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AP Human Geography Key Concept Review
AP Human GeographyAP Human Geography
Key Concept Review
Geography as Field of StudyGeography as Field of Study
Geography - “geo” - “the earth” “graphein” - “to write”
Cartography - art & science of map-making Developed early by Greeks, Romans,
Chinese, Arabs
Names in GeographyNames in Geography Eratosthenes - Greek scholar
Used geometry; accurately calculated circumference of earth
Ptolemy - Greek scholar Developed global grid system forerunner to latitude &
longitude Idrisi - Arab geographer
Gathered maps, consulted mariners & travelers, went on scientific expeditions
Names in GeographyNames in Geography Immanuel Kant - defined geography as study of
interrelated spatial patterns Description & explanation of similarities & differences
between regions George Perkins Marsh
Focused on impact of human actions on natural environment
Carl Sauer - cultural landscapes C.L.=product of interactions between humans & their
environments
Types of GeographyTypes of Geography Physical Political Human - Where are people? How are they alike
and different? How do they interact? How do they change the natural landscapes, and how do they use them?
Urban Environmental
Key Geographical SkillsKey Geographical Skills
Spatial Perspective - the way places and things are arranged and organized on earth’s surface
Absolute Location Meridians, parallels, latitude, longitude Greenwich, England
Relative Location
Use of MapsUse of Maps
Reference Material - tool for storing information
Communications/education - often thematic - can explain spatial perspective to others - ex. Soil types
Contour Map - topography
Map ProjectionsMap Projections Globe - only accurate representation of earth “All maps lie flat and all flat maps lie.”
distortion Mercator - created for navigating ships across
Atlantic Ocean; direction is true; distortion towards poles
Robinson - good projection for general use; distortion greatest at poles
Peters - keeps land masses equal in area; shapes distorted
ScaleScale Size of unit studied - local, regional, global? Ex.
drought Map Scale
Mathematical relationship between size of area on map & actual size on surface of earth
Large scale maps = more details 1/24
Small scale maps = less details 1/24,000
Time ZonesTime Zones
Use longitude to determine 180 degrees east and west of prime
meridian, runs through Greenwich, England (set by international agreement)
15 degrees apart - 24 sections - 1 hour each
Encouraged by creation of railroads
“Place”“Place” =unique location of a geographic feature Place name - toponyms Site - Situation Absolute location - Pattern = linear vs. centralized vs.
random vs. grid/rectilinear Ordinance of 1785
RegionsRegions Formal/Uniform - similarities in physical or
cultural features Functional/Nodal - organized around nodes or
cores Core vs. periphery
Perceptual/Vernacular - places people believe to exist a part of their cultural identity
Space-Time CompressionSpace-Time Compression
Describes changes that rapid connections among places and regions have brought
First transportation and communication Now television and computers Impact of globalization
Geographic TechnologiesGeographic Technologies
GIS - Geographic Information System computer system that can layer captured data
GPS - Global Positioning System Uses series of satellites, tracking stations, and
receivers to determine precise absolute locations on earth
PopulationPopulation
Unit Two
DemographyDemography
Study of population Population geography = number,
composition, & distribution of human beings on earth’s surface
Follow growth and movement of population
Distribution, Density & ScaleDistribution, Density & Scale Distribution - arrangement of locations on earth
where people live Dot maps
Population density - # of people in a given area of land 90% of people live north of equator More than 1/2 of all people live on 5% of land and 9/10
on less than 20% Most people live close to sea level 2/3 of world lives within 300 miles of ocean
DensityDensity
Arithmetic (crude) Total number of people divided by total land
area Physiological population
Total number of people divided by arable land
Carrying CapacityCarrying Capacity
Number of people an area can support on a sustained basis
Farmers using irrigation & fertilizers support more people
Industrial societies import raw materials & export manufactured goods
Population PyramidsPopulation Pyramids Represents a population’s age & sex
composition Factors affecting shape:
Health care War Availability of birth control Cultural values Level of economic development
Population ConcentrationsPopulation Concentrations
2/3 of world pop in 4 regions: East Asia - 1/5 of world South Asia - 1/5 of world Southeast Asia - 500 million Europe - primarily urban
Race and EthnicityRace and Ethnicity Race - category composed of people who share
biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important
Ethnicity - less based on physical characteristics & emphasizes a shared cultural heritage, such as language, religion, and customs
Important because people tend to live in areas with people of same race or ethnicity
Population Growth & DeclinePopulation Growth & Decline Little pop growth until mid-18th century Agricultural or Neolithic Revolution
Until then, doubling rate was very long Birth rates and death rates were high
1750 Industrial Revolution - England Population explosion Doubling time has dropped fast
Theories of Population GrowthTheories of Population Growth Zero population growth movement - goal to level
off world’s pop growth to ensure earth can sustain its inhabitants
Thomas Malthus Food growing arithmetically vs. pop growing
exponentially Neo-Malthusians, The Population Bomb, Paul Ehrlich,
drove international efforts using birth control and family planning
The Vocabulary of Population TheoryThe Vocabulary of Population Theory
CBR TFR Demographic momentum CDR IMR NIR Life expectancy
Demographic Transition TheoryDemographic Transition Theory Stage 1 - pre-industrial, agrarian societies
High CBR and CDR Stage 2 - industrialization
High CBR, lower CDR By mid19th century - epidemiological revolution aka mortality revolution
Stage 3 - mature industrial economy CBR drops, CDR low
Stage 4 - post-industrial economy CBR continues to fall and CDR low More women in workforce Children expensive Extensive education needed to fill post-industrial jobs
Population and Natural HazardsPopulation and Natural Hazards Climate, drought, hurricanes, typhoons, tsunamis Malthus’ “negative checks” - famine and disease Globalization has increased spread of
communicable diseases AIDS Asian bird flu Pandemic = widespread epidemic Swine flu
Population PoliciesPopulation Policies Expansive policies - like Mao Zedong’s Restrictive policies
China - Deng Xiaoping One child policy Female infanticide
India - democracy’s problems Family planning Rural families Indira Gandhi
International Policy EffortsInternational Policy Efforts 1994 International Conference on Population and
Development in Cairo, Egypt - agreed that improving the status of women is essential to population control
1995 UN Fourth World Conference in Beijing, China - agreed that women needed to control fertility allowing them to take advantage of educational and employment opportunities
Population MovementPopulation Movement Circulation = our short-term repetitive
movements in our days Migration = involves a permanent move to a new
location, within a country or to another country Demographic equation = summarizes population
change over time in an area by combining natural change (death rate subtracted from birth rate) and the net migration
Emigration - migration FROM a location Immigration - migration TO a location
Ravenstein’s Laws of MigrationRavenstein’s Laws of Migration
British demographer Wrote 11 migration laws Most immigrants move short distance
Distance decay - decline of activity or function with increasing distance from point of origin
Step migration - long-distance migration done in stages
Intervening opportunities - those planning to go long distances find other opportunities before reaching final destination
Ravenstein’s Laws of MigrationRavenstein’s Laws of Migration
Migrants moving longer distances tend to choose cities as destinations
Each migration flow produces a counter-flow; ex. When one group moves in to neighborhood, another group moves in
Families less likely to make international moves; single males more likely
Gravity ModelGravity Model
Inverse relationship between the volume of migration and the distance between source and destination
A large city has a greater gravitational pull than a small one, but it still tends to pull people that live closer rather than farther away
Reasons for MigrationReasons for Migration
Push factor = encourages people to move Pull factor = attracts people to a region
Economic Push-Pull FactorsEconomic Push-Pull Factors Push Pull
Cultural Push-Pull FactorsCultural Push-Pull Factors Push Pull
Environmental Push-Pull FactorsEnvironmental Push-Pull Factors Push Pull
Major Migrations at Different ScalesMajor Migrations at Different Scales
Asia, Latin America and Africa have net out-migration
North America. Europe, and Oceania jave net in-migration
Largest flows are: Asia to Europe Asia to North America South America to North America
U.S. Immigration PatternsU.S. Immigration Patterns
Three Main Eras: Initial settlement of colonies Emigration from Europe Immigration since 1945
Initial Settlement of ColoniesInitial Settlement of Colonies About 1 million Europeans came before 1776 Another 1 million by 1840 Majority from Britain Others from Netherlands, Sweden, France,
Germany, Iberian Peninsula 18th century - 400,000 African slaves brought
over
Emigration from EuropeEmigration from Europe
19th-20th century migration one of most significant in history
75 million departed for Americas between 1835-1935
Largest number to USA Three waves:
1840s-1850s - 2 largest groups Irish & Germans Late 1800s - 1870s-1890s - 75% NW Europe;
Germans & Irish continued & Scandinavians; pull factor Industrial Revolution
Early 1900s- peak levels 1910; many from Southern and Eastern Europe, esp. Italy, Russia, Austria-Hungary
Immigration since 1945Immigration since 1945
Restrictions against Asians lifted in 1960s: China, Philippines, India, Vietnam
Many came as refugees Many went to Canada Another major source is Latin America with
Mexico topping 8 million 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act -
government issued visas to several hundred thousand people who had previously entered illegally
Intraregional MigrationsIntraregional Migrations
Within USA, African-Americans began migrating from South to North during WWI and in the 1940s; 1970s countertrend of African Americans moving back South
Dislocation due to ethnic strife, war, or natural disasters South Asia - Afghanistan - Pakistan Southeast Asia - Vietnam - Cambodia Balkans - collapse of Yugoslavia Sub-Saharan Africa - Rwanda, Sudan
Migration SelectivityMigration Selectivity
=Tendency for certain types of people to move influenced by 1. Age - young people, 18-30 and their
children 2. Education - higher levels of education more
likely to migrate long distances; follow one’s career in professions; danger of brain drains
3. Kinship and friendship ties - chain migration; ethnic neighborhoods such as “Little Italies” and “Chinatowns”
Short Term Circulation & Activity SpaceShort Term Circulation & Activity Space
Activity Space - area in which an individual moves about as he or she pursues regular, day-to-day activities
Factors affecting activity spaces: Age group - younger by foot/bicycle; older by
car; retired activity space shrinks Ability to travel - suburbs vs. city; LDC vs.
MDC; income level Opportunities to travel - self-sufficient families,
poverty, & physical isolation reduce awareness space
Space-Time PrismSpace-Time Prism
All people live within a space-time prism that sets the limits for their activities
They have only so much time to be mobile and their space is limited by their ability to move
Cultural Patterns and ProcessesCultural Patterns and Processes
Unit Three
Basic Definitions:Basic Definitions:
Cultural landscape - modification of the natural landscape by human activities
Cultural geography - transformation of the land and ways that humans interact with the environment
Cultural ecology - studies relationship between natural environment and culture
Schools of Thought in Cultural GeographySchools of Thought in Cultural Geography Environmental determinism - physical environment
actively shapes cultures so that human responses are almost completely molded by environment
Possibilism - cultural heritage is at least as important as physical environment in shaping human behavior
Environmental perception - emphasizes importance of human perception of environment rather than actual character of the land; shaped by culture
Cultural determinism - human culture ultimately more important than physical environment in shaping human actions
Concepts of CultureConcepts of Culture
Culture = mix of values, beliefs, behaviors, & material objects that together form a people’s way of life
Non-material culture = abstract concepts of values, beliefs, behaviors Values = culturally-defined standards that guide way people assess
desirability, goodness and beauty & serve as guidelines for moral living Beliefs = specific statements people hold to be true, almost always
based on values
Material Culture = includes wide range of concrete human creations = artifacts
Cultural HearthsCultural Hearths
Areas where civilizations first began that radiated the customs, innovations, and ideologies that culturally transformed the world
Developed in SW Asia, North Africa, South Asia, East Asia - river valleys
Cultural DiffusionCultural Diffusion
Expansion diffusion Contagious diffusion Hierarchical diffusion Stimulus diffusion
Relocation diffusion
Acculturation Assimilation Transculturation Ethnocentrism Cultural relativism Syncretism
Language = key to cultureLanguage = key to culture
=systematic means of communicating ideas and feelings through the use of signs, gestures, marks, or vocal sounds
Also allows for continuity of culture (cultural transmission)
Writing invented 5000 years ago Most people illiterate until 20th century
LanguagesLanguages
Currently between 5000-6000 languages 10 languages spoken by 100+ million
people: Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, German, Mandarin and Wu Chinese, English, Hindi, Bengali, Arabic, and Japanese
Linguistic fragmentation = many languages spoken especially by a relatively small number of people; ex. Eastern Europe
Language FamiliesLanguage Families Languages usually grouped into families
with a shared, fairly distant origin Indo-European family - languages spoken
by half the world’s people, English most widely used; thought to be rooted in Black Sea area
Other families = Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Congo, Dravidian, American Indian
Standard languages - recognized by govt and intellectual elite as norm for use in schools, govt, media, & other aspects of public life
Official languages - language endorsed & recognized by govt as one that everyone should know and use
Dialects - regional variants of a standard language Isoglosses - boundaries within which words are
spoken
Bilingualism - ability to communicate in 2 languages Multilingualism - ability to communicate in more than 2
languages Pidgin - amalgamation of languages that borrows words
from several Creole - when a pidgin becomes the first language of a
group of speakers Lingua franca - established language that comes to be
spoken & understood over a large area Toponymy - study of place names
“town”, “ton”, “burgh”, or “ville” = town
Extinct LanguagesExtinct Languages
Ex. Gothic, died out in 16th century Some organizations try to preserve
endangered languages like European Union’s Bureau of Lesser Used Languages; ex. Welsh in Wales, Quecha in Peru
ReligionReligion Varies in its cultural influence Distinguished from other belief systems by
emphasis on the sacred and divine Explains anything that surpasses the limits of
human knowledge Affected most societies in history but today has
been replaced in some places by new ideas Humanism - ability of humans to guide their own lives Marxism - communism
ReligionsReligions
Universalizing Religions = Christianity, Islam, Buddhism; 60% of world’s religions
Ethnic Religions = appeal primarily to one group of people living in one place; 24% of world’s religions
16% of world identifies with no religion
Divisions within religionDivisions within religion Branches - large, basic divisions within
religion Denominations - divisions of branches that
unite local groups in a single administrative body
Sects - relatively small groups that do not affiliate with the more mainstream denominations
ChristianityChristianity 2 billion followers Most widespread distribution Predominant religion in North & South America,
Europe & Australia 3 major branches:
Roman Catholic - 50% Protestant - 25% Eastern Orthodox - 10%
Remaining 15% cannot be categorized into the 3 main branches
Religion in the United StatesReligion in the United States
Over 50% Protestant 25% Catholic 2% Jewish
What about the Mormons?
IslamIslam 1.3 billion adherents Predominant in Middle East from North Africa to
Central Asia About half of world’s Muslims live in Indonesia,
Pakistan, Bangladesh and India Growing faster than Christianity 7-10 million Muslims in USA Youngest of world religions
Divisions of IslamDivisions of Islam
Sunni - 83% of Muslims; Indonesia largest concentration
Shiite - 16% of Muslims; concentrated in Iran, Pakistan, Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and Yemen
Split occurred over the rightful successor of Muhammad
BuddhismBuddhism
365 million followers Began on Indian subcontinent Diffused through Silk Road and water
routes across Indian Ocean to East and Southeast Asia
3 Main Branches of Buddhism3 Main Branches of Buddhism
Mahayana - 56% - “Big Wheel” - East Asia Theraveda - 38% - stricter adherence to
Buddha’s teachings - Southeast Asia Tantrayana - 6% - Tibet and Mongolia Accurate count difficult because eastern
religions don’t require followers to identify with one religion
Other Universalizing ReligionsOther Universalizing Religions
Sikhism - 21 million in Punjab region of India; combo Hinduism and Islam; founder Guru Nanak
Baha’i - founded in 1844, most in Iran, viewed by some Shiite Muslims as heretics, believe in a different prophet
Ethnic ReligionsEthnic Religions
Hinduism Confucianism Daoism Shintoism Judaism Shamanism
Spatial Impact Spatial Impact
Large cities - tallest, most centralized & elaborate buildings are often religious structures
Churches, mosques, temples, synagogues, pagodas
Bodhi trees in Buddhist areas How religions dispose of the dead
Popular & Folk CulturePopular & Folk Culture
Folk = traditionally practiced by small, homogeneous groups living in isolated rural areas
Popular = found in large heterogeneous societies that are bonded by a common culture despite the many differences among the people that share it
Folk CultureFolk Culture Controlled by tradition Resistant to change Self-sufficient Example - Amish Relatively isolated Usually agricultural with limited technology Ex. Dutch wearing wooden shoes to adapt to working in
wet fields below sea level Ex. Hindu taboos against eating beef Housing styles - based on environment materials
Housing StylesHousing Styles
Folk MusicFolk Music
North American folk music began as immigrants carried their songs to the New World but became Americanized and then new songs about American experiences
Regions Northern song section Southern and Appalachian song area Western song area Black Song Style Family
Popular CulturePopular Culture
Primarily urban based General mass of people conforming to and
then abandoning ever-changing cultural trends
Breeds homogeneity Pop culture takes on a national character Globalization of pop culture has caused
resentment
Environmental impact of popular cultureEnvironmental impact of popular culture
Uniform landscapes - fast food restaurants, chain hotels, gas stations, convenience stores; designed so residents and visitors immediately recognize purpose of building or name of company
Increased demand for natural resources - fads demand animal skins; consumption of food not efficient to produce (ex. 1 lb beef requires animal consuming 10 lbs grain; ratio for chicken 1 to 3)
Pollution - high volume of wastes
Cultural Landscape = Cultural IdentityCultural Landscape = Cultural Identity
Landscapes & values = Native Americans vs. Europeans
Landscapes & identity = people express culture by transforming elements into symbols like flags, slogans, religious icons, landscaping and house styles Can clash like Muslim practice of never depicting Allah
or Muhammad in drawings clashed with western freedom of press with Danish cartoon in 2005
Symbolic landscapes = all landscapes are symbolic - signs and images convey messages
Political Organization of SpacePolitical Organization of Space
Unit Four
Political geographyPolitical geography
Study of the political organization of the planet, a constantly changing collage of countries that once were kingdoms or parts of empires
Concept of territorialityConcept of territoriality
Efforts to control pieces of the earth’s surface for political and social ends
Political culture = the collection of political beliefs, values, practices and institutions that the government is based on
BoundariesBoundaries Invisible lines that mark the extent of a state’s
territory and the control that its leaders have Some set by physical features, some by
negotiation or war Frontiers historically separated states - a
geographic zone where no state exercises power while a boundary is a thin, imaginary line
Physical BoundariesPhysical Boundaries Easy to see - make good boundaries Rivers, lakes, oceans not usually used as
boundaries - those set in water follow median-line principle
Ocean boundaries problematic because nations claim boundary out at sea, not at coast
1983 The Law of the Sea standardized territorial limits for most countries at 12 nautical miles (14 land miles) and gave rights to fish and other marine life within 200 miles
Cultural boundariesCultural boundaries
Set by ethnic differences, primarily based on language and/or religion
Aka consequent boundaries Ex. Indian and Pakistan Ex. Breakup of Austria-Hungary after WWI Ex. Balkanization & shatter belts
Territorial morphologyTerritorial morphology
Describes the shapes, sizes, and relative locations of states
Shapes of statesShapes of states Compact - distance from center to any boundary is about
the same Prorupted - compact state with large projecting extension;
proruptions often exist to get at a natural resource Elongated - long & narrow; often communication
problems; is capital centralized? Fragmented - have several discontinuous pieces of
territory (any archipelago qualifies) Perforated - a state that completely surrounds another
one; ex. South Africa around Lesotho
Exclaves & EnclavesExclaves & Enclaves Exclaves - small bits of territory that lie on coasts
separated from the state or territory of another state Cabinda - part of Angola separated by the DRC
Enclave - landlocked within another country so that the country totally surrounds it Enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh is an exclave of
Armenian Christians that are surrounded by Muslim Azerbaijan
Size of statesSize of states
Largest - Russia - 6.5 million square miles, 11% of earth’s surface
Microstates - Liechtenstein, Andorra, San Marino
Large size increases chance of having resources
Small states tend to have a more homogeneous population
Does size equal power?
Relative LocationRelative Location
Significance of size and shape as factors in national well-being can be modified by state’s absolute & relative location
Landlocked states - lacking ocean frontage & surrounded by other states - disadvantage (about 40 countries)
Good location example - Singapore
Sovereignty - the ability of the state to carry out actions or policies within its borders independently either from the inside
Nationalism = national consciousness
Boundary DisputesBoundary Disputes
Since WWII, almost half of world’s sovereign states have been involved in border disputes with their neighbors
The more neighbors, the more possibility of disputes
4 types of boundary disputes: Positional/definitional disputes Territorial disputes Resource/allocational disputes Functional/operational disputes
4 types of boundary disputes:
Positional/definitional disputes - states argue where border actually is (ex. US & Mexico, Argentina & Chile)
Territorial disputes - arise over ownership of region, usually around mutual borders; often people want to annex people ethnically related - irredentism - German invasion of Czechoslovakia & Poland
Resource/allocational disputes - involve natural resources like fertile farmland, mineral resources, or rich fishing areas that lie in border areas (ex. Iraq & Kuwait Persian Gulf War)
Functional/operational disputes - arise when neighboring states cannot agree on policies that apply in a border area (Ex. US-Mexico immigration/drug trafficking
Evolution of the Nation-stateEvolution of the Nation-state
Ancient Egyptians ruled by pharaoh god-kings Ancient Mesopotamia & Greece organized into
city-states Then the empires - Persian, Macedonian, Roman,
Han Middle East caliphates Medieval European kingdoms - decentralized
feudalism Largest organized political unit of all times -
Mongol Empire - ruled by a “khan” (universal ruler), a military leader supported by a web of kinship ties
The Nation-state ConceptThe Nation-state Concept Today power is territorially organized into states
(countries) that control what happens within their borders
State - defines who can and cannot use weapons & force and it sets rules as to how violence is used; sponsor armed forces
State - includes institutions - stable, long lasting organizations that help turn political ideas into policy
States exercise sovereignty - ability to carry out actions or policies within their borders independently from interference either from inside or outside
Nation - group of people that is bound together by a common political identity
Nation-state - a state whose territorial extent coincides with that occupied by a distinct nation or people, or at least, whose population shares a general sense of unity and allegiance to a set of common values
Nationalism - sense of patriotism or pride an loyalty that individuals feel toward their nations
Examples: Armenians in Azerbaijan
Variations of the Nation-stateVariations of the Nation-state Binational or multinational state - contains more
than one nation Ex. Former USSR - multinational state Ex. Russia - has faced breakway movements like
in Chechnya Stateless nations - people without a state Ex. Kurds - a nation of c. 20 million people
divided among 6 states and dominant in none
The Organization in StatesThe Organization in States
Important geographical clues to understanding how states are organized are Its core areas Size and function of its capital cities
Core AreasCore Areas
Most early nation-states grew from core areas, expanding outwards until they bumped up against other nation-states, causing them to define boundaries
State’s periphery (outlying areas) - town’s get smaller, factories fewer, & open land more common
Multicore states - may be problematic, especially if areas are ethnically diverse; ex. Nigeria (northern core primarily Muslim and southern core is Christian - capital moved from Lagos in south to Abuja near the geographic center of the state)
The Capital CityThe Capital City Usually houses the government and serves as
economic and cultural center Will be the primate city if no other city rivals it in
size and influence Washington DC is NOT primate city Forward capital - capital city which serves as
model for national objectives (Ex. Japan moved capital from Kyoto to Tokyo; Brazil moved capital from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia
Electoral GeographyElectoral Geography Electoral process - methods used in a
country for selecting its leaders - in democracies an important connection between citizen and state
Electoral geography - study of how the spatial configuration of electoral districts and voting patterns reflect and influence social and political affairs
USAUSA 435 legislative districts, each electing one
representative to lower house of legislature Boundaries redrawn with census every ten years Gerrymandering - political party in control usually
attempts to redraw boundaries to improve chances of its supporters to win seats - derived from Eldridge Gerry
Minority/majority districting - rearranging districts to allow minority representative to be elected, just as controversial, North Carolina
Colonialism & ImperialismColonialism & Imperialism 18th century European political philosophers
developed idea of modern state with basic concept that people owe allegiance to a state and people it represents rather than to its leader
Spread from 1789 to 19th century Colonies, dependent areas, were created &
given fixed & recorded boundaries where none had formally existed
Colonialism - term before 19th century Imperialism - term 19th & 20th centuries “the sun never sets on the British empire” Most African & Asian colonies became
independent in the decades following WWII Ethiopia, Liberia, & Thailand only independent
states
3 Types of states - internal geographic distribution of power3 Types of states - internal geographic distribution of power
Unitary system - concentrates all policy-making power in one central geographic place
Confederal system - spreads the power among many sub-units (such as states) and had weak central govt (ex. Articles of Confederation, Confederate States of America, modern Switzerland)
Federal system - divides power between central govt and sub-units (ex. USA, Canada, Australia)
Supranational OrganizationsSupranational Organizations
Cooperating groups of nations that operate on either a regional or international level
Ex. European Union, United Nations
Centripetal Forces (unite)Centripetal Forces (unite)
Bind together people of a state Nationalism - encourages allegiance to a
single country, encourages people to obey all laws
Promoted by se of symbols, songs, flags, holidays
Schools expected to instill society’s beliefs, values, behaviors
Fast and efficient transportation can unify
Centrifugal Forces (fragment)Centrifugal Forces (fragment)
Destabilize country Tends to lose loyalty of citizens Weak institutions can fail to provide cohesive
support that govt needs Nationalism can be strong among different
ethnicities which can divide rather than unite; can lead to separatist movements
Devolution - decentralization of decision-making to regional govts (ex. Britain has devolved power to Scottish and Wales parliaments to keep peace)
Devolutionary forces - ethnic forcesDevolutionary forces - ethnic forces
Ethnonationalism - tendency for an ethnic group to see itself as a distinct nation with a right to autonomy or independence
Ex. French Canadians in Quebec Ex. Yugoslavia in 1990s Ex. Canada - Inuit - creation of Nunavut -
separate territory in 1999
Devolutionary forces - economic forcesDevolutionary forces - economic forces
Economic inequalities, especially regional ones
Italy - North wealthier than south, divided by “Ancona line”
Catalonia in northern Spain - makes up 17% of population but 40% of all industrial exports
Devolutionary forces - spatial forcesDevolutionary forces - spatial forces
Most often occur on the margins of a state Distance, remoteness, and peripheral
location promote devolution Ex. Puerto Rico
GeopoliticsGeopolitics
Study of the spatial and territorial dimensions of power relationships within the global-territorial order
Friedrich Ratzel 19th century - theorized a state compares to biological organism with a life cycle from birth to death with a predictable rise & fall of power
Sir Halford Mackinder concerned self with power relationships surrounding Britain’s global empire; believed a land-based power would ultimately rule world Heartland theory - stated the pivot area of the earth
(Eurasia) holds resources, natural &human, to dominate globe - USSR
GeopoliticsGeopolitics
Rimland theory - Nicholas Spykman 1944 Argued that the Eurasian rim, not its heart,
held key to global power Rimland = large swath of land encircling the
heartland - China, Korea, Japan, Southeast Asia, India, Arabian Peninsula, Europe
Supranational OrganizationsSupranational Organizations
Concept began with Concert of Europe in early 1800s
To League of Nations following WWI To United Nations following WWII
Supranational Organizations - UNSupranational Organizations - UN
1945 - 49 nations 2009 - 192 nations Can vote to send peacekeeping missions to
“hotspots” & requires states to contribute military forces
Security Council - 5 permanent members (US, Britain, France, China, Russia) - power of veto
Many sub-organizations promote general welfare and monitor and aid world trade; ex. World Bank, IMF, UNESCO
Supranational Organizations - Regional OrganizationsSupranational Organizations - Regional Organizations NATO vs. Warsaw Pact OAS Arab League OAU
Supranational Organizations - EUSupranational Organizations - EU
Promises to redefine the meaning of sovereignty Countries of Europe are deeply affected by trend
towards integration Created to revitalize war torn Europe after WWII Treaty of Maastricht established 3 pillars or
spheres of authority Trade & economic matters, Euro Justice & home affairs Common foreign & security policy
DemocratizationDemocratization
One essential requirement is competitive elections that are regular, free, fair Are Russia, Nigeria, Indonesia?
Other characteristics: Civil liberties Rule of law with equal treatment of citizens Neutrality of judiciary and other checks Open civil society allows citizens to lead private lives
& mass media independent from govt Civilian control of military that restricts likelihood of
military seizing control of govt
“Third Wave” of Democratization“Third Wave” of Democratization
According to Samuel Huntington, 1970s 1st wave - gradually over time 2nd wave - after WWII until early 1990s 3rd wave - defeat or dictatorial or
totalitarian rulers from South America to Eastern Europe to some parts of Africa
Reasons for DemocratizationReasons for Democratization
Loss of legitimacy by both right and left wing authoritarian regimes
Expansion of urban middle class in developing countries
New emphasis on “human rights” by US and EU “snowball effect” - when one country in a region
becomes democratic, it influences the others to do so (ex. Poland in 1980s)
One of greatest obstacles to democratization is poverty
Movement Toward Market EconomiesMovement Toward Market Economies
Old command economies are fading except in combination with market economies
What kind of market economy will be most successful? A mixed economy or a pure market economy
Marketization - state’s re-creation of market in which property, labor, goods and services can all function in a competitive environment to determine their value
Privatization - transfer of state-owned property to private ownership
Revival of Ethnic or Cultural PoliticsRevival of Ethnic or Cultural Politics
Few political scientists had predicted that fragmentation would become increasingly important in world politics
Today politicization of religion - use of religious principles to promote political ends and vice versa)
Huntington argues that our most important & dangerous future conflicts will be based on clashes of civilizations, not on socioeconomic or ideological differences (the West, the Orthodox World (Russia), Islamic countries, Latin America, Africa, the Hindu world, the Confucian world, the Buddhist world, Japan)
2010 FRQ - Can you do it?2010 FRQ - Can you do it?
2. Since 1950 many states have faced challenges in developing a strong national identity.
A. Using contemporary examples, explain how each of the following has contributed to the development of
national identity and the strengthening of a state. 1. Economic development 2. Relocation of a state’s capital (since 1950) B. Using contemporary examples, explain how each of the
following may detract from the development of national identity and weaken a state. 1. Ethnicity 2. Transportation infrastructure
Agriculture: Primary Economic ActivitiesAgriculture: Primary Economic Activities
Unit Five
Economic ActivitiesEconomic Activities Primary Sector - agriculture
Draws raw materials from the natural environment Includes agriculture, raising animals,fishing, forestry, an mining Largest in low income, pre-industrial nations
Secondary Sector -transforms raw materials to manufactured goods Grows quickly as societies industrialize
Tertiary Sector - involves services rather than goods Dominates post-industrial societies Construction, trade, finance, real estate, private services, govt,
transportation Quaternary Sector - subset of tertiary
Research & development, management & administration, processing & disseminating info
Post-Industrial SocietiesPost-Industrial Societies
Ex. United Kingdom 1.4% engaged in agriculture 80.4% in services
Ex. United States .6% in agriculture 76.8% in services
Origin & Spread of AgricultureOrigin & Spread of Agriculture
Agriculture = deliberate tending of crops & livestock in order to produce food & fiber
Hunters & Gatherers - migrations depended on seasonal growth of plants and movement of game; left little imprint on the land
Neolithic Revolution - c. 8000 BCE
Neolithic RevolutionNeolithic Revolution Developed in different agricultural hearths over a
large period of time Results:
Increase in reliable food supplies Rapid increase in total human population Job specialization Widening of gender differences Development of distinction between settled peoples
and nomads
According to Carl Sauer….According to Carl Sauer….
Vegetative planting - earliest form of plant cultivation - new plants are produced from direct cloning from existing plants
Seed agriculture came later - production of plants through annual planting of seeds
Vegetative PlantingVegetative Planting Probably originated in diverse topography of
Southeast Asia Included roots like taro & yams & tree crops like
bananas and palm Diffused NE to China and Japan and west through
India, SW Asia, tropical Africa, and Mediterranean 1st domesticated animals probably dogs, pigs,
chickens Other hearth - South America - manioc, sweet
potatoes, arrowroot
Seed AgricultureSeed Agriculture Sauer identified 3 hearths: western India, northern
China, Ethiopia Diffused to SW Asia where wheat & barley
domesticated, & domesticated cattle, sheep, goats Diffused to Europe & N Africa China hearth - millet Ethiopia hearth -millet & sorghum Southern Mexico (Squash & maize) & northern Peru
hearth (beans, cotton, squash)
Innovations Contributing to Seed AgricultureInnovations Contributing to Seed Agriculture Irrigation - channeling of water to fields Plowing to loosen and turn soil Fencing to keep animals out of fields Fertilizing with plant & animal wastes Weeding
Columbian Exchange helped spread crops between hemispheres
Second Agricultural RevolutionSecond Agricultural Revolution
Preceded Industrial revolution - late 1600s early 1700s Western Europe
Technology like Jethro Tull’s seed drill, Bakewell’s animal husbandry, development of better irrigation, dykes and dams - led to increased agricultural output
Led to increased population Enclosure movement pushed small
farmers to cities
Subsistence Agriculture Subsistence Agriculture
Most prevalent in LDCs Produce just enough food to feed family,
little to no surplus
Commercial AgricultureCommercial Agriculture Production of food surpluses Most crops destined for sale outside
farmer’s family Mostly in MDCs Generally not sold to consumers but to
food-processing companies Called agribusiness
ComparisonComparison
Percentage of farmers in labor force SF - high percentage of people (many countries in Africa
have more than 60% of their citizens engaged in agriculture)
Cf - less than 2% of all workers in US and Canada are farmers
Use of machinery Sf - work done with hand tools and animal power Cf - tractors, combines, planters largely replace manual
labor; rely on transportation like railroads and trucks; use scientific advances like fertilizers, herbicides
Farm size Sf - small Cf - big
Subsistence Farming - SubregionsSubsistence Farming - Subregions
Intensive Subsistence - large amount of output per acre but still subsistence; East and South Asia with wet, or low land rice, labor intensive; mostly done by hand
Shifting Cultivation - aka “slash and burn” or swidden agriculture - rain forests; extensive type of subsistence -requires frequent movements; large percentage of arable land on planet; intertillage common = growing various crops; done by hand
Pastoral Nomadism - follow the herds (sheep, cows, reindeer, camels, horses) - also extensive subsistence
Commercial Agriculture: SubregionsCommercial Agriculture: Subregions
Mixed crop & livestock farming - most common form in west USA & Europe - raise crops & livestock on same land spread; practice crop rotation
Dairy farming - in areas outside large urban areas (milkshed) - New Zealand world’s largest producer of dairy products; disadvantage = need to buy all their feed, labor intensive
Grain farming - winter wheat area in Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma; spring wheat area - Dakotas & Montana, Washington; “breadbaskets”
Commercial Agriculture: SubregionsCommercial Agriculture: Subregions
Livestock ranching - practiced in arid or semi-arid regions where crops are impractical; much of western US; pampas and llanos
Mediterranean agriculture - also in California, Chile, South Africa, Australia; based on horticulture - growing of fruits, vegetables, flowers
Commercial Agriculture: SubregionsCommercial Agriculture: Subregions
Commercial gardening and fruit farming - aka truck farming - mostly in SE US - apples, asparagus, cherries, lettuce, mushrooms, tomatoes - most sold for canning and freezing
Plantation farming - large farm that specializes in one or two crops; found in Latin America, Africa, Asia; called cash crops; colonial legacies
Von Thunen’s Model: Rural Land UseVon Thunen’s Model: Rural Land Use
Four Rings That Surround Market Centers: Market gardening and dairy
Perishable products, expensive to deliver Forest - in 19th century towns surrounded by belts of forests
Provided food for fuel and construction, bulky and heavy to transport
Field crops Less perishable crops like wheat; usually crops rotated from one
year to the next Animal grazing
Requires lots of space Generally unprofitable to farm beyond this ring - transportation
costs too high
Von Thunen’s Model: Rural Land UseVon Thunen’s Model: Rural Land Use
Assumed a flat terrain, uniform soils, no significant barriers to transportation to market
Did acknowledge spatial arrangement could vary according to topography; rings would be arranged with hills and rivers in mind
First effort to analyze spatial character of economic activity
Identified the interplay of transportation costs and value of products on rural land use - at heart of location theory
Global Patterns of Rural Land UseGlobal Patterns of Rural Land Use
Regional scale -Organic products - more perishable, affects profit margin
Global scale - farmers far away from markets in North America and Western Europe less likely to grow highly perishable products or crops that are bulky and expensive to transport
Other factors that influence rural land use are: climate & soil conditions, farming methods, technology & historical influences (colonialism)
Patterns of SettlementPatterns of Settlement
Intensity of crop cultivation affects density of housing in rural areas
Dispersed settlement pattern - in extensive agricultural areas
Nucleated settlement pattern - ex. Indonesia, villages quite close together with small surrounding fields; land use is intense but labor intensive Most common pattern of agricultural
settlement
Housing Styles and GeographyHousing Styles and Geography
Flood-prone areas - stilts Heavy snow - steep-sided roofs Nomads - light weight transportable materials Early Midwest settlers - sod houses Building materials:
Wood - linked to distribution of forests Brick - major element of modern construction Stone - Wattle - refers to poles and sticks woven tightly
together and then covered with mud; many African houses with thatched roofs
VillagesVillages Usually describes a small number of people who live in a
cluster of houses in a rural area How big? Canada says <1000 people; USA says <2500
people Types:
Round - houses circle around a central corral for animals with fields extending outside ring
Walled - ancient days to protect villagers from attack Grid - straight street patterns in parallel and perpendicular lines Linear - follow major roads, lined with houses, businesses, and
public buildings Cluster - more than one major road that they build along, &
may have clusters around large public buildings
Influence of Land Ownership & Survey TechniquesInfluence of Land Ownership & Survey Techniques Rules about property inheritance often determine land
distribution In areas where primogeniture is practiced, all land passes to
eldest son, resulting in land parcels that are large and tended individually
Rectangular survey system - used by US govt to encourage settlers to disperse evenly across interior farmlands; section lines drawn in grids
Metes & bounds - natural features are used to mark irregular parcels of land (eastern seaboard US)
Long-lot survey system - divides land into narrow parcels that extend fro rivers, roads, canals (Quebec, Louisiana, Texas)
Modern Commercial AgricultureModern Commercial Agriculture
Roots in mercantilism- goal to benefit mother country by trading goods to accumulate precious metals & enrich country
Major products included cotton in Egypt, India, Sudan; tobacco and cotton in American colonies; sugar from Caribbean and Brazil
Colonial patterns still in effect in many places in modern world today Ex. Colombia still produces coffee & Guatemala still
produces bananas
Diffusion of Industrial AgricultureDiffusion of Industrial Agriculture
I.A. = current stage of commercial agriculture resulting from shift of farm as center of production to a position as just one step in multiphase industrial process that begins on farms and ends on consumer’s table
Characterized by specialization - growing of specialized crops because they seem to be the most profitable
Farmers must weigh cost of production - machinery, fuel, fertilizer, labor - and deal with unpredictable weather and/or disease
Agribusiness - contract farming - farmers sign contracts with buyer-processors
Third Agricultural RevolutionThird Agricultural Revolution Began mid-20th century with industrial agriculture Methods - innovation in agricultural machinery, genetic
technology, creation of new markets for consumption, and global trade
Biotechnology - use of genetically altered crops and DNA manipulation in livestock in order to increase production
IR8 - hybrid rice 1930s IR36 - hybrid rice 1980s - larger quantities, shorter
growing cycle, more resistant to pests
Green RevolutionGreen Revolution
1970s - collection of new agricultural techniques involving 2 important practice: Use of new higher-yield seeds
“miracle wheat seeds”
Expanded use of fertilizers Resulted in agricultural production
outpacing population growth by late 20th century
Praise for Green RevolutionPraise for Green Revolution
Agricultural production outpaces population growth - avoiding famines of past
Nitrogen-based fertilizers greatly increased farm production
Scientists continue to invent new food sources Higher productivity is primarily responsible for
reducing dependency on imports in Asia New irrigation processes have greatly increased crop
yields Agribusiness has increased productivity of cash
crops, yielding profits for farmers and raising large amounts of basic crops to feed world
Criticism for Green RevolutionCriticism for Green Revolution Poor countries cannot always afford machinery, seeds,
fertilizers Cost increases inequities between rich and poor countries Fertilizers also lead to groundwater pollution Many fishing areas are already over-fished Many people in sub-Saharan Africa are not getting
enough to eat with millions of people facing famine Irrigation has led to groundwater depletion, negatively
impacting water supplies for urban populations Agribusiness usually focuses on one type of crop instead
of a diversity for a balanced diet, esp. in poor countries
Effects on Sub-Saharan AfricaEffects on Sub-Saharan Africa
Famine still strong in Sub-Saharan Africa Lack of resources to buy seed, fertilizer,
machinery Made worse by rapid population growth Desertification - land has been overgrazed
by animals, soils have been exhausted from overplanting; soil erosion
Environmental Impact of Modern AgricultureEnvironmental Impact of Modern Agriculture
More land has been cleared & land is farmed more intensely
Erosion - extends areas subject to flooding Changes in organic content of soil - more pressure
on land to be farmed, more likely soil loses fertility Depletion of natural vegetation - such as when
intensive farming or livestock move into semi-arid regions
Presence of chemicals in soils & ground water -caused a trend toward organic agriculture
Future Food SuppliesFuture Food Supplies
Expansion of agricultural land -only 11% of world’s land area is currently cultivated but most of remaining land is not arable; urbanization cuts down on available land space
Increase in land productivity - Green Revolution has made this viable
Identification of new food sources - ocean? Taboos? Improved distribution of food - top three exports are
wheat, corn, rice 1/2 of global corn exports and 1/4 of wheat exports come
from US Thailand leading exporter of rice
2009 FRQ - Can you do it?2009 FRQ - Can you do it?
3. Agriculture in the United States has changed significantly in the past few decades. With respect to the past, present, and projected trends in agriculture shown in the diagram above, answer the following:
A. First identify and then explain TWO factors contributing to the steady decline in the number of dairy farms since 1970.
B. First identify and then explain TWO factors contributing to the increase in the number of organic farms since 1970.
2008 FRQ - Yikes!2008 FRQ - Yikes!
Von Thunen’s model of land use and Burgess’model of land use are similar in appearance but different in their geographic setting. Analyze and discuss the two models in terms of each of the following:
A. For each of these models, identify the type of land use the model addresses
B. Identify two assumptions that are shared by both models
C. For each of these models, explain how relative location affects land-use patterns.
Industrialization & Economic Development
Industrialization & Economic Development
Unit Six
Economic GeographyEconomic Geography Study of impact of economic activities on the
landscape Investigates reasons behind locations of economic
activities Interested in changes that industrialization has
brought to the cultural and social landscapes , especially in different patterns of wealth that it has created
Divide between rich and poor nations has become more pronounced
IndustrializationIndustrialization
Process by which economic activities on earth’s surface evolved from producing basic, primary goods to using factories for mass-producing goods for consumption
Primary economic activity - directly extracts products from the earth
Secondary economic activities - industry that transforms raw materials into usable products, giving them usefulness
Primary Sector - AgriculturePrimary Sector - Agriculture
Draws raw materials from natural environment
Agriculture, raising animals, fishing, forestry, mining
Largest in low-income, pre-industrial nations
First appeared 10,000 years ago
Secondary Sector - IndustrySecondary Sector - Industry
Transforms raw materials into manufactured goods
Grows quickly as societies industrialize Includes refining petroleum into gasoline
and turning metals into tools and automobiles
Tertiary Sector - ServicesTertiary Sector - Services
Involves services rather than goods Grows with industrialization and comes to dominate
post-industrial societies Production based on computers and other electronic
devices that create, process, store and apply information
Society’s occupational structure changes significantly - construction, trade, finance, real estate, private services, govt, transportation
Quaternary sector - subset of tertiary - research & development, management & administration, processing & disseminating info
Economic Indicators of DevelopmentEconomic Indicators of Development
GDP - value of total output of goods and services produced in a country in a year
GDP per capita - measure of average person’s contribution to generating a country’s wealth in a year
>$20,000 in MDCs C. $1000 in LDCs Related to social characteristics including literacy
rates and education levels since economic development is dependent on a skilled workforce
Economic Indicators of DevelopmentEconomic Indicators of Development
Types of jobs - middle income nations have a greater mix of jobs from 3 sectors
Worker productivity - MDC workers are more productive than LDC workers because of access to technology - productivity measured by the value added by each worker (subtract cost of raw materials and energy from gross value of product - higher value added in MDCs)
Economic Indicators of DevelopmentEconomic Indicators of Development
Access to raw materials - Industrial Rev began in England because of its raw materials; also motivated imperialism
Availability of consumer goods - do people have the means to buy nonessential goods
Theories of Economic DevelopmentTheories of Economic Development
Modernization Model Cultural environment of Western Europe
favored change in the late 18th century British model spread to rest of Europe and
USA Identifies tradition as greatest barrier to
economic development
Theories of Economic DevelopmentTheories of Economic Development
Dependency Theory Puts primary responsibility for global poverty
on rich nations Holds that economic development of many
countries in the world is blocked by the fact that industrialized nations exploit them
Roots of inequality in colonial era Theory is outgrowth of Marxism
Modernization Theory - Rostow’s StagesModernization Theory - Rostow’s Stages Traditional stage - lives centered around families, local
communities, & religious beliefs; similar to lives of ancestors; limited wealth; subsistence farmers
Take-off stage - people experiment with producing goods for profit; something like an industrial revolution;urbanization increases; technology breakthroughs; greater individualism and risk taking
Drive to technological maturity - economic growth widely accepted; attaining higher living standards; economy diversifies as people can afford luxuries; poverty reduced; population growth reduced; international trade expands
High mass consumption - living standards raised; mass production encourages consumption of industrial products; high incomes; most workers in service sector
Modernization TheoryModernization Theory Claims MDCs can help LDCs
by encouraging them to control population growth, increase food production, & take advantage of industrial technology
Criticisms It’s a justification fro
capitalist systems to continue to exploit non-capitalist countries
Fails to recognize that rich countries often block development in poor countries
Dependency Theory: Wallerstein’s Capitalist World EconomyDependency Theory: Wallerstein’s Capitalist World Economy A global economic system that is based in
high-income nations with market economies
Traced economic inequality among nations to colonial era when Europeans first took advantage of the wealth of world.
Divided countries into 3 types according to how they fit into global economy
Dependency TheoryDependency Theory 1. Core countries - rich nations that fuel world’s
economy by taking raw materials from around world & channeling wealth to North America, Europe, Australia, Japan through multinational corporations that operate worldwide
2. Countries of the periphery - low-income countries drawn into world economy by colonial exploitation, continue to support rich ones today by providing inexpensive labor and large market for industrial goods
3. Countries of the semiperiphery - remaining countries of world somewhere in between
According to Wallerstein….According to Wallerstein…. World eco benefits rich societies & harms other
countries by making them dependent on core countries
Perpetuated by narrow, export-oriented products such as oil, coffee, fruit
Lack industrial capacity so caught in cycle of selling inexpensive raw materials & buying expensive manufactured goods, spending more than they take in
Result high foreign debt
According to Wallerstein, dependency theoryAccording to Wallerstein, dependency theory
Emphasizes that no country develops in isolation because global eco shapes destiny of all nations
Is this reality
Growth & Diffusion of IndustrializationGrowth & Diffusion of Industrialization
England mid 18th century Textiles first James Watt - steam engine New industries transformed England’s
landscape- urbanization spread Western Europe’s industrial success based also
on ability to access raw materials through colonies; also had comparatively skilled laborers
USA industrialization 1800s - concentrated in Northeast
20th Century Industrialization After WWI20th Century Industrialization After WWI
Change from coal as energy source to oil and natural gas
US and Europe increasingly turned to foreign countries vesting new power in countries with oil
Ex. Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, China, Russia, Kuwait, Iran, Mexico, Venezuela
Evolution of Economic Cores & PeripheriesEvolution of Economic Cores & Peripheries Locational theory - explains locational
pattern of economic activities by identifying factors that influence this pattern
Primary industry - develops around location of natural resources, such as industrial belt in British Midlands
Secondary industry - as transportation improves - less dependent on resource location
Location of secondary industries depends on several factors:Location of secondary industries depends on several factors: Variable costs - energy, labor, & transportation less
expensive in some areas, encouraging industries to develop
Friction of distance - although secondary industry may transport raw materials to factories, the cost usually goes up the farther the distance of transport from source to factory. At some point, distance is too great for practical transportation
Distance decay - industries are more likely to serve markets of nearby places than those far away. As distance increases, business activity decreases until it becomes impractical to do business
Weber’s Model for Location of IndustriesWeber’s Model for Location of Industries
Alfred Weber developed model for location of secondary industries
Least cost theory - explained location of industries in terms of three factors: Transportation - cost of moving raw materials to factory &
finished products to the market; truck transportation cheapest over short distances; railroads most cost efficient over medium distances; ships cheapest long distances
Labor - cheap labor may make up for higher transportation costs Agglomeration - when several industries cluster in one city, they
can provide support by sharing talents, services, & facilities Deglomeration - exodus of businesses from crowded area
Locational Interdependence TheoryLocational Interdependence Theory
Influence on a firm’s locational decision by locations chosen by its competitors
2009 FRQ - Can you do it?2009 FRQ - Can you do it? A large proportion of urban residents in the
megacities of the periphery of the world system live in squatter settlements.
A. Describe a typical location of squatter settlements within urban areas of megacities on the global periphery.
B. Describe two factors that contribute to the formation of squatter settlements.
C. Give a detailed account of THREE consequences of the rapid growth of squatter settlements. The three consequences you discuss may be social, economic, political or environmental
