Anthropological Anthropological TheoryTheory

Part IPart I

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Paradigm ChangeParadigm Change

Thomas Khun:Thomas Khun: Scientific thought is the result of a series Scientific thought is the result of a series

of revolutions or of revolutions or

““paradigm changes”paradigm changes” A Paradigm: sums up the A Paradigm: sums up the

scientific views about what scientific views about what should be the object of research should be the object of research & how to go about solving & how to go about solving scientific problemsscientific problems

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Normal ScienceNormal Science The formulation of a paradigm is The formulation of a paradigm is

followed by a period of normal followed by a period of normal science, governed by the paradigmscience, governed by the paradigm

Thus, anthropological ideas at any Thus, anthropological ideas at any given time are reflection of the given time are reflection of the cultural environment of the cultural environment of the anthropologistsanthropologists

The history of anthropology is a The history of anthropology is a history of the values of the history of the values of the Western worldWestern world

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What’s the Point?What’s the Point? To understand how current biases To understand how current biases

influence the way anthropologists influence the way anthropologists have interpreted the cultures they have interpreted the cultures they studystudy

Ask yourself how the cultures you Ask yourself how the cultures you study reflect the researcher’s biasstudy reflect the researcher’s bias

Ask what questions are not being Ask what questions are not being asked because of the current asked because of the current paradigmparadigm

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Read & Think Critically !Read & Think Critically !

Anthropology has gone through Anthropology has gone through a number of paradigm changesa number of paradigm changes

We will begin with a brief history We will begin with a brief history of the disciplineof the discipline

Know this background & Know this background & understand the different understand the different theories as they apply to the theories as they apply to the cultures you studycultures you study

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A PreludeA Prelude

The 16The 16thth Century: Century: Age of DiscoveryAge of Discovery

““Mercantilism”Mercantilism”

European World View – chosen by GodEuropean World View – chosen by God Thomas Hobbes – the lives of savages Thomas Hobbes – the lives of savages

are “nasty, brutish, & short”are “nasty, brutish, & short”

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EnlightenmentEnlightenment

1818thth Century: Century: All people capable of progressAll people capable of progress

toward civilizationtoward civilization ““The Noble Savage”The Noble Savage” 1800 Society for the Observation 1800 Society for the Observation

of Manof Man Comparative anatomyComparative anatomy Comparative LanguagesComparative Languages Museum of Comparative EthnographyMuseum of Comparative Ethnography

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Context for Unilineal Context for Unilineal EvolutionEvolution

1919thth Century: Century: 1855 Berlin Conference1855 Berlin Conference Colonialism – economic & political Colonialism – economic & political

dominationdomination Transfer of wealth to EuropeTransfer of wealth to Europe Increasing RacismIncreasing Racism

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ReligionReligion

3 Orientations3 Orientations PolygenistsPolygenists: Separate creations: Separate creations

Races are distinct speciesRaces are distinct species CraniometryCraniometry

MonogenistsMonogenists: One creation: One creation Biblical interpretationBiblical interpretation All races with ability to progressAll races with ability to progress ““White Man’s Burden”White Man’s Burden”

DegenerationDegeneration: Regression after single : Regression after single creationcreation

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Polygenists:Polygenists:

Separate

CreationsCan’t Achieve Civilization

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Monogenists:Monogenists:

Capable of

Advancement

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DegenerationistsDegenerationists

Punishment for Falling from Perfection

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Charles DarwinCharles Darwin

1859 – Origin of Species1859 – Origin of Species Natural SelectionNatural Selection Biological Evolution & Biological Evolution &

dissatisfaction with dissatisfaction with

biblical version of creationbiblical version of creation

Yet Polygenist-Monogenist debate Yet Polygenist-Monogenist debate continued through the 19continued through the 19thth Century Century

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Herbert SpencerHerbert Spencer

““Survival of the Fittest”Survival of the Fittest” Social DarwinismSocial Darwinism Biological explanation of Biological explanation of

cultural differencescultural differences Evolution of mental capacityEvolution of mental capacity

European society became the European society became the standard by which “primitive” standard by which “primitive” societies were judged to be inferiorsocieties were judged to be inferior ““Primitive Man” = savage, small brain, dark Primitive Man” = savage, small brain, dark

skinskin

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Paradigm I. Unilineal Paradigm I. Unilineal EvolutionEvolution

1919thth Century Concept of Cultural Century Concept of Cultural EvolutionEvolution The process by which new cultural forms The process by which new cultural forms

emerge out of older onesemerge out of older ones Each Society is believed to PROGRESS Each Society is believed to PROGRESS

through the same stages of through the same stages of development, from SAVAGERY to development, from SAVAGERY to BARBARISM to CIVILIZATIONBARBARISM to CIVILIZATION Only Europeans had reached civilizationOnly Europeans had reached civilization

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CivilizationCivilization

BarbarismBarbarism

SavagerySavagery

P R

O G

R E

S

S

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Basis for Unilineal Basis for Unilineal EvolutionEvolution

Materialist approachMaterialist approach Application of biological evolution Application of biological evolution

to cultureto culture Interest in general laws, not Interest in general laws, not

historyhistory Comparative methodComparative method Ranking of societies on a scale of Ranking of societies on a scale of

progressprogress Armchair anthropologistsArmchair anthropologists

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#1 Edward B. Tylor#1 Edward B. Tylor

Founding father of anthropologyFounding father of anthropology 1896 11896 1stst professor of anthropology professor of anthropology 11stst to use “ to use “CCulture” as a synonym ulture” as a synonym

for civilizationfor civilization ““Culture, or Civilization, Culture, or Civilization,

is that complex whole…”is that complex whole…” Animism: belief in spiritsAnimism: belief in spirits

Animism polytheism monotheismAnimism polytheism monotheism

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#2 Lewis Henry Morgan#2 Lewis Henry Morgan 1851 – League of the Iroquois1851 – League of the Iroquois

Ethnical PeriodsEthnical Periods““An attempt will be made to bring An attempt will be made to bring forward evidence of the rudeness of forward evidence of the rudeness of the early condition of mankind, of the the early condition of mankind, of the gradual evolution of their mental & gradual evolution of their mental & moral powers & of their protracted moral powers & of their protracted struggle while winning their way to struggle while winning their way to civilization. The principle tribes of civilization. The principle tribes of mankind can be classified, according to mankind can be classified, according to the degree of their relative PROGRESS, the degree of their relative PROGRESS, into conditions which can be into conditions which can be recognized as distinct.recognized as distinct.

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What are What are the key the key factors?factors?

Human Human society society evolved evolved through 3 through 3 major major stages, stages, each each marked marked by a by a techno-techno-logical logical break-break-throughthrough

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Strengths & Strengths & Weaknesses:Weaknesses:

Strengths:Strengths: Created a science of humansCreated a science of humans New concepts, methodsNew concepts, methods Comparative approach—analyzed range of Comparative approach—analyzed range of

human variabilityhuman variability Developed systems of classificationDeveloped systems of classification Morgan: holistic approachMorgan: holistic approach

Weaknesses:Weaknesses: Racial determinists, ethnocentric ranking on a Racial determinists, ethnocentric ranking on a

scale of progressscale of progress Biological determinism (reductionist)Biological determinism (reductionist) Ignored history & environmentIgnored history & environment Justified political & economic domination Justified political & economic domination

(colonial context)(colonial context)

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Native Peoples Were…Native Peoples Were…

SubjugatedSubjugated ExploitedExploited OppressedOppressed Objects of Genocide & EthnocideObjects of Genocide & Ethnocide --All in the name of PROGRESS--All in the name of PROGRESS How would evolutionists have How would evolutionists have

written a book on Nisa’s culture?written a book on Nisa’s culture?

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Paradigm II. Historical Paradigm II. Historical ParticularismParticularism

Early 20Early 20thth C. paradigm change C. paradigm change Professionalization of Professionalization of

anthropologyanthropology Represents a reaction against Represents a reaction against

unilineal evolutionunilineal evolution Division between British & Division between British &

American anthropologyAmerican anthropology Omnibus approachOmnibus approach

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Franz BoasFranz Boas Born a German JewBorn a German Jew Father of American Father of American

AnthropologyAnthropology 1888 founded 11888 founded 1stst anthropology anthropology

department in the U.S.department in the U.S. Natural scientistNatural scientist 1883 expedition to Baffinland, Inuit1883 expedition to Baffinland, Inuit Conversion—became ethnographerConversion—became ethnographer Concern with disappearance of Native Concern with disappearance of Native

American culturesAmerican cultures Cultural RelativismCultural Relativism

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Boas’ ActivismBoas’ Activism Critique of German NazismCritique of German Nazism Fought against racismFought against racism

Differences are due to culture, not raceDifferences are due to culture, not race Critique of unilineal evolution:Critique of unilineal evolution:

““The history of human civilization does The history of human civilization does not appear as determined entirely by a not appear as determined entirely by a uniform evolution the world over. uniform evolution the world over. Rather each group has its own UNIQUE Rather each group has its own UNIQUE HISTORY. It would be quite impossible HISTORY. It would be quite impossible to understand, on the basis of a single to understand, on the basis of a single evolutionary scheme, what happened evolutionary scheme, what happened to any PARTICULAR PEOPLE”to any PARTICULAR PEOPLE”

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Assumptions of Historical Assumptions of Historical Particularism:Particularism:

Rejects general laws, ranking on a Rejects general laws, ranking on a scale, progressscale, progress

There are no simple or complex There are no simple or complex societies, only different societiessocieties, only different societies

Unilineal evolution is based on Unilineal evolution is based on speculation, is ethnocentricspeculation, is ethnocentric

Not Not CCulture, but cultureulture, but culturess Culture, not race, determines Culture, not race, determines

behaviorbehavior Methodological rigorMethodological rigor

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Culture Areas

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Strengths & WeaknessesStrengths & Weaknesses

Strengths:Strengths: Cultural RelativismCultural Relativism HistoryHistory Relation of culture & environmentRelation of culture & environment FieldworkFieldwork

Weaknesses:Weaknesses: Ecclectic approachEcclectic approach Avoidance of synthesisAvoidance of synthesis Weak on theoryWeak on theory

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Paradigm III. Culture & Paradigm III. Culture & PersonalityPersonality

1930-50s – Students of Boas1930-50s – Students of Boas Borrowed from psychologyBorrowed from psychology Focus on the individual as the Focus on the individual as the

bearer of culturebearer of culture Idealist approach: Idealist approach:

interest in personality & how interest in personality & how individuals thought, feltindividuals thought, felt

Studied process of enculturation, Studied process of enculturation, especially child developmentespecially child development

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2 related approaches:2 related approaches: Intra-cultural variationIntra-cultural variation Inter-cultural variationInter-cultural variation

Studied individuals Studied individuals

cultural patterns of individual cultural patterns of individual societies societies

cross-cultural comparisons cross-cultural comparisons

to arrive at generalizationsto arrive at generalizations This is Shostak’s approach in This is Shostak’s approach in NisaNisa

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#1 – Ruth Benedict#1 – Ruth Benedict 1923 11923 1stst woman professor of woman professor of

anthropologyanthropology Child rearing molds personalities to a Child rearing molds personalities to a

basic typebasic type Each culture developsEach culture develops

a limited number of themes a limited number of themes – – cultural configurations – cultural configurations – that dominate the thought & that dominate the thought & behavior of its membersbehavior of its members

Each culture selectively chooses Each culture selectively chooses among an infinite number of traitsamong an infinite number of traits

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Benedict’s Comparative Benedict’s Comparative ApproachApproach

Kwakiutl = individualistic, Kwakiutl = individualistic, competitive, intemperate, egoisticcompetitive, intemperate, egoistic Potlatch: Give away enormous Potlatch: Give away enormous

quantities of goods, complete with quantities of goods, complete with rival groupsrival groups

““Dionysian” (Greek god of excess)Dionysian” (Greek god of excess)

ZuZuññi = control their emotions, value i = control their emotions, value sobriety & inoffensiveness, do not sobriety & inoffensiveness, do not boast, restrained behavior, boast, restrained behavior, cooperativecooperative

““Apollonian” (Greek god Apollo)Apollonian” (Greek god Apollo)

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OvergeneralizationsOvergeneralizations Cora Dubois – Rorschach testsCora Dubois – Rorschach tests

37% fit modal personality37% fit modal personality 22% fall outside the modal personality22% fall outside the modal personality 40% are “deviant”40% are “deviant”

Benedict: Benedict: The Chrysanthemum The Chrysanthemum

& the Sword& the Sword

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#2 – Margaret Mead#2 – Margaret Mead

1928 1928 Coming of Age in SamoaComing of Age in Samoa Enculturation & its effect on Enculturation & its effect on

pubertypuberty Nature-nurture debateNature-nurture debate

Psychological changes of puberty are not Psychological changes of puberty are not biologically, but culturally conditionedbiologically, but culturally conditioned

Samoa – Sexual liaisons, no Samoa – Sexual liaisons, no

stigma for out-of-wedlock birthsstigma for out-of-wedlock births Comparison with U.S. societyComparison with U.S. society

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Derek Freeman: 1983, Derek Freeman: 1983, Margaret Margaret Mead & Samoa: The Making & Mead & Samoa: The Making & Unmaking of an Anthropological Unmaking of an Anthropological MythMyth Rather than the carefree adolescent Rather than the carefree adolescent

sexual experimentation Mead described, sexual experimentation Mead described, Samoans have a “virginity complex”Samoans have a “virginity complex”

How to explain these different How to explain these different interpretations?interpretations?

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Mead’s Mead’s Sex & Sex & TemperamentTemperament

AGGRESSIVEAGGRESSIVE PASSIVEPASSIVE

U.S.U.S.

ARAPESHARAPESH

MUNDUGAMOMUNDUGAMORR

TCHAMBULITCHAMBULI

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Mead’s Mead’s Sex & Sex & TemperamentTemperament

AGGRESSIVEAGGRESSIVE PASSIVEPASSIVE

U.S.U.S. ♂♂ ♀♀

ARAPESHARAPESH

MUNDUGAMOMUNDUGAMORR

TCHAMBULITCHAMBULI

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Mead’s Mead’s Sex & Sex & TemperamentTemperament

AGGRESSIVEAGGRESSIVE PASSIVEPASSIVE

U.S.U.S. ♂♂ ♀♀

ARAPESHARAPESH ♂ ♀♂ ♀MUNDUGAMOMUNDUGAMORR

TCHAMBULITCHAMBULI

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Mead’s Mead’s Sex & Sex & TemperamentTemperament

AGGRESSIVEAGGRESSIVE PASSIVEPASSIVE

U.S.U.S. ♂♂ ♀♀

ARAPESHARAPESH ♂ ♀♂ ♀MUNDUGAMOMUNDUGAMORR ♂ ♀♂ ♀TCHAMBULITCHAMBULI

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Mead’s Mead’s Sex & Sex & TemperamentTemperament

AGGRESSIVEAGGRESSIVE PASSIVEPASSIVE

U.S.U.S. ♂♂ ♀♀

ARAPESHARAPESH ♂ ♀♂ ♀MUNDUGAMOMUNDUGAMORR ♂ ♀♂ ♀TCHAMBULITCHAMBULI ♀♀ ♂♂

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““Man made for himself a fabric of Man made for himself a fabric of culture within which each human life culture within which each human life was dignified by form & meaning. Each was dignified by form & meaning. Each people makes this fabric differently, people makes this fabric differently, selects some clues & ignores others, selects some clues & ignores others, emphasizes a different sector of the emphasizes a different sector of the whole arc of human potentialities, as whole arc of human potentialities, as each culture creates distinctively the each culture creates distinctively the social fabric in which the human spirit social fabric in which the human spirit can wrap itself—it may bend every can wrap itself—it may bend every individual born within it to one type of individual born within it to one type of behavior”behavior”

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Strengths & WeaknessesStrengths & Weaknesses Strengths:Strengths:

Popularized anthropologyPopularized anthropology Focus on culture as a system of meaningFocus on culture as a system of meaning Attention to variation among societiesAttention to variation among societies Attention to the individual as a bearer of cultureAttention to the individual as a bearer of culture

Weaknesses:Weaknesses: Broad, impressionistic generalizations based on Broad, impressionistic generalizations based on

personal impressionspersonal impressions Lack of historyLack of history Stereotyping—national character studiesStereotyping—national character studies Political implicationsPolitical implications