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Antoninus Pius: 138 - 161

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Antoninus Pius: 138 - 161. ca. 150 A.D. marble Roman Empire Glyptothek, Munich. March 13 th , 2012. http://www.vroma.org/images/scaife_images/087b.jpg. Sources. One of the least understood reigns. Sources problematic. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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March 13 th , 2012 http://www.vroma.org/images/scaife_images/087b.jpg ca. 150 A.D. marble Roman Empire Glyptothek, Munich
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Page 1: Antoninus  Pius: 138 - 161

March 13th, 2012

http://www.vroma.org/images/scaife_images/087b.jpg

ca. 150 A.D. marble Roman Empire Glyptothek, Munich

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One of the least understood reigns.

Sources problematic.

HA the main source; relies on Marius Maximus, Memoirs of Antoninus, numerous unnamed writers.

Cassius Dio very fragmentary epitome.

Coins and inscriptions vital.

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“The orations which have come down in his name, some say, are really the work of others, according to Marius Maximus, however, they were his own.” (HA, 11.3. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

Dispute regarding the authenticity of Antoninus’ orations.

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No familial relationship.

Trusted amicus (One of four consular administrators of Italy).

Adopted in 138; required to adopt Lucius Verus, son of Aelius Verus and Marcus Antoninus as his own sons.

Confusion re: nomenclature: 1. Aelius Verus = L. Ceionius Commodus (name changed to Lucius Aelius Caesar upon adoption). 2. Antoninus adopts L. Ceionius Commodus II (i.e. son of L. Aelius) who would be renamed Lucius Aurelius Commodus, and Marcus Annius Verus who would be renamed Marcus Aurelius Verus.

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B. to Titus Aurelius Fulvius Boionius Antoninus Pius and Arria Fadilla in Italy on Sept. 19, 86 CE.

Paternal grandfather twice consul and urban prefect; father also consul.

Maternal grandfather twice consul.Ca. 110-115 – Married Annia Galeria Faustina

(paternal aunt of M. Aurelius).112 – Quaestor.117 – Praetor.120 – Consul.130-135 – Proconsul of Asia.138 – Adopted as heir and successor by Hadrian.

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Presided over the longest period of peace and stability of the Roman empire.

Accession marked by some initial (short-lived) tensions with the senate.

Deferential to senate; Demanded magisterial accountability.

Ended informers (?).Fiscally prudent.Generous to the common people.Continued infrastructure spending.Expanded the alimenta further still.Revived patriotism (Rome’s 900th anniversary in

147/8).

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“His father, as long as he lived, he obeyed most scrupulously, and when Hadrian passed away at Baiae he bore his remains to Rome with all piety and reverence, and buried him in the gardens of Domitia; moreover, though all opposed the measure, he had him placed among the deified.” (HA, 5.1. Trans. D. Magie, 1921)

“It should be noted that the account of Antoninus Pius is not found in the copies of Dio, probably because the books have met with some accident, so that the history of his reign is almost wholly unknown; save that when Lucius Commodus, whom Hadrian had adopted, died before Hadrian, Antoninus was both adopted by him and became emperor, 2 and that when the senate demurred to giving divine honours to Hadrian after his death on account of certain murders of eminent men, Antoninus addressed many words to them with tears and lamentations, and finally said: "Well, then, I will not govern you either, if he has become in your eyes base and hostile and a public foe. 3 For in that case you will, of course, soon annul all his acts, of which my adoption was one." On hearing this the senate, both through respect for the man and through a certain fear of the soldiers, bestowed the honours upon Hadrian.” (Cassius Dio, Epitome 70.1. Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

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“He gave a largess to the soldiers and the people from his own funds, and also the sums that his father had promised…and of the crown-gold that had been offered him on account of his adoption, he remitted the whole amount to the Italians and half to the provincials.” (HA, 4.9. Trans. A. Birley, 1976).

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“He besought the senate to pardon those men whom Hadrian had condemned, saying that Hadrian himself had been about to do so. The imperial pomp he reduced to the utmost simplicity and thereby gained the greater esteem, though the palace-attendants opposed this course, for they found that since he made no use of go-betweens, they could in no wise terrorize men or take money for decisions about which there was no concealment. In his dealings with the senate, he rendered it, as emperor, the same respect that he had wished another emperor to render him when he was a private man. When the senate offered him the title of Father of his Country, he p115at first refused it, but later accepted it with an elaborate expression of thanks.” (HA, 5.3-6. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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“With such care did he govern all peoples under him that he looked after all things and all men as if they were his own. As a result, the provinces all prospered in his reign, informers were abolished, the confiscation of goods was less frequent than ever before, and only one man was condemned as guilty of aspiring to the throne. This was Atilius Titianus, and it was the senate itself that conducted his prosecution, while the Emperor forbade any investigation about the fellow-conspirators of Atilius and always aided his son to attain all his desires. Priscianus did indeed die for aspiring to the throne, but by his own hand, and about his conspiracy also the Emperor forbade any investigation.” (HA, 7.1-4. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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“The board of Antoninus Pius was rich yet never open to criticism, frugal yet not stingy; his table was furnished by his own slaves, his own fowlers and fishers and hunters. A bath, which he had previously used himself, he opened to the people without charge, nor did he himself depart in any way from the manner of life to which he had been accustomed when a private man. He took away salaries from a number of men who held obvious sinecures, saying there was nothing meaner, nay more unfeeling, than the man who nibbled at the revenues of the state without giving any service in return; for the same reason, also, he reduced the salary of Mesomedes, the lyric poet. The budgets of all the provinces and the sources of revenue he knew exceedingly well. He settled his private fortune on his daughter, but presented the income of it to the state. Indeed, the superfluous trappings of royal state and even the crown-lands he sold, living on his own private estates and varying his residence according to the season. Nor did he undertake any expedition other than the visiting of his lands in Campania, averring that the equipage of an emperor, even of one over frugal, was a burdensome thing to the provinces. And yet he was regarded with immense respect by all nations, for, making his residence in the city, as he did, for the purpose of being in a central location, he was able to receive messages from every quarter with equal speed.” (HA, 7.5-12. Trans. D. Magie, 1921)

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“He gave largess to the people, and, in addition, a donation to the soldiers, and founded an order of destitute girls, called Faustinianae in honour of Faustina. Of the public works that were constructed by him the following remain to‑day: the temple of Hadrian at Rome, so called in honour of his father, the Graecostadium, restored by him after its burning, the Amphitheatre, repaired by him, the tomb of Hadrian, the temple of Agrippa, and the Pons Sublicius, also the Pharus, the port at Caieta, and the port at Tarracina, all of which he restored, the bath at Ostia, the aqueduct at Antium, and the temples at Lanuvium. Besides all this, he helped many communities to erect new buildings and to restore the old; and he even gave pecuniary aid to Roman magistrates and senators to assist them in the performance of their duties.” (HA 8.1-4. Trans. D. Magie, 1921)

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http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/apcoinaeneas.jpg

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http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/apcoinmarsrhea.jpg

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Continuation of the policy of Hadrian.

No imperial expansion; internal consolidation.

Britain and the Antonine Wall (ca. 142).

Britain (ca. 142); Mauretania Tingitana (145); Germany (ca. 140-45); Dacians (?); the Alani (?); little known about these wars; suppression of provincial rebellion rather than wars of conquest.

Soft diplomacy.

Sound and equitable provincial administration.

Re-established Italian hegemony over the provinces.

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“He waged a number of wars, but all of them through his legates. For Lollius Urbicus, his legate, overcame the Britons and built a second wall, one of turf, after driving back the barbarians. Through other legates or governors, he forced the Moors to sue for peace, and crushed the Germans and the Dacians and many other tribes, and also the Jews, who were in revolt. In Achaea also and in Egypt he put down rebellions and many a time sharply checked the Alani in their raiding.” (HA, 5.4-5. Trans.

D. Magie, 1921)

Lollius Urbicus; Lusius Quietus.

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“He also took away from the Brigantes in Britain the greater part of their territory, because they too had begun an unprovoked war on the province of Genunia, a Roman dependency.” (Pausanias, 8.4. Trans.W.H.S. Jones, 1918).

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hadrians_Wall_map.png

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http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/antoninewall_inscrip.jpg

Edinburgh, National Museum of Scotland. Credits: Barbara McManus, 2004

“for the emperor Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius, father of the fatherland, the second Augustan Legion built [this wall] for a distance of 4652 paces.” (B. McManus, 2004)

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“Antoninus, the benefactor of PalIantium, never willingly involved the Romans in war; but when the Moors (who form the greatest part of the independent Libyans, being nomads, and more formidable enemies than even the Scythians in that they wandered, not on wagons, but on horseback with their womenfolk), when these, I say, began an unprovoked war, he drove them from all their country, forcing them to flee to the extreme parts of Libya, right up to Mount Atlas and to the people living on it.” (Pausanias, 8.3. Trans.W.H.S. Jones, 1918).

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“After his accession to the throne he removed none of the men whom Hadrian had appointed to office, and, indeed, was so steadfast and loyal that he retained good men in the government of provinces for terms of seven and even nine years…. His procurators were ordered to levy only a reasonable tribute, and those who exceeded a proper limit were commanded to render an account of their acts, nor was he ever pleased with any revenues that were onerous to the provinces. 2 Moreover, he was always willing to hear complaints against his procurators.” (HA, 5.3 & 6.1. Trans. D. Magie, 1921)

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“Pharasmenes, the king, visited him at Rome and showed him more respect than he had shown Hadrian. He appointed Pacorus king of the Lazi, induced the king of the Parthians to forego a campaign against the Armenians merely by writing him a letter, and solely by his personal influence brought Abgarus the king back from the regions of the East. He settled the pleas of several kings. The royal throne of the Parthians, which Trajan had captured, he refused to return when their king asked for it, and after hearing the dispute between Rhoemetalces and the imperial commissioner, sent the former back his kingdom of the Bosphorus. He sent troops to the Black Sea to bring aid to Olbiopolis against the Tauroscythians and forced the latter to give hostages to Olbiopolis. No one has ever had such prestige among foreign nations as he, for he was ever a lover of peace, even to such a degree that he was continually quoting the saying of Scipio in which he declared that he would rather save a single citizen than slay a thousand foes.” (HA, 9.6-10. Trans. D. Magie, 1921)

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Family loyalty.

Liberality.

Personal frugality.

Personable and accessible.

Just.

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“It is related of him, too, as an instance of his regard for his family, that when Marcus was mourning the death of his tutor and was restrained by the palace servants from this display of affection, the Emperor said: "Let him be only a man for once; for neither philosophy nor empire takes away natural feeling". (HA. 10.5. Trans. D. Magie, 1921)

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One of the most significant reigns.

Beginning of the “decline” of Rome (Mass migrations; Followed by political instability).

Impact on later writers; philosopher emperor beloved by later writers.

Very unsettled reign beset with crises.

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Problematic.

HA is the main source.

Cassius Dio, books 71 and 72 fragmentary.

Aurelius Victor (fl. Ca. 360).

Eutropius (fl. Ca. 360).

Christian writers (Tertullian – 160-220, Orosius – ca. 375-418).

Marcus Aurelius, Meditations.

Tendency towards idealization.

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B. Apr. 26. 121 to Annius Verus and Domitia Lucilla in Rome; Family of Spanish origin.

Always rather sickly; Bookish child; very well educated and scholarly.

Love for philosophy (Note: not just an intellectual pursuit but a way of life).

Follower of the Stoic school. 138 - Adopted by Antoninus Pius when Pius adopted by

Hadrian. Clearly marked out for the Principate. Consul in 140, 145. Tribunicia Potestas in 147. March 7th, 161 – Antoninus Pius dies; smooth and

uncontested transfer of power to Marcus Aurelius. Note: Anoninus’ reign long, peaceful, and prosperous; little

opportunity to be tested.

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“He studied philosophy with ardour, even as a youth. For when he was twelve years old he adopted the dress and, a little later, the hardiness of a philosopher, pursuing his studies clad in a rough Greek cloak and sleeping on the ground; at his mother's solicitation, however, he reluctantly consented to sleep on a couch strewn with skins. 7 He received instruction, furthermore, from the teacher of that Commodus who was destined later to be a kinsman of his, namely Apollonius of Chalcedon, the Stoic; 3 and such was his ardour for this school of philosophy, that even after he became a member of the imperial family, he still went to Apollonius' residence for instruction. 2 In addition, he attended the lectures of Sextus of Chaeronea, the nephew of Plutarch, and of Junius Rusticus, Claudius Maximus, and Cinna Catulus, all Stoics. 3 He also attended p139the lectures of Claudius Severus, an adherent of the Peripatetic school, but he received most instruction from Junius Rusticus, whom he ever revered and whose disciple he became, a man esteemed in both private and public life, and exceedingly well acquainted with the Stoic system, 4 with whom Marcus shared all his counsels both public and private, whom he greeted with a kiss prior to the prefects of the guard, 5 whom he even appointed consul for a second term, and whom after his death he asked the senate to honour with statues. On his teachers in general, moreover, he conferred great honours, for he even kept golden statues of them in his chapel, and made it a custom to show respect for their tombs by personal visits and by offerings of sacrifices and flowers.” (HA. Marcus. 2.6-3.5. Trans. D. Magie, 1921

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“But because Marcus, as a result of his system of philosophy, seemed harsh in his military discipline and indeed in his life in general, he was bitterly assailed…” (HA. Marcus 22.5. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

“Ever on his lips was a saying of Plato's, that those states prospered where the philosophers were kings or the kings philosophers.” (HA. Marcus 27.7. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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Shared the throne with his brother L. Aurelius Verus; joint emperors (anticipation of later developments).

Reign dominated by several major crises.

The Parthian Wars (161-166).

Plague (After 166).

The Germanic (aka Marcomannic) Wars (169-180).

The revolt of Avidius Cassius (175).

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“Being forced by the senate to assume the government of the state after the death of the Deified Pius, Marcus made his brother his colleague in the empire, giving him the name Lucius Aurelius Verus Commodus and bestowing on him the titles Caesar and Augustus. 6 Then they began to rule the state on equal terms, and then it was that the Roman Empire first had two emperors, when Marcus shared with another the empire he had inherited.” (HA. Marcus 7.5-6. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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“But now to interrupt the emperor's happiness and repose, there came the first flood of the Tiber — the severest one of their time — which ruined many houses in the city, drowned a great number of animals, and caused a most severe famine; 5 all these disasters Marcus and Verus relieved by their own personal care and aid. 6 At this time, moreover, came the Parthian war, which Vologaesus planned under Pius and declared under Marcus and Verus, after the rout of Attidius Cornelianus, than governor of Syria. 7 And besides this, war was threatening in Britain, and the Chatti had burst into Germany and Raetia. 8 Against the Britons Calpurnius Agricola was sent; against the Chatti, Aufidius Victorinus. 9 But to the Parthian war, with the consent of the senate, Marcus despatched his brother Verus, while he himself remained at Rome, where conditions demanded the presence of an emperor.” (HA. Marcus 8.4-10. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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Struggle over control of Armenia.

161 - Vologaeses III imposes the Parthian candidate on Armenian throne; descends upon Roman possessions; plunder and massacre.

Lucius Verus sent out with Avidius Cassius to restore order and punish the Parthians.

Lucius Verus incompetent; war fought to a successful conclusion through legates.

163 - Armenia recaptured; Parthia plundered.

165/6 - Victorious armies return to Rome carrying plague.

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“Vologaesus, it seems, had begun the war by hemming in on all sides the Roman legion under Severianus that was stationed at Elegeia, a place in Armenia, and then shooting down and destroying the whole force, leaders and all; and he was now advancing, powerful and formidable, against the cities of Syria. 2 Lucius, accordingly, went to Antioch and collected a large body of troops; then, keeping p5the best of the leaders under his personal command, he took up his own headquarters in the city, where he made all the dispositions and assembled the supplies for the war, while he entrusted the armies to Cassius. 3 The latter made a noble stand against the attack of Vologaesus, and finally, when the king was deserted by his allies and began to retire, he pursued him as far as Seleucia and Ctesiphon, destroying Seleucia by fire and razing to the ground the palace of Vologaesus at Ctesiphon. 4 In returning, he lost a great many of his soldiers through famine and disease, yet he got back to Syria with the survivors. Lucius gloried in these exploits and took great pride in them, yet his extreme good fortune did him no good…” (Cassius Dio, 71.2. Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

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“And there was such a pestilence, besides, that the dead were removed in carts and wagons. 4 About this time, also, the two emperors ratified certain very stringent laws on burial and tombs, in which they even forbade any one to build a tomb at his country-place, a law still in force. 5 Thousands were carried off by the pestilence, including many nobles, for the most prominent of whom Antoninus erected statues. 6 Such, too, was his kindliness of heart that he had funeral ceremonies performed for the lower classes even at the public expense…” (HA. Marcus 13.3-6. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

“And since the pestilence was still raging at this time, he both zealously revived the worship of the gods and trained slaves for military service — just as had been done in the Punic war — whom he called Volunteers, after the example of the Volones. 7 He armed gladiators also, calling them the Compliant, and turned even the bandits of Dalmatia and Dardania into soldiers. He armed the Diogmitae, besides, and even hired auxiliaries from among the Germans for service against Germans.” (HA. Marcus 21.6-7. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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Start of a build up of demographic pressure on Rome’s borders (esp. from Germany); will eventually overwhelm the empire.

Refugees not invaders; mass migrations.

Will consume most of M. Aurelius’ reign.

Need to compromise with Germanic tribes (i.e. land inside the empire for peace and military service).

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“Clad in the military cloak the two emperors finally set forth, for now not only were the Victuali and Marcomanni throwing everything into confusion, but other tribes, who had been driven on by the more distant barbarians and had retreated before them, were ready to attack Italy if not peaceably received. 2 And not a little good resulted from that expedition, even by the time they had advanced as far as Aquileia, for several kings retreated, together with their peoples, and put to death the authors of the trouble. 3 And the Quadi, after they had lost their king, said that they would not confirm the successor who had been elected until such a course was approved by our emperors.” (HA. Marcus 14.1-3. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

“Many of the Germans, too, from across the Rhine, advanced as far Italy and inflicted many injuries upon the Romans. They were in turn attacked by Marcus, who opposed to them his lieutenants Pompeianus and Pertinax; and Pertinax (who later became emperor) greatly distinguished himself. Among the corpses of the barbarians there were p13found even women's bodies in armour.” (Cassius Dio, 71.3.2 Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

“The Astingi, led by their chieftains Raüs and Raptus, came into Dacia with their entire households, hoping to secure both money and land in return for their alliance. But failing of their purpose, they left their wives and children under the protection of Clemens, until they should acquire the land of the Costoboci by their arms; but upon conquering that people, they proceeded to injure Dacia no less than before. The Lacringi, fearing that Clemens in his dread of them might lead these p17newcomers into the land which they themselves were inhabiting, attacked them while off their guard and won a decisive victory. As a result, the Astingi committed no further acts of hostility against the Romans, but in response to urgent supplications addressed to Marcus they received from him both money and the privilege of asking for land in case they should inflict some injury upon those who were then fighting against him.” (Cassius Dio, 71.12.1-4 Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

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Details sketchy.

Rumors of M. Aurelius’ death led Avidius Cassius to proclaim himself emperor.

Suggestion of intrigue involving Faustina, wife of Marcus.

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“He wished to make a province of Marcomannia and likewise of Sarmatia, and he would have done so 6 had not Avidius Cassius just then raised a rebellion in the East. This man proclaimed himself emperor, some say, at the wish of Faustina, who was now in despair over her husband's death; 7 others, however, say that Cassius proclaimed himself emperor after spreading false rumours of Antoninus' death, and indeed he had called him the Deified. 8 Antoninus was not much disturbed by this revolt, nor did he adopt harsh measures against Cassius' dear ones. 9 The senate, however, declared Cassius a public enemy and confiscated his property to the public treasury. 25 The Emperor, then, abandoning the Sarmatian and Marcomannic wars, set out against him. 2 At Rome there was a panic for fear that Cassius would arrive during Antoninus' absence; but he was speedily slain and his head was brought to Antoninus. 3 Even then, Marcus did not rejoice at Cassius' death, and gave p195orders that his head should be buried.” (HA. Marcus 24.5-25.3. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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“When Cassius rebelled in Syria, Marcus in great alarm summoned his son Commodus from Rome, as being now entitled to assume the toga virilis. Cassius, who was a Syrian from Cyrrhus, had shown himself an excellent man and the sort one would desire to have as an emperor, save for the fact that he was the son of one Heliodorus, who had been content to secure the governorship of Egypt as the reward of his oratorical ability. 3 But Cassius in rebelling made a terrible mistake, due to his having been deceived by Faustina. The latter, who was the daughter of Antoninus Pius, seeing that her husband had fallen ill and expecting that he would die at any moment, was afraid that the throne might fall p39to some outsider, inasmuch as Commodus was both too young and also rather simple-minded, and that she might thus find herself reduced to a private station. Therefore she secretly induced Cassius to make his preparations so that, if anything should happen to Antoninus, he might obtain both her and the imperial power.” (Cassius Dio, 72.11 Trans. E. Cary, 1927).

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“It is held to Marcus' discredit that he advanced his wife's lovers, Tertullus and Tutilius and Orfitus and Moderatus, to various offices of honour, although he had caught Tertullus in the very act of breakfasting with his wife. 2 In regard to this man the following dialogue was spoken on the stage in the presence of Antoninus himself. The Fool asked the Slave the name of his wife's lover and the Slave answered "Tullus" three times; and when the Fool kept on asking, the Slave replied, "I have already told you thrice Tullus is his name". 3 But the city-populace and others besides talked a great deal about this incident and found fault with Antoninus for his forbearance.” (HA. Marcus 29.1-3. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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Popular with senate.Senatorial deference.

Not so popular with the common folk.Old fashioned/strict morality.Seen as harsh.Ridiculed as a cuckold.Sincerity of his justice questioned.

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“And while absent from Rome he left forceful instructions that the amusements of the Roman people should be provided for by the richest givers of public spectacles, 5 because, when he took the gladiators away to the war, there was talk among the people that he intended to deprive them of their amusements and thereby drive them to the study of philosophy. 6 Indeed, he had ordered that the actors of pantomimes should begin their performances nine days later than usual in order that business might not be interfered with. 7 There was talk, as we mentioned above, about his wife's intrigues with pantomimists; however, he cleared her of all these charges in his letters.” (HA. Marcus 23.4-7. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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“Immediately thereafter he returned to Rome, recalled by the talk of those who said that he wished to appropriate to himself the glory of finishing the war and had therefore set out for Syria.” (HA. Marcus 15.5-6. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

“There is no emperor who is not the victim of some evil tale, and Marcus is no exception. For it was bruited about, in truth, that he put Verus out of the way, either with poison — by cutting a sow's womb with a knife smeared on one side with poison, and then offering the poisoned portion to his brother to eat, while keeping the harmless portion for himself — 6 or, at least, by employing the physician Posidippus, who bled Verus, it is said, unseasonably. After Verus' death Cassius revolted from Marcus.” (HA. Marcus 15.5-6. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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“Previous to his death, and before he returned to the Marcomannic war, he swore in the Capitol that no senator had been executed with his knowledge and consent, and said that had he known he would have spared even the insurgents. 5 Nothing did he fear and deprecate more than a reputation for covetousness, a charge of which he tried to clear himself in many letters. 6 Some maintain — and held it a fault — that he was insincere and not as guileless as he seemed, indeed not as guileless as either Pius or Verus had been. 7 Others accused him of encouraging the arrogance of the court by keeping his friends from general social intercourse and from banquets.” (HA. Marcus 29.4-7. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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Died of plague in 180.

Germanic wars still unfinished.

Left his biological son, Commodus, as heir.

Strange choice for heir; very disparaging of Commodus.

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“He died in the following manner: When he began to grow ill, he summoned his son and besought him first of all not to think lightly of what remained of the war, lest he seem a traitor to the state. 2 And when his son replied that his first desire was good health, he allowed him to do as he wished, only asking him to wait a few days and not leave at once. 3 Then, being eager to die, he refrained from eating or drinking, and so aggravated the disease. 4 On the sixth day he summoned his friends, and with derision for all human affairs and scorn for death, said to them: "Why do you weep p203for me, instead of thinking about the pestilence and about death which is the common lot of us all?" 5 And when they were about to retire he groaned and said: "If you now grant me leave to go, I bid you farewell and pass on before." 6 And when he was asked to whom he commended his son he replied: "To you, if he prove worthy, and to the immortal gods". 7 The army, when they learned of his sickness, lamented loudly, for they loved him singularly. 8 On the seventh day he was weary and admitted only his son, and even him he at once sent away in fear that he would catch the disease. 9 And when his son had gone, he covered his head as though he wished to sleep and during the night he breathed his last. 10 It is said that he foresaw that after his death Commodus would turn out as he actually did, and expressed the wish that his son might die, lest, as he himself said, he should become another Nero, Caligula, or Domitian.” (HA. Marcus 28. Trans. D. Magie, 1921).

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Antoninus’ personality seems so much more stable and reasonable than any of his predecessors. Why do you think this is?

Are women coming to play a greater role in government as the principate evolves? How and why?

Is Antoninus’ good reputation deserved?

How would you describe the personality of Marcus Aurelius?

Why do you think he was so fondly remembered by our sources? Do you think this fondness was universal?

Was his reign a successful one?

Do you think the sentiments ascribed to Marcus regarding Commodus are genuine? Explain.


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