheistic cult of Aten, the sun disk. This revolution led to dramatic socialand political changes during what was later called the Amarna Period. From a huge

upheaval in the traditional power structure of the nation, the outlaw of traditional gods,

and even the relocation of the capital of the nation, there were actually deliberate attempts

from the rulers who came after to erase this period of Egyptian history from the historical

record. And they nearly succeeded.

http://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Egypt-Nefertiti-Beauty-Nile-ebook/dp/B01972WEW


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THE EGYPT OF HATSHEPSUT

Hatshepsut was the first and arguably most powerful female to rule as pharaoh during its

long and storied history. Her rule was highly unconventional, yet she had the support of

the power brokers at the time. Somehow, during her long reign as pharaoh with her

stepson, she managed to maintain positive relationships with the right constituency, as

well as her co-ruler. It would seem likely that, if there was internal strife within the royalhouse as to the moves made by Hatshepsut, there would be some documentation or

indication of this tension in the historical record. As of the time of this writing, no

evidence of poor relations or civil strife has ever been found.

http://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Egypt-T-D-van-Basten-ebook/dp/B01AS0S7http://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Egypt-T-D-van-Basten-ebook/dp/B01AS0S7B0


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THE EGYPT OF R AMSES II

In all of Egypt’s long and storied history, Ramses the Great stands out as one of the best

known and successful of all. Ruling the country for some 67 years, Ramses II ruled over

Egypt during a time of stability and prosperity. His rule was marked by economic

prosperity, successful military campaigns, and impressive building projects. He wantedfrom the very beginnings of his long reign, to ensure that his legacy was sealed, literally in

stone, and that reminders of his rule were so ubiquitous that he would not be forgotten. In

this, like many other elements of his kingship, he was highly successful and he has gone

down in history as a legendary ruler.

http://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Egypt-Ramses-II-Great-ebook/dp/B01BK001Hhttp://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Egypt-Ramses-II-Great-ebook/dp/B01BK001HA/


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THE EGYPT OF THUTMOSE III

Thutmose III was one of the most known and respected of all of Egypt’s pharaohs,

regardless of dynasty or time period. He ruled during the New Kingdom, which is often

seen as the “star-studded” dynasty in ancient Egyptian history because that’s the dynasty

where many of the “big names” come from. He had the benefit of a lengthy co-rule that

allowed him to develop and hone his military skills which would serve him incredibly

well during his time in power.

His early life and rule were rather unusual, and he was a powerful person, even when he

was just a mere infant. He was the son of Thutmose II and one of his lesser wives of

common heritage. Thutmose II was married to the incredibly powerful Queen Hatshepsut,

but the two were unable to produce a male heir which meant they had to look to Thutmose

II’s harem for a suitable successor. Thutmose III was the chosen successor.

http://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Egypt-Thutmose-III-Napoleon-ebook/dp/B01CH1JTH4/http://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Egypt-Thutmose-III-Napoleon-ebook/dp/B01CH1JTH4/


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Ancient Egypt - T.D. Van Basten

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