20th annual International Congress of A.P.P.A.C Most of the about 100 Professors, Lecturers, Directors & senior speakers( from more than 50 Countries ) present this year! (about 500 participants) A.P.P.A.C.: 18 AEGIALIAS STR., 15125 MAROUSSI, GREECE, TEL: +30 210 6842 663 - FAX: +30 210 6842 079 WEBSITE : WWW.APPAC.GR, EMAIL: [email protected]Quarterly journal of the Association of Psychology and Psychiatry for Adults and Children volume 23, No:3, JULY - SEPTEMBER 2015 A.P.P.A.C 2648 GR ISSN 1106 - 2827 N.ΕΡΥΘΡΑΙΑΣ 28
Transcript
20 th annua l I n te rna t i ona l Congress o f A .P.P.A .C
Most of the about 100 Professors, Lecturers, Directors & senior speakers( from more than 50 Countries ) present this year! (about 500 participants)
Quarterly journal of the Association of Psychology and Psychiatryfor Adults and Children volume 23, No:3, JULY - SEPTEMBER 2015
A.P.P.A.C2648
GR ISS
N 1106
- 2827
N.ΕΡΥΘΡΑΙΑΣ
28
3
«Οι Διαταραχές Πρό-σληψης Τροφής (ΔΠΤ) συγκεντρώνουν, εξελι-κτικά, το ενδιαφέρον των ερευνητών αλλά και του ευρύτερου κοι-νού, από τις αρχές του 19ου αιώνα. Συνήθως, πρωτοεμφαν ί ζοντα ι στην εφηβική ηλικία. Ειδικότερα, η ψυχογε-νής ανορεξία και η ψυ-χογενής βουλιμία είναι ασθένειες που κυρίως αφορούν τις γυναίκες, καθώς είναι 8-9 φορές συχνότερες σε αυτές από ό,τι στους άνδρες. Τα τελευταία χρόνια όμως, η διαφορά αυτή φαίνεται να μικραίνει.
Η ΑΝΑΣΑ είναι η πρώτη Μη Κερδοσκοπι-κή Εταιρεία στην Ελλά-δα που δημιουργήθηκε με στόχο την ενημέρω-ση, πρόληψη και θερα-πεία των πασχόντων από Διαταραχές Πρό-σληψης Τροφής (ΔΠΤ). Από την ίδρυσή της το 2007 μέχρι σήμερα έχει υλοποιήσει σημαντικό και πρωτοποριακό έργο για τα ελληνικά δεδο-μένα στην κατεύθυνση ενημέρωσης, πρόληψης και θεραπευτικής αντι-μετώπισης των ΔΠΤ σε διαφορετικά κοινά: παι-διά, εφήβους, ενήλικες, γονείς, εκπαιδευτικούς και ιατρική κοινότητα. Ο σημαντικότερος σταθ-μός στην διαδρομή της ΑΝΑΣΑ είναι το Κέντρο Ημέρας, το οποίο ιδρύ-θηκε το 2008 και παρέ-χει δωρεάν υπηρεσίες διάγνωσης, θεραπείας και συμβουλευτικής υποστήριξης στους πά-σχοντες και στις οικο-γένειές τους, μέσω μίας διεπιστημονικής ομάδας επαγγελματιών ψυχικής υγείας, αποτελούμενη από ψυχίατρους, ψυ-χολόγους, γενικό ια-τρό, διατροφολόγο και άλλες ειδικότητες από την λειτουργία του έως σήμερα.
Το Κέντρο Ημέρας της ΑΝΑΣΑ καλύπτει πλήρως τις προδιαγρα-φές που ορίζει η Ευρω-παϊκή Ένωση και είναι η μοναδική δομή εξειδι-κευμένης θεραπευτικής αντιμετώπισης για τις διαταραχές πρόσληψης τροφής στη χώρα μας.»
Η ΔΗΜΙΟΥΡΓΙΚΗ ΠΡΟΣΕΓΓΙΣΗ ΤΗΣ ΥΠΑΡΞΗΣ
Ευθύμιος Βαλκανος, Αναπληρωτής Καθηγητής Πανεπιστημίου Μακεδο-νίας (Θεσσαλονίκη)
Γεώργιος Μάρδας, Λέκτορας Κοινωνικής Πολιτικής, Πανεπιστήμιο Μακε-δονίας (Θεσσαλονίκη)
Θεόδωρος-Βασίλειος Μάρδας, Επιστήμονας Κοινωνικής Πολιτικής, Πανεπιστήμιο Μα-κεδονίας (Θεσσαλονίκη)
ΠΕΡΙΛΗΨΗ Μία μορφή της μίμησης της πραγματικότητας είναι και η δημιουργική ηθική αναπαράσταση της τέχνης. Όμως, ταυτο-χρόνως, είναι και κάτι το φυσικό και συχνά αναγκαίο και επιβεβλη-μένο. Η φαντασία είναι η ικανότητα του ανθρώπου να δημιουργεί μυθοπλαστικές εικόνες, τις οποίες δεν συναντούμε στον υλικό κόσμο μας. Η γόνιμη φαντασία είναι η δύναμη ,με την οποία ένα πράγμα παρουσιάζεται(φαίνεται) στο μυαλό του ανθρώπου. Η φαντασίωση σημαίνει πλάση μορφών δια της φαντασίας. Στη διαδικασία της φα-ντασίωσης υπάρχουν δύο “τρόποι” φαντασίας . Ο ελεγχόμενος και ο αυθόρμητος. Κατά τον πρώτο τρόπο, γίνεται η προσπάθεια να χρησι-μοποιηθούν οι εικόνες του μυαλού για διάφορους σκοπούς. Στο δε δεύτερο τρόπο, τον αυθόρμητο, υπάρχει φαντασίωσης, ύστερα από ιδιαίτερα ερεθίσματα και ενεργήματα ,που δέχεται η ψυχοπνευματική φαρέτρα του υποκειμένου.
Efthymios Valkanos, Associate Professor, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki - Greece)
George Mardas, Lecturer in Social Policy, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki - Greece)
Th.–V. Mardas, Scientist of Social Policy, University of Macedonia (Thessaloniki - Greece)
A B S T R A CT One form of imitation of reality is the creative moral representation of art. However, simultaneously, is something natural and often necessary and imperative. Imagination is the ability of humans to create fictional images, which are not encountered in our material world. The fruitful imagination is the power by which a thing is presented (shown) in the mind of man. Fantasy means creation forms through imagination. In the process of fantasy there are two “ways” of imagination. The controlled and spontaneous. In the first mode, is the attempt to use the images of the mind for various purposes. And in the second mode, the spontaneous, there is fantasy, after a highly stimulating and energetic, which accepts the psycho-spiritual quiver subject.
Key words: being, essence, reality, imitation, fantasy
LITERATURE REVIEW
Originally, It is important to understand the many different ideas of mimesis, of philosophy itself and of imagination in order to understand the significance of mimesis and the philosophy of imagination. In principle, imitation or mimesis can be approached conceptually from different angles. It comes from the transitional ancient Greek verb «μιμούμαι» (imitate) which derives from the noun ‘imitation’. When someone does or comports or speaks as another or uses as a standard (model, specimen) the project or thought of another person, then he imitates the model of the other, namely the project or the operations replicated in the model. There are imitations during the conscious and / or unconscious of an effort to produce in thought or behavior the same pattern of thought or behavior which occurs in other subjects. The creative and ethical representation of art is a form of imitation (Leontsini, 2009:117,120) .We must not confuse imitation with mimetism, because the latter is passive and involves uncritical copying standards related with ideas, ways, forms of behavior etc. When the art of imitation uses gestures, facial expressions, body movements without speech, then it is mimetism. Specifically, the theatrical performance of a Greek tragedy is a pure imitation of acts or actions (Babiniotis, 2002:106) .While imitation is natural and often necessary and appropriate, mimitism expresses an unhealthy trend towards self-devaluation, that is exaggerated with the continuing imitation of (foreign) others. So it is a voluntary substituting of ourselves with the foreign. Hence, a form of mimicry is xenomania, which involves a shallow imitation of the foreign with simultaneous devaluation and self-promotion. (Kargakos, 1988: 1, 2). In modern times, such imitation is imposed by systems that promote dehumanization.No man needs to be subordinated to standards that are incompatible with his character, the conditions of his life and his way of thinking and expression. (Bitsakis, 1984: 9,14,16).
Imitation of the Ancients and reverence for them can be a symptom of discomfort of the individual, in modern civilization. It could also be a positive indication and willingness to gain power, that appropriates and interprets something foreign from distant to confirm himself. Another idea of imitation can be attributed to Nietzsche in his research of Greek past, imitation of an antichristian standard, called the “great standard”, which he returns to it in his last deed with the form of the superhuman. (Nietzsche, 2013:1,2). At this point, a philosophically active sense of imitation appears, which is inextricably linked with the imagination of acting persons and the confirmation fantastic forms, called fantasy.
Turning from the question of mimesis to that of philosophy, we can say that philosophy is the investigation of truth and nature. As Aristotle stated, it is a general science which aims at a systematic organization of human knowledge and creation a worldview and bio-theory (Aristotle, 1983:116,206). Philosophy is also the dominant discipline concerned to define and understand a range of central and linked questions, especially questions about the general nature of knowledge, language and concepts, which repeat, apparently, in all special of investigation and reflection. There are three main causes that lead man to philosophize: admiration, doubt and awareness of the limited capabilities of humanity. All three causes lead to the identification of the contribution of imitation, imagination and fantasy, so human being can access deep truth and make consciousness coincide with the reality coincided (Aristotle, 1997:75).Imitation leads to standards that the man admires and doubts is lifted from commonly accepted standards. Imagination and fantasy complete the philosophical insight beyond human thinking abilities that are the starting point for insights, and shatter ignorance (Aristotle, 1995: 107). Similarly, the Ancient Greek philosopher, Plato claimed that the feeling of admiration is enhanced by the interdependent elements of imitating, imagination and fantasy, because man needs to admire various phenomena on and around the earth (Ross, 1993: 24-28). Enhanced doubt leads to fighting dogmatism and the revision of views. Focusing now on the imagination, the Ancient Greek verb “φαντα-σιούμαι” means conjure idol, transported to fantastic worlds, living in a word of fantasy. The action and procedure that interprets verb “φαντασιούμαι” is called fantasy. Fantasy means conformation, ie forms of belonging or referring to the imagination. Platon stated that the imagination is a special and original reflection of objective reality in consciousness. It is a pictorial representation of real or not real phenomenon (Plato, 2002: 502-504). However, a distinction should be made between the barren imagination, based on a misconception of reality, and the fertile imagination, which draws strength from the knowledge of facts. The fertile imagination plays a big role in all fields of intellectual and philosophical activity and is a
prerequisite for any creative work. The imagination, as to the psychological basis, is a mental function. It derives its material from performances of the past and the present. These performances are broken into their basic data and then they are reconstructed (potentially in inexperienced formations) and generate new descriptive images.
The term “imagination” in psychology covers the entire performing operation of soul. The creatures of the imagination are called fantasy. However, instead of the term fantasy, the term fancy is sometimes used, which means power of the mind to imagine (Saztze, 1995: 36,57,353).
In the Platonic conception, imagination is a creative ability of the soul which creates ghostly, that are embedded in the data of reality. Aristotle separates imagination from feeling and intellect, because he thinks that without imagination there is no grasping reality. (Aristotle, 1993; 30-40). Meanwhile, the Epicureans defined as imaginary what enters from outside considering the mental images as the total essence of thought. (Diogenes Laertios, 1993: 52-56).
The imagination has also played a central role in recent psychoanalytic theory. The imaginary, according to psychoanalyst J. Lacan is one of the three reference levels of psychoanalytic field, whose main feature is the creation of ego on the basis of the image of virtual ego. The other two levels are the real and the conventional. Thus, the fantasy is a representation formed in the mind of someone with imagination. According to J. Lacan fantasy, is distinguishable from a symptom. They are two distinct forms of enjoyment. The symptom is a form of smugness while fantasy is a form of pleasure (Karavakou, 2013: 8, 9). There is another difference between symptoms and fantasies; the first has an interpretation by the analyst while the second is a reconstruction. The symptom shows some dynamics within the analysis, while the fantasy is static. Finally, the imagination has assumed a major role in the thought of certain contemporary philosophers. The central concept of fantasy in Cornelius Kastoriadis’ thought (1922-1997), was the radical imaginary. By this term, the author refers to the human imagination as the strength to imagine, as human beings, the world and devise through the variety of forms, which we imagine invent (Maroudis, 2014: 1,2,8,20,22). Fantasy is characterized as the main source of ontogenesis but also as the necessary capability of human beings that could play a great social role in history. Each concept has a rational, ie an imaginary equivalent, and therefore it creates an imaginary, like a primary imagery of soul (Kastoriadis, 1981: 108,109). He also states, imagination is a very complex phenomenon, which is described as the ability to create images in the mind based on memories. In conclusion, a review of the history of thought about mimesis, philosophy and imagination reveals how important both mimesis and imagination have been to the development of different philosophical positions (Katsimanis, 2012: 3, 7).
REFERENCES AND OTHER RELATED PUBLICATIONS1. Aristotle (1983). Ritoriki. Athens: publishing 54, I. Zacharopoulos.2. Aristotle (1993). Meta ta Psyschika, vol 2, .Athens: publishing Kaktos.3. Aristotle (1995). Peri poiitikis. vol 34.Athens: publishing Kaktos.4. Aristotle (1997). Peri psychis. vol 40.Athens: publishing Kaktos.5. Babiniotis, G. (2002). Dicionary of Modern Greek Language. Athens: publishing the centre
of Lexicology.6. Bitsakis, E. (1984). What is Philosopsy. Athens: publishing Synhroni Epohi.7. Ross, W.D. (1993). Aristotle. Athens: publishing Cultural foundation Greek national bank.8. Diogenis Laertios (1993). Epikouros. Athens: publishing A. A. Livani.9. Karavakou, V. (2013). Hegel and Lacan: paideutic challenges of the desiring subject. Hellenic
Philosophical Review, Vol. 30 (No 88), 8-21. 10. Kargakos, S. (1988). Mimitism. Athens: electronic Publishing.11. Kastoriadis, K. (1981). The imaginary institution of society. Athens: publishing Rappa.12. Katsimanis, K. (2012). Self-awareness and its pains. Hellenic Philosophical Review,Vol.29(No
85),3-16. 13. Leontsini, H. (2009). Imitation, sensory experience and ethical education according to
Aristotle. Hellenic Philosophical Review,Vol.26, No 77, 117-148.14. Maroudis, D. (2014). Imaginary and philosophy according to Kastoriadis. Athens: publishing
Evrasia.15. Nietzsche (2013). Philosophy of ancient Greek Tragedy. Athens: Publishing Gutenberg16. Plato (2002). Politia. Athens: publishing Polis.17. Saztze, J.P. (1925). Imaginary-phenomenological psychology of fiction. Athens: publishing
Arsenidis.
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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF STATE ANXIETY MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES AMONG ALBANIAN STUDENTS Fleura Shkëmbi, PhD candidat, Psychologist, European University of Tirana, AlbaniaErika Melonashi, PhD, Doctoral School, European University of Tirana, AlbaniaNaim Fanaj, MD, Psychiatrist; PhD candidat, Director of Mental Health Center, Prizren, Kosovo
Abstract The present study aimed to compare three anxiety management techniques, in order to determine their relative effectiveness in reducing state anxiety among students. The study used a pre-post experimental design with three groups (PMR; PMR+ visualization and Music condition).Participants were 42 students. Before and after each session all participants completed the State Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA). Internal consistency values were αsomatic=.89, αcognitive=.85. Paired samples t-tests were conducted (p = .05/6 (number of tests) = .008. PMR has positive effects on both somatic and cognitive components of state anxiety; however findings on PMR + visualization are difficult to interpret because of the pre-intervention difference between the groups (lower anxiety levels in this group). Finally, music seems to be beneficial at least in terms of relieving somatic anxiety symptoms but not cognitive ones.
Keywords: state anxiety, progressive muscle relaxation, music therapy, visualization, students, Albania
Περίληψη Η παρούσα μελέτη είχε ως σκοπό να συγκριθούν τρείς τεχνικές διαχείρισης άγχους, προκειμένου να καθοριστεί η σχετική αποτελεσματικότητά τους στη μείωση της κατάστασης του άγχους μεταξύ των φοιτητών. Η μελέτη χρησιμοποίησε ένα πειραματικό σχέδιο με τρείς ομάδες (PMR (Προοδευτική Μυϊκή Χαλάρωση); PMR (Προοδευτική Μυϊκή Χαλάρωση)+ οπτικοποί-ηση και την κατάσταση Μουσικής). Οι συμμετέχοντες ήταν 42 φοιτητές. Πριν και μετά από κάθε συνεδρία όλοι οι συμμετέχοντες ολοκλήρωσαν τον Κατάλογο Απογραφής του Κράτους για την Σωματική και Γνωστική Ανησυχία ( STICSA). Η εσωτερική συνέπεια στην αξία ήταν ασωματική=.89, αγνωστική=.85. Σε ζεύγη τα δείγματα t-δοκιμές έγιναν (p= .05/6 (αριθμός δοκιμών)=.008. PMR (Προοδευτική Μυϊκή Χαλάρωση) έχει θετικά αποτελέσματα στα στοιχεία του κράτους τόσο στη σωματική όσο και στη γνωστική ανησυχία; ωστόσο τα συμπεράσματα σχετικά με PMR (Προοδευτική Μυϊκή Χαλάρωση) + την οπτικοποίηση είναι δύσκολο να ερμηνευθούν λόγω της προ-επέμβασης διαφοράς μεταξύ των δυο ομάδων (χαμηλότερα επίπεδα άγχους σε αυτήν την ομάδα). Τέλος, η μουσική φαίνεται να είναι επωφελής τουλάχιστον από την άποψη για την ανακούφιση των σωματικών συμπτωμάτων του άγχους όχι όμως και για τις γνωστικές ανησυχίες.
RESEARCH PAPER
IntroductionAnxiety. Anxiety is one of the most widely experienced emotions defined as a displeasing feeling of uneasiness, nervousness, apprehension, fear, concern or worry (Barlow, 2002;Karatas, Alci & Aydin, 2013;Lenka & Kant, 2012). Usually this emotion is related to perceived danger or threat to the individual and involves emotional, somatic, cognitive and behavioural components (Hockenbury, 2010). The criteria for the normality or abnormality of anxiety can be determined by its cause and intensity (Barker, 2009). Indeed moderate anxiety can motivate people to manage their problems and be a success in their life (Abolghasemi, Mehrabizadeh-Honarmand, Najarian, & Shokrkon, 2004). Nonetheless, anxiety might also escalate in disorders; indeed anxiety disorders are the most common class of psychological disorders. Anxiety disorders are present in almost all cultures (Demyttenaere, 2004) and estimates show that they will be experienced by about 18% of adults every year and by about 32% of people during their lifetimes (Kessler 2005). Anxiety reduces quality of life (Cramer, 2005; Rappaport et al, 2005; Saarni,2007) and contributes to disability (Bloom 2011), causing severe occupational impairment and lost productivity (Greenberg 1999, Ormel, 1994). Despite their severity and prevalence, few people with anxiety disorders ever obtain professional treatment (Wittchen 2002).
State vs. Trait anxiety: Spielberger made a distinction between state and trait anxiety; state anxiety was defined as “a transitory emotional state or condition of the human organism that is characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of tension, apprehension and heightened autonomic nervous system activity” (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970, p.3). The states vary in intensity and fluctuate over time which includes cognitive appraisal of threat as a precursor for its appearance while coping with threatening or dangerous situations (Spielberger, 1983).Trait anxiety, on the other hand, is considered to be “relatively stable individual differences in anxiety proneness” (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970,p.3) that characterizes an individual’s tendency to perceive stressors as threatening. This in turn may elevate an individual’s state anxiety resulting in emotional,cognitive, and physiological reactions (Spielberger et al.2010).
Anxiety levels of university students. Anxiety among college students is quite common; estimates show that around 75% of all individuals with anxiety disorders will experience it during their studies (Bolden, 2008; Margarita, 2008). Yılmaz and Ocakçı (2010) found that 77.2% of the students experienced a mild level of anxiety and 19.6% a moderate level. The anxiety level might interfere with everyday functioning like studies, daily activities, and social life among students. Anxiety is a major predictor of academic performance (McCraty, 2007; McCraty, Dana, Mike, Pam & Stephen, 2000) and various studies have demonstrated that it has a detrimental effect (Heather & April, 2008; McCraty, 2007; Luigi, Francesca, Maria, Eleonora, Valentina & Benedetto, 2007) .
Treatment for anxiety: Relaxation techniques. Although anxiety has been thoroughly investigated few studies have focused on intervention programs aiming to reduce anxiety levels among students (Vitasari,Wahab, Othman,&Awang,2010). Relaxation techniques have been considered as an adjunctive therapy for dealing with stress, anxiety and depression and can provide patients with self-maintenance coping skills to reduce these symptoms (Chida, Steptoe, Hirakawa, Sudo, & Kubo, 2007). Among the several relaxation techniques, progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) has been found to be effective in disorders with a strong psychological component (Vickers & Zollman, 1999). Paul (1969) succeeded in proving that a single session resulted in substantial decreases in physiological measures such as heart rate, muscle tension and respiratory rate as compared to control procedures. Nickel et al., (2005) also offered support for the single session application of PMR by proving that one session significantly reduced systolic blood pressure as well as heart rate variability. In 2005,Pawlow and Jones (2005) demonstrated that a single 20 minute session of PMR produced significant changes in immune function. Research conducted by Rausch et al., (2006) suggested that the application of PMR in individuals suffering from clinically high levels of anxiety could be beneficial. Results indicated that the group treated with PMR demonstrated a significant reduction in the level of somatic anxiety. Wolf and Abell (2003) supported this finding by demonstrating that PMR was effective in reducing the level of anxiety down to normal levels. Conrad & Roth (2007) stated that PMR has continued to play an important role in the modern treatment of anxiety disorders. Mishera (2004) conducted an experimental study in India and came to conclude that music, progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), and music combined with progressive muscle relaxation has remarkable effect on the reduction of anxiety, fatigue, and improvement of quality of life.
Schereiber & Schereiber (1995) conducted a study on relaxation techniques and academic stress reduction to improve academic achievement of college students. The relaxation group had significantly higher examination grades than the control group. The research in this area shows that progressive muscle relaxation technique improves quality of life and removes unpleasant physiological effects of tension. Another study by Dress, Ayres & Beechley (2009) found that teaching relaxation techniques improves cognitive functionality, emotional and behavioural balance and life quality.
Treatment for anxiety-Visualization (Imagery). Imagery has been shown to be extremely effective in eliciting the relaxation response (Newmark & Bogacki, 2005; Elkins,Rajab, &
Marcus, 2005); this technique has also been found to decrease anxiety in breast cancer patients (Freeman & Dirks, 2006).Imagery is also a useful coping tool in reducing anxiety and stress so people can perform better (Greenberg & Dintiman, 2009; Dossey (1988) Visualization is often combined with muscle relaxation techniques in the treatment of clinical conditions. For example, Cupal & Brewer (2001) found significantly less pain and re-injury anxiety following a course of relaxation and imagery among individuals undergoing rehabilitation after knee reconstruction; also Johnson (2000) showed that the mood levels of competitive adults with long-term injuries could be significantly improved by relaxation and guided imagery.
Treatment for anxiety-Music therapy. Music therapy involves the prescribed use of music and musical interventions to restore, maintain and improve emotional, physical, physiological and mental health (Albert, 2002). Music therapy is beneficial for patients receiving care for mental disorders (Edwards, 2006). Nonetheless there are several controversial findings on the effects of music. For instance,Jones (2005) provided single session group music therapy in a nonmedical detoxification program but change in anxiety was not statistically significant. Also Cevasco, Kennedy, and Generally (2005) targeted the effects of group music therapy on emotional states of women in a residential addictions treatment program and showed no significant pre-test-post-test differences on anxiety. Conversely, a controlled trial by Hammer (1996), who used “guided imagery through music and relaxation techniques” showed a statistically significant decrease from pre-test to post-test in state anxiety. Also in a program evaluation study, Erkkilä & Eerola (2010) found that people with gambling addictions reported decreased anxiety in response to group and individual music therapy. Pelletier (2004) conducted a meta-analytic review of research articles where music was used to decrease arousal levels due to stress. Results of the study revealed that music alone and music assisted relaxation techniques significantly decrease arousal. Thus overall research has shown that engaging in music therapy activities, specifically music listening paired with progressive muscle relaxation can successfully reduce anxiety levels in individuals (Hernandez-Ruiz, 2005).
MethodologyThe purpose of this study was to examine the effects of progressive muscle relaxation, visualization and music on anxiety levels of students. The study used a pre-post experimental design with three groups: Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR); Progressive Muscle Relaxation and Visualization (PMR+ visualization) and Music condition.
Sample and procedure. Participants were 42 students randomly selected. In terms of gender composition, the sample included 21 men (50 %) and 21 (50 %) women, aged between 20 and 32 years old (Mage= 23.27, SD= 2.98). Participants completed the State Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA) before and after each session. All sessions were conducted in the same setting and according to the specific technique used, the groups were classified as follows: (1) Music group - control. This group consisted of 13 participants, five men (38 %) and 8 women (62 %). These students listened to relaxing musing for 30 min (source YouTube) . (2) Progressive muscle relaxation group. This group consisted of 15 participants, 9 men (60 %) and 6women (40 %). Hartland’s Progressive Relaxation Induction (Hartland,1977) was used for this group. The protocol for the progressive muscle relaxation in this study was administered by a trained professional and the session lasted for 25-30 minutes. (3). Progressive muscle relaxation plus visualization group. This group consisted of 14 participants, 7 men (50 %) and7 women (50 %). The session lasted for 30 min and participants were asked to visualize their favourite place of relaxation.
Instruments.The questionnaire distributed before and after each session was the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA) (Ree, MacLeod, French, & Locke, 2000). This is a self-report measure that assesses an individual’s state and trait expression of both cognitive and somatic symptoms of anxiety. The STICSA consists of two subscales: somatic (11 items) and cognitive (10 items). The STICSA has excellent psychometric properties (Grӧs, Antony, Simms, &McCabe, 2007; Ree et al., 2008). In our study internal consistency values were αsomatic=.89, αcognitive=.85.Translation and back translation were made by two of the authors; one of whom did the translation and the other one (unaware of the original English text) did the back-translation. After comparing the English versions, few changes in wording were made in the Albanian version, which was then considered as final.
ResultsT-Tests: Independent-samples t-tests were conducted to assess gender differences pre-and post-intervention in levels of somatic and cognitive anxiety. Results indicated no significant gender differences in cognitive and somatic anxiety both pre-and post-intervention (See Table 1).
Paired-Samples T-Test: A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the overall impact of the interventions on students’ scores of somatic and cognitive anxiety (See Table 2).. There was a statistically significant decrease in somatic anxiety scores from pre-intervention time (M= 1.85, SD =.62) to post-intervention time (M= 1.48, SD= .40), t (41) = 4.37, p<. 000 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in somatic anxiety scores was .37 with a
5
Variable M SD t df p
Somatic anxiety -.459 40 .64
M Preintervention 1.90 .59
F Preintervention 1.81 .65
Somatic anxiety -.065 40 .94
M Postintervention 1.48 .36
F Postintervention 1.48 .44
Cognitive anxiety -1.220 40 .22
M Preintervention 2.06 .70
F Preintervention 1.83 .46
Cognitive anxiety -.656 40 .51
M Postintervention 1.53 .47
F Postintervention 1.62 .44
Note: M- male, F-female
Table 1 Comparison of students preintervention and postintervention somatic and cognitive anxiety scores based on gender
Table 2 Comparison of students preintervention and postintervention somatic and cognitive anxiety scores (N=42)
Music Control group 13 1.74 .48 1.48 .39 1.79 .48 1.66 .54
PMR group 14 2.24 .66 1.53 .49 2.28 .66 1.57 .46
PMR plus visualization group 15 1.54 .48 1.42 .30 1.74 .50 1.5 .38
Table 3 Means and standard deviations comparing three group interventions on preintervention and postintervention somatic and cognitive anxiety scores
95% confidence interval ranging from .20 to .54. The eta squared statistic (.17) indicated a large effect size. There was a statistically significant decrease in cognitive anxiety scores from pre-intervention time (M= 1.95, SD =.60) to post-intervention time (M= 1.57, SD= .45), t (41) = 4.50, p<. 000 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in cognitive anxiety scores was .37 with a 95% confidence interval ranging from .20 to .53. The eta squared statistic (.18) indicated a large effect size.
A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of the interventions on students’ scores on the in levels of somatic and cognitive anxiety for different groups of interventions (See Table 3).
Music Control group. There was a statistically significant decrease in somatic anxiety scores from pre-intervention time (M= 1.74, SD =.48) to post-intervention time (M= 1.48, SD= .39), t (12) = 3.23, p<. 006 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in somatic anxiety scores was .25 with a 95% confidence interval ranging from .08 to .41. The eta squared statistic (.34) indicated a large effect size. There wasn’t a statistically significant decrease in cognitive anxiety scores from pre-intervention time to post-intervention time.
Progressive muscle relaxation. There was a statistically significant decrease in somatic anxiety scores from pre-intervention time (M= 2.24, SD =.66) to post-intervention time (M= 1.53, SD= .49), t (14) = 6.14, p<. 000 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in somatic anxiety scores was .71 with a 95% confidence interval ranging from .46 to .96. The eta squared statistic (.75) indicated a large effect size. There was a statistically significant decrease in cognitive anxiety scores from pre-intervention time (M= 1.79, SD =.48) to post-intervention time (M= 1.66, SD= .54), t (14) = 5.83, p<. 000 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in cognitive anxiety scores was .70 with a 95% confidence interval ranging from .44 to .96. The eta squared statistic (.45) indicated a large effect size.
Progressive muscle relaxation plus visualization. There wasn’t a statistically significant decrease in somatic anxiety scores from pre-intervention time (M= 1.55, SD =.48) to post-intervention time (M= 1.42, SD= .30), t (13) = .67, p<. 514 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in somatic anxiety scores was .12 with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -.27 to .51. The eta squared statistic (.09) indicated a moderate effect size. There wasn’t a statistically significant decrease in cognitive anxiety scores from pre-intervention time (M= 1.74, SD =.50) to post-intervention time (M= 1.50, SD= .38), t (13) = 1.47, p<. 164 (two-tailed). The mean decrease in cognitive anxiety scores was .23 with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -.10 to .58. The eta squared statistic (.18) indicated a large effect size.
ANOVAs: In an effort to understand the insignificant results in the condition PMR+ visualization, ANOVA tests were conducted to investigate any pre-intervention differences among the three groups (See Table 4).. There was a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level in scores of somatic and cognitive anxiety for the three groups at pre-intervention time. In case of somatic anxiety: F (2, 39) = 6.05, p=.00. In case of cognitive anxiety: F (2, 39) = 4.06, p=.02. The actual difference in mean scores between the groups was quite large. The effect size, calculated using eta squared, was .23 (somatic anxiety) and .17 (cognitive anxiety) .In case of somatic anxiety post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for PMR group (M= 2.24, SD=.66) was significantly different from PMR plus relaxation (M=1.55, SD = .48). Music control group (M= 1.74, SD= 0.48) did not differ significantly from either PMR group or PMR plus relaxation. In case of cognitive anxiety post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for PMR group (M= 2.28, SD=.66) was significantly different from PMR plus relaxation {M=1.74, SD = .50). Music control group (M= 1.79, SD= .48) did not differ significantly from either PMR group or PMR plus relaxation. There wasn’t a statistically significant difference in the scores of somatic and cognitive anxiety for the three groups at post-intervention time.
Discussion.The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of progressive muscle relaxation, progressive muscle relaxation plus visualization, and music in a sample of university students. The study used a pre-post experimental design with three groups: PMR; PMR+ visualization and Music condition.
Results indicated that when considered together all three types of intervention reduced both somatic and cognitive anxiety; these findings are in line with research in the field (e.g., Vickers & Zollman, 1999). However, when the three conditions were considered separately, results indicated the superiority of the PMR condition over the other two; thus progressive muscle relaxation contributed significantly to decreasing both cognitive and somatic anxiety. These results are in line with research in the area documenting the positive effects of progressive muscle relaxation in reducing state anxiety (Chida, Steptoe, Hirakawa, Sudo, & Kubo, 2007; Paul, 1969; Nickel et al.,2005;Dress, Ayres & Beechley,2009). On the other hand music seems to be beneficial at least in terms of relieving somatic anxiety symptoms but not cognitive ones. The results are also in line with existing research in the area (e.g., Stoudenmire, 1975;Pelletier, 2004;Knight & Rickard, 2001;Albert, 2002;Edwards, 2006).These findings were expected to the extent that music obviously acts by relaxing the body, but cognitive symptoms are far more difficult and complex to address. Nonetheless this same logic could not be applied in the case of progressive muscle relaxation condition, where the cognitive component also seemed to benefit.Indeed findings in this case were in line with other research in the area suggesting positive cognitive and emotional outcomes of PMR (Dress, Ayres, & Beechley, 2009).
As regards findings on the PMR+visualization condition, they were quite surprising. This technique seems ineffective both as regards somatic and cognitive anxiety. In other words it seems as though the added visualization component ‘ruins’ the positive somatic and cognitive effects of progressive muscle relaxation. These findings are not in line with existing research on this combined type of intervention (e.g.,Cupal & Brewer; 2001; Johnson, 2000); also these results are not in line with other studies in which visualization was used as unique intervention (Newmark & Bogacki, 2005; Elkins,Rajab, & Marcus, 2005; Freeman & Dirks, 2006;Greenberg & Dintiman, 2009).Several alternative explanations might be proposed for this finding; for instance the significantly low anxiety levels of the PMR+visualization group as compared to the PMR group, might suggest that the effect of the specific technique might come forward stronger when anxiety levels are
higher. However it should be also mentioned that the anxiety levels of participants in the music condition, were also low (and not significantly different from the PMR+Visualization condition); even so somatic anxiety levels in this condition were significantly reduced. Considering this, an alternative and more plausible explanation of the results in the PMR+Visualization group could be that students might find it difficult or cognitively demanding to engage in visualization; alternatively they might just be unfamiliar with the specific technique. However it should be mentioned that these explanations are just tentative and future research should be conducted to test these propositions. Therefore although the present findings might be quite controversial (especially as regards results contradicting existing research) and difficult to generalize because the small sample, future research might determine whether they are explicable in methodological terms (e.g., groups with similar levels of anxiety; familiarity with the specific techniques) or if there are any socio-cultural factors involved (e.g., cultural elements which make visualization more difficult).
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Source df SS MS F p
Somatic anxiety-Preinter-vention
6.058 .005 6.058 .005
Between Groups 2 3.739 1.869
Within Groups 39 12.035 .309
Total 41 15.773
Somatic anxiety- Postinter-vention
.221 .803 .221 .803
Between Groups 2 .075 .038
Within Groups 39 6.643 .170
Total 41 6.718
Cognitive anxiety- Preinter-vention
4.063 .025 4.063 .025
Between Groups 2 2.551 1.275
Within Groups 39 12.242 .314
Total 41 14.792
Cognitive anxiety- Postin-tervention
.373 .691 .373 .691
Between Groups 2 .163 .081
Within Groups 39 8.496 .218
Total 41 8.658
Table 4 One-way Analysis of Variance Summary Table Comparing Interventions Groups on preintervention and postintervention somatic and cognitive anxiety scores
Education is a multifactorial and diverse organization that is constantly growing and is affected by daily happenings. One of the forms to the education is also the form of clinical education, which is developed in this work. The definition of hospital education, according to Patsalis (2013) is: «The provided pre-school and school education (primary and secondary) of operating educational institutions in various hospitals of the country, children-students who are in them for treatment.»
ChronologyIt is clear that a child, who is hospitalized, is away from the school environment,
interrupted school career and mental health may deteriorate. So to meet the school’s needs, it was suggested in 1987 by the Psychological Pediatric to the Minister of National Education and Religious Affairs the function of curriculum in hospital. The Ministry then immediately responded to this call to meet the needs of children - patients, suggesting the operation of this program, having as a basis the fact that all children have the right to continue their education while they are sick and hospitalized.
Legal ProtectionThe need for such a program dictated by the Convention on the Rights of the Child in
Greece (N.2101 / 92), which states that children have the right to a continuous learning, even if they are in hospital. Also by the International Convention on the Rights of the Child. In addition to Article 7 of the EACH-Charter (European Association for Children in Hospital - is an organization that unfortunately Greece is not a member) and the HOPE-Charter (Hospital Organisation of Pedagogues in Europe – sadly Greece is not a member).
Hospital schoolsInitially the definition of hospital given school, where according to him the hospital
school is “The school works in a hospital, especially children’s hospital, providing primary and secondary teaching children, helping them to regain their academic progress during hospitalization or rehabilitation. Responsibility for the function is the local school system. Funded by the state and follow the curriculum of public schools »(Wikipedia). Hospital schools in Greece are (based on the health district):
1st Health district• Hospital for Children in Athens Children «Aghia Sophia»• Hospital for Children in «P. & D. Kyriakou »• GH in Athens « G. Gennimatas »3rd Health Region Macedonia• GH «Papanikolaou» (Special High School)• GΗ «Papageorgiou» 4th Health Region Macedonia-Thrace• GΗ «Ippokrateio»• GH AHEPA• GH G. Gennimatas7th Health Region of Crete• Hospital of HeraklionAll hospital schools belong to special education, except hospital schools “Aglaia
Kyriakou” and “Aghia Sophia”, which according to presidential decrees belong to General Education.
Characteristics of a school hospitalRegarding the administration and structure of this particular school is reported to have
the administrative structure of a mainstream school. It is organized into sections liability, corresponding to clinical hospital and the realization of courses takes place in chambers individually or in specially designed rooms in groups.
The school’s program is individualized. However there is also a flexibility program, tailored to the needs of children. The objectives of the course are achievable and there is emphasis on psychological and social support for children. It can also be a distance learning (home teaching) and can be done using Information and Communication Technologies (eg interactive whiteboards) and supervisory materials. According to Schmitt (1999), the content of teaching is based on the psychosocial stabilization of children.
In hospital school there are children who are hospitalized for more than 4 days or suffering from chronic diseases. Children are referred by the heads of clinics in the hospital school. At the end they are given education certificates to children - patients who attended the hospital school program.
Effectiveness of education in hospitalThe effectiveness of education in hodpital is that children - patients can feel that
they belong somewhere, that entertained, to feel optimism, to escape from the hospital environment and to be equipped with knowledge. However, they face some difficulties, such as physical, psychological- emotional difficulties, anxiety about the course of their health and learning deficiencies (due to possible long-term absence from school).
Parents do not stay uninvolved in hospital training. Some treat it keeping a positive
CHILDREN’S EDUCATION IN HOSPITALPalasidou Aikaterini, Teacher of Primary Education
Introduction: The education of children with serious health problems and who are hospitalized, differs from that of healthy children in school. Diversification exist and in teachers. Therefore, being part of an inclusive circle made up of health professionals, psychologists and other caregivers, as well as from parents of child patients, they all work in groups in order to improve children’s health and fostering socio-psychological skills.
Purpose: The purpose is to present the hospital school, recording the institutional framework, the process of learning, the characteristics of those involved and the difficulties-facilities available
Methodology: Carried literature review, based on studies of articles, scientific journals and conference proceedings.
Results: The hospital institutionalized education provides children-patients to continue their learning (methodology, teaching, learning), and psychosocial development. Of course, outside the support to transnational projects and technology, which in Greece is still at an early stage.
Conclusions: Through the presentation is expected to raise awareness and awakening of stakeholders, which could act as a springboard for an in-depth approach to nursing education in our country
attitude, because the disposal their child improves and it improves and their own, and some having negative view for this, because the belief that hospital training can cause fatigue and impair the health their children. The main difficulty however is the restriction of professional assurance, because of their constant presence in the hospital.
The hospital side it should provide psychological support to the stakeholders (children-parents-teachers-caregivers) for the work done.
Features of the teacher in the hospital school
The teacher is the one who plays the most important role in the hospital school. It has also specific features:
1. Specific and general training2.Teaching-pedagogical competence3. Carefully selected4. Responsible chambers5.Collaborates with the superior
authority of the clinic, nurses, doctors, psychologists, parents & school
6. He has a strong immune system7. HE has extended knowledge of the
course all grades8. He works having personal or
educational-professional motives9. No experiencing burnout10.He has mood, persistence,
sensitivity, appetite and has been in his mind to be a link with school going child and information about the progress, confidence face and main friend of the child-patient.
Consequently, and in accordance with the above, it becomes clear that it is important to have clinical education because according to Bergmann (1980) serves as treatment. Furthermore, connects the child with the world outside the hospital provides psychological assistance to child, reduces the stress of the child and the fear, make the child hope and optimistic, gives incentives to continue to make the child feel accepted and to experience the love and also take courses through this ourselves!
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H.O.P.E. (2000). The Rights and Educational Needs of Sick Children and Adolescents. Adopted by the General Assembly of HOPE. Barcelona - 20th May 2000. Ανακτημένο από το διαδικτυακό τόπο: http://www.hospitalteachers.eu/index.htm
Mukherjee, S., Lightfoot, J., & Sloper, P. (2002). Communicating about pupils in mainstream school with special health needs: the NHS perspective. Child: Care, Health and Development, 28 (1), 21-27.
Schmitt, F. (1999). Förderschwerpunkt Unterricht kranker Schüler. In: Zeitschrift für Heilpädagogik, (50), 182-186.
ΑΡΧΕΙΑ Ε.Ψ.Ψ.Ε.Π - Τριμηνιαία επιστημονική έκδοση της Εταιρείας Ψυχολογικής, Ψυχιατρικής Ενηλίκου & Παιδιού Τόμος 23 Τεύχος 3, Ιούλιος - Σεπτέμβριος 2015, A.P.P.A.C. ARCHIVES – Quarterly Scientific Journal published by the Association of Psychology & Psychiatry for Adults & Children, Vol.23 No 3, July - September 2015Εκδότης Δ/ντής Chief EditorΙ. Κούρος Πρόεδρος Ε.Ψ.Ψ.Ε.Π. J. Kouros A.P.P.A.C. ChairmanΙδιοκτήτης: Ε.Ψ.Ψ.Ε.Π. Αιγιαλείας 18, 15125 Παράδεισος Αμαρουσίου, Τ.+30 210 6842 663 F.+30 210 6842 079 Email: [email protected], Site: www.appac.gr
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Η λέξη ήθος, κατά την αρχαιότητα, εσήμαινε τον τόπο διαμονής των ανθρώπων. Αργότερα στην έννοια αυτή προστέθηκε και η έννοια του φρονήματος και του χαρακτήρα. Επίσης, το ήθος εκφράζει τον τρόπο ζωής, συμπεριφοράς και έκφρασης των ανθρώπων ,καθώς και τα έθιμα ,που έχει ένας λαός. .Η ηθική, εκφράζει τις ανθρώπινες πράξεις από την οπτική της αξίας, προβαίνοντας στο χαρακτηρισμό αυτών ως αγαθών αξιών ή μη αγαθών αξιών. Έτσι, μία ηδονή δεν αποτελεί αξία καθ’ εαυτή, η δε αξία της, εάν υπάρχει, θα πρέπει να βρίσκεται πέραν εκείνης(Μου-τσόπουλος,1972:89,90).
Το κύριο γνωστικό αντικείμενο της ηθικής είναι η πρακτική συμπεριφορά του ανθρώπου και το οποίο προσπαθεί να προσδιορίσει το ηθικά σωστό ή το ηθικά λανθασμένο. Η ηθική συνείδηση (ή ηθικός νόμος), η ελευθερία της βούλησης, η αρετή, η κακία και η ηθική προσωπικότητα είναι τα άλλα θέματα θεωρητικής εξέτασης από την ηθική.
Η ηθική, ως φιλοσοφικός κλάδος, αναζητεί το «δέον πράττειν». Ασχολείται ο επιστημονικός αυτός κλάδος και με το άτομο και με την κοινωνία. Διερευνά, διαπιστώνει και αποτιμά την αξία ή απαξία των πράξεων των ατόμων (περιγραφικός χαρακτήρας) και ορίζει κανόνες (κανονιστικός χαρακτήρας).
Οι φιλοσοφικές προτάσεις του Σωκράτη(470/469-399 π.Χ.) “πώς βιωτέον”και “όντινα τρόπον χρη ζην”,απετέλεσαν τα καταστατικά προβλή-ματα τόσο της ηθικής φιλοσοφίας , όσο και της ηθικής πράξης.
Η νεότερη φιλοσοφική προβληματική, σε θέματα κανονιστικής και εφαρμοσμένης ηθικής, καθώς και σε αναζητήσεις της μεταηθικής,έχει ως αφετηρία τα αχικά θεμελιώδη ερωτήματα του Σωκράτη, όπως είναι το ερώτημα “τι εστίν;”, για κάθε πράγμα ,έννοια και αρετή.
Το βασικό κριτήριο για την έρευνα της ηθικής, προκειμένου να ορίσει θεσμούς και τρόπο ζωής της κοινωνικής συμβίωσης και οργάνωσης, είναι η αξία μίας πράξης, η οποία σχετίζεται με την ανθρώπινη συμπεριφορά, της οποίας οι συνιστώσες είναι ο χαρακτήρας και το φρόνημα του ατόμου αφ’ενός και οι κοινωνικές αντιλήψεις και κανόνες αφ’ ετέρου.
Ο Πλάτωνας(428/427-348 π.Χ.) δεν διδάσκει, απλά, την ασκητική ηθική,που είναι μία αρνητική ηθική, αλλά δέχεται όλες τις παραδοσιακές ηθικές αξίες και αρετές και θεωρεί δε την αρετή ως μία ηθική αξία(Φαίδων 82C και 83 D). Κατά την ασκητική ηθική του Πλάτωνα, που ήταν επηρεασμένη από τους Πυθαγορείους και από τις Ορφικές ιδέες, επιβάλλεται πόλεμος κατά των επιθυμιών και κατά της ηδονής ,ενώ δέχεται τη θεότητα ως πηγή κάθε καλού και τέλειου. Το δίκαιο είναι το συμφέρον του ισχυροτέρου. Προϋπόθεση δε της ώριμης συγκρότησης του ηθικού χαρακτήρα είναι η εσωτερική ισορροπία μεταξύ των δυνάμεων της ψυχής και η αρμονική λειτουργία τους. Αυτή είναι η αρετή της δικαιοσύνης (Πολιτεία Α΄337c1-2 και Δ΄433a8-9).
Κατά τον Αριστοτέλη(384-322 π.Χ.), οι διανοητικές και οι ηθικές αρετές ωθούν τον άνθρωπο στην ορθή συμπεριφορά, η οποία, τελικά, εξαρτάται από την εκλογή του μέσου (μεσότητα). Η αρετή νοείται ως ανωτερότητα ,ως υπεροχή. Όμως τα στοιχεία της αρετής σωφροσύνη και ανδρεία καταστέφονται από την υπερβολή και την έλειψη,ενώ σώζονται και τα δύο στοιχεία από την τήρηση του μέτρου(Ηθικά Νικομάχεια,5η Ενότητα, Β3,1-2.1104b 3-13 ).Εκτός από τις ηθικές αρετές, ο Αριστοτέλης ερευνά και τις διανοητικές αρετές(σοφία, φρόνηση, σύνεση κ.λ.).Η διανοητική αρετή αποκτάται ,κατά το πλείστον ,με τη διδασκαλία,ενώ η ηθική (αρετή) με τον εθισμό (η δ’ηθική περιγίνεται εξ έθους)( Ηθικά Nικο-μάχεια,1η Ενότητα,Β1,1-3.1103a 14-26).H ηθική ,κατά τον Αριστοτέλη, αποτελεί μέρος της πολιτικής επιστήμης, την οποία θεωρεί την ανωτάτη πρακτική επιστήμη. Έτσι, η ηθική του Αριστοτέλη είναι κοινωνική ,ενώ η πολιτική του είναι ηθική(Ross,1993:265-273).
Η κοινωνική ηθική, που είναι μέρος της κοινωνικής φιλοσοφίας, ασχολείται με τους κανόνες , που πρέπει να διέπουν την κοινωνική ζωή και ειδικότερα τις διαπροσωπικές και διομαδικές σχέσεις σε μία κοινωνία.
Στο πλαίσιο της εφαρμοσμένης ηθικής εμφανίζονται δύο εκδοχές σε όλο το φάσμα της πνευματικής και κοινωνικής υπόστασης: μία κύρια και μία παρεπόμενη·η διαφθορά και η διαπλοκή.
Η διαφθορά, κατ΄αρχήν, είναι μία κατάσταση στην ανθρώπινη σκέψη και συμπεριφορά, κατά την οποία εμφανίζεται φθορά (καταστροφή, αφανισμός, θάνατος) στα ήθη, τις αξίες και τις επικρατούσες αρχές χρηστής και ενάρετης συμπεριφοράς.
Η διαφθορά αυτή, έτσι, χαρακτηρίζεται, ειδικότερα , από ηθική εξαχρείωση, εκφαυλισμό, εκμαυλισμό και χρησιμοποίηση αθεμίτων μέσων για να παραβιάζονται οι νόμοι και οι ηθικοί κανόνες προς ίδιο όφελος (εγκληματικότητα, διακίνηση ναρκωτικών, εμπορία σωματικών ανθρωπίνων οργάνων κ.τ.λ.)
Η διαπλοκή, με την κακόσημη αυτής έννοια, είναι λοξοδρομία (παρέκβαση) ενός ατόμου, σε συνεργασία και στενή αλληλεξάρτηση με άλλο πρόσωπο ή άλλα πρόσωπα, κατά τρόπο παρασκηνιακό και πέραν των κανόνων της ηθικής και του νόμου, ώστε, τελικώς, να εξυπηρετηθούν ίδια συμφέροντα των διαπλεκομένων. Η εν λόγω διαπλοκή, όμως, είναι το αποτέλεσμα (προϊόν) της, ως άνω ,διαφθοράς στην κοινωνία.
Για την επίτευξη δε των σκοπών τους, τόσον οι διαπλεκόμενοι, όσο και οι διαφθορείς, χρησιμοποιούν τη δημόσια (αλλά και την ιδιωτική) πολιτική και οικονομική εξουσία, καθώς και κοινωνικοπολιτικούς εκβιασμούς.
Η εφαρμοσμένη οικονομική ( ειδικότερα η οικονομική και κοινωνική πολιτική) έχει ως κεντρικούς άξονες άσκησής της την κοινωνική δικαιοσύνη και τον αμοιβαίο περιορισμό των απαιτήσεων και διεκδικήσεων μεταξύ των οικονομούντων και κοινωνούντων ατόμων και συνακολούθως ο τομέας αυτός της οικονομικής επιστήμης, αναγκαστικώς, προσαρμόζεται σε ηθικούς κανόνες.
Σε θεωρητική οικονομική και κοινωνική οπτική, ο οικονομολόγος V. Pareto (1848-1923)δέχεται, ότι η οικονομία δεν έχει καμμία σχέση με την ηθική και τους κανόνες της, ενώ ο L. Walras(1834-1910) υποστηρίζει, ότι υπάρχει συσχέτιση μεταξύ των τομέων της οικονομίας και της ηθικής, σε μικρότερη ή μεγαλύτερη κλίμακα. Τελικώς, ο A. Marshall (1842-1924), δεν μπορούσε να δικαιολογήσει ηθικά τη σύμπλευση της ανθρώπινης εξαθλίωσης και του υπέρμετρου πλούτου.
Κατά την περίοδο των κοινωνικοοικονομικών κρίσεων , αναδεικνύεται η δυνάμει αντιφατικότητα του ανθρώπινου όντος: η θηριωδία του πλούτου και η δημιουργία κινημάτων ανθρώπινης αλληλεγγύης (Μπιτσάκης,1981:105-106).
Ποίο είναι, όμως, το εννοιολογικό περιεχόμενο και οι κοινωνικές συνιστώσες της κρίσης; Είναι γεγονός, ότι σε ένα χρονικό σημείο,μία ανθρώπινη κοινωνία εμφανίζεται με ορισμένη μορφή και συγκεκριμένες δομές,που είναι απο-
τέλεσμα εξελικτικών διεργασιών και αλληλεπίδρασης κοινωνικών, οικονομικών και πολιτισμικών μεγεθών, που έλαβαν χώρα, κυρίως, κατά την αμέσως προηγούμενη χρονική περίοδο από το εν λόγω χρονικό σημείο αναφοράς .
Οταν, όμως, ο ρυθμός ανάπτυξης της ανθρώπινης αυτής κοινωνίας ,(η οποία βρίσκεται σε ισορροπία, με κάποια χρονική κανονικότητα και σταθερότητα μεγέθους, κατά την τελευταία προηγηθείσα περίοδο),διαταράσσεται, οπότε τα θετικά μεγέθη εμφανίζουν μείωση, ενώ οι αρνητικοί παράγοντες αύξηση, χωρίς ,ταυτόχρονα, να είναι άμεσα ορατό το τέλος αυτών των συσχετίσεων, τότε η κοινωνική ανάπτυξη ,σε όλες τις εκφάνσεις της, ευρίσκεται σε ύφεση(χαλαρώνει)και χαρακτηρίζεται ,προοδευτικά, από δυσχέρειες ,κινδύνους ,εντάσεις ,αντιθέσεις και συγκρούσεις.
Για το χρονικό αυτό διάστημα της κοινωνικής εντροπίας(τρία έως πέντε έτη),θεωρείται ,ότι ορισμένοι κοινωνικοί τομείς ή ολόκληρη η κοινω-νία ευρίσκονται σε κρίση ή οδεύουν προς την κρίση. Επομένως, τα πρωτογενή αίτια όλων των μορφών κρίσης εντοπίζονται στις ρίζες της οικο-νομικής και κοινωνικής ανισορροπίας (Μάρδας, 1998: 19-29).Γίνεται, επίσης, αποδεκτό, ότι η εν λόγω κρίση είναι καθολική. Η βαθειά δε πολιτική και κοινωνική κρίση, που κλυδωνίζει την Ελλάδα (1990),δεν εκδηλώνεται μόνο στα μεγάλα σκάνδαλα και στην κορυφή(Μπέης,1990: 48,49).
Η φιλοσοφική-κοινωνιολογική προσέγγιση εννοεί την κρίση ως τη φθορά και τη δυνάμει κατάρρευση των θεσμών, με τη βαθύτερη έννοια του όρου «θεσμός». Η κρίση της κοινωνίας(το έτος 1975) δεν είναι απλά οικονομική. Είναι κρίση καθολική. Είναι κρίση των θεσμών και των σημασιών πάνω στους οποίους είναι συγκροτημένη η κοινωνία(Καστοριάδης,1981:183,186).
Από τη μελέτη και την ανάλυση, διαχρονικά και διατοπικά, σε εθνικό και ευρωπαϊκό επίπεδο, όλων των παραπάνω προτάσεων και επίσημων σχετικών στοιχείων (Eurostat, ΕΛ.ΣΤΑΤ), αβίαστα προκύπτει, ότι η Ελλάδα εβίωσε και βιώνει βαθμιαίως, την τελευταία περίοδο(2009-2015), μία έντονη οικονομική , κοινωνική και θεσμική κρίση, χωρίς να διαφαίνεται στο άμεσο μέλλον ανάκαμψη στην κρίση αυτή.
Στο επίπεδο δε της ex ante αντιμετώπισης τυχόν νέας μελλοντικής κρίσης , επιβάλλεται ,επί πλέον, η σύνταξη αυστηρού κοινωνικού και οικονομικού εφαρμόσιμου επιστημονικού
προγραμματισμού, σύμφωνα με τα κοινωνικά και οικονομικά δεδομένα της Χώρας, αλλά και με ιδιαίτερη έμφαση στην προσπάθεια βελτίω-σης των σχετικών ηθικών και πνευματικών δεικτών, που αναφέρονται στην εκπαίδευση και τον πολιτισμό.
Συνακολούθως, για την άμεση, έστω εκ των υστέρων, αντιμετώπιση της κοινωνικο-οικονομικής κρίσης, κρίνονται, ad hoc, ως απολύτως αναγκαία , τα επόμενα μέτρα πολιτικής επιλογής: α. αυξητική ισορροπἰα στους συντελεστές παραγωγής, β. μείωση του ελλείμματος των εξω-τερικών συναλλαγών, γ. τόνωση της ζήτησης, δ. διασφάλιση του εργασιακού κεκτημένου, ε. προστασία του θεσμικού πλαισίου των κοινωνικών δικαιωμάτων, σε εθνικό και διεθνές επίπεδο, στ.διασφάλιση της εθνικής ανεξαρτησίας και ζ. διασφάλιση ενός ανεκτού κοινωνικού δικτύου για τις κοινωνικοοικονομικά αδύνατες και ευάλωτες ομάδες.
