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Antoine Louis Leocardie Elie Lescot

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AMHE Newsletter Haitian Medical Association Abroad Association Medicale Haïtienne à l'Étranger AMHE NEWSLETTER Editor in Chief: Maxime J-M Coles, MD Editorial Board: Rony Jean Mary, MD Reynald Altema, MD Technical Adviser: Jacques Arpin spring 2020 june 8 Newsletter # 278 In this number - Words of the Editor, Maxime Coles,MD - La chronique de Rony Jean-Mary,M.D. - La chronique de Reynald Altéma,M.D. - Chronicle of Slave rebellions in the Americas. - Article de Axler JEAN PAUL - Décès - And more... Antoine Louis Leocardie Elie Lescot Maxime Coles MD Antoine Louis Leocardie Lescot become president of the republique of Haiti on May 15, 1941. Issued from a privileged society, he used his political influence during the second war to claim the higher position of the land. He ascended to the presidency in gaining power through his ties with the United States of America. He was a mulattoe, issued from the elites and the post war climate allowed his administration to reign over a period of political downturn after many political repression of the dissidents. Elie Lescot was born at Saint Louis du Nord (Nord West of Haiti) on December 9, 1883 in a middleclass family. His father, Ovide Lescot is a resident in Cap-Haiti and decided to protect his pregnant wife, Florelia Laforest, from his political opponents. He chose to relocate her to St Louis du Nord under the protection of her sister Lea, wife of a Guadeloupean business holder and sometimes architect, Edouard Elizee. Ovide Lescot was the son of Pierre Joseph Lescot with Marie-Michelle Morin but he later re- married to Marie-Fortunée Deneau who gave him two daughters: Therese and Leticia. Therese became the wife of the well-known poet Oswald Durand while Laeticia will marry Chery Hippolyte, son of President Florville Hippolyte. Florelia Laforest had an extramarital affair with president Sylvain Salnave before knowing Ovide Lescot
Transcript

AMHE Newsletter Haitian Medical Association Abroad

Association Medicale Haïtienne à l'Étranger

AMHE NEWSLETTER

Editor in Chief: Maxime J-M Coles, MD

Editorial Board: Rony Jean Mary, MD

Reynald Altema, MD

Technical Adviser: Jacques Arpin

spring 2020

june 8

Newsletter # 278

In this number

- Words of the Editor, Maxime Coles,MD

- La chronique de Rony Jean-Mary,M.D.

- La chronique de Reynald Altéma,M.D.

- Chronicle of Slave rebellions in the Americas.

- Article de Axler JEAN PAUL

- Décès

- And more...

Antoine Louis Leocardie Elie Lescot

Maxime Coles MD

Antoine Louis Leocardie Lescot become president of the republique of Haiti on

May 15, 1941. Issued from a privileged society, he used his political influence

during the second war to claim the higher position of the land. He ascended to

the presidency in gaining power through his ties with the United States of

America. He was a mulattoe, issued from the elites and the post war climate

allowed his administration to reign over a period of political downturn after

many political repression of the dissidents.

Elie Lescot was born at Saint Louis du Nord (Nord West of Haiti) on December 9, 1883 in a middleclass

family. His father, Ovide Lescot is a resident in Cap-Haiti and decided to protect his pregnant wife,

Florelia Laforest, from his political opponents. He chose to relocate her to St Louis du Nord under the

protection of her sister Lea, wife of a Guadeloupean business holder and sometimes architect, Edouard

Elizee. Ovide Lescot was the son of Pierre Joseph Lescot with Marie-Michelle Morin but he later re-

married to Marie-Fortunée Deneau who gave him two daughters: Therese and Leticia. Therese became

the wife of the well-known poet Oswald Durand while Laeticia will marry Chery Hippolyte, son of

President Florville Hippolyte.

Florelia Laforest had an extramarital affair with president Sylvain Salnave before knowing Ovide Lescot

2

and a son was born. She named him Leon

Salnave and he became naturally at the age of 14

years, the chosen godfather to his young half-

brother Elie Lescot. The ceremony of Christening

was performed upon their return to Cap Haiti.

Elie went to school. first at the “Freres de

l’Instruction Chretienne du Cap-Haitien”, later at

the “Lycee Philippe Guerrier and finally at the

“College Sainte Marie”. He met Anthenor Firmin

who married his brother Leon Salnave’s older

sister (Rosa Salnave), and others like Nord

Alexis, Turenne and Jean Gille. He travelled to

Port-au-Prince to attend the State University

School of Pharmacology and returned to follow

courses at L’ “Ecole Libre de Droit du Cap

Haitien”. He decided to work in the customs at

Port de Paix where he pursued a carrier in the

administration as an Interpreter.

Elie Lescot met his first wife in 1907, a widow,

named Corinne Jean-Pierre, who died four years

later (December 1911) and no kids were born

from this union. He entered the world of Politics

to become a Representative at the Legislative

Chamber of Borgne in 1910, he was then 26.

President Tancrete Auguste named him Judge at

Port de Paix in 1913. Soon, he met his second

wife, Georgina St Aude. The couple had eight

children from the union.

In 1914, Oreste Zamor raise an army to fight

Michel Oreste and Elie Lescot is seen on the side

of Charles Zamor, brother of the president and

then Minister of War and Marine. I can’t confirm

what was his military experience and skills but at

the end of the conflict, he needed to take refuge in

the Dominican Consulate, once victory was

awarded to General DavilmarTheodore, to safe

guard his life. In 1915, during the American

occupation, he is seen working as a teacher at a

secondary school in Port de Paix while awaiting

to be commissioned at the civil tribunal under

President Sudre Dartiguenave. In 1917, he

founded the first Public Library in Port de Paix.

The same year, he is seen using his talents of

photographer helping Haitian dissidents to obtain

proper identity cards with pictures to start

working for the American sugar companies in

Cuba. His connection allowed him to secure a

position of Consul at Antilla, Cuba in 1919.

In 1922, Elie Lescot, his wife and his children

travelled to France where he took residence at

“Gagny, en Seine et Oise” to get enrolled at the

“Ecole Etienne” of art to master the photogravure

technique of Batik, a novel artistic way to paint on

tissue from Java. While welcoming his sixth child,

a girl, he developed a crippling pneumonia forcing

him to return to Port de Paix, in 1926.

Unfortunately, Mrs. Lescot, after her last baby, felt

ill and caught the Malaria. She died from its

complications. Elie Lescot discovered the world of

Politics but continued to pursue his photogravure

work as a pastime. He used the Company Paul

Auxilla to dispense his production mainly

composed of ties, handkerchiefs, robes and dresses

for women.

In 1927, under president Borno, he was appointed

at Port de Paix secondary school as the Principal.

President Louis Borno called upon his expertise in

1930 to oversee the activities at Damiens after the

drama of Marchaterre. He becomes the State

Secretary of Public Instruction, Agriculture and

Labor. At age 46, he moved to Port-au-Prince to

take function of his Ministry although he was not

well known in the capital.

On the 22 April 1930, Elie Lescot accepted the

position of Judge of Instruction at the civil court in

Port-au-Prince. A new chapter in his life was

written. Meanwhile, a candidate for the Chamber

of representative in the Plateau Central, Elius Elie

was murdered and the judge Elie Lescot

denounced Joseph Jolibois Fils, a very popular

candidate for Port au Prince. He resigned his

present position to pursue the function of

Commissary at the Cassation Court and Judge after

being appointed by president Stenio Vincent.

On the 17 of May 1932, he is chosen as Secretary

of State in the government of Stenio Vincent. All

these activities around him, created a world of

intrigues and changes in his personal life. The year

before, it was instrumental in spreading around

many Dominican refugees to Haitian cities like

Jeremie in order to control their illicit activities

against the government of Rafael Leonidas

Trujillo. He helped disperse the opposition

rendering a smoother relation with our neighbor.

On the 15 May 1934, Elie Lescot lose his

ministerial position at the state department but is

nominated Ambassador in the Dominican

Republic. This allowed him to develop a closer

relationship with the dictator Raphael Trujillo. He

was later appointed as Ambassador to the United

States, at Washington DC This last position will

3

help him lay down the groundwork for his future

presidency in Haiti.

In 1935, President Stenio Vincent took the

opportunity to settle a controversy between Haiti

and Santo Domingo by signing a pact restituting

62,956 squares feet of disputed land back to

Haiti. Discussions at the National Assembly to

recommend both presidents Rafael Leonidas

Trujillo and Stenio Vincent for the Nobel Price of

Peace were recorded. Elie Lescot was still

Haitian Ambassador to Santo Domingo when he

took part in a delegation in Argentina to

participate at the OTAN under the supervision of

the US president Franklyn Delano Roosevelt in

1936.

Lescot remained close to Rafael Trujillo but

secretly worked at discouraging Stenio Vincent

from looking for a third mandate. He kept close

ties with Demosthene Calixte ex commanding

officer at the National Guard, Julio Jean-Pierre

Audain, ex private secretary and also Duluy

Lamothe ex officer in the National guard. He

used a game of intimidation to discourage Stenio

Vincent for reaching his goal.

Lescot and Vincent had different visions for the

country. Frederick Duvignault an allied of

Vincent, figured on the list of candidates to

succeed Vincent but Lescot planned his ascension

in using his contacts at the State Department in

Washington DC. Elie Lescot became rapidly the

chosen one to succeed Stenio Vincent in 1941,

although he encountered a strong opposition from

the Haitian Congress. His nomination was

certainly backed out by his powerful neighbor,

the dictator Rafael Trujillo who assured his

victory by possibly ways of intimidation, leading

to a suffrage of 56 voices on 58. Some deputies

may have contested the results especially the

legislator (Deputy) Max Hudicourt, but this did

not stop Elie Lescot from becoming the 31st

president of Haiti.

When he took commands, Lescot appointed

himself his Military commanders among them,

his own son Roger, a lieutenant. The black

bourgeoisie expressed some disdain. He soon

declared war to Germany and its allies once he

heard about the bombing of Pearl Harbor and

joined the United States into the second world

war. He imposed a suspension of the constitution

and requested unlimited executive powers from

the parliament. Political opponents were kept at

distance and were subjected to physical

harassments and surveillance by security forces.

The second war bought a penury of rubber when

the East cut off all supply. The United States

discussed with the government of Haiti an

ambitious program to expand the wartime

production of rubber in the countryside of the

country. Not too many remember much about

SHADA. In fact, SHADA was the “Societe

Haitiano-Americaine du Development Agricole”

financed by a grant of 5 million dollars, from the

Export-Import Bank of Washington DC.

November 11. The US Rubber Development

Corp gave SHADA a war production contract.

The production of rubber started in 1941 with the

military support of the United States army and

managed by the American agronomist Thomas

Fennell. Almost 50,000 (200 Kilometer square)

acres of land were cleared for planting the

“cryptostegia vine” able to produce latex. At the

end, more land was needed, affecting the

cultivation of our farmers in the north of the

country. Peasant’s families were forcedly

displaced from their home allowing the

government to cut millions of fruit-bearing trees

in Jeremie. Their houses were invaded or razed,

forcing the Haitian Minister of Agriculture

Maurice Dartigue to address the matter with the

agronomist Fennell, asking him to respect the

sovereignty of the Haitian peasant. Unfortunately,

the project finally failed because of an

insufficient production of rubber and once the

program cancelled, the US government offered a

sum of $ 175.000 in compensation to the

displaced families of peasants.

Elie Lescot counted so much on this program to

revive the Haitian dormant agriculture but the

termination of the SHADA project imposed an

unexpected unemployment for 90,000 people

with an economy already sinking, hurting his

public image. The government was near

bankruptcy and faced debts of re-payments. By

this time, Elie Lescot was unable to count on his

relations with Santo Domingo and Rafael Trujillo

which deteriorated over the years especially after

the murder of thousands of Haitian workers.

A sugar factory in La Romana (Zafra: 1941-1942)

requested hand power for their sugar cane harvest

4

and the Dominican company entered in contract

with the businessman Oswald Brandt requesting

him to furnish around 1700 Haitian employees.

Gontran Rouzier, the Haitian Under State

Secretary insisted that a contract between both

governments needed to be implemented,

especially after the incident in which Trujillo

murdered thousands of Haitian workers 4 years

prior. Trujillo was re-elected but the relation

between the two presidents become hostile. In

1944, Trujillo even plotted to kill Elie Lescot at

Belladere. In response, Lescot welcomed Juan

Bosh with open arms and helped him secure a

loan of 20,00 dollars through the BNRH (Banque

Nationale de la Republique D’Haiti) which Bosh

only re-paid partially.

Elie Lescot beefed up his military Guards and

started a system of rural police in forming police

chiefs, called “Chefs section”. These chiefs were

ruling by intimidation. Soon army soldiers in low

ranks were plotting a rebellion in 1944. Many

were punished once the plot was discovered and

some lost their life in this process, others were

court-martialed. The same year, Lescot extended

his presidential term from 5 years to a seven

years but was unable to muzzle the opposition

which encourage many student demonstrations

until a true revolt started in Port-au-Prince.

A group of popular leaders went on strike and a

large crowd manifested in the streets and around

the national palace, voicing their discontent.

Soon, in the military ranks, a division among the

high ranked officers, was noted. Attempts at

breaking the demonstrations failed. Elie Lescot

felt a menace for his life. He was forced to resign

and flew into exile. A three-person military junta

took over the commands of the country and

pledged to organize future elections. President

Dumarsais Estime succeeded to President Elie

Lescot and become the first black president in the

post US occupation era.

The Administration Lescot created “The State

University of Haiti” to dispense superior

education (Law # 469, on December 27, 1944).

The “Nationalization of the Lottery” from Mr.

Edouard Esteve (Law # 122, on March 19, 1942).

The construction of “Cite Notre Dame” (Cite Elie

Lescot) in Cap Haiti (law # 35, on 24 September

1943). The Sanatorium (Law # 299, on July 23,

1943). A mandatory social service was

implemented for any new physician to pass two

years in provinces after their regular training. An

airport at Chancerelles (Bowen Field) for military

and commercial flights (Law # 218 on October

1942). Many other projects were studied but

didn’t see light, like the Hydro-electrical plants

of Basin Zim, Peligre and Saut d’Eau, because of

the lack of financial support. Many of our

military pilots participated in the war activities as

part of the Tuskegee black squadron unit in

Alabama. They saw action over the skies of

Berlin at the end of the second World War.

President Elie Lescot went into exile in Canada

with empty pockets. Some will report that he

lived in an extreme poverty because the

government of Estime refused to allocate him a

pension. He has not used money from the

finances of the country to fill up his bags. He left

enough liquidity to allow his successors to

initiate large projects of infrastructure. He needs

to be given credit for trying to build up a strong

economy. He bought public computability into

his administration. Many believed that he was

with Christophe, Boyer, Leconte. Borno, a

president who left an administration with a lot of

discipline in the affairs of the country.

Elie Lescot was a Haitian lawyer, ex-president of

Haiti who has kept many different functions in

the previous governments. He was an

Ambassador, a Judge and fill up the position of

Minister. We can keep going telling about his

actions as a political man but we have also to add

that he received many decorations for his actions

like the Grand Cross Juan Duarte in Dominican

Republic, the Vasco Nunez de Balboa in Panama,

the Carlos Manuel de Cespedes in Cuba, Honeur

et Merite in Haiti, Collar Libertador in

Venezuela, Gran Collar in Aquila Azteca in

Mexico, and Gran collar del Merito in Chile.

What a Curriculum!

it has been reported that President Elie Lescot

described in his memoires the difficulties he

encountered working on the sidewalk of “Rue

Lorimier”? in the south of Montreal, selling items

like ties. In fact, he went to Ottawa and continued

to perform in his favorite art, the Batik

photogravure to feed his family. He finally

received his presidential pension at the term of

5

the Estime presidency when a military Junta

headed by Colonel Paul Eugene Magloire,

General Frank Lavaud, Colonel Antoine Levelt

took the direction of the country in hand, on

January 11, 1946.

President Elie Lescot was allowed to return to his

native Haiti in 1956 under the administration

Paul Eugene Magloire. He lived a quiet life

among his family members, allowing him to

write his memoires. I kept in souvenir, this retired

president I knew, very calm and loving, telling

stories to the kids of the neighborhood at his in-

law residence (St Aude) on John Brown avenue

(Lalue). We were then nine or ten years old and

we enjoyed sitting around him to listen to his

narration. He died silently on the 20 October

1973 at his residence in Laboule. He was 91.

May he rest in Peace.

I want to thank Pierre Lescot, his grandson for

reviewing this manuscript. I used in reference the

book he published on the life of such an

honorable man: “Parcours Meconnu de Elie

Lescot, Ancient President d’Haiti” and other

references as noted below.

Maxime Coles MD

References:

1. Matthew J Smith (Dec 2004). “Vive 1804, The Haitian Revolution and the Revolutionary Generation of 1946”. Caribbean quarterly. Taylor and Francis Ltd 50 (41) pp 45-41.

2. John Pike: Haiti 1941-1946/ “Elie Lescot” 21 December 2014. 3. Haitian Rubber Timeline. (Haiti, August 2010). 4. Smith, Matthew J, Red and Black in Haiti: Radicalism and Political Change, 1934-1957. Chapel Hill:

University of North Carolina Press, 2009. 5. Imprimeries de l’Etat D’Haiti, Bulletin des Actes et Lois 1941-1946. 6. Lescot Pierre: “Parcours Meconnu de Elie Lescot, Ancient President d’Haiti”. 7. Turnier Alain: “Quand la Nation Demande des Comptes”. 8. Claude B. Auguste: Apercu sur l’Histoire de L’Union Nationale Des Etudiants Haitiens (UNDEH). 9. Monitor Journal Publications: 1941-1946. 10. Haiti Observer: 17 April 2013. 11. Marcel B. Auguste: Elie Lescot, Coup d’oeuil sur une administration 1941-1946. 12. Compagnie Biographique: Livre Bleu d'Haiti. 13. Julio Jean-Pierre Audain: Les Ombres d’une Politique Nefaste. 14. Roger Lescot: Souvenirs De Mes Douze Ans Dans l’Armée d’Haiti.

6

Aucun événement n’aura occupé l’actualité et

marqué aussi longtemps le devant de la scène

que la covid- 19, cette maladie qui semble

désormais avoir atteint son pic infectieux, mais

qui continue, malgré tout, de faire des victimes

un peu partout a travers le monde. Apparue à

Wuhan en Chine, pour la première fois en

Septembre de l’année dernière, la pandémie a

fait le tour de la terre, tuant sur son passage

autant d’êtres humains qu’elle a pu en

rencontrer. De causer des peines et des

troubles sur sa trajectoire, elle n’en n’a même

pas fini encore...Et, Contrairement à l’ange de

la mort, dans L’Égypte lointaine et idolâtre, qui

épargna ,grâce au sang dont les linteaux de leurs

portes étaient couverts ,les premiers nés des

familles juives , la covid-19 elle, puisqu’il faut

l’appeler par son nom, continue de passer

parmi nous, son épée à la main, frappant

indistinctement, sans égard au rang social , au

degré de fortune ou au mérite intellectuel de ses

victimes. Des cris de douleur, poussés de

partout, font encore se demander à plus

d’un : « Qui va être la prochaine victime .ou

serai-je moi- même le prochain à périr ? »

Après plus de trois mois d’angoisse, de peur et

d’incertitude, on semble se résigner à croire que

la maladie va être parmi nous pour plus de

temps que prévu, et qu’il faut désormais

apprendre à vivre avec elle. Il faut donc

admettre et garder à l’esprit que la maladie

détruit encore des vies humaines un peu partout

Chaque jour, et que si la ferveur des reporters et

le rythme de diffusion des nouvelles sur la

pandémie ont considérablement baissé ,il ne

faut pas pour autant négliger les consignes de

prudence et de sécurité des premiers jours..

Dans une conversation avec l’un de mes amis

sur les effets de la Covid -19, cet ami m’avoue

qu’il est très inquiet pour l’avenir et qu’il ne

fait plus de projets à long terme, tellement la

vie s’est révélée fragile à ses yeux. Il devait

partir en croisière cet été ; mais lorsque la

compagnie de voyage voulait le gratifier d’un

rabais de 25% pour qu’il garde le voyage avec

la compagnie pour l’année prochaine, il décida

tout simplement de décommander tellement il

n’est pas sur de ce qui va arriver dans l’avenir,

ou dans six mois. Il est bien déjà dans la

soixantaine ; il admet non sans peine que rien

n’est plus garanti pour personne et qu’il

apprend désormais à vivre au jour le jour sans

souci du lendemain. Il réalise que le temps est

court et l’avenir très incertain. Beaucoup de

gens avec qui je m’entretiens ces temps-ci

semblent abonder dans le même sens..

Cette incertitude de l’avenir est ce qui va

grandement affecter l’économie et l’empêcher

de sortir de la récession ; Le système

économique capitaliste ayant toujours été basé

sur la confiance des consommateurs et la

capacité du système à faire des projections

d’avenir. En fait, La peur continue de ronger

tout le monde. Et Ceux qui croient dans les

prédictions bibliques, brandissent désormais des

versets de l’apocalypse, dernier livre du

nouveau testament, pour annoncer que l’heure

est proche où le monde doit disparaitre et que

Rony Jean-Mary, M.D.

LA COVID-19 S’EN VA,

MAIS VA-T-ON VIVRE COMME AVANT

7

la grande tribulation a déjà commencé. Je

réponds en lisant ce même livre que si la grande

tribulation a déjà commencé, nous avons bien

raté l’enlèvement et les noces de l’agneau et

qu’il faudra peut-être attendre la seconde

résurrection. Je ne suis pas sceptique quant à un

retour du Christ deuxième ou seconde version,

qui pourrait même être un troisième ,selon que

Melchizedek était l’ incarnation ou non du

Christ et que celui-ci aurait déjà vécu parmi

nous dans des temps lointains, Comme on le

prétend dans certaines sectes religieuses et que

me l’enseigna aussi mon feu père.

Je voudrais plutôt croire que le monde a déjà

connu pareilles turbulences, des guerres et des

pandémies encore plus meurtrières, et que ce

n’est pas encore la fin , ni la fin du

commencement de la fin, mais que malgré le

caractère prophétique de l’apocalypse de jean ,il

sera difficile aux hommes de dire exactement

quand le seigneur apparaitra dans les airs. Un

siècle de cela, les témoins de Jéhovah

prédisaient la fin du monde pour 1914.Mais il

n’en était rien..Nous faisons donc face à des

problèmes humains qui réclament des solutions

humaines. Des solutions qui appellent à une

meilleure gestion des ressources de la terre , à

une plus grande solidarité entre les hommes ,et

à un dépassement des clivages hégémoniques

pour comprendre que la terre n’est qu’un seul

pays et que les hommes, d’où qu’ils soient, en

sont les citoyens.

Quand ces troubles arrivent ils nous rappellent

que nous ne sommes pas les vrais maitres de la

terre et que nous n’en sommes que des gérants

appelés à s’en occuper dignement, à en jouir

avec respect avant de passer ensuite le maillet à

ceux qui viendront après nous..L’’humanite

semble être embarquée sur un navire

déboussolé qui a longtemps perdu le Nord..Le

train à bord duquel nous nous trouvons n’a ni

coach, ni capitaine, et marche clopin clopan. Il

faudra des hommes de haut calibre, Hauts de

gamme, pour juguler les crises, remettre les

pendules à l’heure ,et faire redémarrer le

train.C’est ici le moment de se demander si l’on

a vraiment besoin de dépenser tous ces milliard

pour aller sur Mars ou retourner sur la lune

quand la terre est mal nourrie et que les

hommes meurent de faim ici-bas ?.

Rony Jean-Mary, M.D.

Coral Springs, FL

le 7 juin 2020.

8

UNE RADIOSCOPIE DU RACISME

AUX ETATS UNIS D’AMERIQUE

La mort de George Floyd, étouffé sous les

genoux d’un policier blanc ,il y a de cela deux

semaines aujourd’hui, est un doigt de plus

enfoncé dans cette gangrène à ciel ouvert

qu’est le racisme Américain, et qui est en train

de saper les bases mêmes de la société

Américaine.

Si cela s’était passé une seule fois en dix ou en

cinq ans, on aurait pu crier à un accident. Mais

la constance avec laquelle de tels incident ont

lieu dans le pays soutient la thèse de

préméditation dans les actes de meurtre

perpétrés systématiquement sur les gens de

couleur en particulier sur les noirs de ce pays.

En lisant « Jeune Afrique » d’ il y a de cela

quelques années, on disait que le racisme, c’ est

ce que le Blanc a à offrir pour prouver ou

exhiber sa supériorité quand il n’a rien d’autre

à offrir .Cela est en partie vrai si l’on s’en tient

à une considération basée strictement sur la

couleur de la peau et sur les caractéristiques

ethniques des protagonistes en question...Mais

le racisme c’est plus qu’une affaire d’’ethnicité.

C’est un sentiment de supériorité, teinté

souvent d’arrogance que beaucoup expriment

vis-à-vis d’autrui .Ce sentiment découle

souvent d’un système de privilèges accordé à

une classe donnée dans une société donnée, qui

défavorise et marginalise les éléments des

autres composantes de la société. Pour

comprendre pourquoi le racisme est ancré à ce

point dans les mœurs américaines, il faut se

rappeler que les Blancs ont toujours été les

dépositaires des privilèges de cette société. Les

Noirs d’un autre cote, sont les seuls à avoir

travaillé pour les autres sans aucune forme de

compensation et à n’avoir jamais été reconnus

pour leur contribution à l’édification de cette

nation. Certes, Il y avait des Blancs esclaves

aux Etats –unis. Mais c’étaient des Européens

qui, pour payer la traversée de l’océan de

l’Europe à L’Amérique, s’étaient portés

esclaves pendant sept ans pour assurer la

restitution du cout de leur voyage.. Une fois les

sept années accomplies, ils pouvaient

recouvrer leur liberté et travailler pour eux-

mêmes. Il était aussi beaucoup plus facile pour

eux de s’infiltrer dans la société blanche

dominatrice et de jouir de tous les autres

privilèges accordés aux blancs...Par contre, le

voyage de l’homme noir n’était ni voulu ni

planifié mais tout simplement imposé. Eux, ils

étaient traités comme des sous-hommes et

l’égalité de droit dont fait mention la

constitution Américaine n’avait rien à voir avec

eux. Donc, l’homme noir Américain grandit

dans une société où il est constamment

marginalisé et sert de marche- pied pour les

autres parce que maltraité au sommet .Il est en

proie à une exclusion systématisée et

hiérarchisée, nourrie à dessein pour empêcher le

renversement de l’ordre établi et sauvegarder

les intérêts d’une classe donnée. La notion

d’être blanc aux Etats unis s’apparente toujours

à une affaire de privilège à vie et sans limites.

« Being White is a timeless and limitless notion

of privilège ». le Blanc peut ne même pas

savoir qu’il est raciste car il vous dira souvent

qu’il a des amis noirs et qu’il n’est contre

personne dans la société. Mais ce qui fait de lui

un raciste c’est son inconscience de l’inégalité

sociale poignante qui lui accorde des privilèges

dont ne jouit aucune autre classe de la société.

La peur par le Blanc de vivre l’expérience des

autres, et en particulier celle des noirs, et le

refus d’inviter ces derniers à accéder à son

mode de vie a lui, c’est ce qui fait de l’homme

blanc un raciste.il cherche à perpétuer

sciemment ou inconsciemment un système qui

fait du tort aux autres. Le racisme est souvent

englué dans une sauce de préjugé ou d’idées

préconçues par rapport aux autres. Les préjugés

de caste sont aussi une autre forme d’exclusion

sociale mais qui ne sont pas nécessairement du

racisme. Le blanc serait beaucoup plus disposé à

aider un noir d’un autre pays plutôt que d’aider

un Africain American. Certains m’ auraient

même dit à moi que je suis différent des autres,

en se référant aux Afro- Américains, comme

pour me dire que je suis un bon nègre. Il y a

donc plus que du préjugé ou du racisme dans le

rapport entre le Blanc et le noir Américain. Il y

9

a même une haine viscérale du blanc vis-à-vis du

noir Américain. Depuis plus de cinq siècles, ils

ont tout fait pour garder le noir dans la bestialité

et l’ignorance .Ils ont plaidé pour une réparation

en faveur des juifs des camps de concentration ;

Ils ont accordé réparation aux japonais enfermés

dans des camps de concentration au moment de

la deuxième guerre mondiale, Mais les noirs eux,

ils ont été victimes de toutes sortes d’abus et

d’injustice de la part de la classe dominante

Américaine et n’ont jamais connu de réparation

.Ils attendent encore la mule et les hectares de

terres qui leur avaient été promis au moment de

l’abolition de l’esclavage..Apres l’esclavage, il y

avait le lynchage. Au lynch age s’est substituée

l’incarcération démesurée du noir dont un fort

percentage est aujourd’hui en prison. Les noirs

n’ont jamais eu accès au crédit des Banques qui

leur aurait permis d’avoir leur propre entreprise.

Ils étaient interdits de devenir des propriétaires

terriens et lorsqu’ils s’assemblèrent en

coopérative pour obtenir des centres

commerciaux et conduire leurs propres affaires,

on préférait laisser ces centres vacants plutôt que

de les vendre à des noirs qui auraient pu en

prendre possession.. Pourtant le Coréen avait

droit au crédit, l’européen, l’indien ont eu tous

droit au crédit sauf l’Africain-Américain. Le

chinois a ses restaurants un peu partout dans le

pays..Du juif, c’est la même histoire.

Aujourd’hui, c’est l’assassinat systématique du

Noir par les policiers Blancs.

Et Malgré tous les abus dont ils sont victimes de

la part du Blanc, ils continuent d’exceller dans

tous les domaines.et d’être les portes- étendard de

la nation. On comprend que les Blancs aient peur

de les laisser prospérer et de vouloir les réprimer

à tout moment. J’ai vu des noirs d’autres nations

y inclus des Haïtiens cherchant à faire croire

qu’ils sont supérieurs aux noirs Américains. Ā

eux je réponds qu’ils sont libres depuis plus de

deux siècles et n’ont rien subi de ce que les noirs

de ce pays ont connu depuis qu’ils ont foulé le

sol Américain. J’ajoute pour eux que nous avons

grandi dans un pays où la couleur de notre peau

n’a jamais été une barrière à notre éducation.

donc a notre émancipation..Ce n’est pas que le

noir soit sans responsabilité dans le drame qui

l’afflige aujourd’hui mais c’était la responsabilité

du système donc du blanc de l’encadrer à sa

sortie de l’esclavage pour qu’il devienne auto

suffisant voire florissant. Le blanc était trop

préoccupé de savoir qui va remplacer les noirs

libérés des plantations pour s’occuper du bien-

être de ces derniers. Le problème de

l’esclavage avait été soulevé depuis le

président Benjamin Franklin qui disait que le

vrai problème du pays, c’était l’esclavage car il

ne voyait comment la nation pouvait continuer

à vivre avec ou sans l’esclavage..

Enfin la réponse des blancs par rapport au

problème des noirs est qu’ ils ne se croient

point responsables ni coupables de ce qui s’est

passé dans ce pays pendant des siècles à

l’égard des noirs. Ā eux je pose cette question:

si nous sommes cinq sur une table, et que

quatre d’entre nous sont en train de déguster

leur plat et que le cinquième n’a rien a manger

pendant que nous sommes tous assis ensemble

à la même table. Allez-vous me dire que ce

nest pas votre problème que quelqu’un de notre

table n’ait rien dans son assiette ?.Donc le

problème d’abus sur les noirs, les injustices

contre un groupe sans défense, particulièrement

contre les mineurs , sous quelque forme que ce

soit, devrait nous interpeller tous. J’apprécie le

movement de solidarité qui se dessine un peu

partout à travers le monde en faveur des noirs

Américains qui ont versé leur sang et arrosé de

leur sueur le mortier qui a servi à bâtir cette

nation , et qui n’a récolté, pour toute

compensation, que la haine et l’indifférence des

blancs. S’agirait-il de la peur que le noir ne

prenne un jour le dessus et se mettent à venger

les injustices qu’il a subies :fuite Karmique

inespérée ,ou que leur fille ou fils n’amène un

noir à la maison un jour?

Il y a dans la salle, ou dans ce resto en plein

air, une femme ou un homme qui ne peut point

respirer et qui te supplie de lui sauver la vie ou

de le laisser vivre..Alors allez vous les laisser

mourir sans faire un geste ou allez vous dire

que ce n’est pas votre problème.Voila pourquoi

les policiers qui ont assisté au meurtre de

Georges Floyd sans faire un geste pour lui

porter assistance sont aussi coupables que le

vilain qui l’a asphyxie en posant son genou sur

son cou .

Rony Jean-Mary, M.D.

Coral Springs, FL

le 7 juin 2020.

10

THROMBOSIS IN COVID-19 REYNALD ALTEMA, MD

The list of complications from Covid-19 continues to rise. The pathophysiology of the illness is still

somewhat elusive in a lot of respects, not the least of which involves the formation of thrombosis in both

arterial and venous beds1. This is all the more alarming in the presence of widespread pharmacologic

DVT prophylaxis in hospitalized patients. Thrombosis among ICU patients receiving enoxaparin occur in

31% of cases in a study done in Holland with PE being the most common type; venous thrombosis made

up 27% while arterial thrombosis occurred at a rate of 3.7%.2 Thrombus formation is associated with

poorer prognosis. Microthrombi at autopsy are found frequently disseminated in the lungs and other

organs. This points toward the serious importance of thrombus prevention in the setting of the disease.

However other complications include CVA (infarct> hemorrhage)3.

There are any number of mechanisms stipulated to explain the enhanced procoagulating effect noted

(Figs 1-3). However, it’s different than classic DIC because it is not a consumption coagulopathy and it’s

not associated with thrombocytopenia or low fibrinogen level. Of interest is the mention of endothelial

dysfunction, the hallmark of metabolic syndrome, far more common in our kinfolk. The interaction of

cytokines and endothelial dysfunction is a well described cascade of pathologic reactions and is

illustrated in Fig 44.

Fig 1 (from Iba et al)

11

Fig 2 (Iba et al)

Fig. 3 (Bonny et al)

Mécanismes proposés de la coagulopathie de la COVID-19. L’infection par le SARS-CoV-2 engendre une atteinte pulmonaire,

principalement décrite comme du dommage alvéolaire diffus. Une hypoxémie survient en cas d’atteinte sévère. En réponse à l’hypoxémie, il

existe une induction de la voie de signalisation des « hypoxia inducible transcription factors » qui concoure à activer la coagulation, à

supprimer la fibrinolyse et à inhiber les anticoagulants circulants naturels. Dans le même temps, l’infection engendre un recrutement de

cellules mononuclées au niveau de la barrière alvéolo-capillaire. Celles-ci, à la suite de l’induction de la voie NF-κB, vont sécréter des

cytokines pro-inflammatoires (TNF-α, IL-1 et IL-6) qui vont favoriser la libération de l’inhibiteur de l’activateur du plasminogène (PAI-1) et

l’inhibition des anticoagulants naturels. Aussi, elles favorisent l’activation de la coagulation par la génération de facteur tissulaire. Cette

activation est soutenue par l’activation plaquettaire. L’activation de l’endothélium, secondaire à une atteinte virale spécifique et/ou une

activation du complément, favorise la coagulation et l’interaction avec les plaquettes circulantes. Finalement, la fibrine, les globules rouges

et les plaquettes s’agrègent, réalisant un thrombus fibrino-cruorique.

______________________________________________________________________________

12

Fig 4 (Shao et al)

A sensible approach to treating patients with Covid-19 who have hypoxemia is to follow the Marik

protocol, named after the chief of Respiratory diseases at Eastern Virginia Med School. It’s one that

takes into consideration the latest data on the use of vitamin D, C, thiamine, the aggressive use of

corticosteroids, especially in the case of the dreadful Macrophage Activation Syndrome, originally

described as a rare complication of Kawasaki Syndrome. One needs to bear in mind this protocol has a

low threshold for using full anticoagulant dose. Patients that require >4L/min of oxygen receive it

(1mg/kg Q12hrs.)

The next issue to be tackled is the outpatient treatment for DVT prevention upon discharge. Again, this is

not yet well defined. Some recommend anticoagulant treatment up to 2 months. The problem with

anticoagulation therapy is the forever risk of bleeding, regardless of dose used. It comes down to a

balance between risk and benefit. As more data become available, the recommendation for widespread

use of anticoagulant upon discharge will be better established. Some people recommend a middle of the

road approach of either full dose aspirin or dipyridamole. However, this is not yet standard or widespread

treatment.

So far, it has become clear that not one single therapeutic intervention suffices against this very clever

virus. One needs to use the full armamentarium of available therapeutic interventions. We are still

learning as we along.

13

Fig 5-Marik protocol

References:

1. Iba T, Levy JH, Levi M, Connors JM, Thachil J. Coagulopathy of Coronavirus Disease 2019

[published online ahead of print, 2020 May 27]. Crit Care Med. 2020;10.1097.

2. Klok, FA, et al. Incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with Covid-19.

Thrombosis Research, 191 (2020) 145-147.

3. Divani AA, Andalib S, Di Napoli M, et al. Coronavirus Disease 2019 and Stroke: Clinical

Manifestations and Pathophysiological Insights. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2020;29(8):104941.

4. Shao Y, Cheng Z, Li X, Chernaya V, Wang H, Yang XF. Immunosuppressive/anti-inflammatory

cytokines directly and indirectly inhibit endothelial dysfunction--a novel mechanism for

maintaining vascular function. J Hematol Oncol. 2014;7:80. Published 2014 Oct 31.

doi:10.1186/s13045-014-0080-6

5. Bonny V, Maillard A, Mousseaux C, Plaçais L, Richier Q. COVID-19 : physiopathologie d’une

maladie à plusieurs visages [COVID-19: Pathogenesis of a multi-faceted disease] [published online

ahead of print, 2020 May 27]. Rev Med Interne. 2020;doi:10.1016/j.revmed.2020.05.003.

Le Newsletter est publié toutes les 3 semaines.

Prochaine parution: 29 juin 2020

14

The Cherokee Nation was located in Indian Territory, West to the Mississippi River, in present

Oklahoma. A large group of slaves escaped on the 15 November 1842. A group of 20 African-American

slaves in Cherokee Indians territory escaped and tried to reach Mexico where slavery was abolished since

1829. Another group of 15 African American slaves from the Creek territory joined them in the escape.

More, 2 slave catchers were taking eight captive slaves to Choctaw territory. They took the opportunity

to kill the hunters and the family joined their group. The Cherokee sought reinforcements and raised

around 100 of Cherokee and Choctaw warriors to pursue and capture the fugitive. Five slaves were later

executed for killing the two slave catchers and this event inspired subsequent rebellions in the Indian

Chronicle of Slave rebellions in the Americas.

Maxime Coles MD

All societies practicing slavery will have to deal with slave revolts because there is that desire for Freedom in

any human being. One can express it in their songs or their story-telling nights. It becomes part of their culture

and an art in knowing how to implant it on others with the same background.

History is full of examples of such revolts. When a Roman slave named Spartacus (73-71 BC) rose against

abuses committed by the Roman Empire or a Scandinavian Slave Tunni, in the 9th century, revolted against

the Swedish Monarchy, you can also understand well how the slaves of Santo Domingo, Bookman, Dessalines

and others may have felt in the 18th century (1791) against the French Imperialism of Napoleon Bonaparte.

The French revolution indeed bought to us the words of Liberty and Equality for all.

Muhammed led the east African slaves in the Zani Rebellion in Iraq to revolt against the Abbasid Caliphate.

Nanny of the Maroons revolted against the British in Jamaica. In continental United States, Denmark Vesey

rebelled in South Carolina.

Ancient Sparta had serfs called helots who rebelled against the Spartans as reported by Herodotus. English

peasants revolted in 1381 to obtain reform in the feudalism system in England and increase the right of the

serfs and Richard II agreed to their requests. In Russia, the slaves were called Kholops and slavery remained an

institution until 1723 when Peter the Great converted the slaves into serfs. They became outlaws called

“Cossacks” living in the southern steppes. Numerous rebellions and Cossacks uprisings with Ivan Bolotnikov

(1606), Stenka Razin (1667), Kondraty Butavin (1707) are some of the many hundred outbreaks across Russia.

Numerous African slave revolts took place in America during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. More than 250

uprising have been documented. Slaves like Gabriel Prosser (Richmond, VA 1800), Denmark Vesey

(Charleston SC 1822) Nat Turner (South Hampton County VA 1831) merit their named to be mentioned and

this is the story of the most striking revolts that I want to bring to light.

I have taken solemnly that task to bring to light the most distinctive slave revolutions in the Americas and

chose to review some of the most epic African slave revolts which have marked forever the new world in this

“Chronicle of African Slave revolts in the Americas”. I am sure you will find time to appreciate what our

ancestors have done to make Haiti a free Nation for the Haitians.

This month, we will talk about the 1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation.

Slave revolt in the Cherokee Nation 1842

Maxime Coles MD

15

territory forcing the Cherokee Nation to pass stricter slave codes. If the Indians has practiced the art of

enslaving prisoners of war in fighting other tribes, following the new European contract in the late 18th

century have permitted some Cherokee to set up plantations on their Cherokee Nation Land mimicking

European Americans. Soon parts of Georgia and Tennessee were ready for them to have plantations

allowing them to purchase African American slaves to work their land.

A slave code was respected in 1819 to regulate the trades, forbidden intermarriage with punishment for

runaway slaves and the interdiction to own land. Later in the 1829 law modifications, it was added that a

fine of 15 dollars to be given to the master if slaves were allowed to buy or sell liquor. The slaves worked

primarily as agricultural laborers cultivating cotton and food for their masters. They also developed salt

mines and trading posts with slave labor.

The Cherokee Indians bought the salves with them in the 1820’s when the federal government removed

them from the southeastern states. Joseph Vann has taken with him 200 slaves to perform the physical

labor. They loaded wagons, cleared roads and took care of the livestock. In 1835, the Cherokees owned

an estimated 1500 slaves of African descent, 300 mixed races (Metis) mainly descendants of European

traders and Cherokee women which form an elite class in the Indian Territory. Most of the metis will owe

each 25 to 50 slaves on plantations of around 100 acres or less to cultivate wheat, cotton, corn, hemp and

tobacco. They owe also large cattle and horse herds.

An estimated 4600 slaves belong to the Cherokee Nation in 1860 working as domestic servants and farm

laborers. During the civil war, there were more than 8000 slaves in Indian Territory, forming 14% of the

population

The mass escape of 20 African American slaves from the Cherokee territory began on the 15th of

November 1842. I was named “the most spectacular act of rebellion again slavery” among the Cherokee.

They were from the plantation of James and “Rich Joe” Vann. Those slaves gathered and raided local

stores for weapons, ammunition, horses and mules. They headed south for Mexico where slavery was

abolished since 1836. Along the way, the picked up 15 other slaves from the Creek territory. Creek and

Cherokee pursued the victims but they met enough resistance to turn back for re-enforcements despite of

killing or capturing 14.

On their way south, the fugitives encountered two slave catchers James Edwards and Billy Wilson who

were returning a family of 3 adults and 5 children to the Choctaw Indians. They killed the catchers and

continued their way south.

A Cherokee Militia John Drew of 100 citizens was authorized by the Cherokee National Council in

Tahlequah, to pursue, arrest and delivered the African slaves to Fort Gibson. The expeditionary forces

caught the slaves seven miles north of the red river. The fugitives were tired, weak and hungry and did

not have the strength to resist.

They were returned to their Choctaw, Creek and Cherokee reservations. 5 slaves were executed for

killing the catchers. Some placed the surviving slaves in different work environment like steamboat,

shoveling coal. Other returned to their previous duty.

This slave revolt inspired future slave rebellions in Indian Territories. In 1851, an account of 300 slaves

have attempted to escape Indian Territory in heading mostly to Mexico or Kansas territory where slavery

was prohibited.

Indian slaveholders started to enter the business of buying and selling slaves to states like Texas and

Arkansas. Non-slave holding Indians were hired to catch runaway slaves. Some of the slaveholders

become wealthy in providing such service. The Indian Nation passed stricter slave code forbidden free

blacks to enter the territory. After the American Civil War the Cherokee Nation and their planters shifted

from agriculture to manufacturing small scale products.

Mass escape resulted in casualties and deaths for slaves and Indian masters, so newspapers started

16

References:

1- “Slavery” Archived October 18, 2010 Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture

2- Tiya Miles, Ties that Bind: The Story of an Afro-Cherokee Family in Slavery and Freedom,

University of California Press, 2005, pp. 179-173.

3- William Gerald Mc Laughlin (1993): “Slave holding and anti-slavery efforts, 1846-1855”, in

After the Trial of Tears: The Cherokees ‘Struggle for Sovereignty, 1839-1880. Universitiy of

North Carolina Press. pp. 121-153.

4- Art T Burton, “Cherokee Slave Revolt in 1842, “True West Magazine (June 1996)

5- Rudi Halliburton, Jr., Red Over Black: Black Slavery among the Cherokee Indians (Westport

Connecticut.: Greenwood Press, 1977)

6- Daniel F Littlefield, Jr Africans and Creeks: From the Colonial Period to the Civil War, Westport

Connecticut.: Greenwood Press, 1979.

7- Morris L. Wardell, A Political History of the Cherokee Nation, 1838-19-7 (Norman: University of

Oklahoma Press, 1977).

8- Kaye M. Teall, Black History in Oklahoma: A Resource Book (Oklahoma City: Oklahoma City

Public Schools, 1971).

reporting on the 1842 slave revolt until the Fort Smith Elevator of Arkansas published and anniversary

article about the escape of the African American slaves, providing some kind of mystic power on the

event and adding that in spite of 20 slave, now hundred have disappeared.

Maxime Coles MD

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405857220300292

17

Ronald Georges MD, chirurgien orthopediste, nous a quitte ce matin pour

rejoindre son createur. Il devient une autre victime de cette pandemie. Il a

travaille d'arrache-pied pour demontrer ses talents de chirurgien a une

population qui a su l'apprecier. Il a depuis de nombreuses annees participe a la

formation de beaucoup de nos residents en Haiti. Je l'ai bien connu, IL etait un

ami qui prenait plaisir a vous montrer combien IL avait maitrise l'operation de

Moore dans une fracture de hanche. Il savait quand etre serieux et quand

badiner avec ses collegues. Apres un fellowship a Panama, IL EST retourne au

pays pour aider a former nos jeunes. Il laisse un vide qui sera difficile a

combler. A as femme Colette , a ses enfants et petit-enfants, je veux tant au nom

de la AMHE qu'en Mon nom personnel presenter nos condoleances emues.

Nous perdons un confrere, un frere, un ami et Le service D'Orthopedie a l'HUEH, sous la direction du

Dr Jacques Pierre-Pierre lui doit une fiere chandelle. Allez Mon cher ami, TU nous laisses comme un

soldat, combattant ce fleau . Que la Terre te sots legere Ronald Georges, dit "poue-pouel"et que ce Dieu

de Misericorde te recoive dans as demeure. Bon voyage.

Maxime Coles MD (6-2-2020)

Dear Member Family and Friends of AMHE,

It is with great sadness that we must share with you the passing of Dr. Ducarmel Augustin’s beloved

sister, Anne Marie Berthe Augustin. She passed away on Sunday, May 31, 2020, at the family

residence Canape Vert, Haiti.

On Behalf of the AMHE Leadership and membership, I would like to present Dr. Ducarmel

Augustin, our most sincere condolences and expression of courage.

Anne Marie Berthe was a Career employee at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs where she

distinguished herself as a dedicated, honest, respected employee of the Ministry for over fifty years.

In 2015, Anne Marie Berthe received special mention for her 52 years of loyal and good services to

the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

We can say that Mrs. Anne Marie Berthe Augustin belongs to a breed of civil servants that Haiti

would need more of. Her passing brings great sadness to the Augustin family and will certainly

leave a void at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of her country that she serve so well.

The funerals of Anne Marie Berthe Augustin will be held this Saturday, June 6, 2020, at the Parc du

Souvenir at 11. Zoom info will follow.

Sincerely,

J. Pierre Paul Cadet, MD

President, AMHE

18

Published on the AMHE Facebook page last two weeks Articles parus sur la page Facebook de l'AMHE durant la dernière semaine

Thank you, Anika Michael, for this update on the glaucoma team at Cayes Jacmel with AHDH (February

2020). Maxime Coles MD - Tests diagnostiques et tests anticorps, quelles sont les différences. MC - La Croix

rouge haitienne continue son travail de Decontamination des bureaux de la MSPP - La Croix Rouge Haitienne

desinfecte les bureauxet locaux de la Television Nationale d'Haiti - AMHE Foundation - Dr. Vladimir Berthaud

Interviewed by Dr. Reynald Altema on COVID-19 - Yves Piquion MD à l'avant-garde de la pandémie COVID-

19 Ravi de t'avoir vu Yves. MC - Hydroxychloroquine for SARS-CoV-2 Infection: How Did We Get Here? -

les Amerindiens ne sont pas epargnes par cette epidemie du COVID-19, Je pense a mes amis de Gallup NM.

Stay confined. MC - Gerard Bloncourt parle des annees 1946 - La raison la plus courante que les gens ont des

problèmes avec leur vésicule biliaire est les calculs biliaires. Une petite page d'histoire vue d'aures yeux. MC And more…

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