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Table of Contents

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION: ........................................................................................................ 3

1. HISTORY AND EXTENT OF THE CIVILISATION: ......................................................................................... 3

2. SOME KEY CITIES : ........................................................................................................................... 3

3. FEATURES OF HARAPPAN .................................................................................................................. 4

4. THE GREAT BATH ............................................................................................................................ 5

5. GRANARIES ..................................................................................................................................... 5

6. ECONOMIC LIFE ............................................................................................................................... 5

7. TRADE ........................................................................................................................................... 6

8. SOCIAL LIFE .................................................................................................................................... 6

9. RELIGION ....................................................................................................................................... 6

10. ARTS :........................................................................................................................................ 7

11. DECLINE OF THE CIVILISATION ........................................................................................................ 7

12. INDUS VALLEY CITIES AND CONTRIBUTIONS ...................................................................................... 8

Harappa: ............................................................................................................................................ 8

Mohenjo-Daro : .................................................................................................................................. 8

Chanhudaro ....................................................................................................................................... 8

Kalibangan ......................................................................................................................................... 8

Lothal 9

Dholavira ............................................................................................................................................ 9

Surkatoda ........................................................................................................................................... 9

Banawali ............................................................................................................................................ 9

Kot Diji ................................................................................................................................................ 9

THE VEDIC CIVILISATION............................................................................................................. 10

1. INTRODUCTION :............................................................................................................................ 10

2. RIGVEDIC GEOGRAPHY: .................................................................................................................. 10

3. Rig Vedic States: .................................................................................................................... 11

4. POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION ......................................................................................................... 11

5. RIG VEDIC SOCIETY ........................................................................................................................ 12

6. ECONOMIC LIFE ............................................................................................................................. 13

7. RELIGION ..................................................................................................................................... 14

8. LATER VEDIC POLITICAL CHANGES.................................................................................................. 14

9. LATER VEDIC SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHANGES ...................................................................................... 15

10. LATER VEDIC - GODS RITUALS AND PHILOSOPHY ............................................................................. 16

11. LATER VEDIC DECLINE .............................................................................................................. 16

12. MISCELLANEOUS ....................................................................................................................... 17

JAINISM ..................................................................................................................................... 18

1. ORIGINS ....................................................................................................................................... 18

2. JAINISM ....................................................................................................................................... 19

3. VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA .............................................................................................................. 19

4. JAIN DOCTRINES ............................................................................................................................ 19

5. SPREAD OF JAINISM ....................................................................................................................... 20

6. JAINA LITERATURE ......................................................................................................................... 20

7. JAIN COUNCILS AND MISCELLANEOUS ............................................................................................... 20

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BUDDHISM ................................................................................................................................ 21

1. ORIGINS ....................................................................................................................................... 21

2. DOCTRINES OF BUDDHA ................................................................................................................. 22

3. SPREAD OF BUDDHISM ................................................................................................................... 22

4. BUDDHIST COUNCILS ...................................................................................................................... 23

5. BUDDHIST LITERATURE ................................................................................................................... 24

6. DECLINE OF BUDDHISM .................................................................................................................. 25

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Indus Valley Civilization:

1. History and Extent of the Civilisation: The Archaeologists in the Indus Valley initially discovered the Indus valley civilisation in

1921. It was so called due to this. Harappa was the first Location to have been dug, which is

hence the civilisation is also known as Harappan Civilisation. The Harappan civilisation is a

bronze age civilisation . Mortimer Wheeler dated it as 2500 1750 B C, where as carbon

dating dates the civilisation to 2300- 1750 BC. Sir John Marshall Dated the civilisation around

3200-2750 BC.

The earliest excavations were done in the indus valley at Harappa and the Mohenjo-Daro. By

1947 there were only about 40 sites, with further excavations there exists about 140 sites

across the Indian Subcontinent with 925 Sites in India and about 425 sites in Pakistan. The

known extent of the Harappan Civilisation are :

1. Suktagendor in Baluchistan - West

2. Alamgirpur in Meerut District - East

3. Daimabad in Maharashtra - South

4. Akhnoor District in Jammu - North

The geographical area is about 20 times that of Egyptian Civilisation or about 12 times that

of Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisation combined. The total coverage area is about

1299600 Sq Kms. No other culture zone is as wide and as large as the Indus Valley

Civilisation. The distribution pattern is on the banks of Hakra Ghaggar channel/ sindh-

Punjab Region/ Indus Saraswati Region.

Only about 40 Settlements are on the Indus River and its tributaries. More than 1100 (80%)

are between Indus and Saraswati rivers. Another 250 settlements are found beyond

Saraswati river. Hence the civilisation is also known as Indus Saraswati Civilisation.

2. Some Key Cities : The Indus Valley Civilisation had some large, medium and small cities. There were different

cities belonging to different phases of the civilisation. Archaeological evidence proves the

existence of phases of the Harappan Civilisation.

1. Pre Harappan :

- Located in Eastern Baluchistan

- Nomadic People living in a settled Agricultural Life

- Excavations at Mehergarh ( 150 kms Off Mohenjodaro)

2. Early Harappan :

- Large villages in the Plains

- Gradual growth of Towns

- Transition from Rural to Urban

- Evidences ( Kot Diji and Amri)

3. Mature Harappan :

- Great Cities Emerged

- Elaborate Town Planing

- Urban Features

4. Late Harappan :

- Decline of the Civilization

- Lothal Massive Brick wall to protect from flooding

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- Port City Lothal

Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh are situated at a distance of 488 kms (

Both in Pakistan) .

Chanhudaro 130 kms south of Mohenjo Daro

Lothal Gujarath at Gulf of Cambay

Kalibangan Rajasthan

Banwali Hissar District

Rangapur Kathaiawad, Gujarat

3. Features of Harappan Town Planning :

- Distinguished system of Town Planning i.e Grid System, with the orientation of the

streets and buildings according to the Cardinal Directions ( North South / East

West)

- The idea of Town Planning developed gradually and was not an abrupt development.

- Fortification of the towns was a commonality

- Harappan, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal have their own citadels. The standard division

was the high western mound with citadel and the lower eastern town of the

commoners. Later however large public buildings, market areas , large and small

private houses have been found everywhere

- Each city has mounds. In Surkatoda, large gateway has also been found at several

entry points to the city .

- At Dholavira, a large inscription, possibly of a signboard with letters inscribed with

white gypsum paste layered onto a set of wooden planks has been noticed

- Large scale use of burn bricks in almost all kinds of buildings is seen. The is however

a variation in the raw materials used. The settlements on the alluvial plains were

mostly made of mud bricks and kiln-fired bricks, wood and reed. The settlements in

the rocky foothills and on the islands of kutch and Saurashtra had stone relacing

bricks.

The average size of a brick was 7 * 15 * 30 , Large bricks were of Size 10 * 20* 40 .

Both in the ratio of 1:2:4. There are three categories of construction seen

a. Private houses

b. Large houses surrounded by small units

c. Large Public buildings

The doors and windows were made of wood and mats. The flooring was generally hard

packed earth that was often plastered. Considerable variation in the dwellings is evident.

A wall or a room in the front door blocked the view to the house. Many houses were

two storeyed. Almost every house had bathroom and there is evidence of bathroom on

the first floor. The door windows were made with wood and a brick socket set in the

threshold served as a door pivot.

Well laid out streets and drains are the remarkable feature of the Harappan Civilisation.

Small drains made of burnt bricks were well connected with bathing platforms of the

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houses, joining medium sized drains on the side lanes of the streets. The drains ran into

larger sewers in the main street which was covered with bricks / Stone block. Corbelled

arch drains have also been found, proving the existence of regular maintenance practice

and possibly a Municipal Administration.

4. The Great Bath Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the citadel at mohenjo Daro is the Great bath .

Its features are :

a. 12m*7m*3m dimensions

b. Approach by a flight of steps

c. Floor made of burnt bricks

d. Water drawn from an adjacent source

e. Outlet of water provided

f. Surrounding the bath is a set of Ritual Rooms / Porticos

g. Generally agreed that this bath was linked to Ritual Bathing

5. Granaries The granaries have been found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, both used to store grains.

The granary at Mohenjo Daro is the largest building with dimensions of 50m * 27m N-S.

In Harappa however there are Six Granaries. It has six platforms which forms the basis

for two rows of six granaries each. Each granary was of the dimension 15.23m*6.09m

and lays within a few meters from the river. The combined floor space is 838 mts. (

Approximately same as that of Mohenjodaro.

To the south of Granaries at Harappa, consists of rows of circular platforms. These were

evidently meant for threshing grain, primarily wheat and Barley. Impressions of a large

wooden mortar are found placed in the centre. Harappa also shows evidence of two

roomed barracks, which probably accommodated labourers. Kalibangan also showed

evidence of southern brick platforms, which may have been used, as granaries. In

kalibangan many houses had their own wells. Streets and Drains have been found at

Banwali also.

6. Economic Life - All activities of economy were existent around Agriculture, Industry, crafts and

Trade.

- Wheat and Barley were the main agricultural produce

- In the beginning, trade was primarily internal i.e. between one zone to another.

Later, External trade developed.

- Indus region was fertile previously, Annually inundated

- Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November when the flood waters

receded and reaped harvests in April.

- No hoe / Ploughshare have been discovered

- Animals were also kept on a large scale. Oxen, Buffalo, Goats, Sheeps and pigs were

domesticated.

- Cats and Dogs footprints have been noticed

- Evidence of horse is only superficial, with a doubtful terracotta figurine found in

Mohenjo-Daro. The civilisation is not a horse centred civilisation.

- Elephants were well known to Harappans.

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7. Trade - Trade formed an important part of the life.

- There is evidence of regulated weights and measures with uniformed script

- The weights and measures were cubical and spherical in shape and made of chert,

Jasper and Agate .

- Numerical series first doubled from 1, 2, 4, 8 to 64, then going to 160 ; and from

these on in decimal multiples of sixteen, 320, 640,1600, 6400, 8000 and 128000.

- The tradition of 16 continued up until the 1950s where sixteen chatank made a

ser and 16 annas made one rupee.

- Harappa trade was in stone , metal, Shell etc.,. Since the cities did not posses raw

material trade was an essential aspect. instead of metal money the trade was in

barter system.

- Navigation along the Arabian coast was well practiced. Wheels, solid wheels and

carts were made by the Harappan

- International trad was carried wit the land of Tigris and Euphrates.

- Harappans copied the used of cosmetics from the Mesopotamian civilisation.

- Lapiz Lazuli was an extensively traded commodity from Afghanistan. Mesopotamian

excavations reveal trade with meluha, an ancient name given to the Indus Region.

8. Social Life - Both men and women wore two pieces of clothing. One upper and on lower. Both

wore beads.

- Use of cosmetics was normal, Several houses also made articles of pottery, stone,

shells, ivory and metal most of these found at Mohenjodaro

- Children Toys included clay carts, marbles, dices etc.

- There is no clear idea about the political organisation of the Harappans. However,

there exists cultural homogeneity.

- The Harappan society seems to have been divided into three sections .

a. The Elite class

b. The Middle Class

c. The Weaker Class

- Some craftsman and labourers resided outside the fort. At Kalibangan the priests

resided in the Citadel and performed rituals at the fire altars .

- Whether the whole Indus civilisation was a single empire or was part of different

kingdoms is undetermined. A sharp contrast to the Egypt and Mesopatamia is that

no temples were found at Harappa.

9. Religion

- Religion generally has two aspects; conceptual or philosophical, practical or

ritualistic.

- Evidence is available only for the practical aspect of the Harappan Civilisation. The

Indus religion consisted of :

a. Worship of mother goddess

b. worship of a Male Deity

c. Worship of natural elements, animals and semi human

d. Worship of trees or their in dwelling spirits

e. Worship of stone Linga/ Yoni

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f. Chremathism as illustrated in the worship of sacred incense burners

g. Faith in amulets and charms Demon phobia

- A lot of terracotta figurines have been found. In one of the earliest findings, a plant

is shown growing out of the womb of a woman. Probably the mother goddess .

- The male deity , probably proto Shiva is depicted on a seal, seated on a typical

throne in a yogic posture. The Deity has each of his sides Elephant and Tiger on the

Right ; Rhinoceros and Buffalo on the left. Two deer are standing at the feet of the

throne. The depiction shows pasupati. A pair of horns crown pasupatis head with

central bump which appears like a trishul or a trident of the saivas.

- A remarkable seal found at the Mohenjo-Daro represents a deity standing between

two branches of a pipal tree.

- The seals also have evidence of animal worship being practiced.

- Unicorn is the most common depiction on the seals, followed by water Buffalo; Gaur

/ Bison; Humped Bull; Rhinoceros; Short Horned hump less Bull; The Tiger; Indian

Elephant.

- Kalibangan, Lothal and BanwalitHE have fire altars . Swastika has been depicted on

the seal. Large terracotta figurines depict individuals in yogic postures.

10. Arts : - Large variety of objects such as seals, stone statues and Terracotta figurines etc

- Most outstanding is the Yogi from Mohenjo-Daro and two small figurines from

Harappa

- The bronze workmanship from Daimabad is the most extraordinary. The Red

Sandstone torso at Harappa is made of detachable limbs and head and the grey

sandstone torso shows a dancing figure.

- A Women dancer made of Bronze is example of finest workmanship. Its right hand

rests on the hip, while the left hand is covered with bangles

- A large variety of pottery, both plain and decorated has been found. Harappan

wares were shaped on a potters wheel. The potters wheel being made of wood

have not survived .

- The kilns in which the pots were baked have been unearthed. The heating was

skilfully controlled as the most of the designs were carefully fired. Once the vessel

was shaped on the wheels, the Ochre was painted over it. Then the designs were

painted on this red surface with a brush in black.

- The black colour derived from magneferous haematite.

- The designs included series of intersecting circles, trees placed in me topes, motifs,

chessboard patterns, triangles, solar devices etc,. No human figure was depicted on

the pottery from Mohenjo-Daro but a few pottery pieces discovered from Harappa

portray a man and a child.

- At lothal folk painting was also discovered painted on the jars probably depicting the

folk tale of Thirsty cow and also of cunning fox.

11. Decline of the Civilisation - Harappan civilisation did not disappear suddenly. There have been archaeological

evidences of gradual decline of the civilisation. The major cities of Harappa and

Mohenjo-Daro seem to have disappeared by the 9th Century BC.

- Two major causes have been attributed for the decline of the civilisation-

Environmental Degradation and Aryan Invasion.

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- According the John Marshall, the civilisation declined to Environmental degradation.

The change in course of the river Saraswati and Indus, recurring flooding of Indus

region along with the practices of deforestation for Agriculture may have resulted in

barren land and silting of rivers.

- Evidences have been found in Baluchistan region where the settlements were put

under fire by invaders , most probably Aryans. There are found 6 groups of human

skeletons in the Mohenjo-Daro giving an indication of being subject to Foreign

Invasion. This however is not susceptible and has no proof.

The Harappan Civilisation disappeared around 1300 BC and the vaccum was filled in by

numerous civilisation. However , a number of cultural traits developed during this period

can still be seen in the daily cultural and material life.

12. Indus Valley Cities and Contributions

Harappa:

o Two lines of Granaries

o Bronze Mirror

o Rock Statue of Dancing Girl

o Seals made of Steatite ( Coins ) (Humped Bull )

o H shaped Tombs

Mohenjo-Daro :

o 1922 , R.D. Banerjee

o Big Single Granary

o Great Bath

o Bronze Statue of Dancing Girl

o Many pillared Meeting hall

o Doll with decoration. Dog Chasing cat and Dog chasing deer impressions

o Cotton cloth

Chanhudaro

o 1931-33

o Ink bottle

o Women beauty kit

o Peacock doll also found

o Not fortified

Kalibangan

o Rajasthan, banks of Ghaggar River

o Both proto Harappan and Harappan cultural phase

o Evidence of ploughed field and mud brick fortification

o Fire altars along with lothal

o Camel remains

o Pot burials with ashes

o Houses had well

o Beads and bead making industry flourished

o First place to start Agriculture

o Door towards roads

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Lothal

o Gujarat, Bhogavo River

o Artificial dock yard, Terracotta model of the ship

o Fire Cult and Fire Altars

o Evidence of chess

o Elephant tusks were found

o Ship building Industry.

o Evidence of earliest cultivation of rice

o Doubtful figurine of terracotta horse

Dholavira

o Rann of kutch, Gujarat

o Only city with middle town

o Huge writings of the entrance of the town

o Largest settlement of Harappan

o Evidence of reservoir with polished pillars

Surkatoda

o Kutch, Gujarat

o Remains of Horse found

o Both lower town and citadel were fortified

Banawali

o Hissar District, Haryana

o Saw both the cultural phases of Harappa

o Human and Animal Figurines were found, clay bangles Statue of Mother goddess

excavated, along with Terracotta Plough

o Large quantity of Barley Sesamum and mustard found. Agricultural equipment also

found.

Kot Diji

o Opposite Mohenjo-Daro

o Pre Harappan phase

o Wheel painted pottery excavated. Defensive wall with well aligned streets

o Knew Metallurgy

o Probably destroyed by Fire

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The Vedic Civilisation

1. Introduction :

The most important source to know about the Vedic Civilisation is the Vedas . the term Vedas means

Knowledge. In Sanskrit, Vidya means Knowledge and it is derived form the work veda. The founders of

the vedic culture were Aryans . It is difficult to say that the Aryans belonged to one single race, but

their culture was more or less the same. Aryans were probably the first immigrants to come in around

2000-1500 BC . The earliest life of Aryans seems to be pastoral with agriculture being their secondary

occupation. Our knowledge about the Aryans in India is based on Rid Veda, the earliest of the vedic

literature. There are all together 4 vedas in - Rig Veda, Samveda, Yajur Veda and Atharva veda. All

together along with Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads, the Vedas form the total Vedic Literature.

Rig Veda, is a collection of Hymns; Samveda is a collection of songs mostly taken from Rig-Veda,

Yajurveda is a collection of sacrificial formula; atharvaveda is a collection of spells and charms. The

Vedas formed the earliest segment of vedic literature and amongst veda, Rigveda is the oldest.

Brahmanas, are the prose texts that contain details about the meaning of the vedic hymns, their

applications, stories of their origins etc,. They primarily contain details about rituals and philosophers.

Aranyakas and Upanishads are partly included in the Brahmanas or attached there to and partly exists

as separate works. They embody philosophical meditations of the hermits and ascetics on soul, god ,

world etc.

Although the vedas are attributed to rishis, pious hindus have always attributed vedas to Divine Origin.

Veda are called apaunsheyi ( not created by man).

2. RigVedic Geography: Most of the Rig Vedic civilisation is centred on Saraswati river, which is now lost to the desert of

Rajasthan. Rig-Veda mentions about seven rivers, which proved that the civilisation was spread in

Afghanistan and Punjab as well. The Nadisukta hymn of Rig-Veda mentions about 21 rivers, which

include Ganga in the east and Kubha (Kubha) in the west. Rig-Veda also mentions about Himalayas and

Mujavant mountains. It also mentions oceans ( Samudra) in connection with the rivers sindhu and

Saraswati. The cradle of Rig Vedic civilisation is called Sapta Saidhav Region. Sapta Sindhu, meaning 7

rivers is the term, which gave birth to the word Hindu. Sapta Sindhu was referred to as Hapta-Hindu by

the Persians etc,. The terms is found in Avesta of Zoroastrians. Nadisukta mentions 10 rivers in all :

- sindhu : Indus

- Vitsae : Jhelum

- Askini : Chenab

- Purushini : Ravi

- Vipas : Beas

- Sutudri : Sutlej

- Gumal : Gomati

- Krumu : Khurram

- Drishdvati : Ghaggar

The rigvedic geography convers the present day , Western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan ,

Gujarat, Whole of Pakistan and South Afghanistan.

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3. Rig Vedic States: The territory of the vedic people was divided in to a number of republics and monarchical states . The

vedic culture was essentially a rural culture unlike the urban culture of the Harappan Society. In the

Rig-Veda, it was because of the migratory nature of the tribes and in the later vedic times the regions

controlled were names after the tribes who controlled them. The Bharatas were the most important

tribes, after whom the region came to be known as Bharata.

Dasarajna Yuddha, is the famous battle of the ten kings mentioned in various hymns of Rig Veda. The

Battle gives the names of the ten kings who participated in a war against Sudas who was the bharata

king of Tristus family. The ten kingdoms had 5 Aryan tribes and 5 non Aryan tribes. In the bloody and

decisive battle on the banks of river Parushini, The Bharatas emerged victorious. The Bharatas gave

their name to the whole country as Bharatavarsha. The Bharatas were settled in the region between

Saraswati and Yamuna. The struggle for supremacy among the different kings and republics was part

of the evolutionary process of formation of larger political entities in the future .

4. Polity and Administration The political structure of the Rid Vedic India consisten of :

a. The Family (Kula)

b. The Village (Grama)

c. The Clan (Vis)

d. The People (Jana)

e. The Country (Rasthra)

The Kula is the smallest unit and all people living under one roof ( Griha ) were included in it . The next

largest formation was the vis , the head of the vis (clan) was called Vispati. Larger than vis is the Jana.

The Jana is essentially the tribe. The chief of the tribe is Rajan. Rajan is the protector of the Jana and

the cattle. Rajan fought wars on behalf of the Jana. The wars were fought mainly for the sake of taking

possession of cows and cattle wealth, but not for taking over the possession of territories. This implies

that the concept of land territories was absent in the early Rig Vedic Era. Rajan was the leader of the

people belonging to a particular tribe and not the ruler of any territory. This is why he was known as

Janasya Gopa or Gopati Janaysa.

The term grama appears 13 times in the Rig Veda, does not refer to a village but a military tribal unit.

A war or a battle was thus called Sangrama. The Vrajapati was in charge of the commonly held tribal

pasture land and was the leader of the family. Vrajapati himself used to lead the battle and thus

became synonymous with the word Gramini, who himself was originally head of the tribal unit called

Grama.

The kingdoms were generally small states (rashtra) ruled by kings (Rajana), but the word samrat does

indicate existence of certain larger kingdoms. The king administered justice with the assistance of a

Purohita and other officials. The Rajan couldnt have an elaborate administrative machinery due to the

very nature of the RigVedic economy. An economy in which surplus was very small, the Rajan received

only Bali, i.e, offering to the prince or to god from the conquering people. However these tributes were

neither consistent nor regular. These was no regular standing army, the military functions were

invested in the Vedic Assemblies. Vrajapati, Gramini and the Kulapa functioned as military leaders. The

Rajan also held spies called Spasa to keep an eye on the conduct of the people. Ugra and Jivagriba

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were probably two officials meant to dealing with criminals. Madhyamasi is the mediator of the

disputes.

Vidhata was an assembly for secular , military and religious purposes. The term Vidhata appears 122

times in Rigveda. Vidhata is frequently associated with women, where women participated actively in

deliberations with men. Its one of the earliest folk assemblies of Aryans performing all kinds of

functions economic, military, religious and social.

Sabha denotes assembly or an assembly hall ( Later Vedic) . Women who attended these assemblies

were known as Sabhavati. It was basically a kin-based assembly, however the attendance of women

was stopped in later vedic period. Rig-Veda also mentions sabha as an assembly of dicing and gambling

along with a place for music, dancing, witchcraft and magic. The sabha performed, administrative and

judicial functions and also exercised judicial authority. Samiti , was a folk assembly in which people of

the tribe gathered for transacting tribal business. It discussed philosophical issues and was concerned

with religious ceremonies and prayers. Rajan was elected and re-elected by the Samiti.

Among the important royal officials were the Purohita ( chief Priest), Senani (Army chief) and gramini(

Head of the village). The Gana was assembly or a troop. The leader of the gana is the Ganapati. The

parishad seems to be a tribal assembly, partly matriarchal and partly patriarchal. In the later vedic

period , the parishad seems to have become n academy and partly a royal court dominated by the

priests.

5. Rig Vedic Society Family was the basis of the social structure of the Rig Vedic Society. The family was a joint unit and

patriarch society and the birth of a son was desired repeatedly. The institution of marriage was well

established. Status of women was equalant to that of men in the RigVedic times and they even

received Upanayana Samskara. Polyandry and polygamy, both were practiced. The terms for father,

mother, brother, sister, son and daughter existed but nephews, grandsons and cousins were known by

a common term Naptri.

The rig Vedic society consisted of four varnas namely Brahmana, Kshtriya, Vysya and Shudra. The

classification seems to have been on the basis of occupation. In the early period the classification of

the society was based on colour. Initially the society seems to have had only the Aryans , who were fair

in colour and they had conquered the indigenous people who were dark in complexion. Once

conquered, the indigenous people were used as slaves or Dasa. Dasyu, have been identifies as the

enemies of Aryan tribes. The word Dasyu seems to have been derived from Iranian word Dahyu which

means a tribe.

The vedic tribal society was divided in to 3 groups The warriors, the Priests and the common public.

The fourth division, Shudras appeared in the later rigvedic society. Although initially the division was

based on occupation, it later became sharp based upon birth. The teachers and priests were called

Brahmanas, rulers and administrators were called Kshatriyas, The farmers, merchants and bankers

made vysyas and artisans and labourers were the shudras. It is to be noted that members of the same

family took different professions and belonged to different varnas. Thus it is clear that there was

freedom and mobility for adoption of a profession and the idea of hereditary trades and occupations

was not envisaged in the society.

Despite being a patriarchal society , the status of women was much better in Rig Vedic times than in

later. Women could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands Gosha,

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Lopamudra, and Apala are famous women composers of hymns. Child marriages were not in vogues

and women were generally married at the age of 16 and above. There are evidences of widow

remarriage; especially widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband. The son

inherited Fathers property; daughter could inherit it only in case of she being the only child. Right to

Property was known in moveable things like cattle, horse, gold and ornaments and so also in

immovable property like land and house.

In the early Rig-Vedic period, entire educational instruction was given orally. The home of the teacher

was the school he taught the particular sacred text. Great importance was given to enunciation and

pronunciation. The art of writing doesnt seem to have developed much . There were women teachers

as well. The renowned Gayatri Mantra is in fact a prayer to the goddess Savitri for the simulation of the

intellect. Maitreyi and Gargi were gifted scholars of this period. In the early vedic period, rishis founded

their own schools to teach their pupils specific vedic mantras. In the later vedic period with the

development of the varnashramas, education began with an investiture ceremony ( Upanayana) .

Some girls were also allowed Upanayana. Shudras however were forbidden from education. The last

sermon of the teacher is called Snatakopadesha ( sort of convocation).

Milk and its products formed an important part of the diet. Kshira-pakamodanam ( Milk and grains

dish) is mentioned evidently. Bread (Chappati) of wheat and barley was eaten often mixed with ghee.

The main cereal produced by the rigvedic people was Yava or Barley. Wheat and rice were not very

much known to the people. Wheat is mentioned only in the later Vedic texts. In the later vedic times ,

there is mention of Rice (Vrih), Bean-pulse(Maha), Sesamum(tila), millet(Syamaka), kidney

bean(mudga), mustard(Sarphasa) etc. ., Soma and Sura are the two intoxicating liquors. Sura may be a

kind of beer and Soma was acceptable to gods. Fish, birds, wild animals like boar, antelopes and

buffalo(Gaur) were eaten and at times during ceremonies even sacrificial animals were eaten like

Sheep, goat and buffalo. Cow was deemed to be Aghnya Not to be killed. Death penalty or expulsion

from the kingdom were prescribed for those who harmed cows.

Both men and women normally wore two pieces of clothing. The upper garment was called Uttariya

and the lower garment was known as Antariya. The dress code didnt differ for either gender.

Epilepsy was common even in children. Superstition and magical charms were employed to cure

diseases. Surgical art expertise was evident.

6. Economic Life The Rigvedic community was primarily pastoral community. The economic life of the people centered

around Cattle rearing, agriculture, trade and commerce. They domesticated pashu (Cattle, horse etc)

as against Mriga ( Wild Animals) . Cattle was synonymous with wealth and a wealthy person was called

Gomat. Important terms of battle were termed from cattle like Gau, Gavisti, Gosu, Gavyat, Gavyu.

Godhuli, was a measure of time. The king was also known as Gopati or Gopa. The daughter was

known as Dhuhitri, as she used to milk the cow. Gojata i.e cowborn is one of the four categories of

gods. Buffalo, when first encountered by the vedic people in India was called as Gauri or Gavala (Cow

haired). Cattle formed an important part of donations, it may have even been part of the bali, given to

the king as a tribute. Cattle in general and cow in particular were the main medium of exchange among

the Rig vedic people.

Agriculture formed a great part of economic life in Rig Vedic civilisation. The oxen drew the plough at

times in teams of six, eight or even twelve. Based on evidences it is clear that these people also

practiced irrigation. Droughts and floods by rains is mentioned to have happened quite often. The

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grains were collectively known as yava and Dhanya. There is mention of cultivation of ten different

grains in the later vedic period. Along with agriculture, carpentry, weaving, pottery , metal working ,

leather working etc were practised. In the Rig Vedic period only copper was used and was as such

known as Ayas. In the later period when iron came to prominence, copper and iron were known as

Lohit Ayas and Syam Ayas. The traders were known as Vanik. Traders and trade flourished during this

period. Barter system seems to have been prominent. The people knew money lending. Sea is

mentioned in the context of trade and ocean wealth, like pearls and shells.

7. Religion The Aryans were essentially theists. Spiritual contemplation of life and the world was common. Vedic

Aryans believed in the idea of one in many. Forces of nature were worshipped although individually,

Aryans considered nature as a wholly single entity. The Vedic gods can be classified in to three

categories, namely terrestrial (prithvisthana), aerial or intermediate (Antarishasthana) and celestial

(Dyusthana). The hymns of Rig Veda were mainly sung to appease these gods. God was considered as

the ruler, ordainer of period of life, protector of men and giver of happiness. Agni is the only god

regarded to be present across the three categories. The gods are described as born and yet they are

considered immortal. Prayers and offerings to these gods were made for material gains, enlightenment

and knowledge. Pious Hindus almost daily, for instance recite Gayatri Mantra, even today.

Unlike the contemporary civilisations, there were no places of worship like temples in Rig Vedic period.

There seems to have been no strict priestly class and the practice of renunciation of the world to

meditate on religion and chant hymns.

The multiplicy of gods is also openly questioned and ultimate unity of universe asserted as the creation

of one god. A hymn devoted to visvakarman, tells that the waters contained the primordial germ the

floating world egg from which visvakarman was first born in to the Universe This is currently

reconfirmed by scientific evidence.

8. Later Vedic Political Changes The sabhas and Samitis continued however women were not allowed in the Sabha. Brahmins and

Noblemen started to dominate almost every aspect of the Socio, economic and political life of the

people. King became prominent with territorial authority becoming far more important. Kingship

started to be given the status of divine origin. The titles, B Adhiraja, Rajadhiraja, Samrat and ekrat

arouse to prominence. The king was supposed to be only a trustee and the kingdom as a trust.

Atharvaveda described the term ekrat to be a paramount sovereign. Special ceremonies for the king,

like Rajasuya, Vajapeya and Aswamedhayaga were established. Monarchy however was still no an

absolute monarchy. There were certain democratic principles like:

a. The peoples right in choosing the king

b. The conditions imposed on kings rights and duties

c. The kings dependence on the council of ministers

The centre of civilisation in the later vedic period shifted from Saraswati to Ganga. This progress was

accompanied by by the gradual development, expansion and consolidation of vis. Minor Janas of

RigVedic times like Purus became more powerful and began to play a dominant role. The Political life

became more vivid and the struggle for supremacy among the states also increased. This expansion of

people towards the east is mentioned in Satpatha Brahmana.

The Sabha started to function as a parliament for disposal of public business by debate and discussion.

The chief of the Sabha was called Sabhapati, the keepers as Sabhapala, and the members as Sabheya,

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Sabhasad and Sabhasina. Vajsaneyi Samhita, mentions that the erring members of the Sabha were

Rebuked and there were rules of Sabha to be followed by everyone. Sabha also functioned as a court

of Justice. The Samiti on the other hand began to function as a more informal larger body. It is the

Samiti, which either chooses the king or removes the king for any misdeeds or tyranny.

Along with the political changes, new officers had also emerged as part of administrative changes. The

new officials were :

a. Suta Charioteer

b. Sangahitri Treasurer

c. Bhagadugha Tax Collector

d. Gramini head of the village

e. Sthapathi Chief Judge

f. Takshan Carpenter

g. Khsatri Chamberlain

The Administrative machinery was highly organised and became an effective instrument for ruling over

larger kingdoms. There is evidence of legal institutions with the king administering justice with

effective punishments. Theft, robbery, incest, abduction are some of the common crimes. Killing of

Cows, Slaying of Brahmana, Intoxication, treachery were punishable by death. Petty offences were

however left to the village judges. The rules of inheritance of property remained the same as the Rig

Vedic period.

9. Later Vedic Socio-Economic Changes The Varna system in the later Vedic period became further complicated and rigid. Unlike the Rig Vedic

period, Varnas became birth-based rather than profession-based. The proliference of the professions

gave rise to the Jatis. Emergence of the Jatis was very unusual but perhaps not impossible. Aitreya

Brahmana mentioned the rigidity in jatis. The position of the fourth Varna, Shudra became miserable

due to deprivation of rights. All the varnas were assigned duties. The Vysyas were now the common

people who were responsible for producing agricultural commodities. Nagara was used for the first

time, indicating the beginnings of the cities.

Different types of marriages came to existence :

a. Brahma Vivah Girl and boy of same Varna

b. Daiva Vivah father donates daughter to Brahmana as dakshina

c. Arsa Vivah A token bride price of a cow and a bull is given

d. Prajapati Vivah Marriage without dowry

e. Gandharva Vivah A type of love marriage or swayamvarah

f. Asura Vivah Marriage by purchase

g. Paisach Vivah Seduction of a girl while sleeping / mentally unstable due to a drink

h. Rakshasha Vivah Marriage by Abduction

The marriage of a higher Varna man with a girl from lower Varna was called Anuloma Vivah. This was

allowed by the sacred texts. Marriage of a man from a lower Varna with a girl from a higher Varna was

called Pratiloma Vivah. This was not allowed by the sacred texts.

The four purusharthas were ensured as the goal, end and aim of human existence. These are as follows

:

Dharma : Religious, social and moral righteousness

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Artha : Material or financial means of Living

Kama : Sensual pleasures

Moksha: Renunciation as well as detachment

The four stages of life were also well established in the later vedic period. The lifespan of 100 years was

organised into four ashrams with each corresponding to 25 years of lifetime. The 4 ashrams were:

- Brahmacharya : First 25 years of life (Student life)

- Grihasta : 25 to 50 years period , involving family life, discharging worldly duties

- Vanaprashta : 50 to 75 years period with partial retirement and living life in forests

- Sanyasa : 75 to 100 years of age with complete retirement from the world.

The economic life and its aspects are mentioned in Atharvaveda, which included many prayers for the

success of farmers, shepherds, merchants etc., There are prayers for plaoughing, sowing , rains ,

increasing cattle, wealth and exorcism. The plough was known as Sira and the furrow as Sita. Cow

dung started to be used as manure. Different kinds of grains were grown; barley was sown in winter

and ripened in summer; rice was sown in rains and reaped in autumn. Satpatha Brahmana mentions

about different operations of agriculture. Cattle wealth was considered to be of great significance.

Money lending was in vogue. Niska and Satamana was the unit of currency. Bali, which was earlier a

mere voluntary gift to the chief, had now become a regular tax. Guilds of craftsmen also came into

existence with the head of the guild called Shreshti. Along with the Syam ayas and Lohit Ayas, Gold,

lead and tin were also prominent. Copper was used for making vessels. Silver (Rajat) and gold were

used to make ornaments and dishes etc.

10. Later Vedic - Gods Rituals and Philosophy Rituals and formulae accompanied the cult of sacrifice, central to this culture. The two most

outstanding gods of the Rig Vedic era Indra and Agni, lost their prominence, instead Prajapati The

Creator, came to occupy supreme position. Signs of Idolatry appear during the later Vedic period.

Some of the social orders began to have their own gods. Pushan , who was supposed to look after

cattle came to be regarded as the god of the Shudras. People however continued to worship god for

the same material reasons as before; Sacrifices became far more important than the prayers. Sacrifices

involved killing of animals on a large scale and, especially the destruction of the cattle wealth. The

guest was known as Goghana or the one who was fed on cattle. Sacrifices were accompanied with

formulae and the Sacrifice was known as Yajnamana and the performed as the Yajna. Much of the

success of the Yajna depended on the magical words uttered during the formulae and the formulae

and the sacrifices were invented, adopted and elaborated by the priests called Brahmanas. The

Brahmanas claimed monopoly on the priesthood and expertise. In addition to cow gifts like gold, cloth

and horses were also given to the priest as Dakhsina. The Karma Theory deeds of one life affecting

the next took shape.

11. Later Vedic Decline The end of the Vedic period began with a very strong reaction to the priestly domination. There were

also the beginnings of territorial kingdoms. The predominantly pastoral society had turned into an

agricultural society. The tribal kingdoms ( Shodasa Maha Janapadas ) came into existence. They were;

Anga, Kasi,Kosala, Magadha, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Asmaka, Vajji, Malla, Panchala, Avanti, Surasena,

Matsya, Gandhara, Kambhoja. Vajji and Malla were republican. Magadha empire developed a lot and

17

later occupied many of the other territories. Iron ore was abundant in the Magadha Region. Magadha

was far away from any prospective foreign Invasions, was surrounded by thick forests.

Because of religious unrest, many religions emerged, of which Jainism and Buddhism were the most

prominent. Both the religions advocated that moksha can be achieved without ritual practice.

12. Miscellaneous Along with Vedas there are 4 Upavedas :

- Ayurveda

- Dhanurveda

- Gandharva Veda

- Shilpaveda

There are 6 Upangas :

- Shiksha Pronunciation

- Nirukta

- Kalpa Origin of Words

- Jyotisha

- Vyakarna

- Chandas Grammar

There are two main Ithihasas : Ramayana 7 Kandas Mahabharatha 18 Parvas ( Nannaya 2 ; Tikkana 15; Yellapragada ) Upanishads are the Dialogues between masters and the students. There are 108 Upanishads. Bruhadnayaka is the oldest Upanishad. Satyam Meva Jeyate is taken from Mandukopanishad. Kalpasutras are the codes of the human conduct. There the 4 Kalpasutras :

- Shrauthsuthras Pooja, Karma kanda - Dharmasuthras Societal responsibilities and ethics in the society - Gruhasuthrtas Members of Family responsibilities - Sulvasuthras Architectures and Vaastu

There are 6 Vedic schools of philosophies known as Shaddharshanas : - Nyaya Gauthama - Sankya - Kapila - Yoja -Pathanjali - Vaisheshika Kanada - Purvamimanasa - Jaimini - Uttaramimanasa - Baddaraiyana

Dwadasaratnin Ministers (12)

- Purohita (Preist) - Senani - Prince - Queen - Bhagaduga Tax Collector - Sandhivigraha Looks after war and peace - Bhandagarika Treasurer

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- Akshapatalaka Record keeper - Lekhaka Write - Duta Spy - Shathapathi Head of 100 Villages - Sathapathi Head of the Remote Village

**The Battle of the 10 kings, mentioned in the Rig Veda Book 7. It was a battle on the banks of the River Parushini ( Ravi ) between Bharatha and Purus (Supported by 8 others ). The battle was won by Sudhama.

Jainism

1. Origins The Varna system had become more prominent and rigid during the later Vedic period. Of the four

varnas, Brahmanas enjoyed most of the privileges. Shudras especially were meant for serving the three

other higher Varnas. They were treated as untouchables. The Varna divided society seems to have

generated tensions among the people of the society. Even Kshatriyas who were the ruling class reacted

strongly against the domination of the Priestly class- Brahmanas. Both Vardhamana Mahavira who

founded Jainism and Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, belonged to the Kshatriya Class. The

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Republican institutions had become strong in India by 6th Century B C. Growth of trade led to the

improvement of economic conditions of the Vaisyas. As a result even they wanted to enhance their

social position, but the Varna system didnt allow this. Therefore even they began to extend support to

Jainism and Buddhism.

The complex rituals and Sacrifices advocated in the later Vedic period were not acceptable to the

common people, considering the fact that they were generally quite expensive. Superstitious beliefs,

the Mantras and the Philosophical nature of the Upanishads were seldom understood by the people.

Therefore what was needed in the larger interest of the people was the short, simple and intelligible

way of salvation for people. Buddhism and Jainism fulfilled this need.

2. Jainism There are 24 Thirthankaras in Jainism i.e Guides or Path Showers. Rig-Veda specifically mentions the

names of to Thirthankaras Rishabnath and Aristhanemia. Rishabnath is also called as Adinatha. Rig-

Veda mentions Rishabnath as an incarnation of Narayana in Bhagwat Purana. Bull is the symbol of

Rishabnath. Bharatha and Bahubali are the two sons of Rishabnath according to the Vedic Texts. The

22 Thirthankara, Aristhanemia is also known as Neminatha. His symbol is Conch (Shankham). The 23rd

Thirthankara is Parsavanatha. Parsavanatha was the son of Ranivimala and Aswasena, the ikshvaku

king of Kasi. Parsavanatha is historically considered the true founder of Jainism. Snake is the Symbol of

Parsavanatha. He is said to have flourished 250 Years before the 24th Thirthankara Vardhamana

Mahavira This about 8th Century BC.

3. Vardhamana Mahavira Vardhamana Mahavira is the 24th Thirthankara of the Jain Tradition. He was born in 540 BC in

Kundagrama, a village near Vaishali to Siddhartha and Trishala, the sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka

whose daughter was wedded to Bimbisara. Mahavira was born in the Jnatrika Clan of Kshatriya Sect.

He was married to Yashoda and had a Daughter named Priyadarshini. Mahavira renounced the world

at the age of thirty and kept on wandering for 12 Years. He attained kaivalya at the age of 42, thus

becoming the Jina ( Knowledged ) at Jumbika Grama. Mahaviras followers came to be known as Jains-

the followers of Jina Makkali Gosala, who belonged to the Ajivika Sect was the guru of Mahavira.

Mahavira passed away at the age of 72 in 468 BC at a place called Pavapuri near Rajgriha.

4. Jain Doctrines Mahavira advocated threefold path ; They were also known as the three principles of Jainism

Triratnas ;

- Right Faith

- Right Knowledge

- Right Conduct

Right faith is the belief in h teaching and the wisdom of Mahavira. Right knowledge is the acceptance of

the theory that there is No God and that the world has been existing without a creator and that all

objects possess a soul. Right conduct refers to observance of the five great vows ;

- Ahimsa , Non-Injury

- Satya , Not to Lie

- Asteya, Not to Steal

- Aparigraha , Not to possess property

- Brahmacharya , Celibacy

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The first four were given by Parsavanatha the 23rd Thirthankara. Mahavira put forward the theory of

Anektavada i.e. many sidedness. Truth must be discovered by taking into account all the sides aspects.

Both the clergy and the common man had to follow the principle of Ahimsa. Mahavira rejected the

authority of Vedas and the Vedic rituals. The practice of Agriculture was considered sinful, since the

process includes killing and injury to earth, worms and animals. Mahavira considered that all animate

and Inanimate beings in the world possess a soul.

Eleven close disciples of Mahavira were known as Gandharas ( Heads of School ). Arya Suddharman

survived Mahavira and became the Thera( Pontiff ) of the Jaina Church. Jainism didnt condemn the

existence of Varna System completely. It prohibited the practice of war and agriculture as both

involved killing of animals. The world of Jains was not created by god, but exists based on certain

Universal principles or eternal law. The existence of universe is divided into two cycles ; Utsarpini

(Cycle of Progress) and Avasarpini (Declines). The Universe essentially functions through the

interactions of the living souls (Jina). Jaina philosophy shows closew affinity to the Samkhya School. It is

called Syadavada., theory of may be .

- Syadvada May be

- Nayavada Doctrine of Viewpoints

- Sapthabhaginaya logic of 7 forms. Reality too complex to be explained

5. Spread of Jainism Mahavira organised Sanghas for the spread of Jainism and his teachings. Both men and women were

admitted into the Sanghas. Jainism spread rapidly in western India and Karnataka. Kharavela of Kalinga,

Chandragupta Maurya and royal dynasties of south India like Chalukyas, Kadambas patronized Jainism.

Nirjara- to wash away old sins by doing good.

Samvara to stop committing of new sins by restraining mind and body.

Jaina monasteries were called as Basadis. Some of the royal patrons of Jainism were ; Ashokas

grandson Samprati, King Amoghavarsha who wrote Ratnamalika, King Kharavela who initiated the

Jaina rock cut caves, The chalukya kings of 11-13TH century AD who built the dilwara temple in Mount

Abu.

6. Jaina Literature The earliest Jaina literature was in Prakrit instead of Sanskrit. The earliest literatures were 14 purvas.

These were lost and hence Angas (12 in No) were written in the 1st Jain Council Pataliputra. The

important Angas are - Acharanta Sutra; Mula Sutra; Cheta Sutra. Jainism contributed to the grown of

Kannada. The first images of the Thirthankaras were found at Mathura (Kankali Tila). The tallest Jaina

statue is of Gomateshwara/Bahubali, buildt by the Ganga king Chamunda Rai in 973 AD at Sravana

Belagola. Marble Jain Temples were also found at Mount Abu, Palitana and Girnar in Gujarat. Jainsim

also contributed substantially to the art and Architecture of the medieval times.

7. Jain Councils and Miscellaneous I Council ; Pataliputra 3

rd Century AD Sthulabhadra Established a Jaina Cannon Siddhanta

form which the cannon Svethambara derived

II Council ; Vallabhi 5th

Century AD Davraiddhi Gani 12 Angas and 12 Upangas finally compiled here

21

By the end of the fourth century BC there was serious Famine in Ganges valley. Many monks led by

Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belagola in Karnataka. Those who stayed back

in the north were headed by Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks This led to

the division of Jainism in to two sects Svetambars (White Clad) and Digambars (Sky Clad). There is no

fundamental difference between the two . Bhadrabahu wrote Kalpasutra.

Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism during his last days. He contributed to the spread of Jainism

especially in the southern region of Mysore. He died fasting in the Jaina tradition, Sallekhana Sannata

Vratha ie fast unto death a Sravana Belagola. Kharvel of Kalinga of Cheta Dynasty who made the

Hanthigumpa inscription was also a patron of Jainism.

Jinasena and Gunabhadra composed Adipurana during the time of the Rashtrakuta king

Amoghavarsha. Amoghavarsha wrote Jaina work Ratnamalika ( Apart from Kavirajamarga in kannada).

Kumarapala, the great chalukyan king of Gujarat in the 12th century BC was a patron of Svethambar

Buddhism. Hemachandra lived in his court. Hemachandra wrote Parishishta Parvam, which throws

light onto the Maurya life.

The Jaina temples were destroyed under the rule of Ajayapa in 1174-76 AD and Allauddin Khilji in

Gujarat during 1297-98 AD.

The Dilwara Temple in Rajasthan Arravalli Region were built by the Solanki Dynasty ruler Bheema I.

The Ratnagiri temple has the statues of all 24 Theerthankaras.

Every 12 years Mahamastabhishekam takes place at Sravana Belagola. In Andhra Kundakundacharya

propagated Jainism during the rule of Sathavahana. Kundakundacharya wrote :

- Samayasara

- Niyamasara

- Ayanasara

- Pravachanasara

BUDDHISM

1. Origins Buddhism similar to Jainism was founded by a Kshatriya. Gauthama or Siddhartha was the founder of

Buddhism. He was born in 567 BC to Suddhodhana the leader of Sakhya republic and his Wife

Mayadevi in Lumbini gardens of the Kapilavastu State in Nepal on Vaishaka Poornima. Within 7 days of

the birth of Siddhartha, his mother Mayadevi died, and was thus brought up by his foster mother Maha

Prajapati Gautami. At the age of Sixteen Siddhartha was married to Yashodara. Siddhartha left home in

search of cause of misery wish his charioteer Channa and his horse Kanthaka at the age of 29 (Great

Renunciation). Buddha Saw four scenes one day

- Sick Man

- Old Man

- Dead man

- A Saint

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Siddhartha attained Enlightenment at the age of 35 at Uruvela (Bodh Gaya) under the peepal tree /

Bodhi Tree on the banks of the river Niranjana ( Phalgu River). Buddha meditated for 49 Days. His gurus

were Alara Kamala , Rudraka Ramputta. On the day of Vaishaka Puranima, Siddharatha attained

Mahapanirvana at Kushinagar. Since then Siddhartha came to be known as Buddha or The

Enlightened One. Buddha gave his first sermons at Sarnath near Benares and for the next 45 years he

led the life of the preacher. Buddha died at the age of eighty at Kushinagar.

There are five important symbols of the life of Buddha:

- Birth Lotus and Bull

- Great Incarnation Horse

- Nirvana Bodhi Tree

- First Sermon Dharmachakra / 8 Spoked wheel

- Mahaparinirvana Stupa

The 1st 3rd and the 5th events of Buddhas life took place on the Full moon day and fall on the same day

of the year Vaishaka Poornima.

2. Doctrines of Buddha The four noble truths are

- The World is full of sorrows

- The causes of suffering is desires

- If Desires are got rid off, the world sufferings can be removed

- This can be done with the Eight fold path

The Eightfold path or the Ashtangamarga are ;

- Right Speech

- Right knowledge

- Right Meditation

- Right Thoughts

- Right Deeds

- Right way of living

- Right faith

- Right Conduct

Buddha taught that excess of both luxury and austerity should be avoided at all costs. He prescribed

the middle path. Buddha laid great emphasis on the Law of Karma. He neither rejects the existence of

god nor accepts it. Buddha denied the existence of soul and argued that the cause of mans present

condition is his deeds only. Buddhism particularly attracted the lower orders of the society since it

attacked Varna system. In comparison to Brahmanism, Buddhism was liberal and moderate. Buddhism

was identical in morality and purity of thought, word and deed. Buddha was a rationalist who tried to

explain things in the light of reason and not on the emphasis of bling faith.

3. Spread of Buddhism Buddha had two kinds of Disciples- The monks (Bhikshus) and lay worshippers (Upasikas ). The monks

were organised into Sanghas for the sake of Spread of Buddhism. Both male and female could become

the members of the Sangha. Sariputta, Moggallana, Ananda, were some of the most famous monks.

Tipsu and Malik were the first disciples of Buddha. Owning to the rapid progress of Sanghas, Buddhism

23

spread more rapidly in North India . Buddhism made a special appeal to the Non Vedic areas where it

found a virgin soil for conversion. Magadha was placed outside the Aryavarta, the land of Aryas

covering present day Uttar Pradesh. The Personality of Buddha nd the method of teaching adopted by

him appealed most to the common man. He tried to fight evil with goodness and Hatred with love.

Buddha refused to get provoked by slander and abuse. The use of Pali language, the language of the

people also contributed to the spread of Buddhism. Buddha propagated three main elements of

Buddhism i.e. Triratnas.

- Buddha

- Dharma

- Sangha

The Dhamma -

The Four Great Truths Dukkha The world is full of sorrow and misery. The cause of all pain and misery is desire and attachment.

Pain and misery can be ended by killing or controlling desire.

Desire can be controlled by following the Eight Fold Path.

The Eight Fold Path The central theme of Buddhas teachings is the eight-fold path (Astangamarga) prescribed by him which

consist of:

Wisdom Right Faith, Right Thought, Moral Discipline Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Speech,

Mental Disc ipl ine R ight Effort , Right Remembrance and Right Concentration.

Belief in Nirvana When desire ceases, rebirth ceases and nirvana is attained i.e. freedom from the cycle of birth and

death by following the eight-fold path.

According to Buddha the soul is a myth.

Belief in Ahimsa One should not cause injury to any living being, animal or man.

Law of Karma Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds.

The Sangha Consists of monks (Bhikshus and Shramanas) and nuns.

Bhikshus acted as torch bearer of the Dhamma. Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were called Upasakas.

4. Buddhist Councils

Year President Place Significance

483 BC First Buddhist Council

Mahakassapa Rajgrih Patronage of King Ajatashatru Held at Sattapani Cave. To preserve Buddhas teachings (Sutta) and rules for disciples (Vinaya). Ananda , one of the great disciples of

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Buddha recited Suttas and Upali, another disciple recited Vinaya. Abhidhamma Pitaka was also included.

383 BC Second Buddhist Council

Sabakami Vaishali Patronage of King Kalashoka. The Idea was to settle the dispute on Vinaya Pithaka. Buddhist Sects appeared for the first time Stheravadin and Mahasanghikas

236 BC Third Buddhist Council

Moggalipura Tissa Pataliputra Patronage of King Ashoka. Abhidamma Pithaka became the 3rd Pitaka.

72 AD Fourth Buddhist Council

Vasumitra Kashmir Patronage of King Kanishka. Buddhism divided into Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism.

1871 Fifth Buddhist Council

Jagarabhivamsa Narindabhidaja Sumangalasami

Mandalay , Burma Patronage of King Mindon. Idea was to recite all the teachings of Buddha

1954 Sixth Buddhist Council

Mahasi Sayadaw Bhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa

Kaba Aye, Yangon Patronage of Burmese Government. Construction of Maha Passana Guha ( Similar to the Sattapani Caves)

5. Buddhist Literature Buddhist literature in Pali language is commonly referred to as Tripitakas i.e. Threefold Basket.

Vinaya Pitaka are the rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries. Sutta Pitaka is the largest and contains collection of Buddhas sermons. Abhinandan Pitaka is the explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist

religion

Mahayana and Deepvamsa are other Buddhist texts. They provide information about the then Sri Lanka.

Jatakas are the fables about the different births of Buddha. The fundamentals of Buddhist teachings are contained in the Dhammacakka-Pavattana

Sutta (Sermon of the Turning of the Wheel of Law). Buddha rst taught this to his rst

disciples at Benaras. This contains the Four noble truths and the Noble eight-fold path, which

are accepted as basic categories by all Buddhist sects.

Among the chief Mahayana texts is the Lalitvistara, a owery narrative of the life of Buddha. This test was utilized by Sir Edwin Arnold for The Light of Asia, a lengthy poem on the life

of Buddha, which enjoyed much popularity at the end of the last century.

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6. Decline of Buddhism Every religion is inspired by the spirit of reform, but eventually succumbs to the rituals and ceremonies

it originally denounced. Buddhism too underwent a similar metamorphosis. To meet the challenges of

Buddhism, Brahmanism reformed their religion. Revival of Bhagavatism led to the fall of popularity of

Buddhism. The use of Pali language, the language of the people was given up from the 1st century AD.

The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrti, the language of the elite. Over a period of time Buddhism itself

was reformed, eventually for the worst. Buddhist monks were cut off from the mainstream of peoples

life, they practiced idol worship and they began to receive offering from devotees. The lives of Buddhist

monks became easy and one of luxury.

Brahmana ruler Pushyamitra Sunga is also believed to have persecuted Buddhists. The Huna King

Mihirkula, who was the worshipper of Shiva, killed hundreds of Buddhists. The Shaivite king Shashanka

of Gauda cut off the Bodhi Tree at Bodh gaya. Even in South India, both Vaishnavites and Shaivites

opposed the doctrines of Jainism and Buddhism. All these factors seemed to have weakened Buddhism

to a great extent especially from the medieval times.

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