A.P. Exam Review

Regular Review Day 2

Big Idea #2Chemical and physical properties of materials can be explained by

the structure and the arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules and

the forces between them.

Enduring Understanding AMatter can be described by its physical properties. The physical properties of a substance generally depend on the spacing between the particles (atoms, molecules, ions) that make up the substance and the forces of attraction among them.

Enduring Understanding BForces of attraction between particles (including noble gases and also different parts of some large molecules) are important in determining many macroscopic properties of a substance, including how the observable physical state changes with temperature.

Enduring Understanding CThe strong electrostatic forces of attraction holding atoms together in a unit are called chemical bonds.

Enduring Understanding DThe type of bonding in the solid and liquid state can be deduced from the properties of the solid or liquid state.

Derivation

The W

ay It Really Is.

The way we choose to view it

A.P. Chem. Ch. 5

Boyle’s Law PV=k

Charles’ Law V/T=k

Avog. Law V/n=k

Pressure: Force Area

Devices

BarometerManometer

Units mm, torr, atm, Pa, kPa, N/cm2

PV= nRT0.0821 L atm/mol K 8.31 J/ mol K

KMT

Dimensionless Pts.

In constant motion

Colliding 100% elast.Creating pressure

w/o influenceIn such a way that Temp is dir. Prop. To average KE.

P = 2 nNA1/2mu2

P = 2 nKEper mol

3V

3VKEper mol = (3/2)RT

P = dRT/MM

Dalton’s Law Ptot= Pa+ Pb…

Graham’s Law Ra/Rb = (MMb/MMa)1/2

Gases

aPtot= Pa

urms= (3RT/MM)1/2

Stoich.

22.4 L = 1 mole

At STP

Non- STP

P= nRT – a(n/V)2

V-nb Volumes of particles

Particle interactions

Due to Avogadro’s Hypothesis.`

Chemical BondingChapter 8/9(Forces that cause a group of

atoms to behave a unit)(A system can achieve the lowest possible energy by behaving this way)

Type:

Bond Energies

(always positive)

ENlarge moderate zero

Electronegativity: the ability to attract shared pairs of electrons

IONICIONIC POLAR COVALENTPOLAR COVALENT COVALENTCOVALENT

creates ions

Size changes

Transfer of Transfer of electronselectrons

Sharing of Sharing of electronselectrons

Unequal Sharing Unequal Sharing of electronsof electrons

creates polar bonds

Processes: Especially Lattice

Energy Estimate H

H=B.E. react – B.E. prod

ENERGY ENERGY CALCULATIONSCALCULATIONS

Localized Electron Localized Electron Model Model

Atomic OrbitalsAtomic Orbitals

Lewis Lewis StructuresStructures

VSEPRVSEPR

Organic Molecules

Formal Charge

Multiple Bonds

Resonance

Octet Rule

Know the

exceptions

AliphaticAromatic**Derivatives

aldehydesketonesalcoholsamines

organic acids

esters Dictates geometry

…needed modification hybridizationhybridization

EPA’s and Shapes sp

sp2

sp3

dsp3

d2sp3

Delocalized Delocalized Electron ModelElectron Model

Molecular Molecular OrbitalsOrbitals

typ

esty

pes Probonding

Antibonding

Needed to explain

magnetismPara

Dia

A.P. Chem.

** follows Huckels Rule (ring structure with 4n+2 pi electrons)** follows Huckels Rule (ring structure with 4n+2 pi electrons)

Bond Order

ethers

VSEPR Theory and the possible molecular shapes you’ll see

# of Bonds # of Lone Pairs EPA Shape

2 0 linear linear

3 0

trig. planar bent

4 0

tetrahedral bent

2 1

trig. planar trig. planar

2 2

tetrahedral tetrahedral

5 0trig. bipyramidal trig. bipyramidal

6 0 octahedral octahedral

4 1trig. bipyramidal see-saw

3 2trig. bipyramidal T-shaped

2 3 trig. bipyramidal linear

5 1 octahedral square pyramidal

4 2 octahedral square planar

3 1 tetrahedral trig. pyramidal

HYDROCARBONS (organic compounds containing only ______ and _____)

__________________ (Hydrocarbons that do not contain benzene rings or similar structures*)

AROMATIC

( )____________________ (All carbon atoms bonded to the maximum number of hydrogen atoms)

______________________ (Carbon atom(s) valences not fully satisfied)

ALKANES general formula

C HExamples:

__________ (carbon atoms form a ring) general formula

C HExamples:

____________ general formula

CnH2n

Examples:

__________ general formula

CnH2n-

Examples:

Remove one hydrogen from an alkane and it becomes an

___________

___________

Ex:

bond typebond typebond type

A.P. Chem. Organic Info

H C

Aliphatic

Hydrocarbons that contain benzene rings or similar structures*

Saturated Unsaturated

single

n 2n+2

C3H8propane

prefixes

meth-1eth-2prop-3

but-4pent-5hex-6

C6H14hexane

cycloalkanes

n 2n

C6H12

cyclohexane

one double

ALKENES

C6H121-hexene

one triple

2

ALKYNES

C6H101-hexyneCH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH==CH2

alkyl radical

hexylC6H13-

The simplest organic molecules

* Ring structures that follow Huckel’s Rule

Some Derivatives of Hydrocarbons

…ones that contain oxygen

R = Alkyl Radical

Alcohols R O H

Ethers R O R'

O

Aldehydes R C H

O

Ketones R C R'

…ones that contain nitrogen

Amines R N H

H

R N R' R N R'

H R''

functional groups

Where the reaction occurs

hydroxyl

carbonyl

alkane name – “e” + “ol”

alkane name – “e” + “al”

alkane name – “e” + “one”

alcohol

aldehyde

ketone

amineether

…ones that contain the carboxyl group

R C O H

O

organic acidalkane name – “e” + “oic acid”

Structural Formula

propene C3H6

Space Filling Model

propane C3H8

Ball and Stick Model

propanal C3H6O

propanoic acidC2H5COOH

Review of Chapter 10 (condensed states of matter)A.P. Chem

Pres

sure

→

Temperature→

SOLID

Defined: Structural units held together by attractive forces enough to make a rigid structure

Properties to be aware of : melting pts, conductivity, and solubility

Types (ranked by bond strength):

1. Macromolecular (atoms—covalent bonds)

2. Ionic (ions—ionic bonds)

3. Metallic (atoms—metallic bonds)

4. Molecular (molecules – intermolecular bonds)

Organization?

No→

Yes→

Amorphous

Crystalline…units arranged in a geometric pattern

Same mat’l but diff. pattern: Allotropism

Simplest repeating pattern: Unit Cell

LIQUID

Defined: Clustery with short range order

Properties to be aware of : V.P., B.P., Hv, Surf. Ten., volatility, viscosity…all related to attractive forces

GAS

Defined: Random

V.P. solid curve

V.P. liquid curve

Triple Point… all 3 phases in equilibrium

Critical Point…

Tc

Pc

KE

Time←q = mcT

Hfus

Hvap

V.P. solid= V.P. liquid

(▲Semi-conductors)

( )

Solutions

Sol. in Liq.

Gas in Liq.

T sol.

T sol.

P sol.

Effect (Generally) Phases Involved

(Where Conc. Affects Them)

B.P. Elevation

F.P. Depression

Raoult’s Law

= Kmi

parts

Solvation Process

1. Expand Solute 2. Expand

Solvent 3. Intermix H= H=

H=

Concentration Descriptions

Small Deviations

Large Deviations

A.P. ChemistryChapter 11

Hsol

H= + H= H=Entropy driven

soluble

(Dictates the degree to which you can dissolve a solute in a solvent)

Homogeneous Mixtures

Colligative making

No Set Ratio

Solute Solvent

Changes Phase

M

m

mass %

++

-

hydration Hhyd= +/-

Heat of solution

large

insoluble

+ -

(≥0.10 M)

Like Dissolves Like (generally)

solubility

affe

cted

by:

Temp.↑↑ ↑↑↓↓ ↑↑

Press. Gas in Liq. ↑↑ ↑↑Henry’s LawP = kC →From the Gas

V.P. Lowering

V.P.(sol’n) = (solv) V.P.(solv)

+ (solute) V.P.(solute)

Non-Ideal

Non-volatile solutes

- +

T

van’t Hoff Factor, i

Low [ ]

Low charges

High [ ]

High charges

volatile solutes H=

Neg. Deviations H=

Pos. Deviations H=

Ideal0

Separating them…Properties

Chromatography

Evaluation of Solutions•Electrolyte (strong; weak; non)

•Acid/Base (strong; weak; salt; oxide)

•Oxidizer/Reducer

•van’t Hoff Factor ( i = ?)

Strong Strong NonElectrolyte: Weak

Acid/Base: WB neutral neutral WAOx/Red: --- --- --- ---

Van’t Hoff: 2 3 1 >1

Lowest Electrical Conduc-tivity?

Strong Strong NonElectrolyte: Weak

Acid/Base: WB neutral neutral WAOx/Red: --- --- --- ---

Van’t Hoff: 2 3 1 >1

Lowest Freezing Point?

Strong Strong NonElectrolyte: Weak

Acid/Base: WB neutral neutral WAOx/Red: --- --- --- ---

Van’t Hoff: 2 3 1 >1

c. 1 point

Greatest Water Vapor Pressure?

Strong Strong NonElectrolyte: Weak

Acid/Base: WB neutral neutral WAOx/Red: --- --- --- ---

Van’t Hoff: 2 3 1 >1

Highest pH?

Strong Strong NonElectrolyte: Weak

Acid/Base: WB neutral neutral WAOx/Red: --- --- --- ---

Van’t Hoff: 2 3 1 >1