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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READING April 28 - 30, 2014 | New Orleans Sentences and Syntax: Writing for Adolescents — Annie Whitney —
Plain Talk abouT Readingapril 28 - 30, 2014 | new orleans
Sentences and Syntax: Writing for Adolescents — Annie Whitney —
One Galleria Blvd., Suite 903 | Metairie, LA 70001Phone: (504) 840-9786 | Fax: (504) 840-9968 | Email: [email protected] | Web: www.cdl.org
About CDL
About the Presenter
Founded in 1992, the Center for Development and Learning (CDL) is a results-driven 501(c)(3) organization. CDL’s mission is to improve the life chances of all children, especially those at high risk, by increasing school success.
CDL’s work is focused on increasing teacher effectiveness. Standards set the course, and assessments provide the benchmarks, but it is highly effective teaching that yields substantial, sustained gains in student learning. All children, regardless of how they look, where they come from, or how they learn, can and will achieve school success when provided with highly effective teachers and positive, supportive learning environments.
CDL holds special expertise in the areas of literacy, learning differences, evidence-based teaching strategies, and building the capacity of teachers. We tackle real-time issues such as ways to remediate struggling readers, differentiate instruction, and build and sustain collective capacity. CDL professionals customize professional learning services to meet the specific needs of the schools and districts with whom we work.
Our current initiatives include (1) Language and Learning – Right from Birth, which provides child care providers and parents of children ages birth to three with the information, skills and support they need to help their children grow and be ready to learn when they enter school; (2) Step It Up for Literacy, which builds educators’ capacity to provide systematic, explicit and effective instruction to all students and targeted intervention for students experiencing difficulties; (3) Learning Profiles: Differentiating Instruction for Diverse Learners, which gives teachers the tools to identify and remediate learning problems with instructional and behavioral interventions; and (4) the Greater New Orleans Literacy Institute, a collaborative with Tulane University, Xavier University of Louisiana, and the Greater New Orleans Education Foundation. The Institute’s goal is to found a support initiative to ensure that all children from birth through 12th grade receive effective, evidence-based literacy instruction and graduate from high school – college and career ready.
Annie WhitneyAnne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP, is a speech-language pathologist and special educator and a member of the clinical and teaching faculties at the University of Colorado’s Boulder campus where she is the coordinator of Speech Language Services. She is president and owner of Spectrum Educational Consulting Services, Inc. Anne has extensive clinical and teaching expertise in language learning disabilities in children, adolescents, and adults, with particular expertise in dyslexia and reading disabilities. She has taught numerous university courses and has clinically trained graduate students in methods for assessment and intervention of children and adults with dyslexia and other language learning disabilities. She has worked in a public school setting, teaching in regular middle school classrooms and in special education classes
with an emphasis on language learning disabilities and literacy. Anne is a certified national trainer for LETRS, and for the LANGUAGE ! curriculum, and she is a frequent presenter at local, state, and national conferences. She is co-author of Teaching Reading Essentials: The Coach’s Guide, SPELL-Links to Reading and Writing: A Word Study Curriculum, Games & Activities for Readers and Spellers, and the Instructional Resources Guide for Teachers.
Sentences to Syntax: Writing for Adolescents
Featuring the Eleven Up & Coming Elements for Successful Writing
Instruction !Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP
Agenda!\INTRODUCTIONS & OVERVIEW ❖ Background on Writing Next ❖ Need for Writing & Spelling Instruction ❖ Written Language Assessment Tools Appropriate for 4th -12th Grade Students ❖ Assessment Results Drive Intervention Instruction THE ELEVEN ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF WRITING
INSTRUCTION ❖ Taking a Closer Look at the Top 5 Elements ❖ Evidence of Effectiveness ❖ Implementation ❖ Available Resources
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 2!
Reference Information!
!!!!
!
Best Practices in Writing Instruction
Edited by Steve Graham, Charles A. MacArthur, and Jill Fitzgerald
Guilford Press 2007
Writing Next Effective Strategies to Improve Writing of
Adolescents in Middle and High Schools
Steve Graham & Delores Perin
Alliance for Excellent Education
(www.all4ed.org)!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 4!
Written Language Sample
5th grade student
1. I hear a tiny fose inside my hede tlelling me that it is get very late. (I hear a tiny voice inside my head telling me that it is getting very late.)
2. Their is only one homewark prolpromrklife for me to andser.
(There is only one homework problem left for me to answer.)
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 5!
11th grade student
Writing Sample
My favorite month is July because it is my birthday. 7th period is my favorite time of the day because it is the last class of the day. I get into trouble but I get out by not doing it and by fixing my own mistakes.
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 6!
Levine, Mel, 1996. Educational Care
Writing Samples
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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READINGNew Orleans, LA |April 28-30, 2014
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 7!
Writing Samples
Levine, Mel, 1996. Educational Care
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 8!
Levine, Mel, 1996. Educational Care
Writing Samples
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 9!
Writing Samples
Levine, Mel, 1996. Educational Care
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 10!
Writing Samples
Levine, Mel, 1996. Educational Care
Why We Need to Teach Writing!
“Writing well is not just an option for young people - it is a necessity. Along with reading comprehension, writing skill is a predictor of academic success and a basic requirement for participation in civic life and in the global economy. Yet every year in the U.S. large numbers of adolescents graduate from high school unable to write at the basic levels required by colleges or employers.” !
Writing Next, P. 3!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 11!
Writing is Important!Writing facilitates:!• phonological awareness!• spelling knowledge!• vocabulary!• familiarity with the language,
structures, and conventions of academic discourse!
• thinking itself!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 12!
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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READINGNew Orleans, LA |April 28-30, 2014
Writing is Difficult!
Written expression is:!• more complex than any
otherlanguage skill!
• learned over a longer period!
• never mastered by many people!
• dependent upon high level and low level cognitive skills!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 13!
Some Stats!• A large number of U.S. students have very poor
writing skills.!• NAEP 1998:!
– 16% of 4th and 8th grade, and 22% of 12th grade students were not able to write at even the most basic level. !
• Together with reading problems, writing problems lead to the greatest number of referrals to special and remedial education programs. (Baker, Gersten, & Graham, 2003; Howell, Fox, & Morehead, 1993)!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 14!
Research on Writing Instruction!Research Meta-Analyses!
• Writing Next: effects of instructional practices on student writing, grades 4 and up, 2007 (www.all4ed.org)!
• Gersten & Baker, 2001.!
• Hillocks, 1984.!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 15!
Major Findings!• Skilled writers devote a good deal of time to planning,
revising, monitoring, evaluating, and managing the writing process.!
• Most effective writing lessons have clear and specific objectives and prepared students to write about specific topics. !
• Less effective: students merely write a good deal of text with minimal guidance from a teacher.!
• Least effective: approaches that focus on studying parts of speech and sentence fragments. !
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 16!
Children Are Not Like Adults!• Each subcomponent of writing develops
gradually, in relation to others.!• Children must automatize basic
subcomponents (letter formation, spelling, spacing, etc.) before they can handle the mental juggling act of writing.!
• Some high level writing skills are beyond children’s cognitive capacities.!! ! ! ! !- Berninger & Richards, 2002!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 17!
Important contributions to this research were made by: Steve Graham and Karen Harris at the University of Maryland
and Steve Hooper at the University of North Carolina
Research-Based Instructional Approaches - 3 Areas!
1. Teaching steps in the process of writing a quality essay or narrative!
2. Improving quality through feedback and elaborated dialogue!
3. Teaching students to understand different text structures and their relationship to writing genres.!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 18!
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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READINGNew Orleans, LA |April 28-30, 2014
“Overcoming the Language Gap” Louisa C. Moats
!Teachers must immerse (students) in the rich language of books. Children need to rehearse the rules of discourse, such as staying on topic, taking turns, and giving enough information so the listener understands. Children must learn how to speak in discussions, to question, paraphrase, retell and summarize… Teachers must teach directly the form, meaning and use of words, phrases, sentences, and texts.”!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 20!
Function of school writing!
“ It is impossible to understand the teaching of writing in America if one does not realize that, in one form or another, from the first grade through graduate school, it serves mostly to test reading --- either reading comprehension or the comprehensiveness of one’s reading” ! !Moffett, 1988
!Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 21!
Writing Next - Background!• Companion to Reading Next!• Meta-analysis of research on writing!
• Carnegie Corporation in New York and !• The Alliance for Excellent Education!
• Authors: Steve Graham & Delores Perin!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 22!
Effect Size!• Effect Size is simply a way of
quantifying the difference between two groups. !
• For example, if one group has had an experimental treatment and the other has not (the control), then the Effect Size is a measure of the effectiveness of the treatment.!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 23!Robert Coe, 2000
Effect Size!• Effect Size uses the idea of standard
deviation to contextualize the difference between the two groups. !
• Standard deviation is a measure of how spread out a set of values are. Various formulae for calculating it can be found in any statistics text book, or if data are entered into a spreadsheet such as Excel, a built-in formula can be used.!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 24!Robert Coe, 2000
Effect Size!• The Effect Size is just the difference
between the mean values of the two groups, divided by the standard deviation (Equation 1).!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 25!
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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READINGNew Orleans, LA |April 28-30, 2014
Effect Size (ES)! Percentile Gain!0.00 ! ! ! !0 ! !!0.25 ! ! ! 10!0.50 ! ! ! 19!0.74 ! ! ! 27!1.00 ! ! ! 34 (1 standard deviation)!!!Effect Sizes of .20 considered small, .50 considered medium, .80 considered large!
!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 26!Tolman & Moats, LETRS, 2007
Eleven Strategies!• The “Eleven Elements of Effective Adolescent
Writing Instruction” identified in Writing Next appear below. The report is careful to note that, although all of the elements are supported by rigorous research and have shown clear results for improving students’ writing, they do not constitute a full writing curriculum—even when used together. They can, however, be combined in flexible ways to strengthen adolescents’ literacy development.
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 27!
Top 6 Strategies!• Writing Strategies, which involves teaching students strategies for
planning, revising, and editing their compositions • Summarization, which involves explicitly and systematically
teaching students how to summarize texts • Collaborative Writing, which uses instructional arrangements in
which adolescents work together to plan, draft, revise, and edit their compositions
• Specific Product Goals, which assigns students specific, reachable goals for the writing they are to complete
• Word Processing, which uses computers and word processors as instructional supports for writing assignments
• Sentence Combining, which involves teaching students to construct more complex, sophisticated sentences
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 28!
Final 5!• Prewriting, which engages students in activities designed to help
them generate or organize ideas for their composition • Inquiry Activities, which engages students in analyzing immediate,
concrete data to help them develop ideas and content for a particular writing task
• Process Writing Approach, which interweaves a number of writing instructional activities in a workshop environment that stresses extended writing opportunities, writing for authentic audiences, personalized instruction, and cycles of writing
• Study of Models, which provides students with opportunities to read, analyze, and emulate models of good writing
• Writing for Content Learning, which uses writing as a tool for learning content material
!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 29!
Writing Strategies (Effect Size = .82, grades 4-10)!
• “Teaching adolescents strategies for planning, revising, and editing their compositions has shown dramatic effect on the quality of students’ writing. Strategy instruction involves explicitly and systematically teaching steps necessary for planning, revising, and/or editing.” (Graham, 2006)!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 30!
Writing Strategies!• Can be generic instruction, like
brainstorming.!• Can be explicit instruction - story
grammar, persuasive essay, editing.!
• Even more effective for low achieving writers (ES = 1.02!!)!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 31!
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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READINGNew Orleans, LA |April 28-30, 2014
Writing Strategies!• Self-Regulated Strategy Development
(SRSD) considered very effective (ES = 1.14)!
• Explicit instruction - writing strategies and self-regulation (e.g., self-assessment and goal setting)!
Writing Next, pg. 17!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 32!
Writing Strategies!• De La Paz (2005)!• 8th Grade Students -- all abilities!• Combined efforts of social studies and
language arts teachers.!• Final assignment is to work in groups to
form a persuasive essay on history using the strategies taught by the LA teacher.!
!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 33!
Writing Strategies!• LA teacher uses mnemonics:!• STOP!
– Suspend judgment!– Take a side!– Organize ideas!– Plan as you write!
• DARE!– Develop a topic sentence!– Add supporting ideas!– Reject an argument for the other side!– End with a conclusion!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 34! Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 35!
Capitalization Circle all capitals
Oral Reading Read the piece aloud – do this yourself, or have someone else read it to you.
Punctuation Circle all punctuation marks
Spelling Check the spelling. Can you sound out all the words?
COPS (Schumaker, Nolan & Deshler, 1985)
Writing Strategies Resources!• Step Up to Writing (Maureen Aumann, MA)!
– Writing processes are included for planning, pre-writing, editing and revising.!
• Color coding!• Paper folds !!• Sentence strips!• Step-by-step planning for paragraphs!• Outlines!• Checklists!• Two column notes!
» Step Up Alignment with Writing Next!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 37!
Writing Strategies Resources!• Basic Writing Skills!
– Judith Hochman, Ed.D.!– Various Outlining Formats!– Rubrics for paragraphs, compositions &
editing!– Practice activities for these strategies.!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 38!
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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READINGNew Orleans, LA |April 28-30, 2014
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 39!
Strategic Instruction Model Center for Research on Learning (CRL) The University of Kansas
The Strategic Instruction Model (SIM) was developed by Donald Deshler, Jeanne Schumaker, and their colleagues at the Center for Research on Learning (CRL). It is a collection of teaching routines and student learning strategies developed originally to help students with disabilities build essential skills and learn complex subject matter. In the program’s words, SIM strives to help teachers make decisions about what is of greatest importance, what we can teach students to help them to learn, and how to teach them well.
Strategies related to expressing information in writing include a Sentence Writing Strategy and a Paragraph Writing Strategy.
Comprehension Strategies:The Key Three Routine!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 40!
Joan Sedita, M.Ed. !
www.keystoliteracy.net
TM
Reading and writing strategies for 4th-12th grade students.
Summarization (Effect Size = 0.82, Grades 5-12)!
• “Overall, teaching adolescents to summarize text had a consistent, strong, positive effect on their ability to write good summaries.” !
» Writing Next, pg. 17!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 41!
Simple Summarization!
• 1. Identify the main idea (underline) • 2. Find important information (highlight) • 3. Delete the unnecessary information (cross out) • 4. Delete the redundant (repeated) information (cross
out) • 5. Connect what’s left to make it short.
!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 42!
Summarization Activity! Using the 5 step process, write a 15-20 word
summary of this paragraph.!• “The giant panda bear is a favorite
of many people. Giant pandas are black and white animals. They are big and furry. They are cute and fun to watch. Pandas live in China. They live in bamboo forests. The bamboo forests grow in the mountains of southwest China.” Six Minute Solution!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 43!
Summarization Resources!• Step Up to Writing!
– Four-Step Summary Paragraphs!– Plot Line Summaries!– Quick Sketch to develop a summary!– Summaries Without Words!– The 12-Word Trick!
» Step Up Alignment to Writing Next!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 44!
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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READINGNew Orleans, LA |April 28-30, 2014
Summarization Resources!• Basic Writing Skills*!
– Judith Hochman, Ed.D.!– Summarization Lessons!
• Who/What?!• (Did)What?!• When?!• Where?!• Why?!• How?!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 45!
Sopris Learning 2008
Collaborative Writing (Effect Size = .75, Grades 4-high school)!
• Develop instructional arrangements where adolescents work together to plan, draft, revise, and edit their compositions.!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 47!
Collaborative Writing Resources!• Collaborative Strategic Reading™ -
adapted to writing.!– Combines Cooperative Learning with
Reciprocal Teaching Strategies!– Preview/Brainstorm/Plan!– “Click & Clunk”(clarification)/
Organization!– “Get the Gist”/Summarize/Draft!– Wrap Up/Revise & Edit!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 48!
Klingner, Vaughn, Dimino, Schumm, & Bryant 2001
Specific Product Goal (Effect Size = .70, Grades 4-8)!
• Teachers present clear and explicit goals and expectations for writing assignments.!– The purpose of the assignment is
identified.!– The characteristics of the written product
are specified and modeled.!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 49!
Specific Product Goal!
• Six Steps for Persuasive Essay!1. Read the topic and state an opinion.!2. Brainstorm and write enough ideas for all sides.!3. Write the essay including brainstormed ideas.!4. Check whether all ideas are included.!5. Modify essay to add any ideas not included.!6. Check to see if the goal has been met or
return to Step 5, if not.!Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 50!
Perin, D. (2007) in Best Practices in Writing Instruction
Persuasive Essay: Statement of belief, supporting reasons, refuting claims made against belief, conclusion.
Word Processing (Effect Size = .55 Grades 4-12)!
• Two biggest deterrents to quality and quantity of written language are handwriting and spelling. (Berninger)!
• Word Processing showed a positive impact on writing quality.!
!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 51!
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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READINGNew Orleans, LA |April 28-30, 2014
Word Processing Resources!• Co-Writer® (WIN/MAC)!
– Text prediction program!• Write: OutLoud® (WIN/MAC)!
– Talking word processor!• Dragon Naturally Speaking (WIN)!
– Speech recognition software!• Inspiration (WIN/MAC)!
– Prewriting-graphic organizers, outlines!• Kurzweil!
– Reading, writing, and study skills solution for struggling learners, including ELL students and students with special needs!
• Wynn!– Scans, highlights, and reads text!
!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 52!
Sentence Combining(Effect Size = 0.50, Grades 4-11)!
• Teaching grammar in the traditional sense does not appear to be effective.!
• Teaching sentence combining and the use of connectors/transition words had a positive effect on quality of writing.!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 54!
Sentence Combining!• Benefits!
– Students need instruction in options for different syntactic structures!
– Reduction of cognitive load!– Improved quality of writing!
– Reduces run-on sentences!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 55!
Sentence Combining Resources!• REWARDS Writing (Sentence Refinement)!
– 1/2 of the entire book is devoted to sentence combining!!
• Step Up to Writing!– One whole section devoted to sentences.!– Excellent resources for transition words.!
• Basic Writing Skills!– Many activities and practice opportunities for
sentence construction!!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 56!
Masterpiece Sentences!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 57!
builds from parts to whole
Sentence expansion
Vehicle to teach grammar concepts
Direct teaching of syntax increases listening and reading comprehension
develops form and function in context
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 58!
Prepare your canvas:
Masterpiece Sentences: A six-stage process in
Stage I:
Base Subject + Base Predicate
The birds flew.
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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READINGNew Orleans, LA |April 28-30, 2014
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 59!
Masterpiece Sentences: A six-stage process in
Paint your predicate: Stage II:
The birds flew with wings outstretched ( how )
at sunset ( when )
over the waves. ( where )
How? When? Where? How Much? How Many? How often?
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 60!
Masterpiece Sentences: A six-stage process in
Move the predicate painters: Stage III:
1. With wings outstretched, the birds flew over the waves at sunset. 2. The birds flew over the waves with wings outstretched at sunset. 3. Over the waves at sunset, the birds flew with wings outstretched. 4. At sunset, with wings outstretched, the birds flew over the waves.
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 61!
At sunset, with wings outstretched, a thousand ( how many ) giant white birds ( what kind of )
that emerged from the clouds ( which )
flew over the waves.
Which? What kind of? How many?
Masterpiece Sentences: A six-stage process in
Paint your subject: Stage IV:
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 62!
Masterpiece Sentences: A six-stage process in
Detail your words: Stage V:
Birds - sea gulls flew - soared waves - thundering tide over - above
At sunset, with wings outstretched, a thousand giant white sea gulls that emerged from the clouds soared above the thundering tide.
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 63!
Refine wording. Move sentence parts. Check spelling and punctuation. At sunset, a thousand giant white sea gulls burst through the clouds with wings outstretched and soared above the thundering tide.
Masterpiece Sentences: A six-stage process in
Apply finishing touches: Stage VI:
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 64!
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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READINGNew Orleans, LA |April 28-30, 2014
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 65! Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 66!
Process Writing with Training(Effect Size = 0.46, Grades 4-12)!
• This involves providing teacher training on Writing Process!!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 68!
" Brainstorming!" Prewriting!" Free writing!" Journal writing!" Imitating writing models!" Peer groups!" Sentence combining!" Grammar and mechanics!" Spelling and vocabulary!
" Use of references " Class publishing " Evaluation of rubrics " In & out of class writing " Writing in content areas
Process Writing with Training!• Studies reported on writing workshops
from National Writing Project!• 1 week professional development!• 15 day long follow up trainings!• School-based activities!• Follow-up meetings!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 69!
Inquiry (Effect Size = 0.32, Grades 7-12)!
• Sharpening skills of inquiry by examining immediate, concrete data.!
• Example study: describing characteristics of objects based in senses.!
• Followed by a writing assignment to describe something with a focus on one sense.!
• Research is older (1986), but appears to still be valid.!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 70!
Prewriting(Effect Size = 0.32, Grades 4-9)!
• Activities that help adolescents generate ideas and supporting details to be added to the writing assignment.!– Vocabulary!– Graphic Organizers!– Oral discussions!– Videos!– Reading materials!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 71!
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PLAIN TALK ABOUT READINGNew Orleans, LA |April 28-30, 2014
Prewriting Resources!• Class materials!• Basic Writing Skills!• LANGUAGE ! Curriculum!• Step Up to Writing!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 74!
Use of Models(Effect Size = 0.25, Grades 4-12)!
• Provide students with models of each writing type you expect them to learn.!
• Where possible, identify the critical elements in each model.!
• Provide more than one model for each task.!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 75!
Writing to Learn(Effect Size = 0.23, Grades 4-12)!
• Use writing assignments to learn content area material.!
• This links back to the connections between comprehension and writing.!
• Write about a classroom topic to deepen the understanding of the content.!
Anne Whitney, Ed.D., CCC-SLP! 76!
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