Preliminary Ancient History 2010 Historical Investigation

By George Tsikrikas, Word Count: 2041

Focus Question: Assess the impact and influence of ‘The Odyssey’ by Homer’ and ‘Theogony by Hesiod on Athenian Religion in the 4th and 5th Century BCE?

Homer and Hesiod were the two most prominent authors in Archaic Greece in the 8th century BCE. Their written works have transpired millenniums and are still widely known to this day. The Ancient Greeks regarded the poetry of Homer (c.750 BCE) and Hesiod (c.720 BCE) as their highest cultural achievement and it can be seen that both have had an incontrovertibly profound affect on Greek religion, hero cults and perception of the afterlife in the centuries following their completion, particularly in the 4th and 5th century BCE. In assessing the impact and influence, the nature and contents of the literature must be understood, as well as the context of the Greek society in the aforementioned time period.

The main problem encountered with an investigation using texts written in a foreign language, particularly texts that were written approximately 2800 years ago, is that the translations and alterations could create a text that differs from what the original authors intended. Hesiod’s ‘Theogony’ and Homer’s ‘The Odyssey’ were subject to such a reverence in Ancient Greece that it is highly unlikely that one would have the audacity to alter the stories in any way from the time that they were written. The accuracy of the translation of such sources is easily verified when cross-referencing the translations of the texts, while the name of Greek god’s has been substituted with their Roman counterparts in some versions, the contents of the story in all translations are relatively identical.

In the 5th and 4th century BCE in Athens, Homer and Hesiod’s work were introduced to children as soon as they became literate. Their tales were displayed in the pottery of households and institutions. Their works were even made into plays to entertain the masses. Though, without contest, the most influential impact the two texts had on Athenian culture was undoubtedly the unification, and in some aspects origination of Athenian Religion in the 4th and 5th

Century BCE.

While there is irrefutable evidence of an established polytheistic religious system practiced throughout Greece prior to the works of Homer and Hesiod, there has been a significant influence on religion in Ancient Greece. Greek religion had no unified body of teachings known to the entire population, there was no ritual binding that was common amongst all areas in Greece and each locality had it’s own distinctive myths, practices and even gods.

The work of Homer and Hesiod redefined Greek religion, and by the beginning of the 5th century it had created a greater unity between the myths and legends of the separate city-states throughout Greece. Not only did it unify the religion, but even provided personas for many of the Gods. 19th Century Historian Edward Grote attained that: “The work of Homer and Hesiod was, to reduce to system the most authentic traditions about the Hellenic Gods and demi-gods, and consolidate a catholic belief in the place of conflicting local superstitions”1 1 Mr E. Grote, Hesiod, and Theognis, Rev. James Davies, William Blackwood and Sons, 1873

Preliminary Ancient History 2010 Historical Investigation

By George Tsikrikas, Word Count: 2041

Homer’s Odyssey is a far larger text with considerably more and varied themes and concepts, Hesiod’s Theogony however, is dedicated entirely to the story of the God’s, and its value is considerably more significant when assessing a general overview of the Religion. Hesiod provided understanding of the religion that enabled it to become a far more influential aspect of Athenian life.

This influence is evident in archaeological remains, which suggests that in between c.450-430 BCE a Temple of Poseidon at Sunium, of Nemesis at Rhanmous, of Ares at Acharnai and of Hephaestus2 above the agora, all in Athens were erected. This suggests that the range of Gods that were being worshipped in Athens in the 5th century BCE was rapidly increasing, and evidence of the unification of Greek Religion is established beyond doubt.

5th Century Athenian Philosopher Herodotus, author of “The Histories”, one of the most valuable surviving primary sources available today, credits Homer and Hesiod for forming the conception of Greek gods and religion that operated in Athens in the 5th century. “Whence the gods severally sprang, whether or no they had all existed from eternity, what forms they bore- these are questions of which the Greeks knew nothing until the other day, so to speak. For Homer and Hesiod were the first to compose Theogonies, and give the gods their epithets, to allot them their several offices and occupations, and describe their forms”3. Herodotus

5th century philosopher Xenophanes however, did not offer his accreditation. "Homer and Hesiod have ascribed to the gods all things that are a shame and a disgrace among mortals, stealings and adulteries and deceivings of one another"4

Xenophanes criticised the anthropomorphic5 nature of the Gods depicted in Hesiod and Homer’s texts, and a satirical approach to the two authors pervades his philosophy. While this source, like any primary source cannot be entirely overlooked, more must be understood about the author to see that it is plagued with bias. Xenophanes is widely regarded as one of the first monotheists in Western culture. "He sees all over, thinks all over, and hears all over"6, just one of the many displays of monotheism in his philosophy. It can be seen by this, that due to his own personal views on Religion, Xenophanes has not been entirely reliable in displaying the impact and influence of Homer and Hesiod in Athens in the 5th century. Xenophanes has not offered a universal view on the two authors and their impact, but only his own, obscured personal opinion.

Homer and Hesiod’s impact on religion overall in Athens in the 5th and 4th century BCE has been significant. Though an overview of the entire religion will not provide an adequate gage of their impact and influence and so it is necessary to assess the impact and influence in the intricacies of Athenian Religion, the most important intricacies being Hero cults, and theories of life after death.

2 See Appendix for Archaeological remains of sites3 Herodotus, The Histories (Book II), c.440 BCE4 Xenophanes, 5 Of or pertaining to human appearance6 Xenophanes,

Preliminary Ancient History 2010 Historical Investigation

By George Tsikrikas, Word Count: 2041

Hero cults were one of the most distinctive features of ancient Athenian religion. The name of the city itself can be attributed to a Hero, King Erechtheus, who chose Athena over Poseidon to become the patron god of the city, resulting in his death at the hands of Poseidon, Interestingly enough, it was in Homer’s Odyssey when Erechtheus made his first known appearance, some time prior to Athens emergence has an epochal city in Ancient Greece. According to archaeological evidence, Hero cults began, or at least assumed radical new forms in the mid to late 8th century BCE, approximately the same time that Homer and Hesiod wrote their texts. “How I wished you could have met your fate and died at Troy in the full enjoyment of your royal state. For then the whole nation would have joined in building you a mound and you would have left a great name for your sons”7

This quote is one of the many examples of the reverence for heroism(dying in battle) that pervades The Odyssey, The influence of Homer in the establishment of hero cults is a widely debated point. The strongest objections are that Homer could not have caused a phenomenon like hero cults, as in his epics they are reflected on rather than introduced. However, even if these objections hold true, Homer’s influence and impact is still unassailable. Similar to what Hesiod has achieved with religion, Homer has not been responsible for the origins of the Hero cult, but has unified the tradition and solidified its importance.

There are some conflicting issues concerning Hero cults in the two texts. In Hesiod’s account the heroes are sourced from the gold and silver ages, rather than just those who met their death in the Trojan War. The difference in perspectives can be attributed to the area of Archaic Greece that Homer and Hesiod were born and raised, while there is no conclusive records to say where either lived, it can be assumed that they were from separate regions of Greece, and the aforementioned lack of unity, and distinctive myths and practices account for the different hero cults that each author shows veneration for. In spite of the differences in accounts, and the debateable questions raised, there is irrefutable proof that the unifying of Hero cults, accredited to Homer, had an imperative impact on Athenian religion in the 4th and 5th Century BCE.

400 years after the texts were written, and Hero cults had become a perfunctory component of Athenian life, Aristotle enacted this into the Athenian constitution, written as an interpretation of the oracles message;“he allowed every one to retain his family and clan and religious rites according to ancestral custom. The names given to the tribes were the ten which the Pythia appointed out of the hundred selected national heroes.”8

Homer and Hesiod’s impact and influence on Athenian religion was cemented. Their representations and originations of hero’s became so embedded into Athenian religion, that evidence of it became available through official documentation.

7 Homer, The Odyssey, c. 750 BCE8 Aristotle, Athenian Constitution, c.350 BCE.

Preliminary Ancient History 2010 Historical Investigation

By George Tsikrikas, Word Count: 2041

A subject that Homer and Hesiod’s text had as significant an impact on was the Athenian perception and value of Life After Death. While a topic with such ambiguity could not be enacted into official documentation, Homer and Hesiod’s texts had an authoritative influence on the details of the Afterlife that were accepted in the 5th and 4th century BCE.

The most commonly accepted theories of what occurred after an individual died were sourced from ‘The Odyssey and ‘Theogony”. While Homer provided mention of Hades in ‘The Odyssey’ it is clear that Hesiod’s ‘Theogony’ provided the majority of the framework for Athenians perception of the Afterlife in the 4th and 5th century BCE.

“There, in front, stand the echoing halls of the god of the lower-world, strong Hades, and of awful Persephone. A fearful hound guards the house in front, pitiless, and he has a cruel trick. On those who go in he fawns with his tail and both his ears, but suffers them not to go out back again, but keeps watch and devours whomsoever he catches going out of the gates of strong Hades and awful Persephone. And there dwells the goddess loathed by thedeathless gods, terrible Styx, eldest daughter of black-flowing ocean”

Hesiod here provides a vivid description of Hades, the realm where most Athenians believed they would enter after death. In ‘Theogony’ Hesiod also makes reference to Elysium and Tartarus, the two other realms of the dead acknowledge by Athenians in the 5th and 4th century BCE. Hesiod’s ‘Theogony’ had an everlasting impact and influence on Athenian religion in the 4th and 5th Century BCE, it provided the answers that are paramount to any religion.

Although Hesiod’s impact and influence is considerably more significant in presenting the actual vision of the afterlife, it is in ‘The Odyssey’ where Homer establishes what became the traditional burial rituals. “Leave me not unwept and unburied as thou goest hence, nor turn thy back upon me, lest haply I bring on thee the anger of the gods. Nay, burn me there with mine armour, all that is mine, and pile me a barrow on the shore of the grey sea, the grave of a luckless man, that even men unborn may hear my story.”9

It was not long after ‘The Odyssey’ that cremation became an essential part of Athenian burials. Homer’s greatest impact on burial practices occurred in the 4th Century, “Demetrius of Phalerum passed laws which did not only restrict excesses at funerals as well as large grave structures, but also allowed for the appointment of special functionaries to impose fines.”10

The reform was largely unsuccessful, the public revolt against the attempt to alter this aspect of Athenian religion is a testament to the impact and influence that Homers ‘Odyssey’ had on religion in the 4th and 5th Century BCE. The burial practices it implemented in Athenian society remained unperturbed in the 4th and 5th Century BCE.

9 Homer, The Odyssey, Book XI, c.750 BCE10 Cicero, De Legibus, c.47 BCE

Preliminary Ancient History 2010 Historical Investigation

By George Tsikrikas, Word Count: 2041

The value of Homer’s ‘The Odyssey’ and Hesiod’s ‘Theogony’ in the creation, unification and depiction of Athenian Religion in the 4th and 5th Century BCE is unsurpassed. As 2nd century CE Novelist Lucian suggested “people took their ideas from Homer, Hesiod, treating their poetry as if it were law”11 There has been no more valuable a contribution than what these two men have provided, their impact and influence has clearly been as imperative in our understanding of Athenian religion as it was for the Athenians themselves.

Appendix

11 Lucian, c. 160 CE

Preliminary Ancient History 2010 Historical Investigation

By George Tsikrikas, Word Count: 2041

Temple of Poseidon at Sunium Temple of Nemesis at Rhamnous

Temple of Ares at Acharnai Temple of Hephaestus

Bibliography

Books

Preliminary Ancient History 2010 Historical Investigation

By George Tsikrikas, Word Count: 2041

1.Parker, R. 1996, Athenian Religion; A History, Clarendon Press, Ely House, Oxford, England

2. Boedeker, D. & Raaflaub, K. 1998, Democracy, Empire, and the arts in Fifth-Century Athens, Harvard University Press, London, England

3. West, M.L. 1966, Hesiod Theogony, Clarendon Press, Ely House, Oxford, England

4. Larson, J. 2007, Ancient Greek Cults; A Guide, Routledge, 270 Madison Ave, New York City, New York, USA

5. Vassardaki, L. 1957, The Modern Greek Theatre, Hellenic Center of the International Theatre Institute, Athens, Greece

6. Cavanaugh, M.B. 1996, Eleusis and Athens: Documents in Finance, Religion and Politics in the fifth century B.C, Scholars Press, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

7. Easterling, P.E & Muir, J.R, 1985, Greek Religion and Society, University Press, The Pitt building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, England

8. Collins, W.L. 1873, Hesiod, and Theognis, William Blackwood and Sons, London, England

9. Rieu , E.V, 1946, Homer; The Odyssey, Penguin Group, 80 Strand St, London, England

10. Farnell, L.R, 1920, Greek Hero cults and ideas of immortality, Clarendon press, Oxford, England

Internet

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2. Stevenson, D.C. (C) 1994-2000, The Internet Classics Archive, viewed 22nd June 2001, <http://classics.mit.edu/Homer/odyssey.mb.txt>

3. Clifford, H.M. May 11, 2001 Lectures on the Harvards Classics, viewed 24 June 2010 <http://bartelby.net/br/06001.html>

4. Gutchess, G. 2001, Powers of Literature; The Homeric songs, viewed 23rd June 2010, <http://www.englishare.net/literature/POL-HS-Orientation.htm>

5. Butcher, S.H & Lang, A. April 3rd 2001, Homer. The Odyssey, viewed 22nd June 2003, <http://www.bartleby.com/br/02201.html>

6. Various contributors, 21st January 2010, Encyclopaedia Britannica, study of religion. Viewed 24th June 2010 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/497151/study-of-religion/38044/The-Greco-Roman-period#ref=ref420281>

Preliminary Ancient History 2010 Historical Investigation

By George Tsikrikas, Word Count: 2041

7. Morford, M.P.O & various contributors, 2005, Burial Customs, the afterlife, and the pollution of death in Ancient Greece ,viewed 1st July 2010, <http://ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/viewFile/52560/41166>

8. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Department of Greek and Roman Art, October 2003, Death, Burial, and the Afterlife in Ancient Greece, viewed 1st July 2010, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/dbag/hd_dbag.htm