29G

CHAPTER-6

ANTARCTIC ENVIRONMENT RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND CONSERVATION

INTRODUCTION:

Antarctica is not prestine anymore. Exploitation in any form

threatens the balance of natural ecosystems and this is

especially true in Antarctic. There is little ice free ground

and man nJW competes for this with the animals and plants.

Increased activities in the Antarctic bring with them the

certainty of some level of pollution and the introduction of

alien species to this remote and biologically simple continent.

The Southern Ocean food chains dominated by the small crustacean

Krill are being heavily fished in some areas, for both squid and

fish. The whale stocks were irreparably damaged a long time ago.

Only intelligent and active management of the entire ecosystem is

essential if we wish to conserve the special features of the

Antarctic both for our continued use and, as I would like to put,

'for the health of the planet'.

The Antarctic provides us with at least three essential

features of global importance, all of which require these active

conservation measures. The first is the use of the continent as

a pollution monitoring post. Antarctic snow is generally cleane

than the distilled water in laboratories and provides us with a

baseline against which we can measure increasing global

pollution, both of biologically toxic compounds such as lead and

of pJtentially deletarious gases such as carbon dioxide. That

297

pJllutants can get into the Antarctic eventually is shown by the

DDT levels. in penguins and the layers 6f radioactive fallouts in

show.

The global changes associated with increasing carbon dioxide

and methane (green-house effect) are likely to show up their

impact first in the polar regions which are much more sensitive

to small changes in atmospheric temperatures than any other

latitudes. Increased melting of the icecap is virtually certain

if the world warms significantly and this will affect world sea­

levels. To predict how quickly and by how much, we need more

information for a model of the energey balance of the ice sheet.

Any major expansion of activities, such as mining, which might

change the reflectivity of the snow could hasten melting at a

local level.

The

content

Southern Ocean plays a crucial role in the

of carbon dioxide. The cold waters have

atmospheric

both a high

solubility for the gas and the huge population of phytoplankton

mop up the carbon and deposit it in the marine sediments. In

these ways the Southern Ocean accounts for at least 35% of all

the carbon dioxide produced worldwide. In a period of shrinking

forests and spreading concrete elsewhere in the world we cannot

afford to lose the sink potential of the Southern

disruption of its food chain.

Ocean by

Secondly, to maintain and increase the levels of marine

living resources taken from the Southern Ocean we need a

management plan to ensure that toJ much is not taken away in any

o~e year, particularly of any one species or from any sensitive

area such as the breeding grounds. CCAMLR is already involved in

this field but it relies on data from Antarctic Scientists to set

catch limits and fishing areas.

Thirdly to provide protection for this very wild area of the

world we need to know enough about the Antarctic to assess

environmental impacts for scientific and other developments, to

predict rates of recovery from disturbance and to monitor

compliance with regulations on waste disposal etc.

So far, man's impact up~n the Antarctic environment has

been negligible, but t~ is concern that overharvestng of krill

and p~ssible marine pollution resulting from any future offshore

oil exploration may undermine the krill basis of the Antarctic

ecosystem. Environmental regulations wilt form an important part

of the legal regime for the exploration and exploitation of the

Antartic mineral resources, primarily oil and gas. The Antarctic

Treaty framework does not legally bind non-signatory states, but

under general international law all states are bound to refrain

from inflicting damage upon the planet's environment. Also some

marine pollution conventions apply to the Antarctic waters, and

the 1982 U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea comprehensively

covers the protection and preservation of the marine environment

of all o~eans and seas. The preservation of the Antarctic

environment will remain a high priority irrespective of what

legal regime will g~vern Antarctica after 19~~ when the

Antarctic, Treaty may, and most probably will, be subject to

review.

288

299

In comparison with other cont~nents, this frozen continent

has been substantially less affected by man's activities.

Indeed, the natural conditions of sub-antarctic islands, lying on

and near the Antarctic convergence, have been deteriorating more

fastly due to increased human activities, mostly being governed

by western powers.

(a) Dumping:

Every year thousands of tonnes of cargo and millions of

gallons

little

of fuel brought in to Antarctic (90% by ship), but very

of this is ever removed. Most remain as buildings,

machinery, solid wastes, particulate matter, and gases. The main

products of burning millions of gallons of oil and gasoline each

year is heat, carbon-dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulpur-dioxide,

hydrocarbons and other particles. whenever these products are

emitted, they increase background concentrations in the air and

become incorporated into the seas, ice, snow and soils. However,

because co~centrations of combustion products are low in

Antarctica the environmental effects are generally localized. The

general criteria for selection of a suitable site for a base are

reasonably level ground, free from permanent snow and ice, and

good access to the sea in summer. These same factors also make

such sites likely to support permanent plant

breeding grounds of sea-birds, or both. It

co~nunities, or

is therefore,

inevitable that such leases must have some impact, such as the

disturbance to nesting birds (close approach to penguins m3y

cause them to desert the nest and cease breeding for that year).

For example, at the Cape Royds, Adelie Penguin nests started to

A.t!onttc Oceor> A South

f f.

A

--- ~- . -,. ..

West • Antarctica . ,

: ,~ ~ ~------- •. 1_

L= I~E shelf

• qeg,on of mour.tJ "S

or,j exposej rcx:r

I _,. -' ..- II, 'T'>

East Antarcttca

300

\: ~ . ~ ..

·j~-'' / '-

,/ ~V.r.>es

)

,.-r· I

J-. ~' )

Map of Antarct1ca show1ng generalized reg1ons of mountarn5 and summer-snow and 1ce-free ground where terrestrial and mland water ecosy;,t(·rn,, c.<· develop ( al1er Tedrow and Ugollnt in Tedrow. 1966) A-A rs the brogeographrc boundary between the marrtrme Antarctrc to the West and the contr'1ert.; A:otarctrc to the East (from P1ckard and Seppelt 1984)

301

decline soon after the establishment of the research station at

McMurdo Sound, and the situation became worse when tourist

parties started visiting the area.

(b) Bases:

; major re3ult of human occupation of bases is the

accumulation of waste and the contamination of the environment by

it. A conspicuous feature of many Antarctic bases is their

associated dumps of worn out or abandoned equipment and

packaging. Whilst aesthetically displeasing such dumps h3ve

little biological effect. McMurdo sound, for example, is now

l~ttered with barrels, fuel lines tractors and bear cans. The

Antarctic Peninsula has been the scene of a great deal of human

activity over a long period. Man's impact on these areas, both

historical and recent is to be reviewed extensively.

However, a code of conduct was drawn up by the Antarctic

Treaty Nations in 1975, and covers the disposal of wastes by

~xpeditions and bases. It requires that for coastal bases, with

certain exceptions, liquid waste should be flushed to sea, non-

combustible dumped in the sea, combustibles burn, plastics,

rubber and rajioisotopes should be removed from the Treaty area.

However, it appears that little effort is made at many research

stations to observe this code.

(c) Others:

Although currently negligible, the first announcements in

1960s that DJT compounds had been detected in Antarctic wildlife

received publicity. Later organochlorine pollutants of

302

agricultural and industrial origin were also

highest residues records till 1980 in Antarctic

been DOE and PCB concentration of 46 ppm

confirmed.

wildlife

and 185

The

have

ppm

respectively, near Palmer Station. Recently the graveness of

hydrocarbons prensence was realised in local context, mainly by

local sources, but would have very little effect on the ecosystem

as a whole. However, further large-scale exploitation of natural

resources would certainly create an entirely different set of

circumstances. From what has been said earlier, it is apparent

that there is no immediate threat of mineral exploitation on land

and the exploration activities, which would precede exploitation

would have minimal environmental impact. Nevertheless, it must

be borne in min~ that if circumtances, in the future changes and

hard-rock minerals-exploitation on land becomes a reality, then

some of the resulting impacts would be severe eventhough they

might be localized. 'The key impact of physical altercation of

the land surface over large areas, the deposit of rockwaste and

tailings on land, the spread of dust over adjacent ice, altering

its albedo and perhaps causing melting, the washing of pollutants

such as fine tailings into freshwater lakes and coastal seas,

with considerable potential ecological effects, the accumulation

of wastes, including sewage, and pressures from recreational

activities and transport of personnel. Further in Antarctica the

sedimentary deposits in which oil might be found are premarily

confined to the narrow continental shelves, and it is these areas

having high biological productivity. The significant impact of

oil spills on Antarctic Environment is being feared, particu1arly

on krills. Flaring of naturalgas, disposal of wastes from

drilling platforms and other installations, the effects of

drill~ng muds, and accidents during operations are also importJnt

factors for environmental health assessment. Although

insufficient evidence exists about the toxicity, decomposition

chemistry, and inhibiting traits of crude oil deposit with surity

the precise impact or persistence rates of hydrocarbons in

Antarctic ecosystems.

Sewage and Waste Disposal System:

Technology used for waste disposal may create its own impact

upon the environment which may be greater than wastes themselves.

Because stations require resupply and relief on a regular basis

these supply shi'ps could be used for transporting waste from the

coastal stations, although it is costly and inconvenient.

Removal also allows for recycling of waste elsewhere. Further,

growing settlements also increase power consumption and excretory

waste production. Plans for big hotels for tourists are indeed

harmful. The need is for more compact environmental standards

and stricter ecologically concious safeguards in llcensing

qualifications. Special care should be taken for water quality,

solid waste disposal and toxic substances. For example, stations

like McMurdo have been criticized for adding pollutants to the

air, soil and water by burning solid wastes or dumping rubbish

and human waste on the ice or sea or chemical contamination of

land or ocean without appropriate treatment. In other cases,

debris, discontinued equipment, and even some station buildings

were abandoned. Uncontrolled dumping of waste from ships (e.g.

304

at Palmer station) has locally affected the population dynam1c of

benthic species. Nonscientific collecting and "souvnier hunting"

also have contributed to the degradation of Antarctic

environment.

In nutshell, at present research stations seems to be the

major cause of environmental damage in Antarctica. The vast

amount of packaging material used every year for transporting the

food, equipment, fuel and building materials necessary to support

the research means that sawdust and polystyrene granules have

been widely dispersed around the stations. Many of the buildings

are of wood and its abrasion by wind driven ice-particles has

resulted in the dispersion of wood fibres for considerable

distance downwind. The sewage effluent poses some difficult

problems too. Poor disposal techniques have produced unwanted

enrichment of habitats in nutrient-poor areas and has introduced

new bacteria to Antarctica. The increased sophistication of

Antarctic science now requires careful consideration to be given

to disposal of laboratory waste, which may contain a wide range

of toxic organic and inorganic chemicals. All Treaty nations

need to make much greater educational efforts to

awareness amongst their scientific and support staff

possible

the crash

environmental consequences of their

of DClO air crash on Mt Erebus and

actions.

recent

increase

of the

Further

crash of

American plane at Grationland near McMurdo station opened new

area of serious contaminants. However, no doubt, operating

safely in Antarctica is very expensive.

Guidelines to Limit Local Pollution:

Over the yeas, several attempts have been made

proper procedures for assessing and limiting the

Scientific research activities on the Antarctic

305

to develop

impact of

environment.

Voluntary guidelines to limit pollution around Antarctic bases

were adopeted in 1972 and a code of environmental conduct was

proposed in 1975:

It acknowledged that: "the majority of existing research

stations were established in their current localities because

these were the most convenient places for either logistical or

Scientific reasons and without giving thought for environmental

effects". It also affirmed that there was often significant

damage caused to the locality as a direct result of the stations

being built there. The report pointed out that environmental

impacts are not limited to the terrestrial ecosystem and living

organisms only.

It also claimed thtat the biggest and most consistent

problem is the disposal of waste. Solid wastes, such as

discarded machinery, are offensive to the eyes, but of little

biological significance. Plastic and rubber wastes carry long-

term consequences; small plastic particles are increasingly found

in the digestive tracts of seabirds. SCAR recommended that such

products "should, wherever possible, be removed from the area,

but otherwise dumped on land. It should not be burnt unless it

can be incinerated with adequate emission control."

Domestic and human wastes, kitchen refuse and natural wood

can all be disposed of by placing in the sea with minimum

treatment, SCAR recommended, but all radioative waste, wastes

containing high levels of heavy metals and harmful persistent

organic compunds, should be removed from the Treaty area.

The Scale of the Problem: Some Case Studies

Any base in Antarctica having yet to have the problems and

practicalities of waste desposal. is used to reduce the large

volume of combustible materials and refuse is dused with waste

fuel. Icy rubbish dumps were reported by SCAR member Dr.Ron Lewis

Smith in

appeared

Casey.

February, 1986. He commented that Wilkes Station

as it ·did when it was abandonded in 1969 in favour of

Many bases also place solid wastes in metal drums and

dispose of them at offshore dump sites. Larger pieces of

machinery are often placed on the ice and left to sink with the

summer thaw. One such dump site, off Me Murdo base, has been

described by divers as "essential1y dead, the sediment is so full

of DFA (diesel fuel additive) it almost appears combustible

Clearly there was a massive spill of sme sort and I doubt if that

amount of DFA will be broken down in the near future ... "

Nuclear Aspect

Though the treaty bans nuclear explosions as wel as the

disposal of nuclear waste in the Antarctic but it does not forbid

the use of nuclear power in the region.

307

In the 1960s the US installed an experimental l.SMW

pressurrized water reactor, nicknamed "Nukey Poo", at its Me

Murdo base to find out a more economical way of providing heat

and power. It arrived by ship on 21 December 1961 and was

situated half-way up Observation Hill near Mount Erebus, an

active volcano. Power production began in July 1962 and, four

years later, the US Navy claimed that it had broken the record

for the longest continuous operation of a military nuclear

reactor. In 1971 the power output was increased by 10 per cent.

During the whole period they kept the reactor and claimed

that the only serious problem had occurred in 1962 when hydrogen,

a by-product from the reactor, caught fire but that there were no

injuries or release of radioactivity. In reality, the 10 years

of the reactor's opeation was an expenive story of shutdowns,

fire damage and radiation leakages. In 1972, a temporary

shutdown caused by coolant water leaking into the steam generator

tank coincided with a Navy cost-effectiveness study. They

concluded tha it would be too expensive to overhaul and upgrade

the plant, and, as a result, it was close down and demolished

over the next three Antarctic seasons at a cost of $ 1 million.

The reactor and 101 large drums of radioactive metals were

shipped back to the US for burial. Later, another 11,000m3 of

soil and rock were also removed and shipped back to the US. It

took further six years of cleaning up before the site was

declared to be "decontaminated to levels as low as reasonably

achievable", and it was finally released for unrestricted use in

May 1979.

308

(6) THE FRENCH AIRSTRIP

One of the focal point of Greenpeace's Antarctic campaign

has been its opposition to the French airstrip near the Dumount

d'Vrville base in Terre Adelie, due South of Tasmania which it

considers a breach of Antarctic Treaty rules. The Dumont

d'Vrville base was constructed in the 1950s after the previous

French base at Port Martin was destroyed by fire~ Ironically,

this site was chosen because of the richness of fauna and flora

in the area, which made it almost unique in the whole of

Antarctica, including as it does one of the very few emperor

penguin colonies outside the Antarctic Pensinsula. This means

that the French programme of research is limited compared to that

of other countries. Even after several times by SCAR, but no

specific proposals were put before the organization.

In the construction of their airstrip, the French have

been accused of breaching the Agree Measure in several respects:

Killing native birds without a permit: failing to minimize

harmful interference to the "normal living conditions of mammals

or birds'', and using explosives "close to concentrations of birds

and seals".

Greenpeace and other conservation groups have also

the project because of the likely long-term harm to the

of the region. Since studies of the emperor penguin

opposed

wildlife

colony

began, the number of couples has decreased from 6,500 to about

3,500, due in part to human presence. The airstrip will cut off

the emperors' favoured access to their breeding colony.

Many other bird species, including 2,500-3,000 paics of

Adelie penguins, 300 pairs of Cap pigeons, 100 pairs of snow

petrel and 100 pairs of Wison•s storm petrels will also be

directly harmed because of the construction.

Greenpeace protesters boarded the French-chartered vessel,

Polarbjorn, in Le Havre and occupied the mast for 56 hours in

protest. They claimed that it was carrying equipment for the

construction of the pronjected airstrip.

In November 1984, members of the prestigious International

Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)

passed a.resolution which called upon the French Government to

consider other options. The resolution requested that they and

the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties should "throughly study

the option of protecting Pointe Geologic from further

construction".

In December 1984, Greenpeace conducted a further action plan

against the Polarbjorn in Hobart, en route to the Antarctic,

involving Vega and six other boats. Demonstrations were also

held in Sydney and Melbourn.

1985, the French delegation

However, with no effect, in October

at

Consultative Meeting announced

the 13th Antarctic

that the construction

Treaty

of the

airstrip would proce&d but did not indicate when. On the other

hand, the ATCPs have exhibited little will to deal with the

problem. At least one government, New Zealand, is known to have

made direct representations to France over the issue, and the

Australian Government has reportedly made a formal determination

310

that a breach of the Agreed Measuere has occurred. But the

question has never been formally raised in the context of gO

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting or in any other meeting ~f

the Treaty System. As a rsult, the French have never formally

been asked to explain the alleged violations.

In November 1987 the French government announced that work

on 1000m run-way at Terre Adelie, which was interrupted in 1984,

would last for about five years at a cost of 100 million franc

($10 million).

(c) IMPACT OF TOURISM

Besides permanent human settlements and scientific research

sites, the other human incursion in Antarctica is touris~, the

only commercial activity on the continent itself and one which is

proving increasingly popular.

Over the next two seasons, some 11,000 passengers overflew

the continent, an 11-hour journy of which some 90 minutes were

spent over Antarctica. Such flights ceased abruptly after an Air

New Zealand DC 10 crashed into Mount Erebus 28 November 1979,

killing all 257 passengers and crew. Also, cruise liners have

been operating in the area since 1958 and, and in the period up

to 1980, more than 80 voyages have been undertaken by passenger

liners from Germany, carrying an estimated total of 7,000

passengers.

The question of the effects of Antarctic tourism has been

addressed several times at meetings of Treaty members. Under the

311

various rulings and guidelines, it is the rsponsibility of e~ch

Consultative Party to ensure that any of its national who are

part of a tourist or non-governmental expedition abide by the

Agreed Measures. However, it is both politically unacceptable

and legally difficult for any Consulative Party to prevent any

non-governmental expedition from exploring or traversing the

frozen continent.

At least seven commercial tourist voyages and a number of

smaller expeditions have got into difficulties and required

assistance. ATCPs have expressed worries that tourism raises

the possibility of expensive disruptions to persoonnel at

research stations and a hazrd to life and, in some instances,

base equipment.

When the Air New Zealand DClO crashed on Mount Erebus, 20

hours of US Hercules Cl30 flying time and many hours of

helicopter time were diverted from the tightly scheduled

Scientific programmes. In January 1968 the tourist ship Magga

Dan ran grounded at McMurdo for several days and the Llndblad

Exokirer has twice run aground in the Antarctic Peninsula,

requiring expensive and disruptive reascue and repair operations

to be mounted.

Aside from the disruption caused to bases, by an influx of

tourists or by distress calls, there is the question of the

additional pleasure tourists place on the natural environment.

Tourists could unwittingly spread bird or plant diseases and

introduce new kinds·of organisms to the Antarctic. The expansion

312

of tourist facilities may also have a significant impact. AL

present this is a small problem, but situation is rapidly

worsening. Under a World Park regime there would have to be

regulation of some sort viz.

(i) PROTECTED SITES (SPAs and SSSis)

The first attempt to preserve Antarctica's environment came

in 1960 at a meeting of SCAR at which a series of general rules

of conduct for expeditions operating in Antarctica were drawn up.

Four years later this led to a more elaborate set of Agreed

Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Flora and Fauna, for

the whole area south 0 of 60 Cs was deemed to be a "special

conservation area". 2

This final measure was supplemented by the creation of a

network of Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSis),

beginning in 1975.

Such measures are presented as an ambitious experiment in

conservation. Yet there is no express prohibition on the

erection of a base within an SPA and, if there is a conflict

between a base siting and an area proposed as an SPA, the problem

has usually been slaved by "adapting" or terminating the SPA.

The best example of this occurred at the Fildes Peninsula SPA

where the Soviet Union and Chile both set up bases in 1968.

Their mere presence was bvound to have a damaging effect.

The other Consultative· Parties, instead of raising

objections at that year's Consultative Meeting, actually reduced

313

the SPA to a fraction of its former size in order to exclude the

Soviet Bellingshausen station and surrounding areas in which

travel and disturbance were inevitable. The original SPA

designation centred around several small lakes of outstanding

ecological interest. As a result of the 1968 decision, only the

most interesting one retained its protected status. This reduced

area was so affected by the presence of bases that its SPA

status was terminated in 1975.

(d) Marine Pollution Sources

The findings BIOMASS in terms of of FIBEX and SIBEX 1s of

great relevance. FIBEX was undertaken in the austral spring of

1981 and involved 17 ships from 10 nations who correlated weather

and ocean information with observations of animals and krill.

Its most

Melville,

Island.

several

spectacular finding was made by the US vessel RV

which sighted a ''superswarm" of krill near Elephant

Estimated at 10 million tonnes, the swarm occupied

square kilometers of sea to a depth of 180m (600 ft)

below the surface. Scientists estimated that this single swarm

was equal to about one-seventh of the world's total fish and

shellfish catch for a year. News of this unexpected and so-far

unrepeated discovery brought 35 Soviet fishing vessels to the

area in order to reap the benefits.

SIBEX phase I followed in 1983/84 and phase 2 in 1984/85.

Again, multidimensional observations were taken, ranging from the

temperature, salinity and oxygen concentration of sea water to

314

weather conditions, visibility and ice cover, and from tho

concentrations of krill and phytoplankton to sightings of whales,

seals and seabirds.

(e) Storage of data: Such as Honeywell storage of complete

information-gathering exercises BIOMASS data are to be welcomed

if we are to gain a fuller picture of the Southern Ocean

ecosystem.

(f) Oil and Other Mineral Resource Development Risks: The

greatest environmental risk from oil development is the leakage

of oil in coastal, ice-free waters from tanker spills or undersea

wells. Indeed, ~he effect of such an oil spill caught in coastal

waters could persist for years. The lighter hydrocarbons in the

oil would evaporate slowly while the heavier ones sank, possibly

coating the underside of the sea and pack ice or the "anchor" ice

on the sea bottom where many small organisms live. The report

concludes that repeated tanker losses en route to Antarctic ports

and tank storage farms - and not the offshore wells themselves

would be the most likely sources of oil pollution.

As the Ohio State report notes, "There is no question that

any resource exploitation will cause severe, and in many cases

permanent, local impact on the environment because of the

extremely slow rate of recovery that can be expected." Life in

the Antarctic moves slowly, the metabolism of organisms is slower

than in temperate climats; a footprint in the moss can last for

decades. Although the impacts of a mine or off loading port

HABITAT VULNERABILITY

~- -~-/

/ HYOROlAkBON / PENETRATION

f---·

\ HYDROCARBON \ PERSISTENCE

~/ ~I

C..,;

/',

0 ~~ PETROLEUM 7 IMPACT

A(UTf -CHRONIC POPUlATIOt-.; \

I TOXICITY RESPONSE

REPRODUCTION J \-------< \~HAL-SUBlETHAl

~-_____/ POPULATION SENSITIVITY

POPUlATION

IMMIGRATION /

COMMUNITY RECUPERABILITY

Figure Schematic representation of the impact of petroleum hydrocarbons on marine env1-

I

315

TABLE SOME COMPONENTS OF THE SYSTEM AFFECTI~G OIL EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION IN &~TARCTIC SEAS

Factors influencing site selection

*

" * *

*

*

*

Geological indications of oil potential

Bathymetry and structure of sea bed

Iceberg and pack ice condition

Currents (surface and deep)

Climate

Special biological features of s1te (and alternatives)

Costs of operation

Technological factors influencing L'11:Jacts . *

•

* *

*

*

Use of seismic explosives

Drilling processes

~ature of rigs or platforms

:-;at~..:re of wellhead completion (eg on or below seabed)

Nature of oil storage system

Nature of transport system

strc:cture

Nature of pollution control syste:.. (1nclud1ng ::-.anagener. t)

Nature of emergency procedures (ir.cluding tra1r.1ng)

Environnental factors affecting i..'11pacts

*

*

*

*

Types and concentrations of pollc:t~nts, especially oil, released

Rates of physical and biological je~radaticr. 8f oil and other pollutants

Rates and directions of dispersion of oil and ~oll~tar.ts

Relative location of emissions and l1ving targets (benthos, phytoplankton, krill and other zooplankton, fish, seabirds, seals, whales etc)

Sensitivity of living targets to c1l and other pollutants and to substances used in cleanup

317

might not be felt a few miles down the coast, the mosses,

lichens, birds, and marine organisms at the site might not

recover for decades.

The Ohio State study details three kinds of proposed

minerals activities and their environmental consequences. One is

an underground, platinum-group metals mine in the Dufek Massif,

capable of producing approximately 100,000 troy ounces of

platinum-group metals per year, with workers and processing

plants located underground and the output air-freighted to New

Zealand. The second is an inland chromite mine capable of

producing 100,000 tons of metallurgical grade chromite. Similar

to the first underground mine, it would be located closer to the

surface and use different processing facilities. Its output

would be carried by tractor sleds 2,400 kilometers to a coastal

port. The third case is a porphyry-copper deposit mine on the

northern Antarctic peninsula, producing 100,000 tons of refined

copper and molybdenum, gold, and silver. The copper would be

concentrated and refined on site and shipped directly to market.

Local impacts would be felt at the sites of the inland mines

and along their overland routes, although none so severe as those

occurring in closed basins and near rookeries and breeding

grounds along the coast. Exploratory drilling on- and offshore

would introduce drilling muds and circulating fluids, there would

be minimal impact if procedures were used like those now followed

in Antarctica's dry valleys. The Ohio State report recommends

that exploration be avoided, if possible, in enclosed basins, the

dry valleys, and in coastal rookeries and breeding grounds.

Suggested framework for the development of research projects atmed 31

Improving predictions of the possible impact of hydrocarbon exploration ~nd exploitation In the Antarctic

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,,..~, l'"""""'' U•tno<l~ ol da\Jrlg lctbelg ICOVII

Alltasctic 1om& lolo<,o f

Otl•nlti.oo ol ~ altvct~• of Funt•er dehnltlon ol 1n. IJ\llvenc. ol pack Ice on lhe lhOse typ.a ol marine a~lure ol those typea ol W1Jc1Uit &lld dynam.~ ol ecoayslema. wi#\i.n tr>a tOo'NTlUilO t>. I &00 m~t>Oo~iul &1\l&tclic ecoayat.m u a ecoay•tems lilo.ely lobe communi!Lea who .... likely lobe at1ect•d by al1tcltd by hydt~tbon hydroc.&lbo<l •JtP:Orallol'l ar>d • -4>10'• 1.>0n aoo uplol a tion; t x;>loi 1 at i.on IIT'o9"o"'e<S 0- aJ

ur.deral~ of poputet~. commi.K">l ty &00 .coay:otem Cy~ In ~ gic and loc.aJ 1/Uhol e ~.~ .... Almo~tt• &lld ~cap Otlarmlt'\•lk>n ol 0..J.el.u1e

poiiutanl ...... 1. ~e .... t, ol hydlourtx>n cont&IJUn&Uofl WI ttpita.lll&Uvt compOI"\tn~ ol ~ mann. ~ytltm (lrd~ing bitdt &1\d ~)

Fllat and ~ Older el~ c11 of .- at1cxl• lund • and ~V•Iiol\l ol hyal~a &1\d QU\er pollut&nla on "'I ~1\~ ol tM 11\&/N .COiyat.ma

~ t&l& ol vvlo4.u hyOI'~rt>onl u~r anlar'l.ic ..-.w~laJ COI\OiliON ~&O&Uon. ~kal uptakt and ~lc.aJ d~raaJ)

0.~ ol monlloling ' pr09fama b&U<S on ~alol

1~1 UIUIUvt \o ~ oncn.l\l&J polution

·---IV

·---lnlotmitkln 1 • c;v:r:r.g r,,­

tl.ICI\ .,. ~ •• •

1..01\.S h ••• D¥ adC:itlonal re prou>eclive 1 • ~ betn Ldanllfl~

Otllrllt.W O.WI Glli oc.a~.

en'IVONn• (I) wal•

(cull•nta (\i)ua

( .......... (~) llo.ll

lPKr. ica

s .. bo (I) mot~

bathym•ll (ll)s.ol (W) alai (i>') ... ~

~(In<

ua••~~

Ch&t~

r~n&l ol &ltU

~ O.larn

~nl• ot ln. .... , • bol\orll I

·--lt~&nl

ale.&~

mtnl.J .. ) ace •t•t•

·lcln~)

• '•Q.nlo• .c., •• )

ve••• I

yna.m.n

ol Ice:;••<;

~~·

~ or J>d dtfii\II.V"

~ ~

lion ol ~·'"'' ~·'"

~and .own.nt.J

··-----Source: ''Report ot t\pcrh.'' 1n .·lntunic Ju11rnul of the Umted Stutes. Vol. .XIV (De, 1979), p 16

318

319

1'r-c mait-o: cn.v1.cOi11'l'!e,...1- .. l na.z&J!'ds et unde.rgrot.Htd ll\\nHtt ~A'HI!~;l Ht:i

felt by the relativeiy unstudied and unmapped 1\nta~.G:ft.C

permafrost. Most of the effects of an overland route to move the

ores to port would be eliminated, eventually, by further

snowfall. The report recommends using forms of transportation

that have least contact with the ground, such as aircraft or air­

cushioned vehicles. Of course, local damage would occ·.Jr ·.·:!:·- 1'• ·

ports and tank farms were built.

The Ohio State report distinguishes, however, between

localized impacts some of which occur already in places of

heavy activity such as McMurdo Station - and "maintaining the

integrity of the Antarctic environment as a whole" (For example,

if offshore oilfields, mines, and ports used an area as large as

132,090 square kilometers, they would utilize only 1 percent of

the Antarctic continent's area. This would be analogous to

developing an area the size of Maine and Vermount, while leaving

the rest of the United States and Mexico intact. Local oil

spills, for example, would probably be carried away from the

continent by powerful currents and dispersed into the Southern

Ocean. On the other hand, the report warns that the sum of local

impacts could be severe.

Air pollution from open-pit mining or by particulates from

refineries could pose a key problem for the Antarctic

environment. It could alter the pattern of snowfall wh1le the

buildup of particulate matter in the atmosphere could alter the

region's radiation balance affecting the rate of ice melt. The

fact that the Antarctic interior is used to monitor global

pollution levels also should be considered.

As subsequent treaty recommendations and SCAR discussions

have indicated, the minerals issue means a new agenda for

Antarctic research. Zumberge wrote, "Even at the present level

of effort, hundreds of man-years of scientific studies will be

required before the components of the Antarctic environment and

the interdependent relationships will be sufficiently understood

to permit a reasonably confident assessment of the impact, man's

activities may have on the marine and terristrial environment in

Antarctica and the rest of the world.

The cost of cleaning up contaminated sites in Antarctica is

very high in terms of both dollars and human anxiety, if the

continent has to be preserved as a datum point for all scientific

and global pollution measures. In effect and meagre efforts by

participating consultative countries since their expeditions,

have failed to control the problem in true scientific forms in

Antarctica. Removal of contaminated portion and prevention of

further contamination has become a major problem. Also, we must

resolve the problems created by old, abandoned, and faulty

disposal

some of

sites. The time has reached when we must also examine

the new management practices that are being asked to

control and to keep track of wastes. However, it is difficult to

correct problems that were caused by the thoughtless dumping

practices of the past. Further, disagreements have developed

over the degree of risk that results from exposure to different

320

321

chemicals. These problems are compounded by the great number of

chemicals that are currently in use.

Question of Environmental Persistence:

Proper management of waste hinges on an evaluation of

certain key properties of waste. Those properties include the

degree of hazard and the persistence of the waste in the

environment. The degree of hazardness that a waste poses depends

upon its corrosivity, reactiity, ignitability, or toxicity. Some

hazardous wastes are particularly trouble some because they tend

to persist in the environment. Further, environmental

persistence of hazardous materials enter food webs. they

bioaccumulate as they pass from one trophic level to the next

higher trophic level. Biodegradable wastes, such as paper, laws

clippings, and wood from demolition and non-biodegradable

elements, such as mining and mineral wastes, viz. lead, mercury,

cadmium and heavy metals pose both short term and long term

problems.

Question of Waste Disposal Methods:

Virtually all our activities generate waste. However, waste

reduction lowers collection and disposal costs and lessens

demands on raw materials and energy.

Main disposal techniques applied now-a-days are

1. Sanitary Landfills - sealing wastes (in mining areas)

between accessive layers;

(a) Trench lawfills

322

(b) Area lawfills

(c) Mounded II

2. Incineration (burning combustile solid wastes and melt

3.

4.

5.

6.

certain noncombustible materials)

Ocean Dumping

Reuse Techniques

Waste Reduction

Management of Radio­active and other hazardous wastes

Reclaimation

Magnetic Separation

Composting

Hydropulping conversion Pyrolysis.

The 3 principal methods of disposal of hazardous wastes have

provided an dispose of hazardous wasts are:

1. Secure landfills

2. Incineration

3. Deep-well injection (for oil exploration and

extraction)

Unfortunately, the much higher disposal costs and hazardous

wastes have provided on incentive for "might report dumps mid-

night dumpers" to dispose of hazardous waste illegally.

The key to safe disposal is proper isolation of wastes. And

eliminating or minimizing migration of water through disposal

sites is the most important factor to control. Although new

disposal technology should reduce future problems and clean old,

leaky, environmentally unsound disposal sites. Waste exchanges

and chemical recovery are techniques used to reduce the quantity

of hazardous wastes. The technology to dispose of radioactive

323

wastes. At present, deep underground storage is the preferred

method. Undoubledly, opposition will be voiced concerning any

repositionary site that is chosen.

The Ozone Question

A poisonous, highly reactive compound of three oxygen atoms

- in contrast to the two-atom molecules (02

) that make up

the bulk of the oxygen in our atmosphere - ozone is concentrated

into a 50 km (30 mls) thick layer that begins 16 kms (10 miles)

above the ground at the lower edge of the stratosphere. It

shields life on Earth from the damaging effects of ultra-violet

radiation.

The existence of a "hole" or depletion, in this essential

protecting layer over Antarctica each spring was noticed by the

scientists from the British Antarctic Survey in 1981, working at

Halley Bay, and later confirmed by satellite observations. Since

then, the size of the "hole" has steadily increased, and in 1987,

the layer was half as thick as at the same time of the year 1970. 3

It is widely accepted that the natural rate at which ozone

is destroyed is being increased mainly by the presence of free

chlorine atoms which are released by the decomposition of

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) above the ozone layer. This family of

chemicals is used as a coolant in refrigerators and air

conditioners, as a blowing agent in the manufacture of foam, and

also as a blowing agent in the manufacture of foam, and also as a

propellant in aerosols. At present, 770,000 tonnes of CFCs are

.324

produced every year. Free chlorine atoms, or radicals, sink down

into the ozone layer and attack the ozone (03

) to form chlorine

monoxide (ClO) and o2 . The ClO then combines with a free oxygen

atom to form o2

and a chlorine atom. This catalytic reaction

continually repeats itself, so that for every chlorine atom

released, an estimated 100,000 molecules of ozone are removed

from the atmosphere. Other radicals react in similar ways.

The damaging effect of cholrine on the ozone layer appears

to be enhanced in the Antarctic region by the extreme cold during

the three months' darkness of the Antarctic winter. In these

conditions, chlorine and other gases accumulate in inert forms.

The ultraviolet light of the spring sun initiates a sequence

of complex reactions in which the chlorine and other ozone-

consuming gases suddenly become active, a reaction speeded up by

the presence of clouds of ice particles. The rapid creation of a

"hole" in the ozone layer is the result and this is deepening

every year.

In 1987, the American $16 million Airborne Antarctic Ozone

Experiment, which included European scientists, made the most

detailed study yet of the atmosphere over Antarctica by flying

aircraft through the ozone "hole" for the first time.

This international effort reflects the growing concern among

many scientists, environmentalists and politicians, that, what we

are seeing in Antarctica may be the beginning of a much wider

breakdown in the ozone layer.

-1.4-,------.--------.,-------r------~---

-123 -330 •

• -199

60

-342 -270 -21

-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100

Scale in thousands of years before ( -) and after ( +) present

Fig. 118 Long-term variations of climate (effectively of world temperature) over the past 400,000 years and calculation for the next 60,000 years, based on th~ orbital variables. Crosses show how far the part of the curve relating to the past agrees with oxygen isotope measurernents from deep ocean bed cores. The numbers give the dates in thousands of years before and after the present time of key points on the curve. (Reproduced by kind permission from Professor Berger's article in Vistas in Astrononzy ( 1980)- ~ce footnote in text.)

Fears

radiation

are already being voiced that

may not only harm humans,

increased

but will

ultraviolet

also

deleterious effects on Antarctic phytoplankton, with

reaching ecological consequences in the Southern Ocean.

have

far-

The crucial efect of CFCs on the ozone layer has now been

widely accepted, and the first international treaty to limit

their production was intially signed by some 40 countries in

September 1987. Given that a large proportion of CFCs now

present in the atmosphere will still be there in 100 years' time,

much more drastic cuts in production will be needed if the ozone

layer is to continue to shield the Earth.

Thus this tenuous layer of gas, tens of kilometers above our

heads, is an essential part of the ''life support system" of

Planet Earth. Without the ozone layer, it is doubtful that there

would be any life on land. Although ozone is constantly being

manufactured in the stratosphere, human activities may still tilt

the balance of the reactions so that the concentration of ozone

falls. The usual analogy concerns a tub of water that is being

filled by a tap at a constant speed, but the tub has a hole in

its bottom through which water escapes at the same speed. The

level of water in the tub (equivalent to the concentration of

ozone) stays the same. If we make the hole in the tub bigger,

the first thing that happens is that more water flows out. As it

does so, the level of water in the tub drops. As the level

drops, the pressure of water at the hole drops, and the flow from

the tub slows down. At some point, a new equilibrium is reached,

with the level of water in the tub constant at a lower level.

327

328

Present concern about the ozone layer centres on the

possibility that human activities may be making the "hole in the

tub" bigger, speeding up the rate at which the ozone is being

destroyed in the stratosphere, while the production rate stays

the same.

This could also happen if molecules such as Nitrous Oxide NO

are produced by human activities and reach the ozone layer. The

first concern about possible human impacts on the ozone layer

came in the 1970s when plans were being made for large fleets of

supersonic aircraft, flying higher than Concorde. The jet

engines of such aircraft, sucking in air to provide the oxygen

they needed, would inevitably have produced NO (and other oxides

of nitrogen) since so much of the air is nitrogen. These

aircrafts never flew, but that concern might still apply if

hypersonic vehicles. The discovery of a "hole" in the ozone over

Antarctica shows that the atmosphere may respond in a "non

linear" way to this kind of disturbance.

What seems to have happened over Antarctica is that the

buildup of chlorine had very little effect on the ozone layer

until some critical threshold was reached. Then, a very small

increase in the amount of chlorine caused a very big change in

the chemistry of the stratosphere.

According to one opinion, the unique meteorology of the

Antarctic means that there is little prospect that the hole in

the sky there will spread to cover the rest of the world. But

there is now concern that some separate nonlinear effects may be

2.5 ,_ - 2.5

>-~

c ·-.u 2.0 r- - 2.0 0

~

'-Q)

Q) u Ol c c ::I c ~

u 1. 5 Q)

..... ::I ~

0 ..... Q)

0.

E

Other trace

-gases~

-I Ozone

f Nitrous_o)(jde-

I Me_!_h~n~ _

-0

, .5 Q)

Ol c: 0

0:::

Q) 1.0 .... r- - 1.0 Q) ChLorofluorocarbons u 0 -..... -----::I

(./')

0.5 ..... - 0.5

Carbon dioxide

0 0

Figure 1.3 Cumulative equilibrium surface temperature warming due to increase in carbon dioxide and other trace gases from AD 1980 to 2030 as computed by a one-dimentional model. (After Ramanathan et al.. 19H5.) Due to fcedha<.:k mecha- · nisms as revealed hy general <.:irculatior) models (d. sub-section 4.4.3 and Chapter 5) expected changes arc O.H---2.6 times the values given in this figure

32~)

330

at work in the other parts of the world, and that other holes in

the ozone layer might appear, most probably over the North Pole,

which appeared this year but possibly anywhere. According to

Environmental Protecting Agency of USA, every 1 per cent increase

in the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere there would be

a 5 per cent increase in the number of non-malignant skin cancers

each year. Radiation with wavelengths in the band from 240 to

290 nanometers, known as UV-C, does not reach the ground at all

today, so its effects on life are harder to predict. We cannot

be certain, though that under different conditions it might not

reach the ground. In the laboratory, radiation within these

wavelengths destroys nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) and protein

the basic molecu~es of life.

A team of scientists from the US conducted studies at Thule,

Greenland, in late February this year, where they recorded the

ultra-violet and visible spectra of moonlight and scattered

sunlight. Fortune cooperated with the team's efforts and a polar

vortex swirling in the lower stratosphere lingered near Thule at

77 degrees North during the team's two-week observation period.

The vortex provides the coldest temperatures in the

and hence provided the best conditions for detection

destroying chemicals. The team detected chlorine

stratosphere

of ozone-

dioxide in

"disconcertingly large amounts". Over Antarctica in late

winter, there is two to five time as much chlorine dioxide as

seen in the Arctic. The Thule team also found very low levels of

nitrogen dioxide over the Arctic region - about the same amount

as seen over the Antarctica in early spring.

331

Wayne Evans, of Environment Canada, 4 government research a

organization, first observed the phenomenon over northern

Scandinavia and the Soviet Union in March 1986. Like the

Antarctic hole, the Arctic hole forms inside a vortex of low-

pressure air and stratospheric ice clouds. the Arctic hole has

what Evans describes as "strange layers" 20 kilometers above the

ground in which roughly half the normal amount of ozone is

present.

Although the Arctic hole appears to be structurally similar

to the Antarctic hole, it is only half its size.

size of Greenland, whereas the southern hole,

extent, cover the entire continent of Antarctica.

It is about the

at its maximum

An important difference between the two holes, says Evans,

is that the behaviour of the Arctic hole is more unpredictable

and harder to study than that of the Antarctic. This is because

the more active weather systems in the northern hemisphere

complicate the formation of the hole.

The real concern about the Antarctic ozone hole is that it

represents a new loss of ozone from the atmosphere" said Evans,

who fears that the Arctic hole might become a similar "sink" for

the northern hemisphere. A preliminary investigation with a

high-flying aircraft that "nudged" the Arctic vortex in February

found elevated levels of chlorine monoxide. This gas is widely

regarded as the "smoking gun" which shows that chlorine from CFCs

is destroying ozone.

However, the most popular theory by K.K. Tung claims that as

sun returns to Antarctica in early spring, a 'diabatic'

circulation with upward motion at high latitudes and downward

motion at mid-latitudes will take place. This circulation will

tend to redistribute ozone in spring with lower values over the

pole and higher values at mid-latitudes.

According to West German Scientist, K. Labitzta, Vortices

over both Arctic and Antarctic have become stronger since 1979

and thus the timing of the final warming over Antarctica has been

simultaneously delayed as a result of increased stratospheric

aerosol content following recent volcanic eruptions.

The scientific evidence and policy concerns outlined in this

report have generated substantial momentum toward new

restrictions on CFCs in recent months. In March 1986, EPA

Administrator Lee Thomas stated that "we may need to act in the

near term to avoid letting today's risk become tomorrow's

crisis." ln <J. separate st<J.tement, the DuPont company noted that

"Neither the marketplace nor regulatory policy... has provided

the needed incentives" to justify investment in alternatives to

CFCs.

The scientific community has also added its voice to the

call for action. The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases,

sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO),

International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), and U11ited

Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), stated in July 1986 that

many uses of CFCs "can hardly be considered essential" and

332

333

"international action to reduce release[s] ... is technically

possible, and if achieved, would be a valuable precautionary and

preventive measure both to slow climate warming and to protect

the ozone layer."

Building the international consensus necessary to phase out

CFC emissions will take time. In the short term, it is more

realistic to expect that participants in the Convention process

can agree to reduce global CFCs emissions by an amount roughly

equal to current use in aerosol sprays, or abou~ one third. The

United

adopting

and a

States could meet this target despite its aerosol ban by

the measures. This move would be a major stepforward

clear ·signal to industry to begin searching for

alternatives.

Individual actions by the U.S. and by other leading nations

may also be necessary, even if an international protocol is

adopted. Beyond the inherent difficulty of enacting

international agreement with meaningful restricti.ons,

any

the

Convention's effectiveness may also be compromised by the absence

(or delayed participation) of some countries and the likelihood

that not all ozone-depleting substances would be covered. Even

bringing CFC production down to one third below recent levels

an ambitious goal will not eliminate some significant

environmental risks and may not induce investment in new

chemicals, which will require considerable start-up capital and

assurances of large markets.

334

Should further U.S. action prove necessary, a tax should be

imposed on CFCs, phasd in over five years to assure producers of

a future price high enough to justify producing chemical

alternatives. This tax should be supported by import

restrictions to assure that domestic manufacturers do not suffer

competitive disadvantage.

It is very important to find out how marine and terrestrial

organisms respond to UV, and to assess their sensitivity. There

is a short food chain in Antarctica and if these organisms should

be wiped out, there may not be anything to replace them.

The Montreal Protocol on "substances that deplete the ozone

layer" was adopted on 16 September 1987 when it was signed by the

UK, the European Community and 23 other countries. It is due to

enter into force on 1 January 1989. The protocol provides for

the production and consumption of CFCs 11, 12, 113, 114 and 115

to be reduced by 50 per cent in three stages by 1999.

requires production and consumption of halons 1211,

2402 to be frozen.fr.om 1992.

It also

1301, and

Main points brought to light by Stratospheric Ozone Review

Group after research (Stratospheric Ozone, 1988), are In 1987,

the springtime depletion of ozone over Antarctica (the ozone

hole) was more severe, and lasted longer, than previously. At

altitudes between 14 km and 18 km the concentration of ozone was

depleted by over 95% on occasions, and the total column of ozone

was reduced to about 40% of its pre-1975 thickness.

335

There is now evidence of a year-round reduction of ozone of

about 5% since 1979, poleward of 60°s. This may be linked to the

springtime Antarctic ozone depletion.

A major reanalysis of global ozone data has been made by the

NASA/WMO Ozone Trends Panel. Goundbased measurements between 30N

and 64N indicate that, after allowance has been made for the

effect of solar and other cycles, the annual mean column ozone

decreased by 1.7 to 3% between 1969 and 1986. Within these

latitudes the depletion is greatest between 53 N and 64 N in

winter months, amounting to about 7%. 5

CONCLUSION

Thus we may say that apart from its unique natural features

which make Antarctica especially important as a scientific

laboratory, the global regulation of climate, and thereby, the

planet's natural balance at large - the southern Continent and

its surrounding ocean constitute one fragile ecosystem with

interdependent components, all of them in turn intimately related

to their physical components.

It is true that, apart from once nearly extermination marine

mammals in the Antarctic waters, man's impact upon the Antarctic,

at ecosystem level, has been minimal. Localized pollution caused

by scientific stations and tourists along coastal areas, has been

noted, however, and occasional cases of disturbing the fauna has

occurred. Serious concern is being voiced about the overall

repurcussion resulting from even an adverse impact of offshore

33C

drilling on even large scale alterations of continental geology,

has been predicted.

The major inadequacy of the Treaty-related framework for

environmental protection is that it fails legally to bind third

parties, omitting some potential users of the Antarctic living

resources, for example, South Korea. However, the legal analysis

demonstrates,

international

even ponparties are bound

law to refrain from inflicting

under general

environmental and

ecological damage upon Antarctica. This is a broad injunction

which must be further implemented in a forceful way, particularly

against third parties, i.e. erga omnes. One realistic way of

avoiding conflicts, of course, would be to widen adherence to all

relevant environmental agreements (list given), particularly of

the Antarctic regime, promoting precisely what the consultative

parties consider a "desirable international objective''. However,

making Antarctic Treaty System an 'Objective regime' binding to

even nation in a truly functional way, still remains 3 dream.

More and more popular consideration of Antarctica as CHM or

global

of N-S

binding

commons or extra-territorial region within the framework

Dialogue or NIEO, is of course, making the ATS less

to the third parties. Recent events in the UN intimate

that certain states in the Third World are interested in securing

more direct influence for developing countries in Antarctic

Affairs. It is still too early to predict with confidence either

the political impact of the legal significance of this movement.

Even where the national interests of the Treaty Powers itself

have conflicted with local ecological requirements, the former

337

have prevailed most of the time. In all these cases, it will be

only a matter of time before the Antarctic falls victim to man's

self serving rapacity and myoper avarice. Such a course of

events would indeed be regrettable and would stand as a tragic

commentary on the perverted "progress" of man's domination over

nature. Given the lessons of the past and incentives for the

future, it is still not too late to overt that eco-catastrophe.

Increased

organitations,

serious

mainly

involvement of

like International

non-governmental

Union for the

Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). Greenpeace

International and Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC),

demanding for ''interactionlising" the Area" or "creating a world

Park'' or opening up the Antarctic system" still remains to be

seen as becoming a major motivating force for complete

conservation of Antarctica. In fact, their mixed demands and

unrealistic approach has come into their own way of fulfilling

their said five objectives of public accountability, non-

discrimination, international inequity, conservation and living

resource conservation.

Consideration of Antarctica as special conservation areas

and application of environmental impact assessment (EIA)

procedures to Antarctic science and ligistics, has stressed upon

the need for a more informative system about the activities

tabling place in ATC check on on-regulated tourist activities,

avoiding overcrowding or concentration of station activities.

338

NOTES

1. The Greenpeace book on Antarctica, Greenpeace International, UK, 1988.

2. B.A. Boczek, The Protection of the Antarctic Ecosytem: A Study in the International Environmental Law, Ocean Development and International Law, 13(3), pp.350-380.

3. John Gribbin, The Ozone Layer, New Scientist L, 5 May 1988, No.1611, pp.l-3.

4. S. Dayton, Canadians Confirm Ozone Hole in Arctic, New Scientist, 9 June, 1988, No.l616, pp.47-48.

5. A.S. Miller, and I.M. Mintzer, The Sky is the Limit: Strategies for Protecting the Ozone Layer, World Resources Institute, Research Reprint, 3, Nov.l986, pp.30.