Annotated Bibliography of Research on Climate Education in ......Abstract: Despite a long tradition...

Annotated Bibliography of Research on Climate Education

in Non-academic Settings

January 2012

Annotated Bibliography Environmental Education Research

January 2012 / Annotated Bibliography2

Acknowledgements

This study was conducted by the Climate Education Partners of San Diego at the University of San Diego and was funded by the National Science Foundation’s Climate Change Education Partnership Phase 1 grant (Award Number ANT – 1043435).

Cite as: Climate Education Partners, San Diego Region (2013). Annotated bibliography of research on climate education in non-academic settings. University of San Diego. San Diego, CA: Climate Education Partners, San Diego Region.

We want to acknowledge the significant contributions of Alyssa Messina, Mica Estrada, and P. Wesley Schultz on the execution of this project.

Questions regarding this bibliography can be addressed to:

Mica Estrada, Ph.D.Applied Social Psychology LaboratoryPsychology Department, California State University San Marcos(760) 750-3559 [email protected]

Or visit the Climate Education Partners, San Diego Region website: www.sandiego.edu/climate

January 2012 / Annotated Bibliography 3



This document provides a summary of academic writings related to environmental education, from the fields of education, communication, and the behavioral sciences. The annotated bibliography provides an overview of environmental education research focused specifically on adult learning in non academic settings. Peer reviewed articles and relevant books are organized according to area of research, in alphabetical order. Please note that each citation includes the author’s written abstract when available and then a brief annotation of how the citation is relevant to understanding effective climate change education and communication.



Full Reference Abstract & Annotation DOI /online Reference

Bator, R. & Cialdini, R. (2000). The Application of Persuasion Theory to the Development Of Effective Proenvironmental Public Service Announcements. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 527–541.

Abstract: The goal of this article is to provide specific guidelines to help create effective proenvironmental public service announcements (PSAs). Campaign designers are encouraged to initially identify and investigate the optimal target audience and then draft and test reactions by samples of that audience using pilot messages. Designers are also advised to consider research on attitude persistence, memory, and social norms and apply this research to the message content and presentation style. The article concludes with an application of research from social psychology to a series of overall guidelines for effective PSAs. If environmental campaign developers follow these specifications, the chance of PSA success should be enhanced.

Annotation: This article details how public service announcements may be most effective in communicating proenvironmental messages.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182853

Cialdini, R. B. (2003). Crafting normative messages to protect the environment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 105-109. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.01242

Abstract: It is widely recognized that communications that activate social norms can be effective in producing societally beneficial conduct. Not so well recognized are the circumstances under which normative information can backfire to produce the opposite of what a communicator intends. There is an understandable, but misguided, tendency to try to mobilize action against a problem by depicting it as regrettably frequent. Information campaigns emphasize that alcohol and drug use is intolerably high, that adolescent suicide rates are alarming, and—most relevant to this article—that rampant polluters are spoiling the environment. Although these claims may be both true and well intentioned, the campaigns’ creators have missed something critically important: Within the statement “Many people are doing this undesirable thing” lurks the powerful and undercutting normative message “Many people are doing this.” Only by aligning descriptive norms (what people typically do) with injunctive norms (what people typically approve or disapprove) can one optimize the power of normative appeals. Communicators who fail to recognize the distinction between these two types of norms imperil their persuasive efforts.

Annotation: This article highlights the importance of communicating normative information that highlights desirable, rather than undesirable behavior in creating messages about proenvironmental behavior.

DOI: 10.1111/1467-8721.01242



Cone, J. D. & Hayes, S. C. (1980). Environmental problems and behavioral solutions. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Annotation: Cone and Hayes first explore the fields of physical and behavioral technology, the principles and methodologies of the study of environmentally relevant behavior and psychology, and present a summary of the tasks facing researchers.

Geller, E. S., Erickson, J. B., & Buttram, B. A. (1983). Population and Environment, 6, 96-112.

Abstract: The water meters of 129 residences were read for 70 consecutive days. After five weeks of baseline, state-of-the-art education, feedback, and engineering interventions were applied according to the factorial design: 2(Education versus No Education) x 2(Daily Consumption Feedback versus No Feedback) x 2(Low Cost Conservation Devices versus No Devices). Significant water savings occurred following only the installation of low cost water conservation devices, although the amount of water saved with these devices (a daily average of 17 gallons) was much less than expected. The findings are discussed with reference to the development of cost-effective water conservation programs.

Annotation: A study detailing the use of information, feedback, and engineering interventions in reducing household water consumption.

DOI: 10.1007/BF01362290

McKenzie Mohr, D. & Smith, W. (1999). Fostering sustainable behavior: An introduction to community-based social marketing. American Psychologist, 55, 531-537.

Abstract: Psychology has a central role to play in speeding the transition to a sustainable future, because a central aspect of sustainability is widespread behavior change. To date, however, most programs promoting sustainable behavior have featured information-intensive campaigns that make little use of psychological knowledge. Community-based social marketing is an attractive alternative approach in which promoters identify the activity to be promoted and the barriers to this activity and then design a strategy to overcome these barriers, using psychological knowledge regarding behavior change. The strategy is piloted to test its effectiveness and later evaluated when it is implemented on a broader scale. Unlike many information-intensive campaigns, community-based social marketing has been shown to have a much greater probability of promoting sustainable behavior. Two case studies are provided to illustrate the approach and its possible results.

Annotation: This article presents a community-based, social marketing perspective on how to effectively implement local environmental behavior change by considering psychological factors that affect decision making and influence.

10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.531



Michel-Guillou, E. & Moser, G. (2006). Commitment of farmers to environmental protection: From social pressure to environmental conscience. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 26, 227–235.

Abstract: This study focuses on identifying the differences between traditional farmers (those who maintained traditional agricultural practices) and pro-environmental farmers (those who committed to practices aimed at preserving the environment), in terms of environment-related beliefs and representations. From studying the structure of their social representation of the environment, their beliefs about water pollution and their interest in voluntary pro-environmental action, we tried to find out if farmers’ commitment to pro-environmental steps is related to their increased environmental awareness. A questionnaire that consisted of a scale of attitudes towards pro-environmental practices and towards water, followed by a word association test, was administered to 205 farmers. The results tend to indicate that farmers’ commitment to pro-environmental action depends more on social factors than on increased environmental awareness. Instead, adopting such practices seems to trigger interest in the environment, particularly in terms of conceptualizing the environment and of assessing the farmer's own capacity for action.

Annotation: This study compared the effectiveness of social factors and environmental awareness on farmers’ commitment proenvironmental practices, and found that social factors better predicted commitment.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2006.07.004

Nolan, J., Schultz, P. W., Cialdini, R., Goldstein, N., & Griskevicius, V. (2008). Normative social influence is underdetected. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 913-923.doi:10.1177/01461 67208316691

Abstract: The present research investigated the persuasive impact and detectability of normative social influence. The first study surveyed 810 Californians about energy conservation and found that descriptive normative beliefs were more predictive of behavior than were other relevant beliefs, even though respondents rated such norms as least important in their conservation decisions. Study 2, a field experiment, showed that normative social influence produced the greatest change in behavior compared to information highlighting other reasons to conserve, even though respondents rated the normative information as least motivating. Results show that normative messages can be a powerful lever of persuasion but that their influence is underdetected.

Annotation: This article details the powerful, yet “underdetected” influence of social norms on individual behavior by demonstrating that individuals wrongly attribute the motivation behind their own proenvironmental actions to individual, rather than social factors.

DOI: 10.1177/0146167208316691



Olli, E., Grendstad, G., & Wollebaek, D. (2001). Correlates of environmental behaviors: Bringing back social context. Environment and Behavior, 33, 181-208.

Abstract: Surveys are an efficient and convenient means of collecting data on individuals’ environmental concerns and environmental behaviors, two domains between which a tenuous relationship is often observed. One aspect of tenuousness is addressed by identifying distinct sub dimensions of self-reported private environmental behaviors. Survey methods more often than not fail to account for the social context within which individuals are environmentally concerned and behave in an environmentally friendly way. The problem of social context is addressed by developing a measure of social networks that includes participation, volunteering, and face-to-face contact with friends in environmental organizations. Evidence is taken from surveys among organized environmentalists and the general population in Norway in 1995 (N = 3,111). Social context is the only variable that significantly augments environmental behaviors across all sub dimensions. Its effect is comparable to sociodemography, political attitudes, and environmental knowledge and concern combined.

Annotation: This article highlights the deficiencies of survey research in predicting individual environmental behavior, as survey questions often neglect to address an individual’s social network and how social factors uniquely affect behavior.

DOI: 10.1177/0013916501332002

Schultz, P. W. & Kaiser, F. G. (2011). Promoting proenvironmental behavior. Handbook of Environmental and Conservation Psychology.

Annotation: A review of psychological/behavioral research that details strategies to effectively improve proenvironmental behavior.



Schultz, P. W., Nolan, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J., & Griskevicius, V. (2007). The constructive, deconstructive, and reconstructive power of social norms. Psychological Science, 18, 429-434.

Abstract: Despite a long tradition of effectiveness in laboratory tests, normative messages have had mixed success in changing behavior in field contexts, with some studies showing boomerang effects. To test a theoretical account of this inconsistency, we conducted a field experiment in which normative messages were used to promote household energy conservation. As predicted, a descriptive normative message detailing average neighborhood usage produced either desirable energy savings or the undesirable boomerang effect, depending on whether households were already consuming at a low or high rate. Also as predicted, adding an injunctive message (conveying social approval or disapproval) eliminated the boomerang effect. The results offer an explanation for the mixed success of persuasive appeals based on social norms and suggest how such appeals should be properly crafted.

Annotation: This article demonstrates in a field experiment that in order to prevent desirable behavior from worsening in response to descriptive normative information, it is essential to provide individuals with information about the social approval behind the desirable behavior.

DOI : 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01917.x

Staats, H., Harland, P., & Wilke, H. (2004). Effecting durable change: A team approach to improve environmental behavior in the household. Environment and Behavior, 36, 341-367.

Abstract: Interventions for voluntary proenvironmental behavior change usually target a limited number of behaviors and have difficulties in achieving durable change. The EcoTeam Program (ETP) is an intervention package that aims to overcome these flaws. Through a combination of information, feedback, and social interaction in a group—the EcoTeam—participants focus on the environmental consequences of their household behavior. The 3-year longitudinal study found that ETP participants (N= 150) changed half of the 38 household behaviors examined, with corresponding reductions on four physical measures of resource use. These improvements were maintained or enlarged 2 years after completion of the ETP, amounting to savings from 7% on water consumption to 32% on solid waste deposition. A detailed analysis of one behavior, means of transportation, suggests that change can be predicted from the interplay between behavioral intention and habitual performance before participation, and the degree of social influence experienced in the EcoTeam during participation.

Annotation: This article describes a multi-faceted program that provided information, feedback, and social support to individuals to increase their awareness of the environmental consequences of their household behaviors.

DOI : 10.1177/0013916503260163



Wals, A. E. J. (2007). Social learning towards a more sustainable world: Principles perspectives and praxis. Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers.

Annotation: Social learning is explored from a range of fields challenged by sustainability including: organizational learning, environmental management and corporate social responsibility; multi-stakeholder governance; education, learning and educational psychology; multiple land-use and integrated rural development; and consumerism and critical consumer education.

Werner, C. M., Sansone, C. & Brown, B. B. (2008). Guided group discussion and attitude change: The roles of normative and informational influence. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28, 27-41.

Abstract: Kurt Lewin and others have showed that group discussion effectively changed attitudes and behaviors compared to individually targeted messages. This study examines the roles of normative and informational social influence in this effect. High school students heard a message about replacing toxic products with nontoxic alternatives; classes were randomly assigned to hear the message delivered as a lecture or via guided group discussion. For female students (N=250 in 26 classes), HLM mediation analyses suggested normative influence predominated: Discussion was more effective than lecture and this effect was fully mediated by students’ perceptions that other students endorsed nontoxics. Content analyses of students’ comments indicated that three kinds of remarks led female students to this perception: (1) sharing knowledge about nontoxics; (2) asking questions about nontoxics; and (3) little praise for toxic products. For male students in separate HLM analyses (N=107 in 19 of the same classes), informational influence was most apparent: Post-meeting attitudes were higher after discussion than lecture, and this effect was partially mediated by cognitive elaboration about the message (but not perceptions others endorsed the message). In addition, males’ quiz grades were higher after discussion, and students’ comments fully mediated the discussion to quiz grades relationship. Results support the importance of hearing others’ pro-message comments for changing socially motivated behaviors, although the routes of influence appear to differ for these samples of male and female students.

Annotation: This study demonstrates how social influence, specifically through guided group discussion, may be a significant factor in whether individuals adopt proenvironmental household behaviors.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.10.002



Messaging, Messengers, and Framing and Environmental Education


Anderson, A. (1997). Media, culture, and the environment. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Annotation: Anderson shows how framings of risk in relation to the environment are influenced by social, political, and cultural factors, synthesizes recent debates in cultural theory and media studies with key developments in human geography, and analyzes of pressure politics and environmental lobbying groups, while examining the production, transmission and negotiation language of news discourse.

Bardwell, L. (1991). Success stories: Imagery by example. Journal of Environmental Education, 23, 5-10.

Abstract: Learning about environmental issues, their complexity, and urgency can be overwhelming. In this article, the author suggests that positive examples offer a refreshing change from the more typical doomsday warnings or edicts for action. While acknowledging environmental realities, these stories establish a norm for seeing those realities as challenges. They hold promise in terms of helping people build more adequate models about environmental problems and about their roles in addressing them.

Annotation: The author suggests that creating positive imagery about environmental challenges is more effective in motivating individual than “doomsday” communication.

DOI: 10.1080/00958964. 1991.9943063

Hart, P. S. (2011). One or Many? The Influence of Episodic and Thematic Climate Change Frames on Policy Preferences and Individual Behavior Change. Science Communication 33, 28–51.

Abstract: Drawing from framing theory, this study examines how describing the impact of climate change on polar bears with an episodic or thematic frame may affect predispositions for individual behavior change and support for policies to address climate change. The study finds that participants exposed to a thematic frame had more support for policies that address climate change than participants exposed to an episodic frame. There was no framing effect for predispositions for individual behavior change. Implications for communicating climate change to the general public are discussed.

Annotation: This research suggests that thematic framing of climate events may garner more policy support than episodic framing.

DOI: 10.1177/1075547010366400



Liu, J. & Olson, D. (2010). Curriculum redesign: Engaging net generation students through integration of social media in business education. In Cutting-edge social media approaches to business education: Teaching with LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter, Second Life, and blogs. pp. 315 -334.

Abstract: This chapter overviews the impact of social media in business education and its implications for student learning. The authors discuss the social learning paradigm observed in net generation students and describe four prominent behavioral themes. They provide ideas and strategies for developing a process to redesign the current curriculum to meet the needs of net generation students. The chapter concludes with some examples of how social technologies were adopted in our business courses so that the framework provides practical ideas and approaches that can be used in a variety of business courses.

Annotation: This chapter discusses how social media may be used as a novel teaching tool in business education, but these ideas may transfer to environmental education as well.

Nisbet, M. C. (2009). Communicating climate change: Why frames for public engagement matter. Environment, 51, 12-23. Environment magazine.org

Abstract: The article discusses how reframing the relevance of climate change in ways Americans can relate and the use of repetitive communication of their meaning, through trusted sources, can generate public engagement, which is required for effective policy action. Topics include the ways in which the U.S. has historically mustered public resolve regarding climate change that is through the use of quality news coverage. Also discussed are the barriers to public communication including the fragmentation of the U.S. new media, the negative impact of partisan identity, and human nature. How to frame an issue, which is a concept spanning several social disciplines and an in-depth examination of the perceptual differences between political parties regarding climate change are presented.

Annotation: This article highlights the importance of communicating climate messages in a way that resonates with the public, by addressing framing issues, media fragmentation, and political identity.

DOI: 10.3200/ENVT.51.2.12-23



Nisbet, M. C. & Kotcher, J. E. (2009). A two-step flow of influence? Opinion-leader campaigns on climate change. Science Communication, 30, 328-354.

Abstract: In this article, we review concepts, measures, and strategies that can be applied to opinion-leader campaigns on climate change. These campaigns can be used to catalyze wider political engagement on the issue and to promote sustainable consumer choices and behaviors. From past research, we outline six relevant categories of self-designated opinion-leaders, detailing issues related to identification, recruitment, training, message development, and coordination. We additionally analyze as prominent initiatives Al Gore's The Climate Project and his more recent We campaign, which combines the recruitment of digital opinion-leaders with traditional media strategies. In evaluating digital opinion-leader campaigns, we conclude that there are likely to be significant trade-offs in comparison to face-to-face initiatives. The challenge for both scholars and practitioners is to understand under what conditions are digital opinion-leaders effective and in which ways can online interactions strengthen or build on real-world connections.

Annotation: This article details the context-specificity of designing effective digital opinion-leader campaigns on climate change.

DOI: 10.1177/1075547008328797

Obermiler, C. (1995). The baby is sick/the baby is well: A test of environmental communication appeals. Journal of Advertising, 24, 55-70.

Abstract: The ‘sick baby” appeal is a common basis for communications in social marketing. The sick baby appeal focuses on the importance of the issue and the severity of the need for help. Ellen et al. (1991) and Fine (1990) proposed that, when concern is already high, a sick baby appeal may reduce perceived consumer effectiveness. They suggested an alternative approach, a “well baby” appeal, which would stress the significance of individual action. Two experiments supported the hypothesis that the effectiveness of these appeals depends on the relative salience of the issue. Further, the results generally supported the proposed processes by which the appeals operate-mediation of perceived concern and perceived consumer effectiveness.

Annotation: This article warns against using fear appeals in developing climate messaging, and details how the salience of the issue may impact the response to “cries for help” or efficacy-based messaging.

http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.csusm.edu/stable/10.2307/4188972



Ockwell, D., Whitmarsh, L., & O’Neill, S. (2009). Reorienting Climate

Change Communication for Effective Mitigation

Forcing People to be Green or Fostering Grass-Roots Engagement? Science Communication, 30, 305-327.

Abstract: Climate communication approaches expend significant resources promoting attitudinal change, but research suggests that encouraging attitudinal change alone is unlikely to be effective. The link between an individual’s attitudes and subsequent behavior is mediated by other influences, such as social norms and the “free-rider” effect. One way to engender mitigative behaviors would be to introduce regulation that forces green behavior, but government fears a resulting loss of precious political capital. Conversely, communication approaches that advocate individual, voluntary action ignore the social and structural impediments to behavior change. The authors argue that there are two crucial, but distinct, roles that communication could play in engaging the public in low carbon lifestyles: first, to facilitate public acceptance of regulation and second, to stimulate grass-roots action through affective and rational engagement with climate change. The authors also argue that using communication to stimulate demand for regulation may reconcile these “top-down” and “bottom-up” approaches.

Annotation: This article highlights two crucial directions for climate communication: one that encourages public support for regulation and structural change to mitigate climate change, and one that also encourages voluntary action toward individual-level mitigation behaviors.

DOI: 10.1177/1075547008328969



O’Neill, S. &

Nicholson-Cole, S. (2009). “Fear Won’t Do It”

Promoting Positive Engagement

With Climate Change Through

Visual and Iconic Representations. Science Communication, 30, 355-379.

Abstract: Fear-inducing representations of climate change are widely employed in the public domain. However, there is a lack of clarity in the literature about the impacts that fearful messages in climate change communications have on people’s senses of engagement with the issue and associated implications for public engagement strategies. Some literature suggests that using fearful representations of climate change may be counterproductive. The authors explore this assertion in the context of two empirical studies that investigated the role of visual, and iconic, representations of climate change for public engagement respectively. Results demonstrate that although such representations have much potential for attracting people’s attention to climate change, fear is generally an ineffective tool for motivating genuine personal engagement. Nonthreatening imagery and icons that link to individuals’ everyday emotions and concerns in the context of this macro-environmental issue tend to be the most engaging. Recommendations for constructively engaging individuals with climate change are given.

Annotation: This article demonstrate that fear appeals are ineffective in motivating personal engagement in climate issues, and that positive, emotionally-relevant communication may be more persuasive.

DOI: 10.1177/1075547008329201

Peters, R. G., Covello, V. T., & McCallum, D. B. (1997). The determinants of trust and credibility in environmental risk communication:

An empirical study. Risk Analysis, 17, 43-54.

Abstract: This study examines a key component of environmental risk communication; trust and credibility. The study was conducted in two parts. In the first part, six hypotheses regarding the perceptions and determinants of trust and credibility were tested against survey data. The hypotheses were supported by the data. The most important hypothesis was that perceptions of trust and credibility are dependent on three factors: perceptions of knowledge and expertise; perceptions of openness and honesty; and perceptions of concern and care. In the second part, models were constructed with perceptions of trust and credibility as the dependent variable. The goal was to examine the data for findings with direct policy implications. One such finding was that defying a negative stereotype is key to improving perceptions of trust and credibility.

Annotation: These authors present empirical research supporting the importance of communicating trust and credibility of the messenger when developing environmental education materials.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1997.tb00842.x



Individual factors (attitudes, efficacy, commitment) and Environmental Education


Clayton, S. & Myers, G. (2009). Conservation psychology: Understanding and promoting human care for nature. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.

Annotation: This book summarizes theory and research on human cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to nature, and examines ways to encourage conservation-oriented behavior at both individual and societal levels by integrating published literature in psychology.

http://www.linc.us/articles/Myers-PsychologyofConservationPhotography.pdf

De Young, R. (1996). Some psychological aspects of reduced consumption behavior: The role of intrinsic satisfaction and competence motivation. Environment and Behavior, 28, 358-409.

Abstract: Efforts to promote environmentally appropriate behavior rely on motivation originating from 3 sources: other people, the environment, and one's self. This article examines a particular form of the latter source, intrinsic satisfactions. Nine studies are presented that investigate the multidimensional structure of intrinsic satisfactions and their relationship to reduced consumption behavior. Two categories of intrinsic satisfaction, labeled frugality and participation, are particularly well suited to encouraging such behavior. A third category, competence motivation, is explored in some detail and its dimensional structure is interpreted in terms of 3 dominant themes in the research literature. Connections between intrinsic satisfactions and such concepts as locus of control and altruism are explored, and implications for practitioners are discussed.

Annotation: This article highlights certain personal dimensions of intrinsic satisfaction from engaging in proenvironmental behavior, including participation, frugality, and competence motivation.

DOI: 10.1177/0013916596283005

Du Nann Winter, D. & Koger, S. M. (2004). The psychology of environmental problems. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Annotation: This textbook demonstrates how eight major approaches in psychology – social, psychoanalytical, behavioral, cognitive, physiological, health, developmental, and holistic – can be applied to create a more sustainable society.



Dwyer, W. O., Leeming, F. C., Cobern, M.K., et al. (1993). Critical review of behavioral intentions to preserve the environment: Research since 1980. Environment and Behavior, 25, 275-321.

Abstract: This review integrates and evaluates the environmental-preservation research published during the 1980s. The focus is environmental behavior change as targeted by behavior analysts and others designing interventions to encourage environmental-preservation behavior. A modified taxonomy of behavioral interventions, based on a taxonomy presented by Geller et al., categorizes these reported interventions by antecedent and consequence conditions. Fifty-four studies were categorized and evaluated according to which of these taxonomic interventions were reported. The conclusions were that (a) antecedent conditions using commitment, demonstration, and goal-setting strategies were generally most effective in encouraging environmentally responsible behavior, and (b) consequence conditions were effective in producing behavior change during the experiment's duration. However, some other important findings were that (a) much of the research in this field during the 1980s did not directly compare interventions, (b) few meaningful follow-up measures were reported, and those evaluations that included follow-up assessment showed little maintenance of the behavior changes, and (c) many potentially effective intervention strategies have been ignored (i.e., group interventions and penalties). Suggestions for future directions of research to produce and maintain environmental-preservation behaviors are offered.

Annotation: This article presents past research on behavioral intervention strategies, and suggests that antecedent strategies are most effective in creating environmentally-responsible behavior change, however consequence strategies were effective throughout the experiment’s duration.

DOI: 10.1177/0013916593255001



Eagly, A. H., & Kulesa, P. (1997) Attitudes, attitude structure, and resistance to change. Implications for persuasion on environmental issues. In M. H. Bazerman, D. M. Messick, A. E. Tenbrunsel, & K. A. Wade-Benzoni (Eds.), Environment, ethics and behavior: The psychology of environmental valuation. San Francisco: Lexington Books

Annotation: This chapter applies theories of attitudes and attitude change to understand how attitudes and beliefs about environmental issues might be influenced by persuasive appeals. Important to designing effective appeals is an understanding of attitude structure, especially the link between environmental attitudes and important social values. In addition, modes of effective persuasion are discussed, including the use of fear-inducing appeals. Also considered are relations between attitudes and behavior in order to understand the conditions under which changed attitudes would promote environmentally friendly behavior. Throughout the analysis, the authors emphasize that attitude theory and research have very useful practical implications for the design of effective communications on environmental issues.

http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=x7v7q6A21QsC&oi=fnd&pg=PA122&dq=Attitudes,+attitude+structure,+and+resistance+to+change.+Implications+for+persuasion+on+enviro-nmental+issues&ots=i_7IKK5o-U&sig=MxVIUcEb4pc3x8MTb48NS4pkZNI#v=onepage&q&f=false

Geller, E. S. (1995). Actively caring for the environment: An integration of behaviorism and humanism. Environment and Behavior, 27, 184-195.

Abstract: Perspectives from behavior-based psychology (behaviorism) and person-based psychology (humanism) are integrated to summarize ways to protect the environment. Community-based interventions are needed to decrease environment-destructive behaviors and to increase environment-protective behaviors. Intervention agents are needed to implement these interventions on a large scale, and this requires people to “actively care” enough to emit other-directed (or altruistic) behaviors for environmental protection. Person factors that influence one’s propensity to actively care include self-esteem, belongingness, self-efficacy, personal control, and optimism. Thus person-based psychology defines the states or expectancies needed in people to increase their willingness to actively care for the environment, and behavior-based psychology offers the technology for changing behaviors and attitudes (including actively caring person states).

Annotation: This research highlights the personal factors, including self-esteem, belongingness, and self-efficacy, that contribute to other-directed behaviors such as caring for the environment.

DOI: 10.1177/0013916595272004



Hine, D. & Gifford, R. (1991). Fear appeals, individual differences and environmental concern. Journal of Environmental Education, 23, 36-41.

Abstract: In this study, the authors examined the effect of a brief but intense antipollution message on verbal commitment (stated willingness to act) and on three forms of immediate behavioral commitment (donating money, donating time, and signing a petition). Exposure to the antipollution message produced significantly more verbal commitment and financial donations but not more time donations than did exposure to a control message. Nearly every participant signed the petition. To determine whether environmental fear appeals should be targeted at specific audiences, the authors computed correlations between seven individual difference variables and environmental concern. None of the individual difference variables were significantly related to financial or time donations. However, political orientation was significantly correlated with verbal commitment.

Annotation: These researchers examined the response to an anti-pollution message, and found that participants were more likely to donate money or make a verbal commitment after viewing this message than a control group.

DOI: 10.1080/00958964.1991. 9943068

Hines, J. M., Hungerford, H. R., & Tomera, A. N. (1987). Analysis and synthesis of research on responsible environmental behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Education, 18, 1-8.

Abstract: Despite the wealth of information that exists concerning environmental behavior, it is not known which variable or variables appear to be most influential in motivating individuals to take responsible environmental action. A meta-analysis of environmental behavior research was undertaken in an attempt to determine this. An exhaustive search of the empirically based environmental behavior research conducted over the past decade yielded a substantial number of studies representative of a broad academic base. The characteristics and findings of these studies served as the data for the meta-analysis. As a result of the meta-analysis, the following variables were found to be associated with responsible environmental behavior: knowledge of issues, knowledge of action strategies, locus of control, attitudes, verbal commitment, and an individual’s sense of responsibility. A model of predictors of environmental behavior is proposed.

Annotation: Results of a meta-analysis of previous environmental behavior research indicate that knowledge of environmental issues, knowledge of action strategies, locus of control, attitudes, verbal commitment, and sense of responsibility are among the most motivating factors for individual behavior.

DOI: 10.1080/00958964.1987. 9943482



Meinhold, J. L. & Malkus, A. J. (2005). Adolescent environmental behaviors: Can knowledge, attitudes and self-efficacy make a difference? Environment and Behavior, 37, 511-532.

Abstract: This article examines the relationships among adolescent environmental behaviors and self-efficacy, knowledge, and attitudes. It was hypothesized that adolescents who demonstrate more proenvironmental attitudes are more likely to demonstrate proenvironmental behaviors. It was further hypothesized that perceived self-efficacy would have a moderating effect on the environmental attitude-behavior relationship in that the relationship between proenvironmental attitudes and behaviors would be stronger among adolescents with high levels of self-efficacy. Participants were 848 students from three academically achieving high schools on the West coast. Hierarchical regression analyses were used for all subsequent analyses. Results indicated that proenvironmental attitudes significantly predicted proenvironmental behaviors and that environmental knowledge was a significant moderator for the relationship between environmental attitudes and environmental behaviors. This was especially true for males.

Annotation: In a study of adolescents, it was shown that proenvironmental attitudes predict proenvironmental behavior and that this relationship was moderated by knowledge of environmental issues.

DOI: 10.1177/0013916504269665

Pooley, J. A. & O’Connor, M. (2000). Environmental education and attitudes: Emotions and beliefs are what is needed. Environment and Behavior, 32, 711-723.

Abstract: The main focus of environmental education programs has been to change environmental behavior through increasing environmental knowledge. As many environmental studies have failed to apply successfully attitude theory in researching environmental attitudes, the present study investigated the cognitive and affective bases of environmental attitudes to indicate that it is what people feel and believe about the environment that determines their attitudes toward it. The findings suggest that for environmental educators interested in changing environmental attitudes, emotions and beliefs, rather than knowledge, need to be targeted as sources of information on which to base their environmental programs.

DOI: 10.1177/0013916500325007

Robottom, I. & Hart, P. (1995). Behaviorist EE research: Environmentalism as individualism. Journal of Environmental Education, 26, 5-9.

Abstract: Explores the nature of environmental education research and the tendency to individualize the responsibility for environmentalism. Domination of the behaviorist approach in environmental education research; Characteristics of the behaviorist approach; Individualism as ideology; Individualist ideology of Behaviorism.

Annotation: Explores the nature of environmental education research and the tendency to individualize the responsibility for environmentalism.

http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=ab5a3733-0f64-4f52-b7dc-ac63b901db22%40sessionmgr13&vid=1&hid=25&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=9508031461



Sia, A. P., Hungerford, H. R. & Tomera, A. N. (1985). Selected predictors of responsible environmental behavior: An analysis. Journal of Environmental Education, 17, 31-40.

Abstract: In this study, we examined the relative contribution of eight variables in predicting responsible environmental behavior. Scores on a validated behavior instrument served as the criterion. High and low behavior groups selected from 171 respondents were compared using members of Midwestern Sierra Clubs and Elderhostel programs as subjects. Multilinear regression analyses were used to determine the performance of each predictor variable and to ascertain the most parsimonious set of variables that predicts environmental behavior. Seven of eight variables were found to be statistically significant. They were: (1) level of environmental sensitivity, (2) perceived knowledge of environmental action strategies, (3) perceived skill in using environmental action strategies, (4) psychological sex role classification, (5) individual locus of control, (6) group locus of control, and (7) attitude toward pollution. The one nonsignificant variable was (8) belief in technology. Stepwise regression showed that the best predictors for all respondents were variables 1, 2, and 3 stated above. Results imply that the three major behavior predictors (perceived skill in and knowledge of environmental action strategies, and environmental sensitivity) need to be addressed in curriculum development and instructional practice.

Annotation: This research explores the psychological variables that predict environmental behavior, specifically, perceived skill and knowledge of environmental action strategies, and environmental sensitivity.

DOI: 10.1080/00958964.1986. 9941408



Stern, P. C. (2000). Toward a coherent theory of environmentally significant behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 407-424.

Abstract: This article develops a conceptual framework for advancing theories of environmentally significant individual behavior and reports on the attempts of the author's research group and others to develop such a theory. It discusses definitions of environmentally significant behavior; classifies the behaviors and their causes; assesses theories of environmentalism, focusing especially on value-belief-norm theory; evaluates the relationship between environmental concern and behavior; and summarizes evidence on the factors that determine environmentally significant behaviors and that can effectively alter them. The article concludes by presenting some major propositions supported by available research and some principles for guiding future research and informing the design of behavioral programs for environmental protection.

Annotation: This author discusses the attempt to develop a theory of environmentally significant behavior by classifying behaviors and causes, presenting theories of environmentalism, and reviewing research suggesting how to alter these behaviors.

DOI: 10.1111/0022-4537.00175

Werner, C. M., Turner, J., Shipman, K., Twitchell, F. S., Dickson, B. R., Bruschke, G. V., & von Bismarck, W. B. (1995). Commitment, behavior and attitude change: An analysis of voluntary recycling. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 197-208.

Abstract: This project was designed to help local agencies select the least effortful but most impactful method of inducing residents to participate in a free curbside recycling program. It also provided an opportunity to study attitude change. Results indicated that residents making a written commitment were more likely to participate (and to participate more than once) than those who learned about the program face-to-face, by telephone, or from only a flyer (all residents received the flyer; the signature-commitment and face-to-face groups also received telephone calls to prepare them for the experimenter’s visit). Although groups had similar recycling histories—and by implication similar prior attitudes—those who participated had more favorable attitudes after 4 months than those who did not participate. In contrast to research showing that commitment could lead to behavior without corresponding changes in attitudes, the data supported the view that commitment and behavior can lead to changes in attitudes. The study sets the stage for systematic examination of the hypothesis that at first commitment leads to behavior without attitude change, but over time, if the behavior continues, attitude change occurs.

Annotation: Results of this study reveal that written commitments resulted in the most participation in a community recycling program, and also showed an increase in positive attitudes about recycling among those who participated.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0272-4944(95)90003-9



Van Vugt, M. (2001). Community identification moderating impact of financial incentives in a natural and social dilemma: Water conservation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1440-1449.

Abstract: The moderating role of community identification was investigated in the impact of different tariff systems on domestic water use. Over a 9-month interval, both consumption and survey data were collected in 278 households in the United Kingdom, 203 of which were on a variable tariff (i.e., charges related to use) and 75 on a fixed tariff (i.e., charges unrelated to use). Adopting a social dilemma approach, I expected a fixed tariff to be associated with greater use than a variable tariff, in particular when resources were valuable and people identified weakly with their community. This hypothesis was supported in both the field study and an experimental study that simulated a natural resource crisis in the laboratory.

Annotation: This research identifies the importance of social identity and resource value in resource dilemmas, especially in cases where individuals are subject to a fixed, rather than a variable, usage-dependent charge for that resource.

DOI: 10.1177/0146167201271 1005

Education, Experience, and Learning Strategies for Environmental Education


Anderson, J. L. (2003). Stone-age minds at work on 21st century science:

How cognitive psychology can inform conservation biology.

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to show how understanding the stone-age mind can help us communicate science more effectively as we address complex conservation problems. I introduce some recent developments in cognitive psychology emerging from the hypothesis that the human mind includes an array of evolved cognitive skills that were useful in solving day-to-day problems faced by our ancestors. Thus, though most people may have a hard time with highly mathematical and complex science, they can do a number of closely related mental tasks very easily and efficiently.

Annotation: This author points out that certain cognitive deficits left over from early human evolution should inform the way scientists present information, and suggests more effective ways of communicating scientific knowledge to the general public.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1526-4629.2001.tb00013.x



Chawla, L. & Cushing, D. (2007). Education for strategic environmental behavior. Environmental Education Research, 13, 437-452.

Abstract: This article reviews four bodies of research that shed light on how to promote active care for the environment in children and youth: research on sources of proenvironmental behavior, socialization for democratic skills and values, the development of a personal sense of competence, and the development of collective competence. The article begins with an overview of studies of formative childhood experiences reported by environmental activists and educators, followed by correlational and experimental studies with young people regarding factors associated with their taking action for the environment. Because behaviors with the largest potential benefits for the environment require political engagement, the article also reviews experiences associated with young people’s interest and engagement in public issues. Action for the environment in the home or in public arena like schools and communities requires a personal sense of competence and a sense of collective competence, or confidence in one’s ability to achieve goals by working with a group. Therefore experiences that promote the development of these assets are summarized as well. The conclusion compares major findings in these different fields and discusses implications for environmental educators.

Annotation: This review highlights and compares various research fields that aim to improve environmental behaviors, particularly among youth: sources of proenvironmental behavior, development of socialization, personal competence, and collective competence, as well as political engagement.

DOI: 10.1080/1350462070158 1539



Coyle, K. (2005). Environmental literacy in America. Washington, D.C.: National Environmental Education and Training Foundation.

Annotation: Presents research from NEETF/Roper research about environmental literacy in the U.S. and includes recommendations intended for environmental educators, NGO leaders, funders, public decision makers, and professionals.

http://www.neefusa.org/pdf/ELR2005.pdf

Disinger, J. (1983). Environmental education’s definitional problem. Information Bulletin No. 2 ERIC Clearinghouse.

Abstract: This article by Dr. John Disinger is a classic writing in this field. It was prepared as an attempt to examine the various definitions related to environmental education at the time. Although written for publication in 1983, its message continues to hold meaning for environmental education scholars everywhere. It most certainly helps the individual understand something of the roots of environmental education and helps better define what EE is and what it is not. This alone makes it an important contribution to the field. For those interested in this history of EE, this reading will have special import. Thus, “Environmental Education’s Definitional Problem” has meaning for a wide audience for any one of a number of reasons.

Annotation: This article helps to clarify what environmental education signifies, and gives historical perspective to the field.

http://www.cnr.uidaho.edu/css487/EE_Definitional_Problem.pdf



Dreyfus, A. & Wals, A. (1999). Biodiversity as a postmodern theme for environmental education. Canadian Journal of Environmental Education, 4, 155-175.

Abstract: Environmental education in a postmodern world will have to be sensitive to the ill-defined nature of emerging key concepts such as biodiversity and sustainability. Despite all the confusion about such concepts, one thing is clear: there is no one single way of looking at them or defining them. In other words, there is no one single perspective or definition of biodiversity or sustainability that accurately describes them in all situations or contexts. Although this "ill-definedness" renders such concepts useless or reduces them to a rhetorical instrument from a modernist point of view, it makes them attractive from a postmodernist perspective. When acknowledging the need for respect for pluralism (respect for different ways of looking, valuing, understanding, etc.), the ever presence of elements of ambivalence and uncertainty in environmental decision-making and the need for learning situated in a rich context, environmental educators in a postmodern world will find merit in the ill-defined nature of these emerging concepts. Using biodiversity as an example the authors illustrate the educational appeal of ill-definedness. Biodiversity brings together different groups in society in search for a common language to discuss nature conservation issues in relation to sustainability issues. The mere fact that these groups, with diverging backgrounds, focus on a common concept-even though what the concept means to each group varies-allows for a socio-scientific dispute to emerge. This socio-scientific dispute provides an excellent opportunity for learning about a highly relevant, controversial, emotionally charged and debatable topic at the crossroads of science, technology and society. Special attention is given to the role of scientific knowledge in such disputes.

Annotation: These authors suggest that the topic of biodiversity, although ill-defined, serves to bring together representatives from varying fields of science.

http://cjee.lakeheadu.ca/index.php/cjee/article/view/326



Finger, M. (1994). From knowledge to action? Exploring the relationships between environmental experiences, learning and behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 50, 141-160.

Abstract: On the basis of qualitative research and two surveys with 786 and 1004 Swiss respondents, this article presents a new “life-world” approach to exploring the complex relationships between environmental experience, learning, and behavior. Contrary to traditional views, the author shows that environmental information, knowledge, and awareness predict little of the variability in most forms of environmental behavior. (The primary behaviors that information and knowledge acquisition appear to foster are protest actions). Rather than fostering behavior, environmental learning is more often used as a means to cope with environmental fear and anxiety. Consistent with the life-world approach, the main factors predicting environmental behavior, or absence thereof, are experiences in and with the environment (e.g., previous environmental activism, experiences with nature, and exposure to environmental catastrophes).

Annotation: This author asserts that seeking environmental knowledge is chiefly a means of coping with fear, and that experiences in the environment or exposure to environmental catastrophes are better predictors of environmental action.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1994.tb02424.x

Hungerford, H. & Volk, T. (1990). Changing learner behavior through environmental education. Journal of Environmental Education, 21, 8-21.

Abstract: Contrasts traditional thinking in the field of environmental education (EE) with research findings. The evolution of the behavioral model is traced, focusing on 3 categories of variables that contribute to behavior, including entry-level, ownership, and empowerment. Goals and objectives for instruction in EE are reviewed. The critical components of a total educational program for EE are discussed, and 2 curricular strategies, issue investigation and action model and the extended case study model, are described. The effectiveness of EE around the world is addressed.

Annotation: This article presents outcomes of environmental education research, and outlines critical components and curricular strategies that may lead to effective environmental education.

http://psycnet.apa.org.ezproxy.csusm.edu/psycinfo/1991-02699-001



Kearney, A. R. (1994). Understanding global change: A cognitive perspective on communicating through stories. Climate Change, 27, 419-441.

Abstract: Human behavior must be changed in order to ameliorate the adverse effects of global change. However, numerous studies have shown that durable change is difficult to achieve unless people have an adequate understanding of the problem and of appropriate behavioral solutions. Creating such an understanding has not been easy; the very nature of global change makes effective communication difficult. This paper proposes that one reason information has been unsuccessful is that it is not generally structured to take advantage of the way people process information. The cognitive processes involved in information acquisition and the special problems associated with communicating about global change are discussed. This discussion is used to identify those informational characteristics that will facilitate the transfer of information about global change. Stories (also referred to as case-studies or analogies) are suggested as one structure that encapsulates these characteristics; the role of stories in information transfer is elaborated upon. Though written from the point of view of presenting information to the public so that it creates understanding and impacts behavior, the paper is also relevant for scientists who wish to effectively communicate their ideas to the media and to researchers in other disciplines.

Annotation: This paper underscores the importance of educating individuals about climate change by appealing to the way people process information, and suggests that scientists should present information through stories or case-studies to effectively increase understanding and proenvironmental behavior.

Leeming, F. C., Dwyer, W. O., Porter, B. E., & Coburn, M. K. (1993). Outcome research in environmental education: A critical review. Journal of Environmental Education, 24, 8-21.

Abstract: This review includes and analysis of the 34 environmental education studies published since 1974 that attempted to demonstrate changes in environmentally relevant knowledge, attitudes, or behaviors. The authors divide the studies into two major categories – in-class and out-of-class programs – and critique the studies’ findings and methodologies. Although many of the investigations contained methodological difficulties, some of the findings indicate that future research can refine environmental education strategies and curricula.

Annotation: These authors review 34 environmental education studies, and suggest ways to improve the methodologies of environmental education initiatives.

DOI: 10.1080/00958964.1993. 9943504



Marcinkowski, T. J. (2010). Contemporary Challenges and Opportunities in

Environmental Education: Where Are We Headed and What Deserves Our Attention? The Journal of Environmental Education, 41, 34–54.

Abstract: Over the past four decades, numerous professionals in the field of environmental education (EE) have attempted to take stock of conditions within and outside of EE. In turn, many used the results of their analyses to describe challenges to and opportunities for EE. Many of these challenges and opportunities continue to ring true today, although the purpose of this article is not to explore those, but to explore several contemporary challenges and opportunities. The first challenge posed is to continue to expand and make use of the range of professional development opportunities within the field, such as is apparent in several of NAAEE’s sets of Guidelines and related initiatives, particularly as the field continues to growing numbers and in different directions. A second challenge pertains to the need for increased attention to sustainability in developed and developing nations’ contexts, the rapid growth of “Education for Sustainability” (ESD) since UNCED, and the need to maintain clarity over the complex and dynamic relationships between EE and ESD with respect to sustainable development needs. A third challenge pertains to climate change as the most recent “environmental crisis” and set of problems we face, as evidence continues to mount. However, climate change represents a different kind of challenge, and underscores the challenge of preparing citizens to participate in problem-solving and in envisioning desirable futures through EE. In addressing these challenges and opportunities, we must continue to seek out and affirm the best of what is traditional and innovative, as well as effective and adaptive, within the field.

Annotation: This author calls for expansion of professional development, growth in sustainability education, and attention to current challenges climate change poses to individuals within the environmental education field.

DOI: 10.1080/0095896090321 0015



Myers, O. E. & Beringer, A. Sustainability in higher education: Psychological research for effective pedagogy. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy.

Abstract: Psychological theory and research can make key contributions to sustainability scholarship and practice, as is demonstrated here in the field of higher education pedagogy. College students undergo profound changes in epistemological assumptions and in identity during their undergraduate years. Data on the Measure of Intellectual Development for students participating in learner-centered pedagogies at Western Washington University in Bellingham, Washington, showed a trend toward more complex thinking by these students (N=153). Qualitative data on student identity development associated with transdisciplinary, project-based campus sustainability courses were collected at Canada’s University of Prince Edward Island and at Western Washington University in Bellingham. Findings revealed the identity of “learner” blending with that of “change agent”; a greater sense of identity in relation to the campus community and the different perspectives of its stakeholders, the sustainability movement; and a sense of empowerment backed up by practical skills. Sustainability poses new challenges for intellectual-moral development and identity development. Psychological theory gives insights into how pedagogies should be designed to challenge students just beyond their level of intellectual, moral, and identity development, in order to expose them to intellectual-moral growth and identity alternatives conducive to the complexities of sustainability advocacy and practice.

Annotation: This article reveals the challenges sustainability presents to individuals regarding their intellectual-moral development and identity development, and asserts that students must be challenged in these areas in order for them to become advocates of sustainability.

http://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/cjhe/article/view/1918

National Research Council. (2009). Informing decisions in a changing climate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Annotation: Informing Decisions in a Changing Climate examines the growing need for efforts to produce, disseminate, and facilitate the use of data and information in order to improve the quality and efficacy of climate-related decisions, with guidance for government agencies and other institutions on coping with climate change.

National Research Council. (2010). Facilitating climate change responses. Stern, P. C. & Kasperson, R. E. (Eds.). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Annotation: Summarizes research presented in two workshops focusing on (1) mitigation (behavioral elements of a strategy to reduce the net future human influence on climate) and (2) adaptation (behavioral and social determinants of societal capacity to minimize the damage from climate changes that are not avoided).



Orr, D. W. (1992). Ecological literacy: Education and the transition to a postmodern world. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Annotation: Highlights the need for improved ecological education, by improving the accuracy and quantity, as well as teaching the importance of an ecological perspective across subjects.

Potter, G. (2010). Environmental education for the 21st century: Where do we go now?

Journal of Environmental Education, 41, 22–33.

Abstract: In 1990, Congress passed the National Environmental Education Act, thereby charging the United States Environmental Protection Agency with providing national leadership to increase environmental literacy. Since the first appropriation in 1992, almost $100M has been spent to increase the public's awareness of environmental issues; nevertheless, the author believes that the Act is outdated and was not written to provide for systemic change. With the recently increased attention to global warming and climate change, many in the environmental education field believe that environmental education is a critical tool for engaging the public and that opportunities exist to increase resources. The author suggests that now may be the time to consider new environmental education legislation that is more systemic in nature and that provides substantive increases in funding for national-level grants, educator training, and research initiatives. The author also suggests broadening the scope of strategic-level conversations to include sectors beyond the education community.

Annotation: This author calls for a renewal of funds through the National Environmental Education Act, and asserts that future legislation should be systemic and provide increased funding to national-level grants, educator training, and research initiatives.

DOI: 10.1080/0095896090320 9975



Rickinson, M. (2010). Learners and Learning in Environmental

Education: a critical review of the evidence. Environmental Education Research, 7, 207-320.

Abstract: Recent analyses of the field of environmental education research have highlighted its rapidly expanding size and increasingly diverse nature (e.g. Hart & Nolan, 1999). This article reports on a review of a particular part of this field, namely, recent empirical studies of learners and learning in primary or secondary school environmental education. The review focuses specifically on the nature and quality of the evidence generated by the work in this area. The concern with evidence is motivated by the tendency of previous reviews to focus on methodological trends more than research findings. Claims have also been made that environmental education theory and research have overlooked the children who are the subjects of environmental education’ (Payne, 1998a, p. 20). This review contends that efforts to address such shortcomings need to be informed by a thorough and grounded understanding of what studies have, and have not, been undertaken on students and learning, and what is known, and not known, from the evidence that these studies have generated.

Annotation: This review summarizes findings of environmental education in primary and secondary school settings, and calls for a more thorough investigation of evidence surrounding effective learning strategies.

DOI: 10.1080/1350462012006 5230

Smith, M. C. & Pourchot, T. (Eds.). (2000). Adult learning and development: Perspectives from educational psychology. Boulder, CO: NetLibrary.

Annotation: Provides information on how various forms of instruction lead to different learning outcomes for adults, research and theory pertaining to adult intellectual functioning, thinking, and problem-solving skills.

Southwick, C. H. (1996). Global ecology in human perspective. NY: Oxford University Press.

Annotation: This book concentrates on how we as humans affect global ecosystems and how these changes impact our health, behavior, economics, and politics.



Stapp, W. B. (1969). The concept of environmental education. Journal of Environmental Education, 1, 33-36.

Abstract: No book of readings would be complete without this article as a component part. It is an environmental education classic. In this article, Dr. Stapp and his associates develop a considered definition of environmental education – a definition which is very consistent with many of those one finds in the literature today. Given that this article was published din 1969, one wonders why in the world other scholars debated so vociferously about a definition for environmental education. Even other excellent definitions which do the field justice, e.g., the EPA definition found elsewhere in this book, do little more than take the reader further into the substantive structure of the field. In this dimension at the very least, Dr. Stapp was far ahead of his time.

Annotation: This article presents a definition of environmental education that may be useful for researchers in the field today.

http://www.hiddencorner.us/html/PDFs/The_Concept_of_EE.pdf

Volk, T. L. & McBeth, B. (1998). Environmental literacy in the U.S.: What should be…what is…getting from there to there. Rock Springs, GA: North American Association for Environmental Education.

Annotation: A review of environmental literacy in the United States and directions for addressing gaps in education.

Zelezny, L. C. (1999). Educational interventions that improve environmental behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Education, 31.

Abstract: In this meta-analysis the author compared the effectiveness of educational interventions (N = 18) conducted in classrooms and in nontraditional settings in improving environmental behavior. Classroom interventions improved environmental behavior more effectively (r = .65) than interventions in nontraditional settings (r = .27). Interventions that most effectively improved environmental behavior actively involved participants and used young participants. Active participation was more likely in interventions implemented in classrooms than in nontraditional settings. However, few of these studies measured actual behavior, and often poor research methods were used.

Annotation: This author compiles the results of educational interventions designed to improve environmental behaviors, and main findings suggest that active learning in classroom environments may be more conducive to behavior change than passive instruction, however there is a need for more behavioral outcome data.

http://minf.vub.ac.be/~ayepesgo/DOCUMENTS/Educational%20Interventions%20That%20Improve%20Environmental%20Behaviors%20A%20Meta-Analysis.htm

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