VOLUME I Psychology 1 Stefano Carta, University of Cagliari, Italy 1. Introduction 2. The Birth of Psychology: Precursors
2.1. René Descartes 2.2. English Empiricism 2.3. The Role of Physiology 2.4. The General Cultural Context
3. Wundt and Structuralist Psychology 4. Structuralism in the United States 5. The Würzburg School 6. Functionalism 7. Behaviorism
7.1. Sources 7.2. The Russian School of Reflexology 7.3. A Short View of Animal Psychology 7.4. Watson’s Behaviorism 7.5. Behaviorism after Watson
8. The Gestalt Movement 8.1. Origins 8.2. The German School 8.3. Gestalt in America
9. Cognitivism 9.1. Jean Piaget’s Genetic Psychology
10. The Russian Cultural School 11. Dynamic Psychology 12. Psychology Seen Through its Methodological Approaches 13. Cognitive Psychology 14. Developmental Psychology 15. Clinical Psychology 16. Health Psychology 17. Educational and School Psychology 18. Organizational and Work Psychology 19. Applied Social Psychology 20. Conclusion: A Psychology for Sustainable Development Branches of Psychology 62 Pierre L.-J. Ritchie, University of Ottawa, Canada Jean Grenier, University of Ottawa, Canada 1. Introduction 2. Historic Evolution 3. Classification 4. A Quick Overview of the Branches of Psychology
4.1. Foundations and Methods of Psychology 4.2. Information Processing and Human Behavior 4.3. Social Processes and Behavioral Development 4.4. Applied Psychological Science 4.5. Psychology in Transdisciplinary Contexts
5. Methodology 6. Ethical Issues Across the Branches of Psychology
6.1. Expectations of Ethical Behavior 6.2. Generic Frameworks for Understanding Ethical Principles 6.3. Ethical Decision Making 6.4. Contextual Aspects of Ethics in Psychology 6.5. Codes of Ethics for Psychologists
7. Branches of Psychology Pertinent to Sustainable Development 7.1. Cognitive Psychology (see, Cognitive Psychology and Attention, Perception, and Memory) 7.2. Developmental Psychology (see, Developmental Psychology: Main Problems and Modern
Tendencies 7.3. Clinical Psychology 7.4. Counseling Psychology 7.5. Health Psychology 7.6. Educational and School Psychology 7.7. Applied Social Psychology 7.8. Organizational and Work Psychology
8. Relationship of Psychology to Other Disciplines 8.1. Philosophy 8.2. From Roots in Physiology to the Neurosciences 8.3. Medicine 8.4. Education 8.5. Social Sciences
9. Public Policy Considerations and Future Contributions 9.1. Applying Psychological Expertise to Public Policy: An International Perspective
9.1.1. Perception and Assessment of Global Environmental Change 9.1.2. Dealing with Poverty and Social Integration 9.1.3. Knowledge Transfer in Health Psychology 9.1.4. Cognitive Psychology in a Multidisciplinary Environment 9.1.5. Meeting Multiple Expectations: The Psychology–Public Policy Relationship
9.2. A Future Snapshot: The Value of the Branches of Psychology to Sustainable Development Clinical Psychology: A National Perspective on Origins, Contemporary Practice, and Future Prospects 100 Peter E. Nathan, University of Iowa, USA 1. Introduction 2. Historical Foundations of Clinical Psychology
2.1. The Beginnings: 1896–1917 2.2. World War I Period: 1917–1919 2.3. Further Development: 1919–1939
2.3.1. Professional Developments 2.3.2. Developments in Intelligence and Diagnostic Testing 2.3.3. Developments in Treatment and Research
3. Antecedents of Contemporary Clinical Psychology 3.1. World War II: 1939–1945 3.2. Rapid Growth and Development: 1945–1975
3.2.1. Increased Support for Training 3.2.2. Professional Developments 3.2.3. Developments in Assessment and Diagnosis (see, Methods in Psychological Research) 3.2.4. Developments in Treatment 3.2.5. Developments in Research
4. Contemporary Clinical Psychology: 1975–2000 4.1. Contemporary Professional Developments 4.2. Contemporary Developments in Assessment and Diagnosis 4.3. Contemporary Developments in Treatment and Research 4.4. Roles and Functions of Clinical Psychologists
4.4.1. Clinical Psychologists Who Work in Applied Practice Settings 4.4.2. Clinical Psychologists Who Work in Academic and Research Settings
5. Clinical Psychology: The Future 5.1. Alternative Training Models 5.2. Clinical/Experimental Division 5.3. The Challenge of Managed Care 5.4. Prescription Privileges for Clinical Psychologists 5.5. Behavioral Telehealth 5.6. Evidence-Based Practice and Practice Guidelines
Health Psychology: Prevention of Disease and Illness; Maintenance of Health 119 Juan Jose Sanchez-Sosa, National University of Mexico, México 1. Introduction 2. The Health–Disease Continuum 3. Types of Diseases 4. The Five Pillars of Health and Disease
4.1. Genetics 4.2. Nutrition 4.3. Environmental Quality 4.4. Health Care Services 4.5. The Psychological Element
5. Emotions, Beliefs, and Behaviors 5.1. Emotions and Health 5.2. Beliefs and Health 5.3. Behavior and Health
6. The Psychological Interplay 7. Some Regulatory Mechanisms 8. Stress and Health 9. The Future of Health Psychology Cognitive Psychology 133 Patrick Lemaire, Universite' de Provence, France 1. Introduction 2. Memory
2.1. Several Types Memory 2.1.1. Working-memory 2.1.2. Long-term Memory
2.2. Main Determinants of Memory Performance 2.2.1. Effects of Material Characteristics 2.2.2. Effects of Memory Strategies 2.2.3. Effects of Information Organization 2.2.4. Individual Differences
3. High-level Cognitive Activities (Reasoning, Decision Making, and Problem Solving) 3.1. Dfinition and Illustration of High-Level Cognitive Activities
3.1.1. Reasoning 3.1.2. Decision Making 3.1.3. Problem Solving
3.2. Main Determinants of People's High-level Cognitive Performance 3.2.1. Effects of Material Characteristics 3.2.2. Effects of Cognitive Strategies 3.2.3. Individual Differences
4. Language Processing 4.1. Main Determinants of Language Performance
4.1.2. Effects of Language Processing Strategies 4.1.3. Individual Differences
5. Conclusion Counseling Psychology: From Industrial Societies to Sustainable Development 144 George Hurley, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada Michael S. Doyle, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada 1. Psychology and Sustainable Development 2. Definitions of Counseling Psychology 3. Education, Training, Standards and Organizational Structures for Counseling Psychology 4. Contexts for Counseling Psychology's Global Development
4.1. Counseling Psychology and the World of Work 4.1.1. Historic Formative Factors 4.1.2. Current Thrusts
4.2. Counseling Psychology and the Counseling Process 4.2.1. Models 4.2.2. Research
4.3. Multicultural/Diversity Issues in Counseling Psychology 4.3.1. Differing Global Contexts 4.3.2. Research
5. Counseling Psychology's Potential Contributions to Global Sustainability 5.1. Emerging Thinking Regarding Global Sustainability 5.2. Areas of Need in Future Research and Practice
5.2.1. Promoting Research Models and Practice Methods for Large Social/Environmental Issues 5.2.2. Articulating the World of Work in Relation to Global Sustainability 5.2.3. Developing Research and Practice Addressing Individual, Group, and Societal "Lighter
Living" 5.2.4. Developing Diversity and Multicultural Research and Practice Related to Ecological
Sustainability 6. A Final Note Developmental Psychology 161 Houcan Zhang, Beijing Normal University, China Xiaochun Miao, East China Normal University, China 1. Introduction 2. Brief History 3. Schools of Developmental Psychology
3.1. Psychoanalysis (see, Psychoanalysis) 3.2. Behaviorism 3.3. Genetic Epistemology Theory of Piaget (see, Cognitive Development of Children) 3.4. The Theory of Vygotsky
4. New Developments 4.1. Research on Life-Span Development 4.2. Developmental Systems Theory and Theory of Developmental Biology 4.3. Developmental Behavioral Genetics and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience 4.4. Research in Applied Developmental Psychology
5. The Future of Developmental Psychology Educational and School Psychology: Two Sides of the Same Coin? 176 Franco Marini, University of Cagliari, Italy 1. Introduction 2. School and Educational Psychology
3. Distance Learning 4. Fields of Application 5. Research Trends 6. Training of Psychologists Work and Organizational Psychology 188 Enzo Spaltro, University of Bologna, Italy 1. Thinking, and Thinking in Order to Believe
1.1. “Doing” Psychology: Thinking and Operating with a Subjective Concept of Work 1.2. The History of the Psychology of Work 1.3. The Subject as Holder of a Hypothesis Project of Well-being
2. Knowing, and Knowing in Order to Operate 2.1. Measuring Some Psychic Variables (see Methods in Psychological Research) 2.2. The Interview 2.3. Psychological Tests 2.4. Small Groups 2.5. Power: Quantity and Quality 2.6. The Management of Human Resources in an Affluent Society 2.7. The Model of Five Cultures: Pair, Micro, Macro, Mega, and Virtual
3. Organizing, and Organizing Oneself 3.1. The Evaluation of Work: The Transition from Efficiency to Excellence 3.2. The Selection of Workers 3.3. Orientation and Professional Placement 3.4. Performance and Merit Evaluations 3.5. Development of Career and Potential 3.6. Attitudes and Opinions 3.7. Professional Education and Training
4. Choosing, and Choosing One's Own Life 4.1. Decision and Risk: Contradiction, Conflict, and the Complex 4.2. Negotiation, or the Two factors-Model; Mediation, or the Three factors-Model 4.3. Leadership, Membership: Integration and Differentiation 4.4. Psychosocial Intervention with or without Conflict 4.5. Ergonomics and Ergonomic Systems: People-Machine, People-Environment, Person-Person 4.6. The Human Cost of Work, and On-the-Job Safety
5. Planning, and Planning Well-Being 5.1. The Construction of an Organization: Mythology and Organizational Technology 5.2. Psychosomatic Stress and Balance: Good Stress and Distress, Surmenage and Sous Menage 5.3. Good Relations: The Service Mentality, the Public, and the Private
6. Well-Being, and Well-Being at Work 6.1. Structure, Climate, and Culture: Factors, Diagnoses, and Interventions 6.2. The Union of Well-Being: the Union Organization as a Protagonist in the Production of Wealth
7. Conclusion: the Metaphor of the Butterfly Environmental Social Psychology 218 Michel Sabourin, University of Montreal, Canada Luc Lamarche, University of Montreal, Canada 1. Introduction 2. Attitude
2.1. Concept 2.2. Measurement 2.3. Measurement of Environmental Attitudes
3. Attitude and Behavior 3.1. Measurement 3.2. Person
4.1. Definition 4.2. Spontaneous Attitude Change 4.3. Persuasive Communication in General 4.4. Persuasive Communication with Regard to the Environment 4.5. Environmental Education
5. Conclusions Dynamic Psychology 235 Leonardo Ancona, Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy 1. Introduction 2. History 3. The Main Concepts of Dynamic Psychology
3.1. Models 3.2. The Unconscious 3.3. The Field 3.4. Group Dynamics 3.5. The Communication Process 3.6. The Superpersonal 3.7. Culture
Psychoanalysis 263 Ermes Orlandelli, Catholic University, Italy 1. Introduction 2. History 3. Main Concepts
3.1. Freudian theory synthesis 3.2. The dynamic unconscious 3.3. The dream 3.4. The psychic structure 3.5. The basic impulses 3.6. The Oedipus Complex and the transference 3.7. The Psychoanalytic Therapy 3.8. After Freud
Analytical Psychology 273 Concetto Gullotta, Associazione Italiana di Psicologia Analitica (AIPA), Italy 1. Introduction 2. The Psychiatric Phase 3. The Phase of Archetypes and of Collective Unconscious 4. The Search for a New Theoretical and Cultural Synthesis 5. Jung's Model of the Psyche and the Individuation Process 6. Developments of Jung's Thought Systemic Psychology 298 Marisa Malagoli Togliatti, University La Sapienza, Italy 1. Introduction
1.1. Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Approaches 1.2. Developments in Child Psychiatry
1.3. The Development of Group Therapies 2. Family Therapies and Systemic Approaches 3. The Family as a System 4. Main Concepts
4.1. The Family Life Cycle 4.2. Cohesion and Adaptability: Families' Dimensions 4.3. Hierarchy 4.4. The Parental Child 4.5. The Double-Bind Theory 4.6. The Dysfunctional Systems 4.7. The Symptom and its Meanings 4.8. The Context: Understanding the Symptom
5. Clinical Issues and Specific Techniques 5.1. The Dynamic Sense of the Diagnostic Evaluation 5.2. Structural Approach 5.3. Evaluation of Family System and Genogram 5.4. Family Sculpture 5.5. Videotaping
6. Family Psychotherapy 7. Evolving Psychotherapeutic Models
7.1. Looking for the Counter-Paradox 7.2. Looking for the Structure and the Functional Organization 7.3. Looking for the Hidden "Game" 7.4. Looking for History
8. Conclusion Psychodynamics of Group Relationships 318 A. Paul Hare, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel 1. Introduction 2. History 3. Major Concepts 4. Relationship to Other Perspectives Psychology of Religion and Culture 326 Vassilis Saroglou, Universite Catholique de Louvain, Belgium 1. Introduction 2. Religion as (Not Only) a Quest for Meaning
2.1. The Quest for Meaning and Religion: Positive and Negative Components 2.2. Specifics of the Religious Quest for Meaning
3. Religion as the Strengthening of Self-Control 3.1. Religion as Satisfying the Need for Control 3.2. Religion as Demanding Self-Control
4. Religion as Nostalgia for Unity and for Return to the "Maternal Breast" 5. Religion as Paternal Protection and as a working out of Parental Relationships
5.1. God as Protective Father 5.2. Religion as a Working Out of Parental Relationships and of the Filial Line
6. Religion as an Extension of the Altruistic Imperative 6.1. Religion and Altruism 6.2. Religion and Morality
7. Religion and Culture 7.1. Religion as Culture 7.2. Cultural Variations in Religion 7.3. Constants Beyond Cultural Differences
Psychoanalytic Approaches to Art and Esthetics 347 Antonio di Benedetto, Università Cattolica Sacro Cuore, Italy 1. Introduction 2. The Analysis of Works of Art. The Unconscious and Language 3. The Analysis of Creative Activity. Psychoanalysis as a Creative Experience 4. An Epistemological Issue 5. The Experience of Beauty and Unsettling Estheticism? 6. The Psychoanalytical Experience as an Esthetic Experience Index 367 About EOLSS 373
VOLUME II
Methods in Psychological Research 1 Siu L. Chow, University of Regina, Canada 1. Introduction 2. The Confluence of Issues from Different Domains
2.1. Conceptual Issues 2.2. Logical Rules and Relationships
2.2.1. Deductive Logic 2.2.2. Graphical Representation of the Conditional Syllogisms 2.2.3. Inductive Logic 2.2.4. Three Logical Relationships 2.2.5. Formal Rules and Relationships in Theoretical Discussion
2.3. Meta-Theoretical Issues 2.3.1. Criteria of Falsification 2.3.2. Falsification versus Verification
5.1. Logical Construct versus Hypothetical Construct 5.2. The Acceptance of Unobservable Structures or Processes 5.3. The Nature of Psychological Explanation
5.3.1. Two Dimensions of Understanding 5.3.2. The Logic of Explanation 5.3.3. Understanding, Causal Explanations, Prediction, and Control
5.4. The Validity of Animal Studies 5.5. The Lure of Reductionism
5.5.1. The Compatibility of Idiographic Uniqueness and Nomothetic Constructs 5.5.2. Reductionism Revisited
5.6. The Possibility of Objectivity 6. Some Methodological Issues
6.1. Internal Validity 6.2. External Validity
7. Current Trends in Methodology Interviewing and Observation 33 Gail F. Huon, University of New South Wales, Australia 1. Introduction 2. Observation
2.1. Systematic Observation 2.2. Ethical Considerations 2.3. Strategies Used in Field Settings 2.4. Operationalization of Behavioral Observation 2.5. Method Specification for Observation 2.6. Scientific Adequacy 2.7. Reactivity
3. Interviewing 3.1. Historical Overview 3.2. Survey Interviews 3.3. Usability Interviews 3.4. Focus Group Interviews 3.5. Interviewing in Clinical Contexts 3.6. Selection Interviews 3.7. Cognitive Interviewing 3.8. Interviewing Children 3.9. Interviewing as Skilled Social Interaction 3.10. Training in Interviewing 3.11. Scientific Adequacy of Interviews
3.12. Continuing Debates Experimentation in Psychology - Rationale, Concepts, and Issues 50 Siu L. Chow, University of Regina, Canada 1. Introduction 2. Components of the Experiment
2.1. Types of Variables 2.1.1. The Independent, Control, and Dependent Variables 2.1.2. The Extraneous Variable, Confounding Variable, and Control Procedure
2.2. Experimental Designs 2.2.1. Designs and the Number of Variables 2.2.2. Designs and Subject Assignment
2.4. Three Technical Meanings of "Control" 3. Types of Experiments 4. The Utilitarian Experiment 5. The Theory-Corroboration Experiment
5.1. Phenomenon and Its Explanation 5.2. The Criterion of Falsification 5.3. The Statistical Null Hypothesis (H0) 5.4. The Rationale of Theory Corroboration 5.5. Tentative Conclusion and Converging Operations
6. Criticisms of Experimental Psychology Revisited 6.1. Empirical Study of the Unobservable 6.2. Objectivity Despite Unreliable Perception 6.3. Objectivity Despite Theory-Dependent Observations 6.4. The Social Psychology of the Psychological Experiment
6.4.1. The Experimenter Expectancy Effect 6.4.2. The Subject Effect 6.4.3. Demand Characteristics
6.5. Ecological Validity Revisited Quasi-Experimentation 75 Rene van Hezewijk, Open University of the Netherlands, The Netherlands 1. Introduction 2. Experimentation and Quasi-Experimentation
2.1. History and Theories of Experimentation and Quasi-Experimentation 2.2. Preliminary Philosophical Remarks 2.3. Causal Relations and Experiments in Psychology and Other Life Sciences 2.4. Threats to Internal Validity
2.4.1. History 2.4.2. Maturation 2.4.3. Testing 2.4.4. Instrumentation 2.4.5. Regression 2.4.6. Selection 2.4.7. Mortality 2.4.8. Interaction of Mortality, and/or Selection, and/or Maturation, Etc.
2.5. Threats to External Validity 2.5.1. Interaction between Testing and X on Y 2.5.2. Interaction between Selection and X 2.5.3. Interaction between Other Factors and X 2.5.4. Reactive Arrangements 2.5.5. Multiple-X Interference
3. Theory of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs 3.1. Pre-Experimental Designs 3.2. True Experimental Designs 3.3. Quasi-Experimental Designs
3.3.1. Non-Equivalent Control Designs 3.3.2. Time-Series Designs
4. Statistical Analysis and Quasi-Experimental Design 4.1. Analysis of (Co)Variance Models 4.2. Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average Models
5. Conclusion The Construction and Use of Psychological Tests and Measures 101 Bruno D. Zumbo, University of British Columbia, Canada Michaela N. Gelin, University of British Columbia, Canada
6. Validity Theory with an Eye Toward Measurement Practice 6.1. Evaluating the Measures: Validity and Scale Development 6.2. The Traditional View of Validity 6.3. The Expanded (Modern) View of Validity
Statistics and Its Role in Psychological Research 128 Siu L. Chow, University of Regina, Canada 1. Introduction 2. Descriptive Statistics
2.1. Four Levels of Measurement 2.2. Data—Raw and Derived 2.3. Data Tabulation and Distributions
2.3.1. Simple Frequency Distribution 2.3.2. Derived Distributions 2.3.3. Utilities of Various Distributions
2.4. Succinct Description of Data 2.4.1. The Shape of the Simple Frequency Distribution 2.4.2. Measures of Central Tendency 2.4.3. Degrees of Freedom (df) 2.4.4. Measures of Dispersion
2.5. Standardization 2.6. Correlation and Regression
2.6.1. Linear Correlation 2.6.2. Non-Linearity 2.6.3. Linear Regression
3. Bridging Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 3.1. Random Sampling 3.2. Random Sampling Distribution of Means 3.3. The Random Sampling Distribution of Differences 3.4. Theoretical Properties of the Sampling Distribution of Differences
4. Inferential Statistics 4.1. Experimental Hypothesis versus Statistical Hypothesis 4.2. The Implication of H0 4.3. The Decision Rule—Criterion and Conditional Probability 4.4. The Level of Significance 4.5. The Meaning of Statistical Significance 4.6. “H0 Is Never True” Revisited
5. Effect Size and Statistical Power 5.1. The Putative Anomaly of Significance Tests 5.2. “Effect”—Statistical versus Substantive 5.3. Statistical Power
5.4. Reservations about Statistical Power Ethical and Legal Matters 153 Geoff Lindsay, University of Warwick, UK 1. Psychology as a Science
1.1. The Topic 1.2. Conduct of the Research 1.3. Publication and Dissemination 1.4. Interaction
2. Psychology as a Profession 3. Ethical Codes
3.1. Codes as Bases for Action 4. Disciplinary Procedures 5. Ethical Dilemmas
5.1. Reasons for Unethical Behavior 5.1.1. Ignorance of the Ethical Code 5.1.2. Reasoned Disagreement with the Code 5.1.3. Flouting the Code for Self-Gratification 5.1.4. Ethical Dilemmas
5.2. Ethical Decision Making 6. Ethics and the Law
6.1. Ethical and Legal Perspectives 6.2. Regulation
7. Conclusions Animals as Models or Analogs 169 Deborah M. Saucier, University of Saskatchewan, Canada 1. Introduction 2. Objections to Research in Non-Human Animals 3. Animal Research in the Life Sciences 4. Research Involving Animals Raised in Controlled Conditions 5. Research Involving Animals in Naturalistic Settings 6. Utility of the Research 7. Generality 8. Conclusions Experimental Psychology and Its Implications for Human Development 178 Nelson Cowan, University of Missouri, USA 1. Introduction 2. Of Human Successes and Failures 3. Strengths and Limits of Human Information Processing
3.1. Some Strengths and Limits of Perception 3.2. Some Strengths and Limits of Long-Term Memory and Learning 3.3. Some Strengths and Limits of Attention and Working Memory 3.4. Some Strengths and Limits of Reasoning, Problem Solving, and Decision Making 3.5. Some Strengths and Limits of Human Communication 3.6. Some Strengths and Limits of Human Emotions 3.7. Some Strengths and Limits of Human Social Cognition 3.8. Developmental Changes in Strengths and Weaknesses
Attention, Perception and Memory 208 Alexander Pollatsek, University of Massachusetts, USA Caren M. Rotello, University of Massachusetts, USA 1. Introduction 2. Attention 3. Perception
3.1. Theories of Pattern Recognition 3.2. Perception without Awareness 3.3. Units of Perception 3.4. Eye Movements in Visual Perception
Thinking and Problem Solving 231 Peter A. Frensch, Humboldt University Berlin, Germany Joachim Funke, University of Heidelberg, Germany 1. Introduction 2. Defining Human Thinking 3. Complex Problem Solving: Historical Roots and Current Situation
3.1. Complex Problem Solving: A Definition 3.2. A Theoretical Framework for Complex Problem Solving 3.3. Studies on Person Factors
3.3.1. Test Intelligence 3.3.2. Expert–Novice Comparisons 3.3.3. Clinical Groups 3.3.4. Strategies
3.4. Studies on Situation Factors 3.4.1. Type of Task 3.4.2. Stress 3.4.3. Individual versus Group Complex Problem Solving 3.4.4. Transparency 3.4.5. Information Presentation
3.5. Studies on System Factors 3.5.1. Eigendynamik 3.5.2. Feedback Delays 3.5.3. Semantic Embeddedness
3.6. Studies on Interaction Effects 3.6.1. Person and Situation
3.7. The Components of a Theory of Complex Problem Solving 4. Methodological Approaches to Studying Complex Problem Solving 5. Final Comments Emotions and Human Health 250 Keith Oatley, University of Toronto, Canada Sholom Glouberman, Canadian Policy Research Networks, Canada 1. Introduction 2. The Nature of Emotions 3. Emotions and Roles 4. Emotional Disorders 5. Psychosomatic Health
6. Population Health Neurobiological Bases for Psychological Functioning 267 Erich Schroger, Universitat Leipzig, Germany Thomas Jacobsen, Universitat Leipzig, Germany 1. Introduction 2. Principles
2.1. Approaches to Relating Mind and Brain/Body 2.1.1. Psychological Effects of Neural Alteration 2.1.2. Neural Effects of Psychological Alterations/Change 2.1.3. Correlating Mind and Brain
2.2. Mind and Body: Two Perspectives 3. The Neural Substrate 4. Methods
4.1. ERP/ERF Components 5. Selected Functions
5.1. Perception 5.2. Attentional Selection
5.2.1. Active Selection 5.2.2. Passive Selection
5.3. Language 6. Conclusion Psychology of Individual Differences with Particular Reference to Temperament 289 Jan Strelau, University of Warsaw, Poland 1. Historical Perspective 2. The Concept of Individual Differences and Main Categories to Describe Them
2.1. The Psychology of Individual Differences 2.2. Trait as the Basic Category for Describing Individual Differences
3. Temperament as a Component of Personality 3.1. Founders of Contemporary Research on Temperament
3.1.1. Eysenck's Biological Theory of Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism (PEN) 3.1.2. The Interactional Theory of Temperament Developed by Thomas and Chess
3.2. The Status of Temperament Research during the Last Quarter of the Twentieth Century 3.2.1. Child-Oriented Approaches to Temperament 3.2.2. Adult-Oriented Theories of Temperament
4. The Functional Significance of Temperament 4.1. Arousal and Arousability as Constructs that Explain Individual Differences in Experiencing
Stress 4.2. Temperament as a Moderator of Stress
The Psychological Problems of Communication 310 Luisa Puddu, University of Florence, Italy Rosalba Raffagnino, University of Florence, Italy 1. Introduction 2. Nosography of communication disturbances 3. Problematic aspects of the communication process 4. Psychological aspects associated with Problems of Communication 5. Psycho-pathological problems and communication 6. Conclusions
Developmental Psychology: Main Problems and Modern Tendencies 331 Ralph Gemelli, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA 1. Introduction: Multiple Theories of Human Psychological Development 2. One Possible Integrated Theoretical Model of Psychological Development 3. New Concepts about the Functions of the Social Environment 4. The Child-Parent Process of Adaptation 5. A Concept Unifying Normal Development and Child and Adult Psychopathology: "Developmental
Psychopathology" 6. The Inclusion of Biopsychosocial Data in Fostering the Continuities Existing between Child and
7. Conclusion Developmental Psychodynamics 357 Ralph Gemelli, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA 1. Introduction 2. The Attachment Relationship and Individual Development of Psychological Awareness 3. Child Pathogenic Beliefs as "Silent" Risk Factors in Inhibiting Normal Development 4. Children's Vulnerability versus Invulnerability to Traumatic Life Events 5. The Influence of Unconscious Mental Operations on Children's Verbalizations and Surface Behavior Psycho-genetics and Genetic Influences on Behavior 380 Carlo Calzone, Matera 75199, Italy Mariano S. Pergola, The Genetic Unit of the Child Outpatient Service of ASL RM/E in Rome, Italy 1. Introduction 2. Genetics and Behavior
2.1. Behavioral Phenotypes 2.1.1. Down's Syndrome: An Example of a Genetic Disease Associated with an Extra Copy of an
Entire Chromosome 2.1.2. Williams Syndrome: An Example of a Genetic Illness Associated with the Loss of Part of
a Chromosome 2.1.3. The Fragile X Syndrome: An Example of a Genetic Disease Associated with the Mutation
of a Single Gene 2.2. The Genotype–Environment Relationship
Cognitive Development of Children 402 Erminia Scarcella, George Washington University, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA 1. Introduction 2. Cognitive Development and Caregivers 3. Brain Development and Cognition
3.1. The Four Stages of Cognitive Development 3.1.1. Sensorimotor 3.1.2. Preoperational Thought 3.1.3. Concrete Operational 3.1.4. Formal Operational
The Developmental Psychology of Aged Persons 412 Jeffrey S. Akman, George Washington University, USA 1. Introduction 2. Definitions 3. Physical Aspects of Aging
3.1. Vision 3.2. Hearing 3.3. Nervous System 3.4. Disease and Illness
4. Cognitive Aging 4.1. Attentional Processes 4.2. Language Functions and Verbal Abilities 4.3. Learning and Memory 4.4. Processing Speed 4.5. Executive Functions 4.6. Models of Cognitive Aging
5. Mental Health and Personality 5.1. Mental Health Over the Life Span 5.2. Stage Theories of Personality Development 5.3. Reminiscence and Life Review
6. Adjustment and Coping 6.1. Developmental Tasks and Aging 6.2. Defensive Processes and Aging 6.3. Coping Strategies and Coping Effectiveness
7. Role Transitions 7.1. Retirement 7.2. Psychological Consequences of Illness 7.3. Caregiving 7.4. Spousal Bereavement 7.5. Facing Death 7.6. Resilience
8. Social Functioning in Late Life The Impact of Psychosocial Factors on Development 428 Marilyn B. Benoit, Georgetown University Medical School, USA 1. Introduction 2. Environment and Genes 3. Psychosocial Risk and Protective Factors 4. How Can We Promote Healthy Psychological Development? Index 437 About EOLSS 443
VOLUME III
Social Psychology: A Topical Review 1 Verlin B. Hinsz, North Dakota State University, USA David Matz, Texas A & M University, USA 1. Introduction 2. Definition of Social Psychology
3. A Structure for Topics in Social Psychology 4. A Review of Social Psychology Topics
4.1. Social Perception 4.2. Social Cognition 4.3. Mood, Affect, and Social Emotions 4.4. The Self 4.5. Social Attitudes 4.6. Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination 4.7. Interpersonal Attraction 4.8. Close and Intimate Relationships 4.9. Social Influence 4.10. Competition, Cooperation, and Conflict 4.11. Helping Others 4.12. Aggression 4.13. Small Group Processes 4.14. Leadership 4.15. Large Groups and Intergroup Relations 4.16. Environmental Influences on Social Interaction
5. Applying Social Psychology: The Legacy of Social Psychology 5.1. Applying Social Psychology to Sustained Development 5.2. Applying Social Psychology to Conflict Resolution 5.3. Applying Social Psychology to Healthy Living 5.4. Applying Social Psychology to Legal Systems 5.5. Applying Social Psychology to People at Work 5.6. Applying Social Psychology to Politics and Government
The Social Psychology of Personality 29 Robert W. Fuhrman, The University of Texas, USA 1. Introduction 2. A Brief History of the Person-Situation Debate 3. The Modern Trait Perspective
3.1. The Five-Factor Model of Traits 3.2. Single Trait Theories
3.2.1. The Authoritarian Personality 3.2.2. Self-Monitoring Theory
4. The Cognitive Perspective 4.1. Self-Schema Theory 4.2. Self-Guide Theory 4.3. Theories of Social Cognitive Learning
4.3.1. Self-Efficacy 4.3.2. Locus of Control
5. The Motivational Perspective 5.1. Attachment Theory 5.2. The Cognitive-Affective Personality System 5.3. Theories of Goal-Based Motives
5.3.1. The Feedback Model of Self-Regulation 5.3.2. Short-Term Motives 5.3.3. Long-Term Motives 5.3.4. Single-Goal Motives
6. Future Research Directions Social Influence 50 Dariusz Dolinski, University of Opole, Poland 1. Introduction
2. The Forms of Social Influence 2.1. Influence of the Presence of Others: Facilitation, Inhibition, and Social Loafing
2.1.1. Social Facilitation and Inhibition Effects 2.1.2. Social Loafing
2.2. Social Imitation 2.2.1. Informational and Normative Social Influence 2.2.2. Conscious and Unconscious Imitation 2.2.3. Social Consequences of Imitation 2.2.4. Minority Influence on the Majority
2.3. Obedience toward Authorities 2.3.1. Milgram’s Research 2.3.2. Causes and Consequences of Obedience
3. Social Influence Mechanisms and Techniques 3.1. Reciprocation 3.2. Commitment and Consistency 3.3. Social Proof 3.4. Liking 3.5. Scarcity 3.6. Social Influence Techniques Based on Several Principles and Techniques Based on Other
Mechanisms 4. Attitudes and Attitude Change
4.1. What Attitudes Are 4.2. Theories of Attitude Change
4.2.1. Information-Processing Model 4.2.2. Two Routes to Persuasion
4.3. Determinants of Attitude Change 4.3.1. The Conveyor of the Communication 4.3.2. Communication Content 4.3.3. Organization of the Communication 4.3.4. Communication Media 4.3.5. The Recipient of the Communication
5. Conclusions The Social Psychology of Small Groups 73 Craig D. Parks, Washington State University, USA 1. Introduction 2. Group Formation and Maintenance 3. The Influence of Groups on Individuals
3.1. Conformity 3.2. Performance Inhibition and Facilitation
3.2.1. Social Loafing 3.2.2. Social Facilitation 3.2.3. Social Impairment
4. Group Decision Making 4.1. What Gets Discussed? 4.2. The Determination of Consensus 4.3. Groupthink 4.4. Jurors and Juries
4.4.1. Procedural Influences 4.4.2. The Process of Deliberation
5. Conflict Within Groups 6. Conclusions
6.1. Studies of Dynamic Groups 6.2. Groups as Information Processors 6.3. Conflict Resolution
The Psychology of The Relationship Between Groups 93 Stephen Worchel, University of Hawai'i, USA 1. Introduction 2. Expanding the Field: Types of Groups and Events Defining Relationships between Groups
2.1. The Social Identity Perspective 2.2. Self-Categorization 2.3. The Domains of Intergroup Relations
3. Grapes of Wrath: Behaviors That Comprise the Relation between Groups 3.1. Attraction and Discrimination 3.2. Proximity 3.3. Similarity 3.4. Ambivalence
4. In the Eye of the Beholder: Intergroup Relations and Intergroup Perceptions 4.1. They Are All the Same 4.2. Stereotypes: Cognitive Pictures of Groups
5. Improving the Relationship between Groups 6. Conclusion The Psychology of Large Groups 107 Martin J. Bourgeois, University of Wyoming, USA Helen C. Harton, University of Northern Iowa, USA 1. What are Large Groups and How Can We Study Them? 2. A Typology of Large Groups
2.4.1. Fads and Fashions 2.4.2. Rumors and Mass Hysteria 2.4.3. Social Movements
3. Historical Approaches to Large Groups 4. Modern Theoretical Approaches to Large Groups
4.1. Convergence Theory 4.2. Deindividuation Theory 4.3. Emergent Norm Theory 4.4. Social Identity Theory 4.5. Dynamic Social Impact Theory (see, Social Influence)
5. Imitation and Other Forms of Social Influence 6. Conclusion: Redefining Large Groups Juridical Psychology 122 Guglielmo Gulotta, University of Turin, Italy Antonietta Curci, University of Bari, Italy 1. Introduction 2. The History of Juridical Psychology (with the collaboration of Antonietta Curci) 3. Psychological Law 4. Psychotherapeutic Law Psychology of Nonverbal Communication and Interpersonal Interaction 131 Miles L. Patterson, University of Missouri, USA 1. Introduction
2. Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication 3. Components and Patterns of Nonverbal Communication
3.1. Component Cues and Behaviors 3.2. Patterns of Nonverbal Communication
4. Basic Determinants of Nonverbal Communication 4.1. Biology and the Utility of Universal Patterns
4.1.1. Mate Selection 4.1.2. Care and Nurturance of Offspring 4.1.3. Social Influence
4.2. Cultural Differences 4.2.1. Dispositional Patterns 4.2.2. Involvement Patterns 4.2.3. Impact of Cultural Differences
5. Functions of Nonverbal Communication 5.1. Providing Information 5.2. Regulating Interaction 5.3. Expressing Intimacy 5.4. Exercising Influence 5.5. Managing Impressions
6. Nonverbal Communication, Goals, and Social Interaction Tendencies and Perspectives of Psychology as a Science and as a Technology 151 Jose M. Prieto, Complutense University, Spain 1. Introduction 2. From "Being-Mind" to "Being-Time" 3. Logocentrism and Deconstruction in Psychology 4. A Scientific and a Technological Perspective 5. From Human Behavior to Human Performance 6. Knowledge and Achievements Securely Anchored 7. Customer- and Citizen-Oriented 8. Interest in Expanding and in Restricting Entry into the Field 9. Confidential Reports and Publishing Papers 10. Long-Term and Short-Term Projects 11. Achieving Results from Higher Education and Training 12. Generalizable Theories and Specific Models 13. Deontological Codes and Normative Standards 14. Subject Matter and Career Paths 15. Research and Evaluation 16. Conventional Classroom and E-Learning 17. Conclusion Psychology of Diversity 184 M. Pilar Sánchez-López, Complutense University, Spain 1. The Concept of Diversity 2. The Scope of the Psychology of Diversity
3.2. Diversity in Periodic Performance Variations (Chronopsychology): Person and Situation 3.2.1. Individual Subject-Related Differences 3.2.2. Conditions for Carrying Out the Task 3.2.3. Nature of the Task 3.2.4. Nature of the Information Treatment System 3.2.5. Practical Applications
Cross-Cultural Psychology 202 Paul G. Schmitz, University of Bonn, Germany 1. Introduction 2. How Do Migrants Adapt to a New Culture?
2.1. Is There an Option of Free Choice Concerning Specific Acculturation Strategies? 2.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Acculturation Strategies 2.3. Auto-Separation and the Need for Social Support
3. Individual Differences in Acculturation 3.1. Coping Strategies and Acculturative Behavior 3.2. The Influence of Personality Variables
4. Intercultural Sensibility and Competence 4.1. Acculturation Research 4.2. Intercultural Sensibility 4.3. Training for Migrants 4.4. Attitudes towards Migrants
Environmental Psychology for the New Millenium: Towards an Integration of Cultural and Temporal Dynamics 228 Gabriel Moser, Université René Descartes-Paris V, France 1. Introduction 2. The Cultural Dimension
2.1. Home Environment; Neighborhood; Urban Life; Ecological Behavior. The Micro-Environment and the Cultural Dimension
2.2. The Cultural Dimension and the Neighborhood 2.3. The Cultural Dimension and the Conditions of Urban Life 2.4. The Cultural Dimension and the Global Environment
3. The Temporal Dimension 3.1. The Temporal Dimension, Environmental Appropriation, and Well-being 3.2. The Temporal Dimension and Exposure to Environmental Conditions 3.3. The Temporal Dimension, Perception, and Representations of the Environment
4. Conclusion Ecological Psychology 245 Mirilia Bonnes, University of Rome "La Sapienza", Italy Anna Maria Nenci, University of Cagliari, Italy 1. The Psychological Tradition and the Ecological Perspective
1.1. Barker and Colleagues’ Midwest Psychological Field Station 1.2. The Behavior Settings of the First Ecological Psychology
2. Ecological Psychology and Environmental Psychology 2.1. The Spatial-Physical Environment of Environmental Psychology: From Physical Settings to
Places 2.2. The Ecological Revolution and Sustainable Development 2.3. The Environmental Psychology of Sustainable Development or "New Ecological Psychology"
Political Psychology 261 Jose Manuel Sabucedo, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, España, Spain Wilson López, Fandacion Universitaria Konrad Lorenz, Colombia 1. Introduction 2. First Studies in Political Psychology 3. The Relationship between Psychology and Politics 4. The Institutionalization of Political Psychology
4.1. Political Psychology in Spain and Latin America 5. Definitions and Meanings of Political Psychology 6. Areas of Research in Political Psychology
6.1. Social Attitudes and Authoritarianism 6.2. Participation and Political Action 6.3. Social Movements 6.4. Mass Media and Political Behavior 6.5. Conflict and Political Violence
7. Conclusions Cyberpsychology Just a Testing Ground 281 Jose M. Prieto, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain Pedro Sanz, Complutense Universityof Madrid, Spain Angel Barrasa, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain 1. Cyperpsychology 2. Cyberculture 3. The Emergence of the Seventh Continent 4. Dipoles in Cyberspace 5. Cyberpsychology: A Fuzzy Domain 6. Cyberpsychology in Action: A New Field of Expertise
6.1. The Literacy Barrier in the New Information and Communication Technologies 6.2. Continuing Online Education in Psychology 6.3. Doing Online Research in Psychology 6.4. Online Knowledge-Based Expertise 6.5. The Code of Ethics
Evolution and Structure of Consciousness 313 Albert Low, The Montreal Zen Center, Canada 1. Introduction 2. Part One
2.1. Four Ways of Viewing Mind and Matter 2.2. Knowing-Being 2.3. A Metaphor 2.4. A Logic of Ambiguity 2.5. The Logic of Ambiguity and Classical Logic 2.6. Unity 2.7. Unity as Simplicity 2.8. Dynamic Unity 2.9. Bridging the Gap between Mind and Matter, the Resolution of the Mind-Body Problem 2.10. Resonance
3. Part Two: What is Consciousness? 3.1. A Definition of Terms 3.2. Evolution from Pure Awareness to Consciousness 3.3. Me-as-Center Me-as-Periphery 3.4. Me-as-Center/Me-as-Periphery as the Source of Anxiety 3.5. Consciousness and the "Other"
