AP GOV CONCEPTS

AP GOV CONCEPTS

FEDERALISM

FEDERALISM

• 2008 Free Response

FEDERALISM

• What is it?– Expressed powers– Implied powers– Inherent powers– Reserved powers– Concurrent powers– Prohibited powers

FEDERALISM

• Buzz Words:– Implied powers– Elastic clause– Nullification– Commerce clause– Dual federalism– Cooperative federalism– Fiscal federalism– Devolution– Grants-in-aid (categorical grant/block grant)– Mandates (unfunded mandates)

FEDERALISM

• Key cases:– McCulloch v. Maryland– Lochner v. New York– US v. Lopez– Printz v. US– Gibbons v. Ogden– Brown v. Board of Education

FEDERALISM

• Expressed/Enumerated powers– Legislative powers (veto, pocket veto, signing

legislation).– State of the Union address.– Appointment power (to a domestic office).– Calling Congress into session.– Chief executive role (“faithfully execute the law”

clause).– Commander-in-chief role

JUDICIAL REVIEW

JUDICIAL REVIEW


JUDICIAL REVIEW

• Judicial review– It gives the Court the power to overturn laws

passed by Congress/legislative branch or actions taken by the president/executive branch.

– It gives the Court the power to limit actions taken by Congress/legislative branch or the president/executive branch.

JUDICIAL REVIEW

• Key cases:– Marbury v. Madison– McCulloch v. Maryland– Gibbons v. Ogden

LAWMAKING

LAWMAKING

• 2012 Free Response• 2009 Free Response• 2006 Free response• 2003 Free Response

• Three primary duties of Congress– Writing laws– Overseeing implementation of laws– Serving the needs of constituents

LAWMAKING• Buzz Words:

– Filibuster• Senate only! Allows a senator to prevent/delay action on a bill• Prevents other business from being conducted

– Rules Committee• Makes it easier or more difficult for bill to pass• Makes the process more efficient/orderly/manageable

– Conference Committee• Reconciles differences in House and Senate versions of a bill

– Congressional Oversight• Budgetary process (power of the purse)• Committee hearings• Confirmation or rejection of political appointments to the bureaucracy• Investigations• New legislation• Legislative veto (now unconstitutional)

– Casework (dealing with constituent issues)• Diverts time, resources, and staff, thus reducing members’ ability to focus on legislation.• Develops awareness of problems, thus focusing more time and resources on related

legislation.

LAWMAKING• Majority Party Advantage (House):– Holds committee chairs– Controls Rules Committee– Sets the agenda– Controls debate– Chooses Speaker of the House– Holds majority on each committee– Assigns bills to committees

LAWMAKING• Differences in House and Senate rules:

• Why a bill might pass in one chamber but not the other– Filibuster—even though the House may pass a bill, the Senate can kill the bill with a filibuster.– Holds—even though the House may pass a bill, the Senate can delay or stop it with a hold.– Unanimous consent agreements—the Senate can ease passage of a bill with unanimous consent agreements, while

the House has no such mechanism.– Germaneness—the Senate can add unrelated content that members of the House might find objectionable.– Rules Committee—even though the Senate may pass a bill, the House Rules Committee can hinder passage of that

bill in the House.

LAWMAKING• Why bicameralism?– Compromise at Constitutional Convention– Protect minority interests– Slow the process of lawmaking – Prevention of majority tyranny

LAWMAKING• Why did Framers give House unique powers?– Closer to the people– More representative and responsive to the public• 2 year terms

• Powers unique to House:– Initiate revenue bills– Impeachment power– Choose President in an electoral college deadlock

LAWMAKING• Why did the Framers give the Senate unique

powers?– More “mature”/ “august” body– More insulated from public opinion (originally not

directly elected)• Longer and/or staggered terms• Originally reflected more state than popular interests

• Powers unique to Senate:– Treaty ratification– Confirmation of judicial and executive appointees– Try impeachment hearings

LAWMAKING• Committee system influences on legislative

process– Specialization- development of expertise;

independence from executive branch; more attention paid to legislation;

– Reciprocity/logrolling- vote trading; speeds process

– Party representation on committees- party pushes own agenda and determines committee chairs

POLITICAL CULTURE/BELIEFS

POLITICAL CULTURE/BELIEFS• Buzz Words:

– Conservative– Liberal– Libertarian– Socialist– Populist– Democrat– Republican– Political efficacy– Political socialization– Public opinion– Political ideology– Political efficacy– Split-ticket voting– Straw poll– Scientific poll

– “Rally round the flag”– Motor voter law– Political cleavage– polarization

POLITICAL PARTIES

POLITICAL PARTIES


POLITICAL PARTIES

• Fundamental goals– Elect candidates to office– Gain control of government– influence policy by electing candidates to office

and gaining control of government

POLITICAL PARTIES

• Buzz Words:– Republican– Democrat– Third Party– Dealignment– Realignment– Critical election– Closed primary– Open primary– Blanket primary– Proportional representation– Two party system

MINORITY REPRESENTATION

MINORITY REPRESENTATION

• 2012 Free Response• 2008 Free Response

• Has increased since 1960…….– BUT….still faces barriers

MINORITY REPRESENTATION• Aids to representation:– Voting Rights Act

• Eliminating voter registration requirements (e.g., literacy tests, residency requirements) that

• prevented minorities from voting led to increased access for minority voters.

• Creating federal oversight of elections helped eliminate discriminatory mechanisms (e.g., voter

• intimidation, ballot fraud) that were used to prevent minority voters from voting, which led to

• increased access for minority voters.• Eliminating the use of English-only ballots that prevented

non-English-speaking minorities• from voting led to increased access for minority voters.

MINORITY REPRESENTATION• Aids to representation:– 15th Amendment• “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall

not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude”

– 24th Amendment• Eliminating poll taxes that limited voting by lower-

income people led to an increase in minority voting because minorities are often overrepresented among poor people

MINORITY REPRESENTATION• Aids to representation:– Alternative forms of political participation• Demonstrations/protests/public rallies/civil

disobedience• Organized interest-group activity (e.g., NAACP)• Courts/litigation• Boycotts• Election activities other than voting (campaigning,

donating)

MINORITY REPRESENTATION• Barriers to representation:– Barriers for minority candidates• Incumbency advantage• Gerrymandered districts• Majority-minority districts• Prejudice, racism, sexism• Electoral resources• Electoral qualifications• Single-member districts/winner-take-all

MINORITY REPRESENTATION• Barriers to representation:– Barriers for minority voters• I.D. requirements• English-only ballots• Felony disenfranchisement• Purging voter rolls• Voter intimidation• Literacy tests• Poll taxes• Grandfather clauses• Dilution of voting strength through redistricting• White primaries• Election procedures (notification, access)

POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIAL BRANCH

POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIARY


POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIARY• Political factors for judicial appointment:

– campaign promises– gender– geographic diversity– home-state senator (if lower courts)– ideology– interest group input– issue positions– party– potential for confirmation success– professional background, experience, education– race– religion– scandal

POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIARY• Political factors for judicial confirmation:

– advice and consent– campaign promises– filibuster– gender– geographic diversity– holds– home-state senator (if lower courts)– ideology– interest group input– issue positions– the media (televising Judiciary Committeehearings)– party– professional background, experience, education– race– religion– safe/weak nominee– scandal– senatorial courtesy


• Legislative checks on court decisions:–amendments–confirmation–congressional funding– impeachment–jurisdiction stripping– legislation


• Executive checks on court decisions:–power of appointment–executive enforcement


• Ways Supreme Court is insulated from public opinion:– Appointed not elected– Life terms– Court sets it’s own agenda and controls the docket– Salaries cannot be reduced– There is limited access to court proceedings

POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON JUDICIARY• Reasons Supreme Court does not deviate too far

from public opinion:– Appointment and confirmation processes have

political realities– There is a reliance on other public officials to execute

decisions– Constitutional amendments can overrule decisions– Credibility/legitimacy of the institution itself

(individual reputation or the reputation of the Court)– Potential for impeachment– Congressional control of appellate jurisdiction– Congressional control of the number of justices

INTEREST GROUPS

INTEREST GROUPS

• 2012 Free Response• 2010 Free Response• 2006 Free Response• 2004 Free Response• 1999 Free Response

INTEREST GROUPS

• Fundamental goals:– Influence public policy– Influence Congress/government– Change laws

INTEREST GROUPS

• Interest Group techniques in influencing elections:– campaign contributions– candidate ratings– endorsements– 501(c)4 (tax-exempt non-profit organization)– 527– funneling volunteers to campaigns– GOTV (“get out the vote”) efforts– independent expenditures– issue ads– PACs– providing information on issue and candidates

INTEREST GROUPS

• Ways interest groups influence policy:– Grassroots mobilization — interest groups

organize citizens, who act to influence policymakers

– Lobbying — direct contact with policymakers for the purpose of persuasion through the provision of information, political benefits, etc.

– Litigation — the use of courts to gain policy preferences through cases or amicus curiae

INTEREST GROUPS

• How interest groups use issue networks and amicus curiae briefs:– Interest groups participate in issue networks by

providing money, information, and resources in hopes of obtaining political support from Congress, the bureaucracy, or the White House.

– Interest groups use amicus briefs to inform the Court in hopes of influencing the acceptance of cases, Court reasoning, or decisions

INTEREST GROUPS

• Media/pluralism limits on interest groups:– Media can act as a gatekeeper of information or a

watchdog of interest group behavior.– Pluralism limits interest group influence because

of the competition among a vast number of groups.

INTEREST GROUPS

• Interest group protections (Bill of Rights):– Speech — allows citizens to say almost anything they want– Press — allows citizens access to information, each other

and policymakers; printed advocacy– Assembly — allows citizens to come together– Petition — allows citizens to address government– Various due process/criminal justice provisions (e.g., grand

jury indictment, jury of peers, search and seizure) — protects citizens from retribution/harassment from government

INTEREST GROUPS

• Government regulations regarding interest groups:– Disclosure of contributions, funding or activities– Registration of lobbyists, PACs– Campaign finance laws– Limits on gifts– Limits on revolving-door appointments– Limits on honoraria– Prohibition of bribery– On 2010 Exam the rubric allowed= “Any named law or

regulation with a description of what it does to regulate interest groups”

INTEREST GROUPS

• How interest groups support political parties:– Monetary contributions/PAC donations– Organization/mobilization of people– Media campaigns– Information– Independent committees/527s– Independent expenditures– Endorsement/recruitment of candidates

INTEREST GROUPS

• How these forms of support benefit interest groups:– Access/influence policymakers– Have like-minded people/policy advocates in

office– Legislation that benefits the interest group

INTEREST GROUPS

• Some specific interest groups which have been mentioned on the Exam:– AARP– AMA– NAACP– NAM

SUPREME COURT METHODOLOGY




• Writ of certiorari process– Lower/appelate courts– Rule of 4


• Influence on judicial decisions:– Stare decisis• Justices defer to prior Supreme Court decisions.• Justices apply precedent to current cases and rule

based on past decision– Judicial activism• Justices are more likely to strike down laws and policies

as unconstitutional.• Justices are influenced by the future/societal

ramifications/needs of the nation

NOMINATION PROCESS

NOMINATION PROCESS


NOMINATION PROCESS

• State nomination methods– Closed primary

• Only registered party members can cast a ballot in primary– Open primary

• a primary election in which any voter can cast a ballot in any party’s primary.

– Caucus• a meeting or gathering of members of a political party

where members deliberate and choose from the list of those seeking the presidential nomination

NOMINATION PROCESS

• Consequences of winner-take-all primaries:– Shortens the timeframe for candidates wrapping

up the nomination.– Affects strategic decisions (e.g., allocation of

funds, time).– Advantage to those with more prominence or

better name recognition early in the process

NOMINATION PROCESS

• Democratic Party use of superdelegates:– Increases power of party leaders.• Party leaders are now assured a role in the nomination

process, regardless of which candidate they support.• Party leaders can cast the deciding vote in close

nomination contests.• Superdelegates are unpledged and therefore can

change their minds on candidates as the process unfolds.

NOMINATION PROCESS

• “Move To The Center”:– Candidates must be more partisan to win a primary

and then move to more moderate positions in general elections• The electorate in the primary election is different from the

electorate in the general election.• A candidate’s opponents in the primary are fellow

partisans, whereas opponents in the general election are from other parties.

• There are differences in financing, media coverage and current events leading up to the general election

PUBLIC OPINION

PUBLIC OPINION


• Polls=“Linkage” institution

PUBLIC OPINION

• Valid scientific poll contains– Randomized sample– Representative sample– Question wording that is unbiased, unambiguous– Large sample size/low margin of error

PUBLIC OPINION

• How public opinion influences Congress:– Strong public opinion as expressed in polling

results influences them…..• Because of the desire to get reelected/electoral

ambition• Because of the perceived obligation/duty to represent

their constituents– Competitive reelections influence them …….• Because of the desire to get reelected• A competitive reelection says, “we are not happy”

PUBLIC OPINION

• Limits on public opinion influencing Congress:– Legislators’ voting records• To avoid being perceived as indecisive by

voters/supporters– Party leadership:• To avoid the risk of losing party support• To gain party support

SEPARATION OF POWERS




• Influence of Presidential powers on Congress:– Veto power

• Results in congressional interaction with the president/executive branch during the legislative process (e.g., bargaining, negotiation, compromising, consulting).

• Prevents or discourages congressional action if the president makes a statement of clear opposition or threatens a veto.

– Power to issue executive orders• Congress acts in response to or anticipates executive orders (e.g., countermands,

preempts, compromises).• Congress avoids taking action on controversial issues.

– Power as commander in chief• Congress engages in oversight activities.• Congress clarifies its role associated with the power to declare war (i.e., War

Powers Act).• Congress controls military spending and thus can approve, modify or reject funding


• Influence of Legislative powers on President– Power of legislative oversight

• Presidents minimize the number or extent of actions that might draw congressional scrutiny.

– Senate advice and consent power• Presidents weigh the implications of making controversial or ideological nominations or

appointments.• Presidents use recess appointments, avoiding controversial confirmation battles.• Presidents use executive agreements to avoid the need to have treaties ratified.

– Budgetary power• Presidents consider budget items or programs that are important to members of

Congress.• Presidents consult with members of Congress during the budget process.• Presidents sign budgets that include provisions they oppose rather than veto the budget.• Presidents postpone agenda items because of difficulty in getting congressional

budgetary approval.


• Formal Presidential foreign policy powers– Commander in Chief/power to commit troops– Appointment of ambassadors and foreign policy

officials– Negotiate/make treaties– Recognition of nations– Receive ambassadors and other public ministers


• Formal Congressional foreign policy powers– Confirm ambassadors– Power of the purse in military/foreign policy

matters– Power to declare war– Power to create laws/resolutions on foreign policy

issues– Ability to regulate foreign commerce– Ratify treaties


• Informal Presidential foreign policy powers (creates advantage over Congress)– Executive agreements– Access to media/bully pulpit/morale building– Agenda setting– Meet with world leaders– Crisis managers– International coalition building– President has more knowledge to

knowledge/expertise/information than Congress– Recognized as a global leader

BUREAUCRACY

BUREAUCRACY

• 2010 Free Response• 2006 Free Response• 1999 Free Response

BUREAUCRACY

• Max Weber-modern conception of bureaucracy

• Pendleton Act- merit-based; civil service exams

• Hatch Act- prohibited government employees from active participation in partisan politics

BUREAUCRACY

• Key characteristics of merit system:– Hiring or promotion based on

merit/experience/qualifications– Hiring based on testing

BUREAUCRACY

• Bureaucratic independence:– Structure of the bureaucracy

• Large• Specialized units/expertise• Tenure protections/hard to fire• Based on merit• Independent agencies/independent regulatory commissions

– Complexity of public policy problems• Specialized units/expertise• Delegated authority — because Congress and the president cannot

handle everything, they delegate authority to the bureaucracy• Discretionary authority — because legislation lacks details, the

bureaucracy can fill in the gaps

BUREAUCRACY

• Constitutional checks on the bureaucracy:– Congress

• Appropriations — can reward or punish agency• Legislation — can pass legislation affecting the bureaucracy• Rejection of presidential appointments to the bureaucracy• Impeachment of executive officials

– Courts• Court rulings that limit bureaucratic practices• Judicial review — can declare bureaucratic actions

unconstitutional• Injunctions against federal agencies

BUREAUCRACY

• Constitutional checks on the bureaucracy:– Interest groups• Use of the First Amendment

– Lobbying– Protests– Media usage– Speech

• Litigation

BUREAUCRACY

• Why does Congress give policy-making discretion to Federal agencies?– Congress lacks expertise/agencies have it– Congress doesn’t want to be blamed for bad policy– Time-consuming– More efficient– Easier to come to agreement than in Congress

BUREAUCRACY

• Some important agencies:– EPA-clean air and water– FCC- regulation of TV, radio, satellite, telephone– Federal Reserve Board-monetary policy

BUREAUCRACY

• How does Congress make sure agencies follow legislative intent?– Oversight– Appropriations/budget– Hearings– Investigations– Changes in law– Legislative veto– Casework– Creation/dissolving of agencies

BUREAUCRACY

• Reasons for failure of legislative oversight of the Federal Bureaucracy:– No electoral payoff/political ramifications– Oversight is labor intensive– Lack of technical expertise– Iron triangles/cozy relationship with agencies

GUN RIGHTS

GUN RIGHTS

• 2nd Amendment• District of Columbia v. Heller– Private gun ownership outside of a state militia is

protected by the 2nd amendment• McDonald v. Chicago– 14th amendment makes gun ownership rights

applicable to the states

VOTING

VOTING

• 2010 Free Response• 2009 Free Response• 2007 Free Response

CHANGES IN VOTING DEMOGRAPHICS

• Percentage of House seats for Democrats has trended down.

• Percentage of presidential electoral votes for Democrats has trended down.

• South has become solidly Republican


• 1948-2000: South elected more Democratic Congressional candidates. Why?– Incumbency advantage — Even though Southern voters were voting for

Republican presidential candidates, they continued to vote for incumbent Democratic congressional candidates because of the incumbency advantage.

– Gerrymandering — District lines created safe seats/majority–minority districts, which protected Democratic seats even though there were more Republican voters in statewide presidential elections.

– State versus national parties — Because national and state parties were largely independent of each other, to get votes Democratic congressional candidates responded to local interests, whereas Democratic presidential candidates responded to a national constituency.


• Changing party composition:– Catholics — They have become less reliable Democratic voters.– Labor union members — They have become less reliable Democratic

voters; have decreased in number and thus there are fewer Democratic supporters; have become a smaller percentage of the Democratic voting bloc.

– Women — They have become more reliable Democratic voters; have increased in number and thus there are more Democratic supporters; have become a larger percentage of the Democratic voting bloc.

– Social conservatives — They were previously nonexistent and have now crystallized to become more reliable Republican voters; previously found in the Democratic party and have moved to the Republican party. Christian Protestants make up a strong core of this group.

VOTING

• Impact of age on voting:– Older people are more likely to vote.– Turnout is lowest for young people.– The likelihood of voting declines in the oldest

populations.

VOTING

• Impact of education on voting:– People with more education are more likely to

vote.– People with less education are less likely to vote.

VOTING

• Factors which decrease voter turnout:– Citizenship requirement– Age– Disfranchisement of certain groups (felons, the mentally

incompetent)– Residency requirements– Registration requirements– Limited opportunities to vote (midweek, limited hours, single day)– Need to show identification– Generally have to vote in person– Closed primaries– Process of obtaining absentee ballots.

VOTING

• Winner-take-all voting system:

LIMITS ON THE POWER OF GOVERNMENT



• Clearly, Federalism and separation of powers serve as basic checks on the power of government. Be able to discuss these with examples.

LIMITS ON THE POWER OF GOVERNMENT• Limits on the President– Federalism — divides power between national and

state governments, which limits the authority of the national executive.

– Checks and balances• Limits on President’s ability to influence domestic

policy (2008)


• Limits on the Federal Government– Establishment Clause — prevents the national

government from establishing a national religion or taking any action that would show preferential treatment for one religion over another.

– Guarantee of a public trial — requiring trials to be open to the public limits the government’s ability to violate the rights of citizens.


• Limits on state government– Citizenship Clause (14th Amendment)— provides a

national definition of citizenship that states cannot violate; requires states to provide citizenship guarantees to all who meet the definition of citizen.

– Selective incorporation — prohibits states from denying Bill of Rights provisions regarding freedom of expression, rights of the accused or privacy.


• Constitutional provisions

MEDIA

MEDIA


MEDIA

• Agenda setting function– A policy agenda is a set of issues, problems, or

subjects that gets the attention of/is viewed as important by people involved in policymaking (e.g., government officials, government decision-makers).

– How?• Raise awareness, provide information, draw attention,

demonstrate the importance or consequences of the problem, or get the public’s attention.• Get the attention of government/policymakers

MEDIA

• Presidential advantage in agenda setting– the president is one person, while Congress is composed of

many members.– The president speaks with a single voice, while Congress has

many voices.– The president represents the nation; members of Congress

represent states/districts.– The president is the national leader/leader of the country.– The president is more powerful than any single member of

Congress.– The president has constitutional powers that Congress does not

have.

MEDIA

• Viewing patterns of younger/older Americans– Young people view less TV news than older

people./Older people view more TV news than younger people.

– People in all age categories viewed less TV news in 2002 than they did in 1974

MEDIA

• Implications of changing viewing patterns– Presidents must rely on alternative media to gain

the attention of the public. – Presidents purposely target older viewers through

the use of nightly news programs.– The nightly news is not as effective in promoting

the president’s agenda as it used to be.

MEDIA

• Rise of candidate-centered campaigns– How has media contributed?

• Background/story of candidate• Image-centered/personality coverage• Talk show appearances/TV debates• Horse-race journalism/poll reporting• Emphasis on soundbites• De-emphasis of parties• “Feeding frenzy”: investigative reporting/scandals• Convention coverage• Focus on gaffes

MEDIA

• Rise of candidate-centered campaigns– How have candidates contributed?• “mudslinging”/negative commercials (attack ads)• Attention getting/free news coverage• Leaking information• Image building- consultants, campaign strategists, TV

appearances• Use of the internet• Sound bites

LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS



• Structures which “link” citizens to their government


• Elections/voting• Media• Interest groups• Political parties• Polls



• Forms of political participation other than voting– Litigation

• Numerical majority is unnecessary, appeal to principle as opposed to opinion– Protest

• Low cost; can bring public sympathy; – Contacting

• Direct access to leaders– Campaign work/voter registration

• Contact with potential officials; training ground– Campaign contributions

• Can supply access; multiplies force of individual preference– Running for office

• Direct influence on policy; help set the agenda– Political discussion

• Bring attention to important issues– Membership in an overtly political institution

• Magnifying effect

MAJORITY RULE

MAJORITY RULE

• 2009 Free Response• James Madison-Federalist 10– Problem of factions• Majority factions• Minority factions

– Both could potentially dominate

MAJORITY RULE

• How Congress is closely tied to citizens– Members of the House are more directly elected

than the president and were originally more directly elected than members of the Senate.

– The shorter term length (or frequent elections) ties them to the people.

– Members must live in the state they represent.– House members represent relatively small

districts.

MAJORITY RULE

• Limits on majority rule

MAJORITY RULE

• 20th century promotion of democracy:– Primary elections—voters gained more control

over the nomination process/control taken away from political parties.

– Seventeenth Amendment—mandated direct election of U.S. senators.

– Expansion of suffrage—led to a more representative set of voters/more eligible voters.

FISCAL POLICY

FISCAL POLICY

• 2008 Free Response• 2006 Free Response• 1999 free Response

• Responsibility shared by executive and legislative branches

• Federal Reserve Board has primary role of setting monetary policy

FISCAL POLICY

• Fiscal policy involves– Taxing and/or spending– The budget

FISCAL POLICY

• Executive influence– The president proposes/prepares the federal

budget.– The president signs/vetoes legislation (related to

taxing, spending, and borrowing, not generic).– The White House Office of Management and

Budget (OMB) recommends the budget.

FISCAL POLICY

• Legislative influence– Congress passes the federal budget.– Congress acts on tax and spending legislation.– The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) advises

Congress on economic policies.

FISCAL POLICY

• Monetary policy– Regulating the money supply.– Controlling inflation/deflation.– Adjusting interest rates to regulate the economy.– Adjusting bank reserve requirements.– The cost of money.

FISCAL POLICY

• Why is the Federal Reserve Board independent?– It removes politics from monetary policy decision

making.– Congress/the president can abdicate responsibility

for difficult decisions by delegating decision-making power.

– The Federal Reserve Board relies on expertise when making decisions.

– The Federal Reserve Board makes economic policies efficiently.

FISCAL POLICY

• Entitlement programs:– Government sponsored programs providing

mandated/guaranteed/required benefits to those who meet eligibility/requirement qualifications• Ex: Social Security

– Source of revenue» Work/job taxes

• Payroll tax

FISCAL POLICY

• Threats to current entitlement programs:– Output exceeds input• “baby-boomers”• Longer life expectancy• Declining birth rates

FISCAL POLICY

• Budgetary barriers which hinder creation of new policy:– Entitlement programs– Interest payments– Limited discretionary spending– Mandatory spending

FISCAL POLICY

• Non-budgetary barriers which hinder creation of new policy:– “not my program” orientation toward budget cuts– Interest group competition creates “status quo”– Party politics/divisiveness/partisanship

GERRYMANDERING

GERRYMANDERING


GERRYMANDERING

• Reapportionment– The reallocation of the number of representatives

each state has in the House of Representatives.• Importance to states

– Reapportionment increases or decreases the number of seats a state has in the House/Congress (not the Senate).

– More representatives mean that a state has more influence.– Reapportionment increases or decreases a state’s number of

electoral votes.

GERRYMANDERING

• Redistricting– The drawing/redrawing of House/congressional

(not Senate) district lines.

GERRYMANDERING

• Why do politicians gerrymander?– To enhance political party strength/to minimize

the strength of the opposition party.– To protect incumbents/to discourage challengers.– To increase minority representation/to decrease

minority representation.– To punish foes/to reward friends.

GERRYMANDERING

• Supreme Court limits on gerrymandering:– Districts must be equally populated.– Lines must be contiguous or connected.– Redistricting cannot dilute minority voting

strength.– District lines cannot be drawn solely based upon

race.– Districts must be compact.– Communities of interest must be protected.

CAMPAIGN FINANCE

CAMPAIGN FINANCE


CAMPAIGN FINANCE

• Proposals– Eliminating soft money

• Arguments against:– Violates First Amendment– Contrary to ruling in Buckley v. Valeo– Party money is one step removed between contributor and decision-maker– Weakens political parties– Might lessen grassroots political participation

• Arguments for:– Soft money used to circumvent limits on hard money– Levels the playing field– Lessens concerns about undue influence– Provides transparency– Decreases overall costs of campaigns

CAMPAIGN FINANCE

• Proposals– Limiting independent expenditures

• Arguments against– Violates First Amendment– Contrary to ruling in Buckley v. Valeo– Might lessen grassroots political participation

• Arguments for– Can be used to circumvent limits on hard money– Levels the playing field– Possibly reduces negative issue ads– Candidates want to control their own campaigns– Lessens concerns about undue influence

CAMPAIGN FINANCE

• Proposals– Raising limits on individual contributions

• Arguments against– Allows the rich to have more influence– There is too much money in the process already– Drives up the costs of campaigns

• Arguments for– Limits are not indexed to inflation– Candidates can spend less time fundraising– Decrease influence of PACS– Decreases restrictions on 1st Amendment rights– Decreases reliance on less regulated forms of campaign funds

EXPANSION OF FEDERAL POWER




• Constitutional provisions used to expand federal power– Power to tax and spend– Elastic (“necessary and proper”) clause– Commerce clause


• Legislation– Americans With Disabilities Act– Civil Rights Act– Clean Air Act

SELECTIVE INCORPORATION



• Piecemeal process by which some liberties listed in the Bill of Rights have been applied to the states through the 14th Amendment/Due Process clause


• Incorporated rights– Rights of criminal defendants– First amendment– Right to privacy


• Specific amendments– 1st Amendment– 2nd Amendment– 4th Amendment– 5th amendment (portions) – 6th amendment (portions)– 7th Amendment (portions)

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AP GOV CONCEPTS

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