Annotated Works Annotated Works ConsultedConsulted

Step OneStep One

Find the sourcesFind the sources

Tip: Find more than 12 sources, Tip: Find more than 12 sources, because some may not be as because some may not be as informative or on-topic as they first informative or on-topic as they first appear. appear.

Keeping Your Research Keeping Your Research OrganizedOrganized

Keep a folder labeled “Secondary Research”Keep a folder labeled “Secondary Research” Within that collect copies of all the articles Within that collect copies of all the articles

and books, etc. that you think may be and books, etc. that you think may be useful for your argumentative essay (Yes, useful for your argumentative essay (Yes, you should print them out)you should print them out)

You want to find sources that are biased as You want to find sources that are biased as well as those that are objectivewell as those that are objective

You want to know the You want to know the opposing perspectives’ opposing perspectives’ arguments arguments

Keeping Your Research Keeping Your Research OrganizedOrganized

As you read each source, annotate it for the As you read each source, annotate it for the information you are looking to evaluate:information you are looking to evaluate:– What kind of source it isWhat kind of source it is– The main idea or claim of the sourceThe main idea or claim of the source– The perspectives on your research question it discusses The perspectives on your research question it discusses – The support for the main idea, claim, or perspectiveThe support for the main idea, claim, or perspective– Evidence used for perspectivesEvidence used for perspectives– Assumptions the major voices make about your issueAssumptions the major voices make about your issue– The tone of the authorThe tone of the author– The credibility of the author and the publicationThe credibility of the author and the publication– Words or phrases that indicate bias or objectivityWords or phrases that indicate bias or objectivity– How in-depth the coverage of your topic isHow in-depth the coverage of your topic is– How useful this source might be for you in building an How useful this source might be for you in building an

argumentargument

Keeping Your Research Keeping Your Research OrganizedOrganized

On your computer or on a sheet of On your computer or on a sheet of paper, keep a running Works paper, keep a running Works Consulted list in MLA formatConsulted list in MLA format

If you think you If you think you maymay want to use a want to use a source, source, add it to the list as you goadd it to the list as you go and try to evaluate it in a paragraph and try to evaluate it in a paragraph below the citationbelow the citation

Sources: Types of Sources: Types of PublicationsPublications

ScholarlyScholarly Peer ReviewedPeer Reviewed More objectiveMore objective More jargonMore jargon Authors are expertsAuthors are experts More researchMore research Citations obviousCitations obvious Usually lots of text / Usually lots of text /

not many picturesnot many pictures

PopularPopular Editor publishesEditor publishes May be more subjectiveMay be more subjective Laymen’s Laymen’s

terms/everyday words terms/everyday words usedused

Authors are often Authors are often reportersreporters

Often little researchOften little research Citation method often Citation method often

unclearunclear Often has Often has

pictures/graphspictures/graphs

Credibility and LogicCredibility and Logic

Ethos: The author Ethos: The author and publication’s and publication’s credibilitycredibility– How much do you How much do you

trust the source?trust the source?– What credentials or What credentials or

experience does experience does the source have the source have regarding this regarding this issue?issue?

– Is the figure well-Is the figure well-known?known?

Logos: The use of Logos: The use of facts, reason, facts, reason, logical evidencelogical evidence– How strong are the How strong are the

author’s reasons?author’s reasons?– Do the reasons Do the reasons

clearly connect to clearly connect to the claim?the claim?

– Does the author Does the author avoid fallacies?avoid fallacies?

Emotional AppealEmotional Appeal

Does the author try to evoke Does the author try to evoke emotion?emotion?

If so, what emotions?If so, what emotions? Does the author responsibly use Does the author responsibly use

emotional appeals or does the writer emotional appeals or does the writer try to overly rely on them?try to overly rely on them?

Logos (Logos (AICAIC p. 139) p. 139)

Part of evaluating logos involves Part of evaluating logos involves analyzing the reasoning of an analyzing the reasoning of an argumentargument

Logos provides an overall framework Logos provides an overall framework of which ethos and pathos are a partof which ethos and pathos are a part

Although logos may not inspire people Although logos may not inspire people as much as ethos and pathos it often as much as ethos and pathos it often keeps people from acting rashly or keeps people from acting rashly or foolishlyfoolishly

Logos (Logos (cont.)cont.)

When we supply reasons for our When we supply reasons for our claims, we learn why we hold the claims, we learn why we hold the opinions we do opinions we do

We may discover, though, that some We may discover, though, that some cherished opinions have no rational cherished opinions have no rational basisbasis

A logical argument consists of three A logical argument consists of three part: claims, reasons, and part: claims, reasons, and assumptionsassumptions

Parts of an argumentParts of an argument

Claim: Central argument (p. 141)Claim: Central argument (p. 141) Grounds: Support for argument in the Grounds: Support for argument in the

form of reasons form of reasons Evidence: examples, authorities’ Evidence: examples, authorities’

statements, statistics, facts, statements, statistics, facts, theoretical examplestheoretical examples

Assumptions: belief that connects Assumptions: belief that connects the claim and groundsthe claim and grounds

ReasonsReasons

Reasons are statements that can be Reasons are statements that can be factual or opinionatedfactual or opinionated– Claim: You should wear a heavy coat Claim: You should wear a heavy coat

today today – Reason: Because it is snowing. Reason: Because it is snowing.

Chains of ReasonsChains of Reasons

Some reasons may require support in Some reasons may require support in the form of more reasons or the form of more reasons or evidence to be persuasive. evidence to be persuasive. – You should wear a heavy coat today You should wear a heavy coat today

because it will probably snow.because it will probably snow. This reason may require more to be This reason may require more to be

persuasive.persuasive.– Example: I saw the weather report and Example: I saw the weather report and

the meteorologist said there will be a the meteorologist said there will be a 90% chance of snow. 90% chance of snow.

Non SequitursNon Sequiturs

Some reasons may be implied rather than stated Some reasons may be implied rather than stated If so, you will need to reconstruct these links in If so, you will need to reconstruct these links in

the chain based on what you can infer from the the chain based on what you can infer from the argumentargument– You should buy Gilette’s razor because we are showing You should buy Gilette’s razor because we are showing

you a picture of Tiger Woods expertly playing golf. you a picture of Tiger Woods expertly playing golf. The chain of reasoning is impliedThe chain of reasoning is implied

– Tiger Woods plays golf expertlyTiger Woods plays golf expertly– Tiger Woods uses Gilette’s razorTiger Woods uses Gilette’s razor– Tiger Woods using a Gilette razor has some correlation Tiger Woods using a Gilette razor has some correlation

to his expert golf playingto his expert golf playing– His expert gold playing has made him successful.His expert gold playing has made him successful.– If you use Gilette’s razor you will be successful like Tiger If you use Gilette’s razor you will be successful like Tiger

Woods.Woods.

Non Sequitur: Another Non Sequitur: Another ExampleExample

You should wear a coat today You should wear a coat today because I’m going shopping.because I’m going shopping.– Because I am going shopping, I won’t be Because I am going shopping, I won’t be

able to pick you up today.able to pick you up today.– Because I can’t pick you up, you will Because I can’t pick you up, you will

have to walk home.have to walk home.– Because it is cold outside, you will want Because it is cold outside, you will want

to wear a coat. to wear a coat.

Note:Note:

Most of us don’t speak or even write Most of us don’t speak or even write step by step through our argumentsstep by step through our arguments

We hop, skip, and jump around We hop, skip, and jump around As you evaluate different source’s As you evaluate different source’s

arguments, you want to try to arguments, you want to try to construct the chain of reasoning as construct the chain of reasoning as explicitly as you can so as to explicitly as you can so as to understand how logical/illogical the understand how logical/illogical the argument’s reason isargument’s reason is

AssumptionsAssumptions ClaimsClaims

ReasonsReasons AssumptionsAssumptions

Arguments, even with clear claims and Arguments, even with clear claims and reasons, often don’t make much sense reasons, often don’t make much sense without assumptionswithout assumptions

They are the glue that hold the reasons to They are the glue that hold the reasons to the claimthe claim

They are sometimes explicitly stated but They are sometimes explicitly stated but more often impliedmore often implied

Identifying AssumptionsIdentifying Assumptions

Claim: Bill Clinton was a good Claim: Bill Clinton was a good president.president.

Reason: He was skilled at foreign Reason: He was skilled at foreign policy.policy.

Assumption: Any president who is Assumption: Any president who is skilled at foreign policy is a good skilled at foreign policy is a good president. president.

Identifying AssumptionsIdentifying Assumptions

Claim: You should visit Paris. Claim: You should visit Paris. Reason: They have the world’s best Reason: They have the world’s best

art museums.art museums. Assumption: You should visit a place Assumption: You should visit a place

that has the best art museums. that has the best art museums.

PracticePractice

Practice identifying the claim, Practice identifying the claim, reason, and assumption(s) behind reason, and assumption(s) behind these statementsthese statements

See handoutSee handout

AssumptionsAssumptions

(a.k.a. “warrants”) refer to the values (a.k.a. “warrants”) refer to the values and beliefs people holdand beliefs people hold

Are opinions, not factsAre opinions, not facts Are shaped by our family, culture, Are shaped by our family, culture,

education, region, friends, ideas, etc.education, region, friends, ideas, etc.