Anthropocene city

FACULTY OF ARTS | FOAR703

– US PRESIDENT LYNDON JOHNSON, 1967

“…creating a safe, happy city is a greater challenge than a trip to the moon.”


T HE A NT HR OP OC EN E C I T Y

Greg DowneyDepartment of AnthropologyFaculty of ArtsMacquarie [email protected]@gregdowney1

FOAR 7 0 3 : L I V I N G I N T H E AN T H R OPOCEN E (2 0 1 6 )

mailto:[email protected]


– Char les D ickens , L i t t le

Dorr i t

“Miles of close wells and pits of houses, where the

inhabitants gasped for air, stretched far away towards every point of the compass. Through

the heart of the town a deadly sewer ebbed and flowed, in the place of a

fine fresh river.”


New York City slum photograph byJacob Riis, c. 1890.


A N T H R O P O C E N E

• No ‘nature’ distinct from human influence.

• No ‘natural’ selection distinct from ‘artifical’ selection.

• Geological & evolutionary scale influence on the planet.

• Niche construction & self-affected evolution.

why?


E D U A R D O M O R E N O , U N H A B I TAT

‘Megacities are a positive force, not a negative one… They generate high densities of population, and that’s good for infrastructure such as housing. You also get the economics of agglomeration [where offices or companies cluster close

to one another], which are fundamental for economic growth. Megacities are also conducive to economic

development. The more people that live in these cities, the more opportunities there are for innovation, creativity and

jobs.’

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Source of quote: http://geographical.co.uk/places/cities/item/1170-growing-pains

http://geographical.co.uk/places/cities/item/1170-growing-pains


A N E VOLU T I O N A RY P E R SP E C T I V E (N AT U RA L SE LE CT I ON )

CAV E AT:


‘Our ecological understanding of cities has lagged far behind that of nonurban areas, mainly because of the widely held notion that

humans disrupt the natural ecological conditions and processes that scientists are attempting to understand. Thus, nature within

cities was long considered unworthy of scientific study, except when it involved solving environmental problems that threatened

human well-being.’ (Mark J. McDonnell1 and Ian MacGregor-Fors 2016: 936)


‘ E XT RA- S O M AT I C A DA P TAT I O N ’O BS O LE T E D EF I N I T I O N O F C ULT U R E :

( M a ke s i t v e ry d i ffi cu l t t o co ns i d e r h ow cu l t u re L EA D S t o e v o l u t i o n a ry c ha ng e o r

h ow n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n i s o n g o i n g … )


— MARINA ALBERTI

‘In human-dominated environments, selection pressures acting on traits can

affect population dynamics by changing organisms’ rates of survival

or reproductive success, leaving a genetic signature that might affect

community dynamics and ecosystem functions... These effects drive

changes in energy and material fluxes that, in turn, influence ecosystem

functions, such as primary productivity, nutrient cycling,

hydrological function, and biodiversity, which provide essential services for

human wellbeing.’PROF E SSOR OF U RB AN A N D E N V I RON M EN TA L PL AN N IN G

U N IV ERS ITY OF WA SH INGTON


( T H E S I M P L E R V E R S I O N … )

Humans affect evolution, which ramifies through ecological system impacting on urban liveability AND perhaps even

human evolution itself (Greg’s addition to this discussion…)

the PhilippinesFACULTY OF ARTS | FOAR703


W H Y E X A M IN E C I T I E S ?T H E U R B A N A N T H R O P O C E N E


I N THE T IM E I T TAKES YOU TO READ TH IS SEN TENC E , G LO BA L U RBA N P OP U L AT I ON HAS IN C REASED BY 10 P EOP L E .

HO W FAST ?EVERY SEC ON D = + 2 C I TY DW EL L ERS

Icon by Alexander Smith for the Noun Project.


UR B A N I S AT I O N

• Only <3% of ice-free land surface (agriculture c. 12%).

• Cities expand at expense of cropland & biodiversity.Solution: densification?

• Enormous energy & resource catchment (200x the surface area of cities).

Cairo


Conservation Synthesis, Center for Applied Biodiversity Science at Conservation International

from http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/05/rise-urban-planet

C I T I E S & B I O D I V E R S I T Y – 1 9 5 0


http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/05/rise-urban-planet


Conservation Synthesis, Center for Applied Biodiversity Science at Conservation International


C I T I E S & B I O D I V E R S I T Y – 2 0 2 5





By Rcragun - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7993481

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7993481





World Urbanization Prospects, the 2014 revision/United Nations; Adapted by J. You/Sciencefrom http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/05/rise-urban-planet




World Urbanization Prospects, the 2014 revision/United Nations; Adapted by J. You/Sciencefrom http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/05/rise-urban-planet


FACULTY OF ARTS | FOAR703Source: http://www.wearethepractitioners.com/library/the-practitioner/2014/07/01/urbanization

http://www.wearethepractitioners.com/library/the-practitioner/2014/07/01/urbanization


C I T I E S C H A N G I N G

• 1950, most urban residents in Europe and the Americas.

• By 2050, 75% of city dwellers in Asia and Africa.

• Future urban growth disproportionately in developing countries, and disproportionately ‘informal’ housing.

• For more information: http://www.wsup.com/programme/issues/urbanisation/


UR B A N I S AT I O N 2 . 0

• Current urbanisation (since 1980s) the result of SAPs (Structural Adjustment Programs).

• ‘Surplus population’ no longer absorbed in rural areas.

• The ‘pull’ factors of migration weak (or absent) such as jobs, manufacturing, or higher standard of living.


T H E E X P LO S I O N O F S LU M SR O C I N H A , R I O D E JA N E I R O



T H E E X P LO S I O N O F S LU M S

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Urban_population_living_in_slums.png

Proportion of each country's urban

population living in slums (according to UN-

Habitat definition).

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Urban_population_living_in_slums.png



T H E E X P LO S I O N O F S LU M S

By Walké CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons; Data: Mike Davis, Planet of Slums

30 biggest ‘mega-slums’ according to Mike Davis.


http://www.slideshare.net/FrostandSullivan/frost-sullivan-business-breakfast-series-feb-2014-final-sj-32032506/11





T H E T RA N S F O R M AT I O N O F S LU M S

Previously, slums were often older, central areas of cities that were abandoned by the upper and middle classes with expansion.

Old housing stock, crowded, but centrally located.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slum#/media/File:Poverty_map_old_nichol_1889.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slum#/media/File:Poverty_map_old_nichol_1889.jpg




Part of Charles Booth's poverty map showing the Old Nichol, a slum in the East End of London. Published 1889 in Life and Labour of the People in London. The red areas are ‘middle class, well-to-do’, light blue areas are ‘poor, 18s to 21s a week for a moderate family’, dark blue areas are ‘very poor, casual, chronic want’, and black areas are the ‘lowest class… occasional labourers, street sellers, loafers, criminals and semi-criminals’.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slum#/media/File:Poverty_map_old_nichol_1889.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slum#/media/File:Poverty_map_old_nichol_1889.jpg




• Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya• largest urban slum in Africa; third

largest in the world (population unclear, but perhaps 250-300,000).

• heavily polluted & high unemployment.

• established in 1904, and already efforts to demolish it in 1920.

• UN-HABITAT headquarters nearby.

Photo: 2013 (UTC) by ThomasJessica. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibera#/media/File:Kibera_Slum_Railway_Tracks_Nairobi_Kenya_July_2012.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibera#/media/File:Kibera_Slum_Railway_Tracks_Nairobi_Kenya_July_2012.jpg


FACULTY OF ARTS | FOAR703Map by Grenheim. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nairobi_slums_area.svg


https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nairobi_slums_area.svg


N I C H E C O N S T R U C T I O N T H E O RY

E N V I R O N M E N T- O R G A N I S M DY N A M I C S


N I C H E C O N S T R U C T IO N T H E O RY

Typical model of natural selection

Organism T0

Organism T1

Organism T2

S E L E CT I O N

S E L E CT I O N

E N V I R O N M E N T



Niche construction dynamics added

Organism T0

Organism T1

Organism T2

S E L E C T I O N

S E L E CT I O N

Environment T0

Environment T1

Environment T2

N ICHE CON STR U CT IO N

N ICHE CON STR U CT IO N



Niche construction dynamics addedTypical model of natural selection

E N V I R O N M E N T

OR GA N ISM

ORGA N ISM

ORGA N ISM

OR GAN IS M

ORGA N ISM

OR GA N ISM

ORGA N ISM

OR GA N ISM

OR GA N ISM

OR GA N ISM

natural selection



N C T E X A M P L E S

• Lactose tolerance. • Infectious disease resistance.• Zoonotic disease resistance.• Salivary amylase.• Sickle cell anaemia in areas with

malaria (forest clearing). • Eradication of predators.



N I C H E S T RAT I F I C AT IO N• ‘Niche’ is not just environment,

but environment-behaviour conjunction.E.g., predator & vegetarian live in some territory, different niche.

• In humans, technology & culture shape ‘niche.’ E.g. projectile weapons, food taboos.

• Social stratification also subdivides niches vertically (resources).


C I T I E S A S C O N S T R U C T E D N I C H E S

U R B A N E C O LO GY



UR B A N C O N S T R UC T I O N

• Dense human population.• Simplified ecosystems.• High level of pollutants.• High level of available food.• No risks for animals.• Invasive exotics.• No or very few high-level

predators.FACULTY OF ARTS | FOAR703


UR B A N E C O LO GY

• Dense human population.• Simplified ecosystems.• High level of pollutants.• High level of available food.• No risks for animals.• Invasive exotics.• No or very few high-level

predators.FACULTY OF ARTS | FOAR703


UR B A N S PAC E – S U R FAC E & WAT E R

from http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/05/rise-urban-planetFACULTY OF ARTS | FOAR703



H E AT

Graphic: A. Cuadra/Science; Source: James Voogt, Western University, London





C O M M E N S A L A N IM A LS

W H O A R E T H E N E I G H BO U R S ?



U RBAN ADAP TAT IO N

• Plants & animals that thrive in ‘rocky outcropping’ environments.

• Reproduction pattens disrupted…New reproduction strategies (seed dispersal, noise avoidance).

• Some species thrive.Especially those with flexible diets & adaptable foraging behaviour (large brains?).


For more info on how animals adapt to urban life:

http://www.yesmagazine.org/happiness/12-ways-cities-change-animals-and-animals-change-cities





C I T Y D W E L L E R S - N O N - H UM A N

Vergleich_Hausratte_Wanderratte_DE.svg: Sponk (talk), based on a work by Karim-Pierre Maalej translated by: Sponk (talk) -Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported licenseSource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_rat#/media/File:Comparison_Black_Rat_Brown_Rat_EN.svg

Comparison of the physique of a black rat (Rattus rattus) with a brown rat (Rattus norvegicus)


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_rat#/media/File:Comparison_Black_Rat_Brown_Rat_EN.svg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_rat#/media/File:Comparison_Black_Rat_Brown_Rat_EN.svg


C I T Y D W E L L E R S - N O N - H UM A N

By Edal Anton Lefterov - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16005971

Urban commensal species.Omnivorous, invasive, fast-

reproducing.Origin: Asia.Possibly responsible for 40-

60% of seabird & reptile extinction (fondness for eggs).




B E IN G H U M A N I N C I T I E S

H O M O S A P I E N S U R B A N I S



B E IN G H U M A N I N C I T I E S

H O M O S A P I E N S U R B A N I S

G E N O T Y P E

P H E N O T Y P E

Underlying genetic make-up of population;

multigenerational, stable; result of natural selection.

Individual adaption during development; not

genetically encoded (initially); stable if

developmental niche is.FACULTY OF ARTS | FOAR703


S t an l e y M i l g ram

‘Cities have great appeal because of their variety, eventfulness, possibility of choice, and the stimulation of an intense atmosphere that many individuals find a desirable background to their lives.’



FO C US O N FE RT I L I T Y & E A RLY M O RTA L IT Y

E VO LU T I O N A RY P E R S P E C T I V E


W IL L N OT D I SC U S S EN DOC R IN E D I S R U PT ION .

• Possible decrease in urban fertility (sperm count, etc.) due to environmental issues (EDCs).

• For more information: Greg Downey. ‘Plastics, tiny penises and human evolution.’ PLOS Neuroanthropology (weblog) http://blogs.plos.org/neuroanthropology/2015/04/19/plastics-and-human-evolution/


T H E U R B A N D I E TH O M O S A P I E N S U R B A N I S M



T H E N U T R IT IO N T RA N S I T I O N

Rural Diet

Urban Diet

Complex carbohydrates,

vegetables, grains & fruit.

Animal protein, refined fat, refined

sugar, alcohol & oils.

(Causes are complex: Westernisation, increased wealth, industrialisation,

globalisation.)FACULTY OF ARTS | FOAR703



Diagram from SETO, KAREN, AND NAVIN RAMUNKUTTY. 2016. ’Hidden linkages between urbanization and food systems. Science 352 (6288):943-945.FACULTY OF ARTS | FOAR703



Diagram from SETO, KAREN, AND NAVIN RAMUNKUTTY. 2016. ’Hidden linkages between urbanization and food systems. Science 352 (6288):943-945.FACULTY OF ARTS | FOAR703




Effects:

• One-third of municipal solid waste in US is food packaging.

• In developing world, ‘double burden’ of childhood malnutrition & adult obesity.

• Some changes with agriculture (Neolithic transition), but recent change also dramatic (capitalist-industrialised diet).

• Evidence of bone mass loss in last two decades (sedentarism & diet).




Evolutionary consequences:

• Phenotypic: high obesity rates, decreased bone mass (including in last 2 decades).

• ‘Lifestyle’ diseases or ‘diseases of affluence’ but also striking developing world.

• Genotype: obesity effects on fertility?

• Resistance to malnutrition (‘thrifty metabolism’ & link to health problems).


U R B A N H E A LT H :H TT P : / / W W W. W H O. INT / G H O/ U R BA N_ H E ALT H / E N /

F O R M O R E I N F O R M AT I O N

http://www.who.int/gho/urban_health/en/




UR B A N P S YC H O LO GY

• One daily commute on public transit might involve encountering more people than a Palaeolithic forager encountered in a lifetime.

• Small-scale sociality to mass-mediated, anonymous social life (hyper- to hyposociality).

• Increased prevalence of violence & mental health problems.



UR B A N P S YC H O LO GY• Elevated incidence of

schizophrenia.Is the issue difficulty of recovery following psychotic episode? (i.e., not elevated incidence of onset, but just really bad prognosis.)

• In some Brazilian favelas, incidence of observing violence matched war zones.

• Can’t rule out environmental factors like lead & heavy metal poisoning.



N C T & U R B A N P S YC H O LO GY

• Genotype: Selecting against susceptibility to ‘social defeat’ or social stress?(Does it affect fertility?)

• Phenotype: Developmental demands placed on individuals. Equally able to adapt?

• Rate of failure shows how demanding niche is.



M E N TA L H E A LT H

When I initially did research on the subject of meninos de rua (street children) in Brazil, I was surprised to find data that nutrition was not an issue for them (similar to poor

children in families).

However, the mental health data was very striking.

Suggested that ‘hypersociality’ was not just a human trait, but a vigorous niche demand of urban

life.


Ro b i n Du n ba r

“The stress of living in large communities is very, very intense… It’s a major problem all primates face. You need mechanisms that will defuse the situation and allow you to stay together.”



C O N C LU S I O N

• NCT: human environmental engineering inevitably will affect selective pressures (inc. on us).

• Cities are such a radically changed ecology that they are NOT liable to halt selection.

• We are truly ‘self-made species.’



T H A NK S , AN D G O O D LU C K !

P H O T O S , W H E R E N O T CR E D I T E D , A R E P U B L I C D O M A I N AT P I X A B AY.


The article is available here: http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/685710

http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/685710

S E L E C T E D R E FE R E N C E S• ALBERTI, MARINA. 2005. The effects of urban patterns on ecosystem function. International Regional

Science Review 28(2):168-192. • ALI, NELLY. 2011. The vulnerability and resistance of street children. Global Studies of Childhood 1(3):

260-264.• ANDRADE, LAURA HELENA, YUAN-PANG WANG, SOLANGE ANDREONI, et al. 2012. Mental Disorders in

Megacities: Findings from the São Paulo Megacity Mental Health Survey, Brazil. PLoS ONE 7(2):e31879.

• BLIEGE BIRD, REBECCA, AND DOUGLAS W. BIRD. 1995. Children and traditional subsistence on Mer (Murray Island), Torres Strait. Australian Aboriginal Studies 1:2-17.

• CALDEIRA, TERESA PIRES DO RIO. 2000. City of walls: Crime, segregation, and citizenship in São Paulo. Berkeley: University of California Press.

• COLLINS, JAMES P., ANN KINZIG, NANCY B. GRIMM, et al. 2000. A new urban ecology: Modeling human communities as integral parts of ecosystems poses special problems for the development and testing of ecological theory. American Scientist 88(5):416-25.

• CONDE, WOLNEY LISBOA, AND CARLOS AUGUSTO MONTEIRO. 2014. Nutrition transition and double burden of undernutrition and excess of weight in Brazil. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 100(suppl):1617S-1622S.

• D’ABREU, RENATA C., ANN K. MULLIS, AND LAURA R. COOK. 2001. Social support and the ability to adapt to life among Brazilian street children and non-street children. The Journal of social psychology 141(1):127-129.


S E L E C T E D R E FE R E N C E S

• DAVIS, MIKE. 2007. Planet of Slums. Verso.• DOHRENWEND, BRUCE P., AND BARBARA SNELL DOHRENWEND. 1974. Psychiatric disorders in urban

settings. In American handbook of psychiatry. Gerald Kaplan, ed. Pp. 424-447. New York: Basic Books.• DOWNEY, GREG. 2016. ‘Being human in cities: Phenotypic bias from urban niche construction.’ Current

Anthropology. (Pre-publication online).• DURHAM, WILLIAM H. 1991. Coevolution: Genes, culture and human diversity. Stanford, CA: Stanford

University Press.• DYE, CHRISTOPHER. 2008. Health and Urban Living. Science 319:766-769.• EGGER, GARRY, AND BOYD SWINBURN. 1997. An “ecological” approach to the obesity pandemic. British

Medical Journal 315(7106):477-480.• FLYNN, EMMA G., KEVIN N. LALAND, RACHEL L. KENDAL, AND JEREMY R. KENDAL. 2013. Developmental

niche construction. Developmental Science 16(2):296–313.• GILLINGS, MICHAEL R., AND ELIZABETH L HAGAN-LAWSON. 2014. The cost of living in the Anthropocene .

Earth Perspectives, 1(1), pp.1-11• GINTIS, HERBERT. 2011. Gene–culture coevolution and the nature of human sociality. Philosophical

Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366(1566):878-888.• GOODMAN, ALAN H. 2013. Bringing Culture into Human Biology and Biology Back into

Anthropology. American Anthropologist 115(3): 359-373.


S E L E C T E D R E FE R E N C E S• KENDAL, JEREMY, JAMSHID J. TEHRANI, AND JOHN ODLING-SMEE. 2011. Human niche construction in interdisciplinary focus. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 366:785-792.

• KRABBENDAM, LYDIA, AND JIM VAN OS. 2005. Schizophrenia and urbanicity: A major environmental influence—conditional on genetic risk. Schizophrenia bulletin 31(4):795-799.

• LALAND, KEVIN N., AND MICHAEL J. O’BRIEN. 2011. Cultural niche construction: an introduction. Biological Theory 6(3):191-202.

• LEE, SARAH, AND ALEXANDRA BREWIS. 2009. Children’s autonomous food acquisition in Mexican shantytowns. Ecology of food and nutrition 48(6):435-456.

• LI, SHU-CHEN. 2003. Biocultural orchestration of developmental plasticity across levels: The interplay of biology and culture in shaping the mind and behavior across the life span. Psychological Bulletin 129(2):171−94.

• LOPEZ, RUSSELL P., AND H. PATRICIA HYNES. 2006. Obesity, physical activity, and the urban environment: public health research needs. Environmental Health 5(1):25.

• MACE, RUTH. 2008. Reproducing in cities. Science 319(5864):764-766.• MARIANA R., ANDREA F. MELLO, VICTOR FOSSALUZA, LUCIANA P. NOBREGA, et al. 2012. Children working on the streets in Brazil: predictors of mental health problems. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 22(3):

• MCDONNELL, MARK J. AND IAN MACGREGOR-FORS. 2016. ‘The ecological future of cities.’ Science 352 (6288): 936-938.



• MENDEZ, MICHELLE A., AND BARRY M. POPKIN. 2004. Globalization, urbanization and nutritional change in the developing world. Journal of Agricultural and Development Economics 1:220–224.

• MONTEIRO, CAROLS A., AND GEOFFREY CANNON. 2012. The Impact of Transnational ‘‘Big Food’’ Companies on the South: A View from Brazil. PLoS Medicine 9(7): e1001252.

• MONTEIRO, CARLOS A., WOLNEY L. CONDE, AND BARRY M. POPKIN. 2001. Independent effects of income and education on the risk of obesity in the Brazilian adult population. The Journal of Nutrition 131(3):881S-886S.

• —. 2002. Is obesity replacing or adding to undernutrition? Evidence from different social classes in Brazil. Public Health Nutrition 5(1A):105–112.

• MYIN-GERMEYS, I., P. H. DELESPAUL, AND J. VAN OS. 2005. Behavioural sensitization to daily life stress in psychosis. Psychological medicine 35(5):733-741.

• O’BRIEN, MICHAEL J., AND KEVIN N. LALAND. 2012. Genes, Culture, and Agriculture: An Example of Human Niche Construction. Current Anthropology 53(4):434-470.

• ODLING-SMEE, JOHN F., KEVIN N. LALAND, AND MARCUS W. FELDMAN. 2003. Niche construction: The neglected process in evolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

• OMRAN, ABDEL R. 1971. The epidemiologic transition: A theory of the epidemiology of population change. The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 49:509-538.



• PANTER-BRICK, CATHERINE, ALISON TODD, AND RACHEL BAKER. 1996. Growth status of homeless Nepali boys: Do they differ from rural and urban controls?. Social Science and Medicine 43(4):441-451.

• PEEN, J., SCHOEVERS, R. A., BEEKMAN, A. T., AND DEKKER, J. 2010. The current status of urban‐rural differences in psychiatric disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 121(2):84-93.

• PHILLIPS, D. R. 1993. Urbanization and human health. Parasitology 106:S93-S107.• POPKIN, BARRY M., LINDA S. ADAIR, AND SHU WEN NG. 2012. Global nutrition transition and the pandemic of obesity in developing countries. Nutrition reviews 70(1):3-21.

• POWER, ROBERT A., SIMON KYAGA, RUDOLF UHER, ET AL. 2013. Fecundity of patients with schizophrenia, autism, bipolar disorder, depression, anorexia nervosa, or substance abuse vs their unaffected siblings. JAMA Psychiatry 70(1):22-30.

• PRENTICE, ANDREW M. 2006. The emerging epidemic of obesity in developing countries. International Journal of Epidemiology 35:93–99.

• REES, WILLIAM E. 1997. Urban ecosystems: The human dimension. Urban Ecosystems 1(1):63-75.• REITSCH, KATRIN, ELENA GODINA, AND CHRISTIANE SCHEFFLER. 2013. Decreased external skeletal robustness in schoolchildren–A global trend? Ten year comparison of Russian and German data. PLOS One 8(7):e68195.

• SAWAYA, ANA L., GERALD DALLAL, GISELA SOLYMOS, et al. 1995. Obesity and malnutrition in a shantytown population in the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Obesity Research 3(S2):107S-115S.



• SCANLON, THOMAS J., ANDREW TOMKINS, MARGARET A. LYNCH, AND FRANCESCA SCANLON. 1998. Street children in Latin America. BMJ: British Medical Journal 316(7144):1596-1600.

• SCHEFFLER, CHRISTIANE, AND MICHAEL HERMANUSSEN. 2014. Is there an influence of modern life style on skeletal build? American Journal of Human Biology 26(5):590-597.

• SELTEN, JEAN-PAUL, ELSJE VAN DER VEN, BART P. F. RUTTEN, AND ELIZABETH CANTOR-GRAAE. 2013. The social defeat hypothesis of schizophrenia: An update. Schizophrenia Bulletin 39(6):1180-1186.

• SETO, KAREN, AND NAVIN RAMUNKUTTY. 2016. ’Hidden linkages between urbanization and food systems. Science 352 (6288):943-945.

• SMITH, DAVID W. 1998. Urban food systems and the poor in developing countries. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 23(2):207-219.

• SPEAKMAN, JOHN R. 2013. Evolutionary perspectives on the obesity epidemic: Adaptive, maladaptive, and neutral viewpoints. Annual Review of Nutrition 33:289-317.

• SUNDQUIST, KRISTINA, GÖLIN FRANK, AND JAN SUNDQUIST. 2004. Urbanisation and incidence of psychosis and depression. The British Journal of Psychiatry 184(4):293-298.

• TOWNSHEND, TIM, AND AMELIA A. LAKE. 2009. Obesogenic urban form: Theory, policy and practice. Health and Place 15(4):909-916.



• UNGER, ALON. 2013. Children’s health in slum settings. Archives of disease in childhood: archdischild-2011.

• UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME (UN-HABITAT). 2003. The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003. London and Sterling, VA: Earthscan Publications.

• VAN OS, JIM. 2004. Does the urban environment cause psychosis?. The British Journal of Psychiatry 184(4):287-288.

• WELLS, JONATHAN C. K. 2012. Obesity as Malnutrition: The Role of Capitalism in the Obesity Global Epidemic. American Journal of Human Biology 24(3):261-276.

• WOAN, JESSICA, JESSICA LIN, AND COLETTE AUERSWALD. 2013. The Health Status of Street Children and Youth in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Journal of Adolescent Health 53:314-321


Date post:	20-Feb-2017
Category:	Education
Upload:	greg-downey
View:	311 times
Download:	2 times

Anthropocene city

Education