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Andragogy of Distance Education
Andragogical Approach to
Learning And Training
Processes
1 Arun
Table of Contents Learning is change Learning theories Pedagogy Defined Andragogy Defined Characteristics of adult learners Pedagogy Vs Andragogy What we learn? How we learn? Learning cycle Learning styles Thinking styles of Learners Learning Process Blooms Taxonomy Many Faces of Learning Need for Training Blended Learning Learning Tree
Table of Contents
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Acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, instruction, practice or experience
A relatively permanent change in behavior or cognitive process
In training: change in knowledge, skill or attitude
“If you are planning for a year, sow rice
If you are planning for a decade, plant trees
If you are planning for a lifetime, educate people”
-- Chinese proverb
Learning is change
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Behavioral theory: Observable changes in behavior
Cognitive theory: Thought process behind the behavior
Constructivist theory: We all construct our own perspective of
the world, through individual experiences and schema Humanistic theory: Intrinsically motivated to self actualize or
learn. Learning is dependent upon meeting a hierarchy of needs (physiological, psychological and intellectual) Social learning theory: Learning from models
Pedagogy Andragogy
Learning Theories
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Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov : S-R Theory
Connectionism – Edward L.Thorndike : The Law of Effect
Operant Conditioning - B. F. Skinner : R-S Theory
Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov B. F. Skinner Edward L. Thorndike
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Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936)
1904 Nobel Prize in Medicine
20 years studying digestive system
30 years studying learning
Stimulus – Response Theory (S – R)
Dogs would drool in anticipation of food: S - R
What were dogs thinking or feeling?
How did they know he was going to feed them?
Did they see, smell or associate him with food?
Ivan Pavlov
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Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
Experiment: Meat, Bell and Dog
Examined the phenomenon objectively by an experiment
Measured exact amount of saliva secreted by dog when
a piece of meat is presented
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Definition: Classical Conditioning
When an unconditioned and a neutral stimulus are paired,
the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that
elicits conditioned response
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that brings about a response without having been
learned
e.g. smell of food causes salivation
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A response that is natural and needs no training
e.g. salivation at the smell of food 8 Arun
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
– A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with a UCS to bring about a response formerly caused only by the UCS
– Bell rings, dog salivates because he has paired the bell with food due to conditioning
Conditioned Response (CR)
– A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus
– Salivation caused by bell ringing
Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
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Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
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Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
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Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
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Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
‘Learning a conditioned response by associating a conditioned stimulus with unconditioned one’
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Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
Thunder = Rain = Lightning = get umbrella “Sit” = biscuit
Neutral stimulus: prior to conditioning, has no effect
on the desired response Until you experience thunder with rain & lightning,
you don’t think about getting your umbrella Until you pair “Sit” with the behavior of sitting and
the reward of biscuit. “Sit” had no meaning
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Associative learning: Stimulus – Response (S – R) Explanation only for reflexive or respondent behaviors Very small fraction of human learning abilities Involuntary responses caused by different stimuli Complex human behaviors cannot be explored
Critiques: Classical Conditioning
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Behaviorism: Connectionism
Edward L.Thorndike (1874-1949) Psychologist
Research : Animal behavior, human psychology Learning involved forming bond between S - R
The Law of Effect
Connection between S – R = Positively rewarded : Strengthened Connection between S – R = Negatively rewarded : Weakened Responses that are satisfying are more likely to be repeated, and
those that are not satisfying are less likely to be repeated
Edward L.Thorndike
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Behaviorism: Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning or Reinforcement theory B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) Response – Stimulus Theory (R-S) Experiment
– Voluntary or Learned behavior Response is made first, then reinforcement follows: R-S Behavior: influenced by its consequences Operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in
operating on the environment)
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Behaviorism: Operant Conditioning
Skinner box – box with lever, if lever is pulled, drops food into cup Rat operated the lever more frequently over the time
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Operant Conditioning Mechanisms
Positive Reinforcement or reward Responses that are rewarded are likely to be repeated. (Good grades reinforce careful study) Negative Reinforcement
Responses that allow escape from painful or undesirable situations are likely to be repeated. (Being excused from writing a final because of good term work) Extinction or Non-Reinforcement : Responses that are not
reinforced are not likely to be repeated. (Ignoring student misbehavior should extinguish that behavior) Punishment: Responses that bring painful or undesirable
consequences will be suppressed (Penalizing late students by withdrawing privileges should stop their lateness) 19 Arun
Classical Vs Operant Conditioning
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Cognitive Theory
Edward Tolman – Pioneering theorist in the field of cognitive psychology
Process of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition, or perception
Relationship between: cognitive environmental cues and expectation (S-S Learning)
Experiment: Rats were allowed to run through a complicated maze in search of food
Food was placed in certain points in a maze
When the rat came across the food they began to associate the presence of food with certain cognitive cues
Rats and other animals develop ‘cognitive maps’ of their environment
Learning involves associations established through closeness and repetition 21 Arun
Cognitive Theory Concepts
Schema
- An internal knowledge structure
- New information is compared to existing cognitive structures called "schema“
- Schema may be combined, extended or altered to accommodate new information
Three-Stage Information Processing Model
- Input first enters a sensory register
- Then is processed in short-term memory
- Then is transferred to long-term memory for storage and retrieval
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Constructivism
Bartlett (1932)
Good & Brophy (1990), Merrill (1991), Smorgansbord (1997)
Knowledge is constructed from experience
Learning is a personal interpretation of the world
Learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience
Conceptual growth comes from the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of multiple perspectives and the changing of our internal representations through collaborative learning
Learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not a separate activity
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Humanistic: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self
Actualization
Esteem
Love, Belongingness
Safety
Basic (Physiological)
Demotivators
Motivators
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Humanistic: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self
Actualization
Esteem
Love, Belongingness
Safety
Basic (Physiological)
Growth, attaining one’s potential & self fulfillment
Food, Water, Shelter, Sleep, Education
Affection, acceptance & friendship
Internal - Self respect External - Recognition
Physical, emotional protection
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Social Learning
Grew out of Cognitivism
Bandura (1973) People learn by observing other people (models) they think are knowledgeable and credible
The model’s behavior is adopted
Self-efficacy: The individual believes he or she is capable of learning
Four processes in learning:
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
- Motivation
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Summary and Implication of Theories
Aspect Behaviorist Cognitivist Humanist Social and
situational
Learning theorists
Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Tolman, Skinner
Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne
Maslow, Rogers Bandura, Lave and Wenger, Salomon
View of the learning process
Change in behavior Internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception
A personal act to fulfill potential
Interaction /observation in social contexts. Movement from the periphery to the centre of a community of practice
Locus of learning
Stimuli in external environment
Internal cognitive structuring
Affective and cognitive needs
Learning is in relationship between people and environment.
Purpose in education
Produce behavioral change in desired direction
Develop capacity and skills to learn better
Become self-actualized, autonomous
Full participation in communities of practice and utilization of resources
Educator's role
Arranges environment to elicit desired response
Structures content of learning activity
Facilitates development of the whole person
Works to establish communities of practice in which conversation and participation can occur.
Manifestations in adult learning
•Behavioral objectives •Competency -based education •Skill development and training
•Cognitive development •Intelligence, learning and memory as function of age •Learning how to learn
•Andragogy •Self-directed learning
•Socialization •Social participation •Associationalism •Conversation 27 Arun
Learning Approach, Process And
Teaching Methods
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Pedagogy Defined
Pedagogy is a Greek word, derived from two words: ‘paid’ and ‘agogus’
Paid – ‘child’ and ‘agogus’ – ‘leader of’
Pedagogy : Art and science of teaching children
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Pedagogy Roots and Assumptions
Padagogy model roots: seventh century in europe
Introduction of organized education at monastic schools (cathedral schools)
The objective: Induction of young men into the priesthood
Assumptions about learners:
Dependent personality of the learner: learner does not know his own learning
needs
Learning is subject centered : instructional curricula are organized around
subjects
External motivation: Prizes and punishment
Prior experience of learner is irrelevant: Teacher need not consider the
student’s prior experience
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Andragogy Defined
‘Andragogy’ : Greek word, meaning andr – ‘man’, ‘agogus’ – ‘leader of’ Malcolm Knowles (1970 ) coined the word Andragogy : ‘The art and science of helping adults learn’ By definition of an adult is someone who has achieved the self concept of
being responsible for their own life
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Assumptions of Andragogy
The Need to Know : Adults need to know the utility and value of the material before embarking on learning Self-Concept : Self-directing and autonomous The Role of Experience : Relate prior work experience in learning Readiness to Learn : Orient towards tasks associated with real life, social
roles Orientation to Learning : Shift from subject-centered to problem-centered Motivation: learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators
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Characteristics of Adult Learners
Control over learning
High motivation to learn
Pragmatic in learning
Learning may be a secondary role
Resistant to change
Adult learners are more diverse
Draw on past experiences in learning
Learning is often self-initiated
Learning is aimed at an immediate goal
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Padagogy Vs Andragogy
Learner Padagogy Andragogy
Concepts of learner Dependent personality Self-directed
Orientation to learning Subject-centered Problem-centered
Readiness to learn Uniform by age level and
curriculum
Develops from life tasks and
problems
Motivation External: Rewards and
punishment
Internal: Satisfaction, curiosity
Experience Limited Broad and varied
Planning Primarily by teacher Mutually by learners and
fecilitator
Education Future oriented Result oriented
Adaptation to change Likely to accept new
information
Skeptical, try it out before
accepting
Application of learning Deferred Immediate
Physiological factors
(visual, audio, health)
Less likely to influence learning May influence learning
Vocabulary Limited and increases through
education
Extensive, influences learning
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• Verbal information - Names, labels, facts
• Intellectual skills - Understanding of concepts
• Motor skills - Coordination and dexterousness
• Attitudes - Beliefs and feelings
• Cognitive strategy - Regulate the process of learning
What we learn
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How we learn
Learning Styles
Characteristics Teaching Strategies
Visual visually illustrated
or demonstrated
• Graphics, illustrations
• Images
• Demonstrations
Auditory when it is spoken • Lectures
• Discussions
Kinesthetic Information
process : touched
or manipulated
• Written assignments,
taking notes
• Examination of objects
• Participation in activities 36 Arun
How we learn
Learning Styles
Characteristics Teaching Strategies
Social Groups
Networks
Peer group
Seminars
Webinar
Environmental Ambiance - learner
preferences
(room temperature,
lighting, seating, etc.)
online learners have
edge over on-campus
students
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The Learning Cycle
• The learning cycle is a dynamic process that involves four specific stages:
– Concrete experience
– Reflective observation
– Abstract conceptualization
– Active experimentation
• The key to effective learning is to be competent in each of the four stages
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Learning Styles
Diverger Generates ideas and understands multiple perspectives
Based on concrete experience and reflective observation.
Assimilator Good at inductive reasoning, can create theoretical models and explanations
Based on abstract conceptualization and reflective observation
Converger Good deductive reasoning, decision making and application of ideas
Based on abstract conceptualization and active experimentation
Accommodator Involved in new experiences, implements decisions and carries out plans
Based on concrete experience and active experimentation
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Thinking styles of learner
Thinking Styles Characteristics
Reflective learners
•View new information subjectively
•Relate new information to past experiences
•Often ask "why?"
•Examine their feelings about what they are learning
Creative
learners
•Like to play with new information
•Always ask "why?"
•Make excellent troubleshooters
•Create their own solutions and shortcuts 40 Arun
Thinking styles of learner
Thinking Styles Characteristics
Practical •Want factual information without any "nice-
to-know" additions
•Seek the simplest, most efficient way to do
their work
•Not satisfied until they know how to apply
their new skills to their job or other interest
Conceptual •Accept new information only after seeing the
big picture
•Want to know how things work, not just the
final outcome
•Learn the concepts that are presented but
also want to know the related concepts that
may not have been included 41 Arun
The Learning Process
Learning occurs through both mental and physical processes
Expectancy
Perception
Working storage
Semantic encoding
Rehearsal
Organization
Elaboration
Retrieval
Generalizing
Gratifying
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Benjamin Bloom proposed his Taxonomy in 1956. Bloom’s Taxonomy divided education objectives into three domains:
• Affective(feeling)
• Psychomotor(doing)
• Cognitive(knowing)
I hear, I know. I see, I remember. I do, I understand
Blooms
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Many faces of learning
• Just-in-case or just-in-time
• Hard-wired or modular
• Expository or discovery
• Dumb or intelligen
• Tell-and-test or try-and-see
• Desktop or mobile
• Content or context
• Interactive or passive
• Self-paced or live
• Self-study or collaborative
• Formal or informal
• Award-winning or good enough
• Stand-alone or blended
• Marginalised or pervasive
• Pull or push
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"For an organization, the biggest priority for training is to align with business strategy. " Birskin
Source: Bersin & Associates
Corporate Training Survey What do you intend to achieve through your learning programs?
results based on 526 Responses in May 2005
Need for Training
61%
47%45%
37%34%
21%20%
7%4%
Alignment
with Business
Strategy
Increasing
Usage
Increasing
Effectiveness
Measuring
Support
Reducing
Costs
Infrastructure -
Technology
Faster
Deployment
Revenue Outsourcing
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46 Changing Perception of Corporate Learning from a Cost to an Investment
Training is a large investment
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47
Today’s Workforce
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Source: IBM Learning Solutions Sept 2005: blended learning for today’s evolving workforce Arun
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Time to solution
Blended Learning
Effort
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The learning Tree
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