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APA: Why Bother?

• American Psychological Association (APA) citations serve several important

purposes.

• Citations link information in the text to the appropriate references. When

citations are missing, readers do not know which sources were consulted.

• Citations add credibility to your writing. Doctoral students must review and

analyze peer-reviewed literature to develop an informed position about a

topic. Assertions, personal opinion, and experience are not scholarly.

Citations document the sources you consulted when writing the paper.

• Citations help avoid plagiarism. Scholarly writers must credit other authors

for their research and ideas. Using information from other sources without

citations leads readers to credit you for someone else’s ideas.

• This tutorial is not a replacement for the APA manual. Rather, this

presentation is designed to help writers become more efficient at looking up

information about citation formats in the 6th edition of the APA manual.


What is a citation?

• A citation is left by a writer to lead readers from information in the

text to the reference list.

• When a proper citation is provided, readers can easily flip to the

reference list at the end of the paper and locate the source of the

information.

• According to the APA manual (2009), citations help readers “to

locate the source of information in the alphabetical reference list at

the end of the article” (p. 174).


When should a citation be used?

• Citations must be used when a writer paraphrases or quotes the work

of another author.

• Statistics, facts, opinions, and theories based on the work of other

authors require citations.

• If the information came from anyone other than you, a citation is

needed.

• Citations are important for doctoral students, because scholarly

writing is grounded in the existing literature.

• Assertions and personal opinion are strongly discouraged because

they are subject to bias.


The “Says Who?” Test

• This is one of the fastest ways to determine if information in a paper should

have a citation. After the information is provided, ask, “Says who?” If the

answer is anyone other than the writer, the information needs a citation. Try

this test on the following passages.

• In all of these situations, the ideas are based on statistics, facts, opinions, or

theories from other authors. Thus, all the passages require citations. If, on

the other hand, the information comes from the writer, a citation is not

needed. The absence of a citation communicates to readers that the

information is from the writer.

Approximately 90% of all American households have at least one videogame console. Says who?

Scientific leaders believe space exploration should receive increased funding from Congress. Says who?

Bioterrorism is defined as the deliberate use of biological materials to harm and frighten the public. Says who?


Common Knowledge

• There is only one exception to the “Says who?” rule. When information is

common knowledge, a citation is optional. Common knowledge is information

that is widely known by most people. The following are some examples of

information that would be considered common knowledge.

Humans need oxygen to breathe. Common knowledge

Birds have feathers. Common knowledge

Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Common knowledge

Many people use the internet. Common knowledge

• Writers should not assume that information known to them is common

knowledge to everyone. If there is any doubt about whether something is

common knowledge, a citation should be provided.


Writers typically use a combination of parenthetical and in-text citations.

Parenthetical Citations: All of the citation information is placed inside

parentheses.

In-text Citations – Some or all of the citation information is placed within the

text of the paper, with the remaining elements inside parentheses.

Research by Jackson (2003) found evidence supporting the theory of intercontinental drift.

General Citation Forms

(Jackson, 2003)

Author’s Last Name

Comma

No Space

Author’s Last Name


Citation for a Direct Quotation

• The content of a citation varies based on the type of information used. If the

information is a direct quotation, the citation should include the author’s last

name, year, and page number.

• APA indicates that there is a space before the page or paragraph number.

Direct Quotations with Page Information

Parenthetical Citation In-text Citation

"Americans often do not understand

traditional Japanese customs"

(Okamura, 2006, p. 2).

Okamura (2006) suggests, "Americans

often do not understand traditional

Japanese customs" (p. 2).


Direct Quotation: No Page Number?

• In situations when a page number is not provided, such as electronic

documents, include a paragraph number, as shown below:

• As with page numbers, place a space before the paragraph number.

• Use of paragraph information in citations is only intended for

electronic sources that do not provide page numbers.

• Do not provide paragraph numbers when page numbers are

provided.

Direct Quotations with Paragraph Information


“Anchors are used by website designers

to help readers to quickly locate

information contained in a long article”

(Campbell, 2003, para. 2).

Campbell (2003) suggested, “Anchors

are used by website designers to help

readers to quickly locate information

contained in a long article” (para. 2).


• Writers can also use headings in a citation to help readers identify the

location of the information within the original article. For instance, the

citations below point readers to a section of an article, then direct

them to the paragraph number.

• Use of heading and paragraph information in citations is only

intended for electronic sources that do not provide page numbers .

• As a result, do not provide section or paragraph numbers when page

numbers are provided.

Section Headings Used in Citations

Direct Quotations with Heading Information


“Focus group help subjects to feel

relaxed in a neutral discussion format”

(Hammond, 2000, Methodology section,

para. 5).

Hammond (2000) indicated, “Focus

group help subjects to feel relaxed in a

neutral discussion format” (Methodology

section, para. 5).


Quotations of Fewer Than 40 Words

• The examples below illustrate how parenthetical and in-text citations

can be used with a short quotation. Short passages are placed inside

quotation marks, followed by the citation, then a period.

• Writers typically use a combination of parenthetical and in-text

citations.

Rouse (2007) suggests “many doctors lack the interpersonal

skills to work effectively with patients” (p. 3).

Parenthetical

Citation

In-text

Citation

“Many doctors lack the interpersonal skills to work effectively

with patients” (Rouse, 2007, p. 3).

Quotation marks

Period after the citation


Quotations of 40 Words or More

• Longer quotations are block indented, without quotation marks, and

the period is placed at the end of the quotation, before the citation.

• To determine the length of a quotation in Microsoft® Word, highlight

the quotation, then choose Tools > Word count.

Parenthetical

Citation

In-text

Citation

Most medical school training focuses on clinical, rather than interpersonal, dimensions

of treatment. When individuals believe a doctor does not listen and empathize, there

are significantly more malpractice claims. Such situations could be easily avoided with

interpersonal communication training. (p. 3)

Most medical school training focuses on clinical, rather than interpersonal, dimensions

of treatment. When individuals believe a doctor does not listen and empathize, there

are significantly more malpractice claims. Such situations could be easily avoided with

interpersonal communication training. (Rouse, 2007, p. 3)Block

indentationPeriod before the citation

Rouse (2007) observed that


Citing a Paraphrased Statement

Paraphrased Information


Tourism is a major source of revenue in south Texas (Larson, 2007).

Larson (2007) indicated that tourism is a major source of revenue in south Texas.

• The previous examples explain how to cite direct quotations. Whereas

scholarly writing includes some direct quotations, the exact use of another

author’s words tends to be used sparingly. On the other hand, paraphrased

information, which summarizes an author’s work, is used more frequently.

When citing paraphrased information, only the author’s last name and year

are required.

• Although writers are not required to provide page or paragraph numbers for

paraphrased information, the APA manual says authors “are encouraged to

provide a page or paragraph number, especially when it would help an

interested reader locate the relevant passage in a long or complex text”

(Section 6.04, p. 171).


Two Authors

• When there are two authors, the citation format changes slightly.

Writers should include both authors’ names in the citation.

• If the authors’ names are inside parentheses, an ampersand (&)

should separate the names.

• If, on the other hand, the authors’ names are mentioned in the text,

the word and should be spelled out.

Parenthetical Citation

In-text Citation

Smith and Jones (2003) found that the majority of

subjects indicated dissatisfaction with the current level

of services provided by the hospitality industry.

The majority of subjects indicated dissatisfaction with

the current level of services provided by the hospitality

industry (Smith & Jones, 2003).

AmpersandAnd


Three to Five Authors

• Citations for sources with three to five authors are different.

• The first time the source is cited, all of the authors’ names should be listed in

the citation, separated by commas.

• Subsequent citations should list only the first author and the Latin phrase et al.,

meaning “and others.”

• The same ampersand rules apply with three to five authors; parenthetical

citations use the ampersand while in-text citations spell out the word and.

First citation

O’Neill, Carter, Jackson, and Hammond (2004) reported tremendous

growth in the science fiction segment of the entertainment industry.

Subsequent citations

According to O’Neill et al. (2004), the rapid growth of the science

fiction market was an outgrowth of blockbuster movies like Star Wars

and Alien.

Parenthetical

Citations

In-text

Citations

First citation – (O’Neill, Carter, Jackson, & Hammond, 2004)

Subsequent citations – (O’Neill et al., 2004)


• Because six or more authors makes the citation lengthy, APA says

writers citing such works should only list the first author’s last name,

followed by et al. (Section 6.12, p. 175).

Six or More Authors

Chaca et al. (2000) reported an increasing number

of burglaries in the Cincinnati area.

In-text

Citations

An increasing number of burglaries have been

reported in the Cincinnati area (Chaca et al., 2000).

Parenthetical

Citations


Group Authors

• When citing sources with group authors, decide whether to abbreviate

the name of the group.

• The APA manual says, “if the [group’s] name is long and cumbersome

and if the abbreviation is familiar or readily understandable, you may

abbreviate the name in the second and subsequent citations” (Section

6.13, p. 176).

• In such instances, the first citation should spell out the name of the

group author, with the abbreviation in brackets. Then, subsequent

citations use the abbreviated group name.

Group’s name is long with an understandable abbreviation:

First citation – (Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals [SPCA], 2001)

Subsequent citations – (SPCA, 2001)

Group’s name is short or lacks an understandable abbreviation:

All citations – (American Legion, 2001)


No Author

• When no author information is provided, writers should use

“the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title)

and the year” (p. 176).

• The first few words of the title should be placed in double

quotation marks, as shown below.

• Doctoral writers should use caution when working with such

sources, because articles without an author are not peer-

reviewed.

(“Study Finds,” 1982)

Study finds treatment is unreliable. (1982, June 3). Psychology

Today, 285, 1000-1002.


Multiple Citations in the Same Parentheses

• Occasionally, a writer paraphrases information from several authors

who make similar points. In such situations, more than one work

should be listed in a parenthetical citation.

• Writers should list authors alphabetically “in the same order in which

they appear in the reference list” (p. 177), separated by semicolons.

(Allbright, 2006; Baker, 2000; Cartwright, 2005)


(Allbright, 2006a, 2006b; Baker, 2000; Cartwright, 2005)

• In situations where there is more than one reference for the same

author in the same year, the suffix a, b, c, and so forth should be

listed after the year.

• For instance, if you had two articles from Allbright in 2006 as well as

the works from Baker (2000) and Cartwright (2005), the parenthetical

citation would look like:

Multiple Citations in the Same Parentheses,

Cont’d.

Letters after the year


Personal Communication

• Writers may include personal communication, such as e-mail,

interviews, and non-archived discussion groups such as class

forums.

• Writers should provide “the initials as well as the surname of the

communicator, and provide as exact a date as possible,” because

such sources of information “do not provide recoverable data,

personal communications are not included in the reference list” (p.

179).

M. Booker (personal communication, May 4, 2007)

reported that an increasing number of high school

students are math illiterate.

In-text

Citations

An increasing number of high school students are math

illiterate (M. Booker, personal communication, May 4,

2007).

Parenthetical

Citations


Indirect Citations

• Occasionally, writers want to use information from a source quoted by

another source.

• For instance, an article by Smith (2006) might quote information from

Jones & Baker.

• Writers should provide sufficient information in the text to provide

background, then have a citation like the following:

• This format communicates that the Jones and Baker information was

provided in the article by Smith (2006).

• Whereas APA illustrates how to use indirect citations, it does not

mean the approach is wise. Avoid using indirect citations, because

they force you to assume that the secondary author accurately

presented the original information. Consult the original or use an

alternate source.

Jones and Baker’s study (as cited in Smith, 2006) showed

that lung cancer is strongly correlated with smoking.

Secondary Source


Reference

• American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of

the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington,

DC: Author.

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