1 Antecedents and Consequences of Managerial Stress: An Empirical study of the Information Technology Sector Thesis Submitted to the Padmashree Dr. D. Y .Patil University, Department of Business Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in BUSINESS MANAGEMENT Submitted by Ms Bharati Deshpande (Enrolment No. DYP-PHD-066100010) Research Guide Dr. R. GOPAL DIRECTOR DEAN & HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT PADMASHREE DR. D.Y. PATIL UNIVERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT, Sector 4, Plot No. 10, CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai – 400 614 June 2010
Transcript
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Antecedents and Consequences of Managerial Stress:
An
Empirical study of the Information Technology Secto r
Thesis Submitted to the Padmashree Dr. D. Y .Patil University,
Department of Business Management
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
Submitted by
Ms Bharati Deshpande
(Enrolment No. DYP-PHD-066100010)
Research Guide
Dr. R. GOPAL
DIRECTOR DEAN & HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
PADMASHREE DR. D.Y. PATIL UNIVERSITY, DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT,
alcoholism, drug addiction, depression etc are acco untable for poor health.
These problems are further affecting organizational performance adversely
by contributing to poor productivity, high employee turnover and higher
degree of job satisfaction.
The increased stress related costs are fostering th e organization to identify
the various approaches to study stress at work. The present research is
designed to investigate the relationship and impact of work related stress
on managers by testing for relationship between cau ses of stress in IT
sector with reference to demographic, independent v ariables i.e age,
gender, level, years of experience, total years in IT sector, income and
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consequences of their stressors like physiological, behavioural and
psychological.
Objective:
In view of the above, the objective of this study w ere:
• To identify the job related stressors for managers in Information
Technology sector.
• To study the sources of stress with context to role related, Job
Related, Interpersonal, Intra personal and Organiza tional.
• To investigate the relationship and impact of work related stress on
managers by testing for relationship between causes with
reference to demographic independent variables(age, gender, level
of managers, years of experience, income and variab les of
stressors.
• To study the consequences of these stressors i.e ph ysical,
behavioural and psychological on the managers with reference to
demographic independent variables.
• Give recommendations as to factors which are respon sible for
stress and how to overcome these problems
Sampling :
Sampling is the process of selecting a( few sample ) from the bigger
group to become the basis of estimating or predicti ng the prevalence
of an unknown piece of information, situation or ou tcome regarding
the bigger group. In the present sample the entire population of IT
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managers all over India, but the potential responde nt ( element) are
basically selected from the two major cities i.e Mu mbai and Bangalore.
The technique used for sampling is convinent sampli ng . It is relatively
easy task to define a target population for a study , but more difficult to
identify the list of every member of such populatio n. In the present
study the sample population was the senior managers and the junior
managers. The sample size calculation showed a samp le of 180 based
of which a sample of 600 sample size was chosen fro m both the cities
Mumbai and Bangalore.
Methodology :
This research study was designed to investigate th e relationship
and impact of work related stress on managers by te sting for
relationship between the causes of stress in its se ctor with
reference to demographic, independent variables (ag e gender
level, years of experience, income) and consequence s of these
stressors like physiological, behavioral and psycho logical. In
order to find this the methodology adopted was Prim ary data as
well as secondary data. The literature review reve aled that in
India use of Social Readjustment Rating Scale(SRSS) developed
by Holmes and Rahe (1967)was used. It basically inc luded 43 life
events drawn from nearly 5000 case histories of pat ients. It was
used to investigate the nature and dynamics of role stress in
various organizations and to develop interventions for the use of
individual, groups and organization. In the present study a well
known psychometric instrument was Occupational Stre ss Index
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which was constructed and standardized by Dr Srivas tava and Dr
R Singh (1981). This instrument included 46 questio ns covering
all the relevant components of job life which cause s stress in one
or other way. Of these 32 are true keyed and 18 are false keyed. A
Likert 5 point ranging from strongly disagree to st rongly agree
was used on each other. Total variables included ro le overload,
role conflict, role ambiguity, job stressors, intra personal
stressors, powerlessness , underparticipation and l ow status.
and for studying the consequences of stress instrum ent by
International Stress Organization was used data . I t included 20
questions based on the physical , behavioural and p sychological
consequences. Secondary was used to find out the ea rlier
contributions by different authors, to know the sta tistical figures
of stress . The secondary research included textb ooks, journals,
reports,newspaper etc.
A conceptual framework of stress was adapted from p revious
research. Firstly an exploratory was conducted to f ind the stressors
faced by IT managers. Based on the variables of str essors the
instrument Occupational Stress Index by Dr A.K Sin gh and Dr R
Srivastava was used to conduct the data .
Hypothesis framing :
Hypothesis was framed on basis of the demographics of managers ie
age, gender, location, years of experience in the s ame company, total
number of years of experience, income , level vari ables of stress like
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role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload, inter personal stressors,
job stressors , under participation , powerlessness and low status.
The description of sample showed the sample size i n Mumbai sis
49.8% where as in banaglore it is 50.2%. The total male managers are
63% of population where as female managers are 37%. Out of which
67% of sample is of junior management and 32.5% are in the senior
level. In the given sample 19.1% of managers are in less than 25 years
of age group where as maximum in the age group of m anagers in the
age group of 25-35 years i.e 40.6%. About 26.4% of managers are in
the age group of 30-35 years and only 13.9% above 3 5 years of age. In
the income segment 47.5% of managers earn income of 5-10 lakhs per
annum. About 24.4% earn in the range of 1-5 lakhs a nd 10-15 years
respectively. Only 4% of managers earn above 15 lak hs per annum.
Findings
The conclusion reached supported the research quest ion findings.
There is a significant difference between stress le vel in male and
female. Stress is more in age group less than 25 yr s of age due to
under participation, low status . In male due to in ter personal
stressors, job stressors where is female it due to under participation
and powerlessness. Stress also varies with location . Stress is more in
Mumbai due to few occupational stressors like role ambiguity, job
related stressors, powerlessness, under participati on and low status.
If we compare stress level in Junior level managers is due to role
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conflict, powerlessness, under participation , low status. and gender,
stress and years of experience, stress and income
By cross tabs it was found that there is no signifi cant relationship
between gender and location, gender and level, gend er and years of
experience, gender and annual income but a signific ant relationship
between income and age. The findings indicate that less than 25 years
of male managers earn 26.5 % of income also in the similar age group
54% of managers earn the same money at the age of 3 5 and above.
There is significant difference in the behavioural and psychological
consequences of stress in male and female managers. There is a
significant difference in physical consequences but no significant
difference in behavior and psychological consequenc e of stress in
Mumbai and Bangalore. There is not significant diff erence in physical
consequences of stress in Junior managers and senio r managers but
a difference in psychological consequences of stres s. There is
significant difference in physical, psychological a nd behavioural
consequences of stress and age, years of experience .
Conclusion:
Stress is the unconscious preparation to fight or f lee when faced with
any demand. Most of the stressors found in organiza tion is task, role,
interpersonal, physical demand at work along with n on work
demands. To overcome stress efforts from both persp ective is
important i.e individual as well as organizational perspective. If efforts
are taken from both sides may lead to a very health y culture in an
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organization which will effect individual performan ce as well as
organizational performance.
Recommendations :
Stress is inevitable result of work and personal l ife. Distress is not an
inevitable consequence of stressful events how ever in fact well
managed stress can improve health and performance. Some
strategies recommended are as follows:
J.D Quick, R.S Horn(1986) gave a framework for unde rstanding
preventive stress management which talks about thre e stages of
prevention . Primary prevention is intended to redu ce, modify or
eliminate the demand of stressors causing stress. S econdly
prevention is intended to alter or modify the indiv iduals or the
organization’s response to a demand or stressor.Thi rdly is Tertiary
prevention intended to heal individual or organizat ional symptoms of
distress and strain.
Few more techniques given by B Gardell(1987) in his job strain model
like job design basically to have a worker control. Few more strategies
like Goal setting, Role negotiation, Learned optimi sm, time
management, physical excerise, yoga and meditation etc can be used
to over come stress.
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CHAPTER I
An overview of Information Technology Sector
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Indian information technology sector continues to be one of the
sunshine sectors of the Indian economy showing ra pid growth and
promise. According to a report prepared by Mc Kinse y for NASSCOM
called ‘Perspective 2020: Transform Business, Trans form India’
released in May 2009, the exports components of the Indian Industry
is expected to reach US $175 billions in revenue by 2020. IT sector
has played a very important role in putting India o n the global map.
According to the Department of Information Technolo gy (DIT) the
overall Indian software and services industry reven ue is estimated to
have grown from US $ 10.2 billion in 2001-02 to rea ch US$58.7 billion
in 2008-09.
The IT industry accounts for a 5.9% of the country ’s GDP and export
earning as of 2009 while providing employment to a significant
number of its tertiary sector workforce. More than 2.3 million people
are employed in the sector either directly or indir ectly. The most
prominent IT hub is IT capital Bangalore. The other emerging
destinations are Chennai, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Pune, Jaipur and
Kolkata. Today Bangalore is known as Silicon Valle y of India and
contributes 33% of Indian IT Exports. India’s secon d and third largest
software companies are head quartered in Bangalore, as are many of
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global SEI –CMM level 5 companies. And Mumbai too h as its share of
IT companies once that are established as well as s tart-ups and
these include Patni, L&T Infotech, TCS, Intelli-Fle x, Shine etc. These
IT companies are ruling the roost of Mumbai’s relat ively high octane
industry of information technology.
The scope of IT industry has great scope for peopl e as it provide
employment to technical and non technical graduates and has a
capability to generate huge foreign exchange inflow for India. India
exports software’s and services to approximately 95 countries in the
world. By outsourcing to India, many countries get benefit s in terms
of labour costs and business processes.
1.2 WORKING ENVIRONMENT OF IT SECTOR:
It is dynamic industry that is often informal, but always focus on
achievement. IT graduates highlight constant change and
challenges, variety, working to deadlines, working with intelligent
colleagues, work overload. Many graduates work a fa irly standard
day. However in some areas the cyclical nature of p rojects means
that extra work may indeed be necessary to meet pro ject deadlines
or to provide 24/7 support. In the games industry, long hours are
pretty much the norm. In other field we build up sk ills so that they
become a capital asset that increase in value. In t echnology, the
learning curve can be competence destroying as inst ead of building
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up their skills they are trying to maintain it. Tha t amount to increase
in stress they have.
People believe that modern computer aided technolo gy has reduced
their mental workload but in fact, it has increased the mental
workload and it also weakened their social support. Work related
stress comes from numerous factors such as too many task
demands, role conflicts, job boredom, ethical dilem mas, or
interpersonal problems. Poor career development and physical
environment are also causes of workplace stress. Bu t technology is
one of the biggest factor of stress. Technology is supported to make
employees more productive at work, less burdened. B ut technology
is moving too fast for some people contributing to more stress.
Job stress has long been an important concept in t he organizational
study of the response of the employees have to thei r surroundings.
The many challenges in the work environment, charac terized by
heightened competition, lack of time, continuous te chnology
development, conflicting demands from organizationa l stakeholders
(Hall and Savery 1986) increase use of participator y management and
computerization (Murray and Fobes 1986) has resulte d in high job
stress. Managers in the manufacturing sector have b een found to be
experiencing high stress (Jestin and Gampel 2002). The weakening
of the global economy during the past few years has resulted in
substantial downsizing and retrenchment. Such event s amongst
employees in locals are few of the reasons for high stress amongst
employees.
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The common expression for stress is ‘tension’. One is said to be
tensed, when there is some anxiety, some fear of wh ether the
desirable things may happen, whether something may go wrong etc.
It is a state of discomfort felt in the mind and ex perienced by the
body.
1.3 STRESS –DEFINITION-CLASSIFICATION :
The terms “Stressors” and “Coping process”- as the y relate to this
research, will also be defined. Once again, these d efinitions are a
mixture of mental health and organizational behavio ural science
definitions.
Stress Defined
Stress is defined by Bruno(1991) as the rate of we ar and tear on an
organism. Selye, a Canadian physician, was an early explorer of the
effects of stress on health. He defined stress as t he sum of all non
specific changes caused by function or damage (1956 ,1976). From
his medical perspective. Selye suggested that the b ody responds to
psychological changes related to “fight or fight” s yndrome(1974).
Bowes(1999) concurs that the human body has been “h ard-wired”
throughout evolution to respond to stress through a fight-or fight
response. She defines stress as external or interna l pressure to act.
Bowes(1999) states that stress is’ the body respond ing by activating
a complex system that produces an array of hormones and
neurotransmitters, which are intended to help the h eart and brain
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work better physiologically to meet the demand(1233 -
1234)Herbert(1997)defines stress as a general term that refers to any
demand psychological or physical) that is outside t he norm. Herbert
states that stress usually signals a disparity betw een what is optimal
in a given situation and what actually exists. (Bru no, 1991) Beehr and
Newman (1978) define occupational stress as "A cond ition arising
from the interaction of people and their jobs and c haracterised by
changes within people that force them to deviate fr om their normal
functioning."
Mason(2001)defines stress as reactions of the body to negative
influences. Mason further explains that his studies show ”external
stress may be positive or negative(pleasure, challe nge, divorce, work
responsibilities)’(p316).
French(1971) defines stress as it is the consequen ce that an
individual’s ability or skills fail to coordinate w ith the job or the job
environment cannot satisfy the individual demand.
Wilkeson (1991) defines stress and further delinea tes it into four
types. From a general perspective, stress is define d as “fashionable”
term that denotes usually disagreeable stimuli. Str ess also
encompasses the subjective, behavioural and physiol ogical
responses to the stimuli. The four main, overlappin g types of stress
are segregated as acute (eg an assault), sequential , with one event
initiating others that occur over some period of ti me (eg
bereavement); chronic intermittent (eg conflicts wi th neighbours);
and chronic (eg being disabled). Miller and Simergl ia (1998) define
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stress as the individual’s general feeling of uneas e or upset in
response to a traumatic life event and the accumula tion of others,
concomitant problems or change. They divide stress into two
constructs; event stress and added stress. Event (o r primary) stress
is defined as reaction that are directly related to a stressful life event.
Added (or coincidental contextual) stress is differ entiated as the
result of additional problems and changes that are occurring about
the same time as the primary event stress. Robbins (2001) defines
stress as a dynamic condition in which the individu al is confronted
with an opportunity, constraint, or demand related to what he or she
desires and for which the outcome is perceived to b e both uncertain
and important.
“Stressor” Defined:
Anisman and Merali (1999) define the term stressor as a situation or
event appraised as being aversive, in that it elici ts a stress response.
This then taxes a person’s Physiological or psychol ogical resources,
as well as potentially provoking a subjective state of mental or
physical tension. Stressors can be separated into t wo classifications
psychogenic and or physical tension. Stressors of a purely
psychological origin are called psychogenic stresso rs. Neurogenic
stressors usually involve a physical stimulus.
In addition, Anisman and Merali (1999) have segreg ated
environmental stressors as either systemic and poss essive.
Possessive stressors require appraisal of a situati on involving high-
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level cognitive processing of incoming sensory info rmation. In
contrast systemic stressors are of physiological or igin.
Simply defined, a stressor is an event that causes stress to the
individual when he or she appraises the demands as exceeding the
resources (Lazarus and Folkman 1984). Herbert(1997) utilizes the
definition of stressor as an environmental event. D avison and Neale
(2001) concur with this definition and add that a s tressor can be
thought of as a stimulus, whether positive or negat ive in nature.
“Coping Process” Defined Herbert (1997) includes a definition of
coping in his study of stress, the brain and mental illness. “Coping is
the process of recognizing, and adapting to persist ent and adverse
stress (p369). Davison and Neale (2001) defined the concept of
coping as how people try to handle a problem or the emotion it
process. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) identified two broad
dimensions of coping: problem focused coping and e motion
focused coping. Problem focused coping involves tak ing some sort
of direct action to solve the problem.
Table1 is a summary of the operational definitions of the terminology
as used in this research study. The term stress has been derived
from the Latin word "stringer" which means to draw tight. The term
was used to refer to hardship, strain, adversity or affliction. Allen,
Hitt, and Green (1982) have defined "Occupational s tress as
disruption in individuals psychological or/and phys iological
homeostasis that force them to deviate from normal functioning in
interaction with their jobs and work environment."
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Stress is an adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as
challenging or threatening to the person’s well bei ng. The stress
response is a complex emotion that produces physiol ogical changes
to prepare us for ‘fight or fight’- to defend the t hreat or flee from it.
Acute stress and Chronic Stress: Stress is a physi cal and emotional
reaction that everyone experiences as he or she enc ounters changes
in life. These reactions can be positive or negativ e. Many scientists
see stress as a reaction of our body to sudden chan ges in the
environment. Just like animals, people need extra e nergy to stay and
fight or run away when faced with danger. The body' s normal
reaction to a somewhat dangerous situation is an in crease in heart
rate and muscle tension and a higher blood pressure and sweating
such physical and emotional reaction help us by inc rease our
concentration and other bodily function in order to prepare for a
challenge. After meeting a challenge the body relax es as the heart
rate, muscle tension and blood pressure return to n ormal. This gives
the body a chance to recover physically and for the person to feel
emotionally rewards for overcoming the challenge. T his is called
good stress or Acute stress.
When situation that causes physical and emotional stress reaction or
non stopping or perceived as perceived as non stopp ing. The body
never gets a chance to relax. This cause constant t ense muscle and
a 'Knotted” stomach. This type of situation is call ed a bad stress or
chronic stress. Stress is an inevitable feature of work and personal
life. It is neither inherently bad nor destructive.
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Stressors : The Causes of stress
Stressors, the causes of stress, include any enviro nmental
conditions that place a physical or emotional deman d on the person.
There are numerous stressors in organizational sett ings and other
life activities. The four main types of stressors o f work related
stressors: interpersonal, role related , task contr ol, organizational
and physical environmental stressors.
Inter personal stressors: Among the four types of s tressors,
interpersonal stressors seem to be most pervasive a t school and
work. The trend towards teamwork generates inter pe rsonal
stressors because employee must interact more with co-workers.
Bad boss, office politics, and various types of int er personal conflict
also take their toll on employees. E.Vigoda(2002)fo und that
employees experienced stress immediately after expo sure to
organizational political. Other inter personal stre ssors include sexual
harassment, workplace violence, and bullying.
Role Related Stressors: Role related stressors incl ude conditions
where employees have difficulty understanding, reco nciling or
performance the various roles in their lives. Three types of role
related stressors are role conflict, role ambiguity and work overload.
Role conflict refers to the degree of incongruity o r incompatibility of
expectations associated with the person’s role. Som e people
experiences stress when they have two roles that co nflict with each
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other( called inter role conflict). Nurses tend to experience inter role
conflict because they struggle to maintain humanist ic caring and
preserve the nurse patient relationship in a cost e fficient managed
care environment controlled by others. G.R Cluskey( 1997) studied
role conflict also occurs when an employee receives contradictory
messages from different people about how to perform a task(called
intra role conflict) or works with organizational v alues and work
obligations that are incompatible with his or her p ersonal values(
called person-role conflict)
Role Ambiguity: Refers to the lack of clarity and p redictability of the
outcome of one’s behaviour. Role ambiguity produces unclear role
perception and has a direct affect on job performan ce. It is also a
source of stress in a variety of situations, such a s joining the
organization or working in a new joint venture, bec ause people are
uncertain about task and social expectations.
Work Overload: A third role related stressors is wo rk overload-
working more hours and more intensity during those hours. In 1930,
noted economist John Maynard Keynes predicted that by 2030 the
average employee would be working a 15 hours workwe ek. At the
time, Kellogg’s the cereal company, had switched fr om eight hours
to six hours work shifts in order to employ more pe ople during the
depression and give employees more time off. But Ke ynes prediction
is a far cry from the number of hours employees wor k today.
Although official paid work hours are lower than th ose of the early
1900’s, they have moved consistently upward towards the past 20
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years. Some authors claim the raising workload is d ue to the
pressure from globalization for more efficiency and from employee’s
own desire to keep up with the Joneses in wealth an d consumption.
Task-Control Stressors: It includes the extent to w hich low task
control is a stressor increases with the person’s l evel of
responsibility. Assembly line workers have low task control but tend
to experience less stress because they also have lo w responsibility
for those tasks. In contrast, sports coaches are im mense pressure to
win games(high responsibility) yet have little cont rol over what
happens on the playing field ( low task control)
Organizational and Physical Environment stressors: Organizational
and Physical Environment stressors come in many for ms.
Downsizing(reducing the numbers of employees) is ex tremely
stressful to those who lose their jobs. However, la yoff survivors also
experiences stress because of the reduced job secur ity, chaos of
change, additional workloads, and guilt of having a job as others
lose their . Some stressors are found in the physic al work
environment, such as excessive noise, poor lighting and safety
hazards. A study of textiles workers in a noisy pla nt found that their
levels of stress measurably decreased when supplied with ear
protectors. Another study reported that their level of stress
measurably decreased when supplied with ear protect ors. Another
study reported that clerical employees experienced significantly high
stress level in noisy open offices than in quiet a reas.
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Work-Non work stressors: There are three types of t hese work –
nonwork stressors: time based, strain based and rol e based conflict.
Time Based Conflict: Time based conflict refers to the challenge of
balancing the time demanded by work with family and other non
work activities. This stressors are noticeable in e mployees who hold
employees who hold strong family values and weakest in people who
do not value a work life balance, Time based confli ct relates back to
the workload stressors described earlier.
Strain Based Conflict: Strain based conflict occurs when stress from
one domain spills over to the other. Relationship p roblems, financial
difficulties, and loss of a loved one usually top t he list of non work
stressors. New responsibilities, such as marriage, birth of a child,
and a mortgage, are also stressful to most of us.
Role Behaviour conflict. A third work- non work str essors, called role
behaviour conflicts, occurs when people are expecte d to enact
different work and non work roles. People who act l ogically and
impersonally at work have difficulty switching to a more
compassionate behavioural style in their personal l ives.
Major Elements of Stress:
One way to understand the dynamics of stress is to think of it as the
product of a “force field” ( Lewin, 1951). Kurt Lew in suggested that
all individuals and organizations exist in an envir onment filled with
reinforcing exist in an environment filled with rei nforcing or
opposing forces( stresses). These forces act to sti mulate or inhibit
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the performance desired by the individual. A person ’s level of
performance in an organization results from factors that may either
complement or contradict one another. Certain force drive or motives
changes in behaviour, while other forces restrain o r block those
changes.
According to Lewin’s theory, the forces affecting i ndividuals are
normally balanced in the force field. The strength of driving forces is
exactly matched by the strength of the restraining forces.
Performance changes when the forces become imbalanc ed. That is if
the driving forces become imbalanced. That is, if t he driving forces
become stroner than the restraining forces, or more numerous or
enduring, change occurs. Conversly if restraining f orces become
stronger or more numerous than driving forces, chan ge occurs in the
opposite direction.
Feeling of stress are a product of certain stressor s inside and
outside the individual. These stressors can be thou ght of as driving
forces in the model. That is, they exert pressure o n the individual to
change present levels of performance physiologicall y,
psychologically and inter personally. Unrestrained those forces can
lead to pathological result(eg anxiety, heart disea se and mental
breakdown) . However most people have developed a c ertain amount
of resilency or restraining forces to counter stres sors and inhibit
pathological results. These restraining forces incl ude behaviour
patterns, psycholgocial characteristics and support social
relationships. Strong restraining forces lead to lo w heart rates, good
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interpersonal relationships, emotional stability, a nd effective stress
management. In absence of restraining forces leads to the reverse
Dr
D
( Fig 1.1Source Kurt Lewin Model of Force field A nalysis)
Driving Force A
Driving Force B
Driving Force
Restraining Force A
Restraining Force B
Restraining Force C
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Table 1.1: SUMMARY OF DEFINITION
Term Researcher Definition
Stress Bowes,1999,
1997:Bruno
External of internal pressure to act or react to pos itive or
negative stimuli.
Burnout Minirth 1986 High levels of continuous stre ss.
Depression Bruno,1991 Negative emotional state char acterized by self doubt,
sadness,& loss of interest in daily living.
Stressor Bruno,1991 Causes of the stress.
Coping
Strategy
Herbert 1997 Process of recognizing, evaluating, an d adapting to
persistent stress
Table 1.2: DEFINITIONS OF JOB STRESS
Year Author Definition of Job Stress
1956 Seley Stress means uncertain reaction of he body to demand and also basic demand from internal and external environment, or reaction result against threat of balance condition
1971 French Stress is the consequence that an in Individual’s ability or skills fail to Coordinate with the job or the job Environment cannot satisfy the Individual demand.
1974 Kroes Stress is improper occupa-tional Pressure or burden with
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badly Affect the psychological and Physical condition of the worker Himself.
1978 Beehr & Newman Stress is the change that drives the Worker from normal psychological And physical condition
1980 Ivancevich & Matteson
Stress is some adaptive reaction, a Consequence of special psychological or physical demand from the event, and such reaction takes personal character as intermediary.
1985 Jamal Stress is one’s reaction against threat In the working environment
1991
Wileson
From a general perspective, stress is defined as “fashionable” term that denotes usually disagreeable stimuli. Stress also encompasses the subjective, behavioural and physiological responses to the stimuli.
1997 Herbert Defines stress as a general term that refers to any demand psychological or physical) that is outside the norm. Herbert states that stress usually signals a disparity between what is optimal in a given situation and what actually exists.
1998 Miller & Simerglia
Stress as the individual’s general feeling of unease or upset in response to a traumatic life event and the accumulation of others, concomitant problems or change.
1999 Bowes Concurs that the human body has been “hard-wired” throughout evolution to respond to stress through a
38
fight-or fight response. She defines stress as external or internal pressure to act.
2001 Mason Stress as reactions of the body to negative influences. Mason further explains that his studies show ”external stress may be positive or negative (pleasure, challenge, divorce, work responsibilities)
Table 1.3: Definitions of Job Stressors
Year Author Definition of Job Stress
1999
Anisman and Merali
Stressors can be separated into two classifications psychogenic and or physical tension. Stressors of a purely psychological origin are called psychogenic stressors. Neurogenic stressors usually involve a physical stimulus.
1984 Lazarus and Folkman
Simply defined, a stressor is an event that causes stress to the individual when he or she appraises the demands as exceeding the resources
2001
Davison and Neale
Concur with this definition and add that a stressor can be thought of as a stimulus, whether positive or negative in nature as coping process. The concept of coping as how to handle a problem or the emotion it process.
Chapter II
39
Literature Review
2.1 Origin of the concept:
The concept of stress was first introduced in the l ife science by Hans
Selye in 1936. It is a concept borrowed from the na tural sciences.
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, str ess was equated
with force, pressure strain exerted upon a material its original state.
The use of the concept in this manner encouraged ph ysicists and
engineers to adopt it to suit their ends. Thus, str ess is engineering is
known as ‘the ratio of the internal force brought i nto play when a
substance is distorted to the area over which the f orces act (Hinkle
1973). In common parlance, however the terms ‘stres s’ and ‘strain’
are use synonymously in a non-scientific manner. Th e popularity of
this concept has dwindled in the physiological fiel d where it was first
introduced, and the use of the stress terminology c ontributes to
flourish in the psychological and social sciences. During the last 15
years the term stress has come to be widely used in relation to work
organizations. (Agarwala, Malhan and Singh 1979). M ason(1975)
reviewed literature on stress and concluded that th ere was confusion
and a lack of consensus regarding its definition.
The term stress has been used variously to refer to a) stimulus
(external force acting on the organism), b) respons e (changes in the
physiological functions), c) interaction (inter-act ion between an
external force and the resistance opposed to it, as in biology) and d)
more comprehensive combination of this above factor .
40
Agarwala, Malhan and Singh (1979) believe that the confusion is
defined is primarily due to the fact that the same term is used by
various scholars of different disciplines. Thus in physics, stress is a
force which acts on a body to produce strain. In ps ychology, stress
refers to a state of the organism resulting from so me inter-stimulus
which imposes detectable strain that cannot be easi ly
accommodated by the body and so presents itself as impaired health
or behaviour’. Hens Selye’s 1936 he wrote the first paper on the
stress syndrome in 1936. He demonstrated the stress is not a vague
concept, some how related to the decline in the inf luence of
traditional codes of behaviour, dissatisfaction wit h the world, or the
rising cost of living, but rather then it is clearl y a deinable biological
and medical phenomenon whose mechanisms can be obje ctively
identified and with which he can cope much better o nce we know
how to handle it. When confusions and arguments abo ut stress-
indeed about any concept- start to prove a barriers to
communication and progress, it is always best to re vert to the
undisputed facts, the original observations that ga ve rise to the field.
Accordingly, let us proceed to a discussion of the nature of stress.
Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) has been widely
comprehensive has been widely held as a comprehensi ve model to
explain the stress phenomenon. This three stages mo del states that
when an organism is confronted with a threat, the g eneral
physiological response occurs in three stages.
41
Alarm Reaction: The first stage includes an initial ‘shock phase’ in
which resistance is lowered, and a ‘counter –shock phase’ in which
defensive mechanisms become active. Alarm reaction is
characterized by autonomous excitability; adrenalin discharge;
increase heart rate, muscle tone, and blood content ; and
gastrointestinal ulceration. Depending on the natur e and intensity of
the threat and the condition of the organism, the p eriod of resistance
vary and the severity of symptoms may differ from ‘ mild invigoration
to disease of adaptation’
Stage of Resistance: Maximum adaptations occur duri ng this stage.
The bodily signs characteristics of the alarm react ion disappear.
Resistance increases to levels above normal. If the stressor persists,
or the defensive reaction proves ineffective, the o rganism
deteriorates to the next stage.
Stage of Exhaustion: Adoption energy is exhausted. Signs of the
alarm reaction reappear, and the resistance level b egins to decline
irreversible. The organism collapses. A diagrammati c view of these
stages is shown
Shortcoming: The first major shortcoming of this th eory according to
Pestonjee (1987) is that it is based on researches carried out on infra
human subjects. In such experiments, the stressors are usually
physical and environmental, whereas the human organ ism is not
always confronted by such stressors.
Secondly Selye’s work on stress depends on the exis tence of a non-
specific physiological response. But it has been no ted by
42
researchers that there are certain stimuli, for exa mple, exercise,
fasting and hear, which do not produce non-specific response and
hence the General Adaptation syndrome does not hold true.
Pestonjee(1987) however had noted that it is ‘natur al and healthy to
maintain optimal level of stress and opined that ‘s uccess
achievement, higher productivity and effectiveness call for stress’
When stresses are left unchecked and unmanaged, the y can create
problems in performance and affect the health and well being of the
organism. Stress has originated in the field of str uctural engineering
and physical sciences which, in due course of time, has been
adopted by behaviour scientist. His paper is an att empt to demystify
the established facts related to the phenomenon of stress. For eg the
person environment paradigm emphasis the balance ra ther the
absolute level of either. This paradigm, however do es not assume
that return to the preceding steady state in the on ly beneficial
outcome possible because too little work is as stre ssful for
individual as being viewed as a stimulus to growth and the
achievement of a new balance. Keeping in view that stress is a
personal response to a certain variation in the env ironment,
Pestonjee depending on a. The nature and magnitude of the strategy
b) the importance of the stressors to the individua l. 3) the perception
of the treat element as a component of the stressor d0 the personal
and social support system available to the individu al and the d) the
involvement and willingness on the part of the indi vidual and e) the
involvement and willingness on the part of the indi vidual’ to do of
43
stress in the light of social systems to which we a ll belong. There are
two systems one primary secondary system to which w e relate such
as neighbourhood, school, college etc. He also Pest onjee has
attempted to diagrammatically present the nature an d consequence
of stress phenomenon. He has identified three impor tant sectors of
life in which stress originates. These are
1. Jobs and the organization: This namely includes in totality work
environment (task, atmosphere, colleagues, compensa tion and
policies)
2. The social sector: Refers to the social-cultural context of one’s
life.
3. Intra-psychic sector: This encompasses those thi ngs which are
intimate and personal, like temperament, values, ab ilities and
health.
It is contended that stresses can originate in any of three sector or in
combination thereof. In the second figure we that j ob and
organization loads have increased and have made a d ent in the
personality. In this stage we find minor surface ch anges taking place
which are quite manageable.
In stage three we find that job and organizational load have become
unmanageable and interact with intra psychic load. This is a stage at
which the negative consequences of stress become ap parent. When
the situation persist we move to the next stage in which we start
operating belong the stress tolerance limit. Severa l types of
44
breakdowns and cracks are observable. If unchecked, the situation
may culminate into the last and most intense phase wherein
complete disintegration of personality takes place. At this stage the
individual needs proper psychological and medical c are.
He also developed a model to explain how to cope wi th stress
reaction. It is called the ‘bounce model’ because t he behavioral
decomposition taking place due to stress tends to g et reflected in
interpersonal and other reactions. The reactions ar e received and
analyzed by the environment which in turn, bounces back signals to
the individual to bring about a change either at th e organic level or at
the response level.
(Pain 1982) has developed concept of Burnout Stre ss Syndrome
(BOSS): Boss can lead to at least four types of str ess related
consequences such as depletion of energy reserves, lowered
resistance to illness, increased dissatisfaction an d pessimisms and
increased absenteeism and inefficiency at work.
Veningle and Spradley (1981) have identified five d istinct stages of
Boss: Honey moon stage: This stage can be describe d as
accounting for the euphoric feeling of encounter wi th the new job
such as excitement, enthusiasm challenge and pride. Dysfunctional
features emerge in two ways: First the energy reser ve is gradually
depleted in coping with the demands of a challengin g environment.
Second, habits and strategies for coping with stres s are formed in
this stage which is often not used in coping with l ater challenges.
45
Fuel Shortage stage: This stage can be identified a s composed of the
value feelings of loss, fatigue and confusion arisi ng from the
individual’s overdraft on reserves of adaptation en ergy. Other
symptoms are dissatisfaction, inefficiency, fatigue and sleep
disturbances leading to escape activities such as i ncreased eating,
drinking and smoking.
Chronic Symptoms stage: Fuel shortage stage is foll owed by
physiological symptoms which become more pronounced and
demand attention and help at this stage. Common sym ptoms are
chronic exhaustion, physical illness, anger and dep ression. A sense
of fatigue and exhaustion overtakes the individual.
Crisis stage: When these feelings and physiological symptoms
persists over a period of time, the individual ente rs the stage of
crisis. At this stage, he develops escape mentality and feeling
oppressed. Heightened pessimism, self doubting, pep tic ulcer,
tension headaches, chronic backaches, high blood pr essure and
difficulty in sleeping are other characteristics of this stage.
Hitting the Wall Stage: This stage of BOSS is chara cterized by total
exhaustion of one’s adaptation energy which may mar k the end of
one’s professional career. While recovery from this stage may elude
some, others may be resourceful enough to tide over the crisis.
The author further identified the particular stress ors associated with
owner manager. Stressors for creative manager are R ole ambiguity,
Outcome curtaining Exposure to hazards Task difficu lty Exposure to
criticism, evaluation anxiety, role expectation con flict and time
46
pressure and consequences are leads to boredom and frustration,
self role distance, role stagnation, personal adequ acy, approach
avoidance conflicts about job.
(Storch and Panzarella,1996), and managing ( Broa d bridge 2002).
Relatively few studies has been conducted and of t hese only
Gallstedt focus on IT project managers. This report s on research
aimed at validating and extending Gallstedt's work by identifying the
sources of stress and their outcome that are releva nt to IT managers
.What are the stressors faced by IT managers, what are the
consequences of them.
MD.W. Pestonjee review person conducted by Torrance (1965) and
Petrosko (1983)and speculated on the type of potent ial stressors a
creative person may encounter in an organizational situation.
Reviewing one of the earliest notions of the creati ve process, he
noted that the transactional stages of creative pro cess are especially
stressful. (stress and coping the Indian experience )
The Yerkes-Dodson law, indicates that stress leads to improved
performance up to an optimum point .Beyond the opti mum point,
further stress and arousal have a detrimental affec t on performance.
Therefore, healthy amounts of eustress are desirabl e to improve
performance by arousing a person to action. It is i n the midrange of
the curve that the greater performance benefits fro m stress are
achieved.
Work Related Stress-Causes and Consequences: Some o f the
researchers reviewed on work related stress further segregated
47
stress into two type good and bad (Minirth et al, 1 986). The “good”
stress is also referred to as “eustress”. This posi tive kind of stress is
usually experienced at times of happiness fulfilmen t or satisfaction.
The “bad” stress or “distress” is usually the resul t of excessive
levels of continuing, negative stress.
Cooper (2001) reiterates the statement that some am ount of stress is
necessary for everyday living and, in lesser amount s, for learning
and growth. To be an effective employee or employer , the ability to
better handle and manage these necessary life stres sors must be
learned and practiced. Stressors are differentiated from stress by its
definition as a cause of stress.
A 1999 study by the national institute for Occupati onal Safety and
Health (Atkinson, 2000) reports several aspects of work that generate
stress when handled improperly or inappropriately. They include
task design (i.e inadequate communication and lack of employee
participation in decision making) and personal rela tionship (i.e little
or no support from co-workers/supervisors, inferior social
environment). Increased stress has also been associ ated with work
roles (i.e Uncertain or conflicting job expectation s), career concerns
(i.e job insecurity, lack of growth opportunities o r internal
advancement), and environmental conditions (i.e dan gerous or
unpleasant physical surrounding)
A study by ((Einar M de Croon and Judith K Sluiter, 2004,Vol 89 No3))
was based on turnover model that combine existing o rganizational
stress theory and job transition theory and job tra nsition theory. It
48
was a two year longitudinal study examined antecede nts of turnover
amongst Dutch truck drivers. The contributions made by these study
was examination of a voluntary turnover model that integrated
existing organizational stress theory i.e addressin g turnover
antecedents and consequences. Affect one’s work and one
expectation of the benefits that should be derived from work and
career.
2.2 SOURCES OF MANAGERIAL STRESS:
Sources if managerial stress have been well documen ted since the
late 1970s. Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) identifi ed four categories
of work stressor: Physical environment, individual level (a mixer if
climate, structure, job design and task characteris tics). Quick and
Quick (1984) proposed four categories of stressors: task demands,
physical demands and interpersonal demands. Paul E Spector, he
mentions the tested three contrasting theories abou t the sequential
process theories about the sequential process of th e three
dimensions of burnout (i.e exhaustion, Cynicism and professional
efficacy) as measured by the Maslach Burnout Invent ory- general
Survey(MBI-GS). I Shou University Kaohsiung, Taiwan had
investigated relationship of work stress and job pe rformance in Hi-
tech industry This study indicated that the mean va lue of the
perceived work stress was lower than average, and t he variables of
the gender, age, education, department, position an d work place
accounted for the differences in the work stress le vel. Natasja Van
49
Vegchel, Jan De Jonge and Paul A. Landsbergis (2005 ) This study
the theoretical issues involving different interact ion effects between
job demands and job resources, accompanied by a tho rough
empirical test of interaction terms n the demand-co ntrol (DC) model
and the effort- reward imbalance (ERI) model in rel ation to employee
health and wellbeing (i.e exhaustion, psychosomatic health
complaints, company- registered sickness absence). Analysis was
conducted among 405 nursing home employees.
Oi-ling Siu Paul Spector, Cary L Cooper, Luo Lu , S hanfa
Yu(2002)studied, Managerial Stress in Greater China : The Direct and
moderator Effects of Coping Strategies and Work Loc us of Control.
This study examine the direct and moderator effects of coping
strategies (control and support coping) and work lo cus of control
(externality) on the stressor- strain relationships among managers in
Greater China (the people’s Republic of China (PRC) .
Jeffery A LePine, Marcie A. Le Pine, and Christine L Jackson
University of Florida (2004)- ‘Challenges and Hindr ance Stress:
Relationship With Exhaustion Motivation to Learn, a nd Learning
Performance. This study talks of 696 learners, the authors that stress
associated with challenges in the learning environm ent and positive
relationship with learning performance and the stre ss associated
with hindrance in the learning environment had a ne gative
relationship with learning performance. They also f ound evidence
suggesting that these stress learning performance r elationship was
partially mediated by exhaustion and motivation to learn.
50
Bernd Marcus and Heinz Schuler, ‘Antecedents of Cou nter
Productive Behaviour at Work: A general Perspective . Journal of
Applied Psychology 2004 in the present study, we th erefore adopted
the opposite view, looking at counterproductive beh aviour from a
general perspective.
Bernd Marcus and Heinz Schuler, ‘Antecedents of Cou nter
Productive Behaviour at Work study; we therefore ad opted the
opposite view, looking at counterproductive behavio ur from a
general perspective.
John Schaubroeck from Drexel University and Simon S .K. Lam
University of Honkong and Jia Lin Xie City of Unive rsity of Hong
Kong “Collective Efficacy Versus Self Efficacy in C oping Responses
to stressors and Control(2005)-This study talks abo ut the cultural
differences and efficacy perceptions influence the role of job control
in coping with job demand. Perceiving high control mitigating the
effect of demands on psychological health symptoms and turnover
intention among American bank tellers reporting hig h job self
efficacy.
Sharon Glazer and Terry A Beehr, (2005), Consistenc y of implications
of three role stressors across four countries. This paper tried to
bring out relationship between role stressors (ambi guity, overload,
and conflict) anxiety, commitment and turnover inte ntions were
examined. A survey of 1396 nurses in a total of 15 hospitals in
Hungary, Italy, UK and US.
51
Cobb (1975) has the opinion that, "The responsibili ty load creates
severe stress among workers and managers." If the i ndividual
manager cannot cope with the increased responsibili ties it may lead
to several physical and psychological disorders amo ng them. Brook
(1973) reported that qualitative changes in the job create adjust
mental problem among employees. The interpersonal r elationships
within the department and between the departments c reate
qualitative difficulties within the organisation to a great extent.
There is evidence that role incumbents with high le vels of role
ambiguity also respond to their situation with anxi ety, depression,
physical symptoms, a sense of futility or lower sel f esteem, lower
levels of job involvement and organisational commit ment, and
perceptions of lower performance on the part of the organisation, of
supervisors, and of themselves (Brief and Aldag, 19 76; Greene,
1972).
According to French and Caplan (1975), "Pressure of both qualitative
and quantitative overload can result in the need to work excessive
hours, which is an additional source of stress." Ha ving to work under
time pressure in order to meet deadlines is an inde pendent source of
stress. Studies shown that stress levels increase a s difficult
deadlines draw near.
Stress develops when an individual feels he is not competent to
undertake the role assigned to him effectively. The individual feels
that he lacks knowledge, skill and training on perf orming the role
(stress, conflict management and counselling, p.283 ). Occupational
52
stress is an increasingly important occupational he alth problem and
a significant cause of economic loss. Occupational stress may
produce both overt psychological and physiologic di sabilities.
However it may also cause subtle manifestation of m orbidity that can
affect personal well-being and productivity (Quick, Murphy, Hurrel
and Orman, 1992). Stress can be caused by environme ntal,
organizational, and individual variables (Matteson and Ivancevich
1999); Cook and Hunsaker 2001). Organizational vari ables have been
known to create stress for employees at the workpla ce (Greehaus
and Beutell 1985). Among the numerous organizationa l sources of
stress only five variables were investigated in thi s study namely
conflict blocked career alienation work overload, a nd unfavourable
work environment.
Role Conflict: Role Conflict can be described as th e simultaneous
occurrence of two (or more) sets of pressures, such that compliance
with one would make compliance with the other more difficult (Gill-
Monte et al 1993). Role conflicts have been found t o have a positive
relationship with job stress (Robert 1997). When in dividuals are
required to play two or more roles that work agains t each other, they
are likely to experience job stress. This is becaus e role conflicts
create expectations that may be hard to reconcile. Previous scholar
(for instance, Foot and Venne 1990; Rahim 1996) dis covered a
positive relationship between barriers to career ad vancement and job
stress. Miles and Perreault (1976) identify four di fferent types of role
conflict: 1. Intra-sender role conflict 2. Inter se nder role conflict. 3.
53
Person- role conflict; 4. Role over load. The use o f role concepts
suggests that job related stress is associated with individual,
interpersonal, and structural variables (Katz and K ahn, 1978;
Whetten, 1978). The presence of supportive peer gro ups and
supportive relationships with super visors are nega tively correlated
with R.C. (Caplan et al., 1964).
Role Overload: Role overload can be understood as t he experience
of having the demands of a role exceed a person’s a bility In any
sector presently the main problem faced by managers is Role
overload. High target, high responsibility which ca uses the role
overloads. Role overload both qualitatively and qua ntitatively has
been empirically lunked to a variety of psychologic al, physiological
and behavioural (Beehr and Newman 1978; Miller and Ellis 1990).
Role Ambiguity: Role Ambiguity, another component o f role stress
can also be defined as a state of not having suffic ient information
about a task, especially about how to perform the t ask (Gill-Monte et
al 1993).
Role Stress is largely viewed as a direct consequen ce of either of its
components i.e. role conflict or role ambiguity, as experienced by the
members of an organization in a work setting.
Inter personnel stressors: Ivancevich and Matteson (1950)
indicate, "Lack of group cohesiveness may explain v arious
physiological and behavioural outcomes in an employ desiring such
sticks together." Workplace interpersonal conflicts and negative
interpersonal relations are prevalent sources of st ress (Dewe, 1993;
54
Lang, 1984; Long et al., 1992), and are existed wit h negative mood
depression, and symptoms of ill health (Israel et a l., 1989; Karasek,
Gardell and Lindell, 1987; Snap, 1992). Stress is o ften developed
when an individual is assigned a major responsibili ty without proper
authority and delegation of power. Interpersonal fa ctors such as
group cohesiveness, functional dependence, communic ation
frequency, relative authority and organisational di stance between the
role sender and the focal persons are important top ics in
organisational behavior (Vansell, Brief, and Schule r).
Under participation: When the employee feels he has more potentials
than actually utilized by the organization also the employee is not a
part of decision making or any planning it can be c alled as under
participation Lack of participation in the decision making process,
lack of effective consultation and communication, u njustified
restrictions on behaviour, office politics and no s ense of belonging
are identified as potential sources of stressors. L ack of participation
in work activity is associated with negative psycho logical mood and
behavioural responses, including escapist drinking and heavy
smoking (Caplan et al., 1975).
Job stressors: Job stressors can be defined as orga nisational
aspects of the job that require physical and mental efforts (2001)
(2000) Stressors at the individual level have been studied more than
any other category. Intrapersonal conflict, Interpe rsonal relations,
Growth issues, Domestic issues is widely examined i ndividual
stressor (Mc Grath 1976 Newton and Keenan, 1987. A job stressed
55
individual is likely to have greater job dissatisfa ction, increased
absenteeism, and increased frequency of drinking an d smoking,
increase in negative psychological symptoms and red uced
aspirations and self esteem (Jick and Payne, 1980). The use of role
concepts suggests that occupational stress is assoc iated with
individual, interpersonal and structural variables (Kutz and Kahn,
1978; Whetten, 1978).
Figure presents flowcharts that includes a list o f potential work
stressors and show the relationship between persona l attributes,
perception of stress, and social and personal copin g resources and
the final outcome, psychological response (i.e symp toms of mental
distress). These sources of work related stressor g roups reviewed in
the literature include intrinsic job conditions, in trinsic and extrinsic
rewards, work attributes and extra organizational o bligations. For
instance, under work attributes, the potential work stressors of pay
classification or occupation etc are listed in Figu re and discussed in
the appropriate literature review.
56
Figure 2.1; Source; Job stress in changing workforc e, by Keita & Hurell, Jr., ed., 1996, p. 44, Copyright by American Psychological As sociation, Washington D.C.
Philips (1995) describes the stress cycle in terms of a 2x2 matrix (see
Fig) that contains the consequences to the employee of experiencing
one of the following four types of stress. The four types are healthy
stress, unproductive stress, too little stress and unhealthy stress
situations.
57
Figure 2.2
(Manning, 1986) report two studies of occupational stress and it
relationship with antecedents variables and job per formance
conducted on nurses. It also included variables suc h as (sensitivity,
warmth, consideration and to lerance). And cognitiv e motivational
aspect such (concentration, composure, perseverance and
adaptability) (Tahira Mubashir, 2001), main objecti ve of this research
was to identify role of different contributing fact ors of job stress and
to investigate level of stress on those factors amo ngst different
departments of Wall’s Unilever Pakistan.
(Jiunn-Woei Lian): In the present research the auth or studied the
relationship amongst three variables job stress, jo b satisfaction ad
58
life satisfaction by managerial and technical IS st aff respectively. The
findings include that managerial IS employees tend to have
significantly higher degree of job and life satisfa ction than their IS
technical counterpart.
2.3 CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS:
The effect of stress is closely linked to individua l personality. The
same level of stress affect different people in dif ferent ways and each
person has different ways of coping. Stress shows i tself number of
ways. For instance, individual who is experiencing high level of
stress may develop high blood pressure, ulcers, irr itability, difficulty
in making routing decisions, loss of appetite, acci dent proneness
etc. These can be subsumed under three categories:
Individual Consequences, Organizational Consequence s & Burnout
Individual consequences: The individual consequence s of stress
then are the outcomes that mainly affect the indivi dual. The
organization also may suffer, either directly or in directly, but it is the
individual who pay the real price.
Stress may produce
1 a) Behavioural consequences: One such behaviour is smoking.
Research has clearly documented that people who smo ke tend
to smoke more when they experience stress. There is also
evidence that alcohol and drug abuse are linked to stress.
59
b. Psychological: The psychological consequences of stress
relate to a person’s mental health and well being. When people
experience too much stress at work, they may become
depressed or find themselves sleeping too much or n ot
enough. Stress may also lead to lead to family prob lems.
c. Physical consequences: The medical consequence s of stress
affect a person’s physical well being. Heart diseas e and stroke,
among other illness, have been linked to stress. Ot her
common medical problem resulting too much stress in clude
headaches, backaches, ulcers and related stomach an d
intestinal disorders, and skin conditions such as a cne hives.
2. Organizational consequence: The organizational consequences of
too much stress are a decline in performance. For o perating
workers, such a decline can translate into poor qua lity work or a
drop in productivity.
3. Burnout: Burnout another consequences of stress , has clear
implications for both people and organization. Burn out is general
feeling of exhaustion that develops when a person
simultaneously experiences too much pressure and ha s to few
sources of satisfaction.
According to Minirth al (1986) in some instances hi gh level of
continuous stress (i.e) burnout may be result of un achievable
expectations held by both bosses and/or other emplo yees who
have worked with the employee over a long period of time and
seen him or her performing at these unsustainable l evels. Most
60
people can tolerate acutely stressful periods for b rief segments of
time if a break is forthcoming and the employee is able to use it
as a time to recharge his or her batteries. Workpla ce pressures
and stressors will become less tolerable physically , mentally and
emotionally if experienced over long duration (frin gs 2001): Stein
and Brier, 2001). If left unaddressed, his stress c an lead to
burnout and possibly then to major depression and o ther equally
serious physical conditions. Minirth (1986) tell us that three major
area of burnout can be classified. As burnout is th e result of long
term stress it is a potential issue that can impact employee
performance and be impacted by work related situati ons. These
overlapping classifications are mental, physical an d spiritual.
Mental or emotional burnout manifest itself in the form of physical
ailments such as backaches, headaches, ulcers insom nia, high
blood pressure and so forth. Studies show that cont inued stress
and classification of burnout occurs in one’s spiri tual life.
Individual going through the type of stress often l ose perspective
and fail to recognize their own limitations. If the stress is of length
duration, the individual may reach a crisis of spir itual beliefs (i.e a
point of wanting to ‘give up')
Psychological Job strain: Psychological job strain is defined as
aversive and potentially harmful psychological reac tion of the
individual to stressful work. An extensive study by Zellers, Perrew
and Hockwarter (2000) indicates that the consequenc es of job
related stress on both the company and the individu al can be very
61
costly. This study found that specific dimensions o f the
individual’s personality do significantly and diffe rentially impact
the level to which any of the three components of b urnout
(emotional exhaustion, diminished personal accompli shment and
depersonalization is experienced)
2.4 Literature on Process model of work stress:
The Mash Model: The' Coping and stress profile' is based on
theoretical model called the Multi system Assessmen t of Stress and
Health (MASH) Model. The MASH model builds upon pre vious stress
research to form a comprehensive bio psychosocial m odel of stress
and health (Aldwin,1984; Boss 1989; Doherty& Campbe ll, 1988).
Earlier work in the field of stress concentrated on stress and copying
at only one conceptual level, most often at the per sonal level or in a
work setting (Aldin, 1994). This study was to inves tigate the
relationship of work stress and job performance amo ng hi-tech
employees and discuss its relevance to vocational e ducation. The
author targeted the top 1000 companies in the hi-te ch industry from
the electron, semiconductor, information and commun ications fields
in Taiwan. The study results indicate that the mean value of the
perceived work stress was lower than average and th e variables of
the gender, age, education, department, position an d work place
accounted for the differences in the work stress le vel.
Natasja Van Vegchel (2005)-This study is based on theoretical
issues involving different interaction effects betw een job demands
and job resources, accompanied by a thorough empiri cal test of
62
interaction terms the demand-control(DC) model and the effort-
reward imbalance (ERI) model in relation to employe e health and
wellbeing (i.e exhaustion, psychosomatic health com plaints,
company- registered sickness absence). Analysis was conducted
among 405 nursing home employees.
Demand Control Model: According to Karasek, the dem and control
model can effectively anticipate job performance. H e proposes that
when individuals are under high work demand and low work control,
some biological and psychological problems will occ ur. When
individuals are under high work demand and high wor k control they
display more positive job performance. As part of t heir overall
strategy to reduce work-related ill-health, the HSE has developed
some clear guidance on stress management standards. The
Management standards for work-related stress launch ed in
November 2004 encourages organizations to take prev entative
measures through a risk assessment - it includes a guide for
employers and an example stress policy. The risk as sessment
consists of organizations comparing themselves agai nst:
demand - being able to cope with the demands of t he job
control - having an adequate say over how work is done
support - having adequate support from colleagues &
superiors
roles – understanding roles and responsibilities
relationships – not being subjected to unacceptab le behaviours
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change – being involved in any organisation chang es.
Assessment will usually involve asking staff questi ons, through
some form of employee attitude survey, about how sa tisfied they are
with their jobs in the six areas identified. If pro blems are identified,
employers will then have to consult with staff abou t possible
solutions. Finally organisations will have to put i n place an action
plan spelling out what steps are to be taken, such as additional
training for managers, as well as a time frame for review.
2.5 RESEARCH GAP:
Anisman and Merali (1999) says stressors can be sep arated into two
classifications psychogenic and or physical tension (Lazarus and
Folkman ) talked about stressors as an event that c auses stress to
the individual when he or she appraises the demands as exceeding
the resources. Hsien-Chee (2002) explores the relat ionship among
leadership styles and subordinate personality chara cteristic and job
stress and turnover intentions. (Steve M Jex 2000) studied whether
coping style influence the impact of self efficienc y or stressors-
strain relationships, this study was conducted on U S army.
Natasja(2004) addresses theoretical issues involvin g different
interactions effect between job demands and job res ources through
demand control model.
Huarng (2001) had revealed that IT professionals ha ve higher level of
emotional exhaustion, which is the feeling of frust ration and tension,
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than police and nurses, Similarly for depersonaliza tion, which is
tendency to treat client as objects rather than peo ple, Huarg (2001)
found that IT professional have higher burnout tend encies than
teacher and welfare works, but lower than police an d nurses. The
increasing incidence of absenteeism and high turnov er rates are
indications that IT professionals are experiencing high level of job
related stress.
Many businesses are unaware of the stress being exp erienced by
their IT personnel (Thong and Yap, 2000). A factor that has
contributed to this unawareness is the limited theo retical or
empirical research that has examined the concept of stress amongst
IT professionals.
The current literature on job stress either like to link causes of stress
to personality variables, job related stress to cha nge in the
organization, performance linked or turnover intent ions or a
comparatively study between countries.
Most of the literature either shows the reasons or burnout or stress,
or there is a comparative study between countries b ut not many
studies are conducted in Indian IT sector. In India n context there is
some work done in manufacturing sector and BPO /KPO sector. The
present study discusses different occupational stre ssors in
Informational technology sector for junior and mid dle management
categories executives. The study was conducted for executives
located in two cities i.e Mumbai and Bangalore This study basically
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studies the antecedents and consequences of stress in these major
cities and give recommendations how to overcome the se problems.
Table 2.1: Summary of stress literature studies
Author Title What was studied
Minirth et al(1986)
Beating Burnout Reviewed on work related stress further segregated stress into two type good and bad. The “good” stress is also referred to as “eustress”. This positive kind of stress is usually experienced at times of happiness fulfilment or satisfaction. The “bad” stress or
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“distress” is usually the result of excessive levels of continuing negative stress.
Cooper-2001
Coping with stress Reiterates the statement that some amount of stress is necessary for everyday living and, in lesser amounts, for learning and growth. To be an effective employee or employer, the ability to better handle and manage these necessary life stressors must be learned and practiced. Stressors is differentiated from stress by its definition as a cause of stress.
Hsien-Chee Lee
The impact of leadership style on job stress and turnover intentions- Taiwan insurance industry
This research explores the relationship among leader’s leadership style, subordinate’s personality characteristic and job stress and turnover intentions
Steve M Jex, Paul D bliese & Steri Buzzell and Jessica Primeau(2000)
The impact of Self Efficacy on Stressor-Strain Relations: Coping style as an explanatory mechanism
This study was designed to examine whether coping style influence the impact of self efficiency on stressor- strain relations. Conducted on US army.
Lakwinder Signh Kaung and Raghbir Singh
Stress at work: An assessment of the magnitude of various organizational stressor
It identifies frequently reported stress symptoms and assess the magnitude of various organizational stressors producing stress.
Stephen Palmer, Cary Cooper and Kate Thomas(2001)
Model of Organiza-tional stress for use within an occupational health education / promotion or wellbeing programme- A short communica-tion;
This paper introduces a simple model of organizational stress which can be used to educate or inform employees, personnel and Health professionals about the relationship between potential work related stress hazards and its outcome.
Natasja Van Vegchel, Jan De Jonge and Paul
“Occupational stress in (Inter)action: the
Addresses theoretical issues Involving different interactions Effects between job demands and
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Landsbergis; interplay between job demands and job resources”
Job resources through Demand Control Model
Maria Jose Chambel and Luis Curral(2005)
Stress in Academic Life: Work Characteristics as Predictor of Student well being and performance
The relationship between Work characteristics, student well Being and performance was Assessed based upon Karasek and Theorell’s Job demand control model
Philiphs T Potter, Bruce W.Smith, Kari Strobel and Alex J Zautra(2001)
“Interpersonal Workplace Stressors and Well Being: A Multi Wave study of employees with and without Arthirities
The within person influence of Interpersonal stressors on Affective wellbeing and physical Wellbeing was in vestigated on 109 women with and without Arthiritis patient.
Salla Toppinen-Tanner, Raija Kalimo and Pertti Mutanen(2002
The process of burnout in white collar and blue collar jobs: eight years prospective study of exhausion
This study tested three Contrasting theories about The sequential process of the Three dimensions of burnout (exhaustion, cynicism and Professional efficacy) as Measured by MBI(GS)
Stephen Williams and Cary L Cooper, (1998)
Measuring Occupational stress : Development of Pressure Management Indicator
The Pressure Management Indicator (PMI) is a 120 item self report Questionnaire developed from (OSI) Occupational Stress Index
Goluaz Sadri and George A Marcoulides
(1994)
The Dynamics of Occupational Stress: Proposing a Testing a Model.
This study tested a model of stress In which occupational stress in Which personality (Type A and Locus of control) and coping Strategies were predicted to Precede and determine the Perception of job stressors.
Paul E Spector, Cary Cooper and Maria E Aguilar-Vafaie (2002)
A Comparative Study of Perceived Job Stessor Sources and Job Strain in American and Iranian Managers
Sample of Iranian and US managers Where compared on four sources Of job pressure(constrains, manager rial role, home work and non work Support and five strain (job satis- faction, mental strain, physical Strain, intention of quitting the Job and absence) and work
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Locus of control.
Sharon Glazer and Terry A. Beehr,; (2005)
“Consistency of implication of three role stressors across four countries” ; Journal of Organization Behaviour
Relationship between role stressors (role ambiguity, overload and Conflict), anxiety, commitment and Turnover intention were examined.
Timothy A Judge and Jason A Colquitt(2003)
“Organizational Justice and Stress: The Mediating Role of Work Family Conflict”
This study examined the relation-Ship between organ-izational justice And stress and whether family conflict was a mediator of the Relationship.
Adam Barsky, Carl Thoresen, Christopher R. Warren & Seth A. Kaplan(2004)
Modelling Negative affectivity and job stress: a conting-ency-based approach
This study proposes a Con-tingency approach, whereby the role of NA(negative affectivity) depends on nature of the strain construct under investigation.
Einar M de Croon and Judith K Sluitter and Jake P.J. Broersen (2003)
Stressful Work, pyschological job strain and turnover: A 2years prospec-ive cohort study of truck Drivers.
This study was based on turnover that combine existing Organisational stress theory and job Transition theory, it was a two year Longitudinal study examined Antecedents of turnover amongst Dutch truck drivers.
Harry Garst, Micheal Frese and Peter C M Molenarr (1999)
The Temporal Factor of Change in Stressor- Strain Relationships: A Growth Curve Model on a Longitudinal Study in East Germany,
Study the relationship between work Stressors and strains in East Germany The result showed that both the state and trait components of strain are affected by stressors.
Karen Keely and Mark Harcourt; -118(2001)
“Occupational Stress: A Study of the new Zealand Reserve Bank”,
This study test Karasecc theory using A sample of employees from Reserve Bank of New Zealand.
Iain L Densten, -(2001)
“Re-thinking burnout”, Journal of Organizational Behaviour, Vol 22, 833
The Conceptualization and psychometric properties of The Maslach Burnout Inventory was examined by this study.
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Paul. Spector, ary Cooper, Maria E Aquilar-Vafarie.(2002)
The process of burnout in white collar and blue collar job’: eight year prospective study of exhaustion
Interpretation of observed Relations between job stressors and job stain in cross sectional survey is conducted.
Oi-ling Siu Occupational Stressors and Wellbeing among Chinese Employ-ees: The Role of Organizational commitment
This study examines occupant-ional Stressors and well being of blue and White collar occupation with Chinese and Hong Kong samples using Standardised instrument used in Western Research.
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY:
Job stress can occur for everyone in any position i n any industry.
Stress can affect high level executive, upper and m iddle manager.
The various stress relating problems like coronary heart disease
