APPENDICES NAND07 Mineral and p · 2017-06-13 · NSW WESTERN REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS – NANDEWAR 169...

NSW W ES TE R N REGI O NA L ASS ESS ME NTS – NANDEW A R 169

a Appendices

APPENDIX 1: BIBLIOGRAPHY AND LIST OF REFERENCES

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Ashley, P.M., Barnes, R.G., Golding, S.D. & Stephens, C.J. 1996, ‘Metallogenesis related toTriassic magmatism in the New England Orogen’, in Mesozoic Geology of the EasternAustralia Plate Conference, Geological Society of Australia, Extended Abstracts, vol. 43,pp. 34-42.

MINERAL AND PETROLEUM RESOURCES AND POTENTIAL

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170 N SW W ES TE R N R EGI O NA L ASS ESS M E N TS – N AND E W A R

Ashley, P.M., Cook, N.D.J., Hill, R.L.L & Kent, A.J.R. 1994, ‘Lamprophyre dykes and theirrelation to mesothermal Au-Sb veins at Hillgrove, southern New England Fold Belt, NewSouth Wales’, in New England Orogen, Eastern Australia 1993 Conference Proceedings,eds Flood, P.G., and Aitchison, J.C., University of New England, Armidale, New SouthWales, pp. 359-369.

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APPENDIX 2: MINERAL AND PETROLEUM DEPOSIT MODELS

A2.1 Coal and Petroleum

Coal

Model Description: Coal measures.

Rock Types: Coal measures interbedded with various terrestrial and marine sedimentarysequences. Conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, claystone, carbonaceous claystone and coal.Igneous rocks may intrude sequence.

Age Range: Devonian to Tertiary.

Depositional Environment: Peat swamps behind coastal barrier systems or within structuraldepressions further inland; swamps and peat bogs associated with and marginal to alluvialfans and deltaic plains; fluvial flood plains; lacustrine; and lagoonal. Depositionalenvironment must be free from frequent incursions of clastic sediments or oxygenatedwaters, thus are generally low energy, anoxic and fresh to brackish (Figure A-A).

Tectonic Setting: Small rifts and valleys, marginal and intracontinental sedimentary basins.Coal deposition is generally closely related to marine transgression and/or regression.Deposits are dominantly terrestrial, with marine influence common.

Associated Deposit Types: Oil shale, kaolin, bentonite, fullers earth, petroleum, coal seammethane (CSM).

Mineralogy/Composition: Coal composition varies depending on depositional environmentand extent of coalification:

brown coal - moisture content 50-70%, dry weight 60-75% carbonbituminous coal - moisture content 5-10%, dry weight 80-90% carbonanthracite - moisture content 2-5%, dry weight 90-95% carbon

Dominant components of coals are macerals and ash. Macerals are the organically derivedcomponents of coal. The major components of coal ash are silicate and sulfide minerals.

Texture/Structure: Generally laterally continuous seams. Can have various textures relatingto sedimentary processes such as fluvial channels or marine incursion. Differingenvironments of deposition and subsequent decay and decomposition of plant material canalso result in different lithotypes and banding within seams. Jointing in deformed coals.

Ore Controls: Limits of sedimentary basins; deformation subsequent to coalification; faultsin basement; local structure; and differential compaction of coal seams may influencelocation of depocentres.


Examples: Gippsland Basin, Victoria; Sydney Basin, New South Wales; Bowen Basin,Queensland.

Economic Significance: Coal supplies a significant proportion of the world’s energy needs.The Sydney-Bowen basin system in eastern Australia is one of the world’s most prolific coalprovinces, with past production and remaining resources amounting to well over severaltrillion dollars A$2003. Economic resources in these basins range from a few million to overten billion tonnes of coal of varying quality and uses.

Special Assessment Criteria for Coal

Coal resource deposits differ markedly from most other mineral deposits in that they have arelatively low dollar per tonne ratio, are suitable for relatively large scale operations, aregenerally in relatively flat lying strata and hence involve a large aerial extent of the landsurface. The mining potential of a coal resource is dependent on a large number of factorsbut there are five characteristics that can be used to provide an initial assessment potential.They are: depth; seam thickness; coal quality; lateral continuity; and constraints to mining.

Depth: The Department of Mineral Resources considers that for the foreseeable future, themaximum depth for the economic underground mining of thermal coals to be 600 metres.

Seam Thickness: In determining an open cut coal resource, the Department of MineralResources considers the minimum economic seam thickness to be 0.3 metres and themaximum coal to overburden linear ratio to be 1:10. For an underground resource, theDepartment considers the minimum economic seam thickness to be 1.5 metres. However,most longwall operations require a minimum working section of 1.8-2.0 metres for economicviability.

Coal Quality: Coal quality involves many coal characteristics that affect its end use andvalue. The first significant property is the raw ash content, that is, the percentage of non-combustible matter (ash) within the seam or working section. A raw ash of 35% is generallyconsidered the maximum for an underground or open cut coal resource however higher askcoals may also be mineable in some circumstances. Coal quality can be upgraded by washingout the rock material to lower the ash content of the coal and some seams respond better tothis process than others. Typical utilisation categories for coal based on ash percentage areset out below.

Lateral Continuity: The lateral continuity determines the extent of the mineable deposit andis primarily established by points of observation (usually boreholes). Confidence in theassessment is largely dependent on the distance between points of observation.


Table A-A. Typical utilisation categories for coal based on ash %

Raw Coal Ash % (a.d.) Utilisation Category

<15% Prime Export (Thermal, PCI, Coking)

15% to 20% Prime Export and Standard Export (beneficiated)

Domestic Thermal (raw and beneficiated)

20% to 30% Domestic Thermal, Cement Manufacture (raw)

>30% Cement Manufacture (raw)

Constraints to Mining: External factors may also place constraints on where mining cantake place. These may be geological such as faults or igneous intrusions, topographical suchas proximity to cliffs, rivers, dams and lakes, economic such as transport, industrial andagricultural infrastructure, environmental such as National Parks or other conservationreserves, or social such as proximity to dwellings.

The industry has a clearly defined code for reporting coal resources to the market, referred toas the JORC (Joint Ore Reserve Committee) code (Joint Ore Reserves Committee 1999).This categorises and assigns a specific status to a coal deposit. The categories are: Coal InSitu; Coal Resources; and Coal Reserves.

Coal In Situ includes any occurrence of coal in the Earth’s crust which can be estimated andreported, irrespective of thickness, depth, quality, mineability or economic potential; and bydefinition, includes all Coal Resources.

Coal Resource is that part of the Coal In Situ category in such form and quantity that thereare reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction. A Coal Resource must bereported in terms of Inferred, Indicated or Measured status, depending on specific levels ofconfidence based on information gathered from points of observation that may be supportedby interpretive data (such as aeromagnetic surveys). Trends may be extrapolated from Pointsof Observation up to two kilometres for Inferred Resources; one kilometres for IndicatedResources; and 500 metres for Measured Resources.

Coal Reserve is the economically mineable part of a Measured or Indicated Coal Resource atthe time of reporting. It includes diluting materials and allowances for losses that may occurwhen the coal is mined. Coal Reserves are further categorised again depending on levels ofconfidence as Probable, Proved and Recoverable and then, depending on washing or otherpreparation as Marketable (Probable and Proved).


Figure A-A. Generalised model of coal formation for the Nandewar study area (modified after Tadros1993).


Coal Seam Methane

Model Description: Coal seam methane (CSM).

Approximate Synonyms: Seam gas, coal bed methane, natural gas, biogenic gas.

Description: Coal and carbonaceous rocks within the coal measure sequences are the sourcerocks and the reservoirs for CSM.

General References: N/a.

Rock Types: Coal seams interbedded with conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and claystone.

Age Range: Carboniferous to Tertiary (within the Nandewar study area).

Depositional Environment: Deltaic, paludal, lacustrine and fluvial.

Tectonic Setting: Intracontinental, extensional sedimentary basin. Within the Nandewarstudy area thrusting, faulting and folding commenced in the Early Permian and continuedperiodically into the Triassic. Later folding and faulting in the Tertiary provided structuralhighs and lows with most of the coals being subjected to localised heating and permeabilityenhancement. Main plays in area where Gunnedah Basin is overthrust by New England FoldBelt (Figure A-B).

Associated Deposit Types: Coal, peat, oil shale, conventional gas.

Composition: Gas composition comprises methane, ethane and minor other hydrocarbons,with varying amounts of carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. Reservoir and source rocks are coalseams.

Primary Reservoir Targets: Limits of the main sedimentary basin with sufficient cover toprovide lithostatic pressure to confine gas (a minimum of 100 metres). Maximum depth forproduction operations is currently at 1200 metres.

Examples: Camden, Narrabri (Bohena) New South Wales; Powder River Basin, UnitedStates of America.

Economic Significance: CSM has come into the fore of late (in the last ten years) when theUnited States of America started to produce and supply around 15% of the gas requirementsof the country. CSM has also broken through in Australia and the industry has come of agewith Queensland and New South Wales spearheading all the efforts. It is projected that CSMwill be a cleaner and more environmentally friendly source of energy within the next tenyears.

Special Assessment Criteria for Coal Seam Methane

CSM is the natural gas formed during the coalification process whereby peat and otherorganically rich sediments are transformed into coal, as a consequence of compaction andheat associated with the processes of on-going deposition and burial. CSM is essentiallysimilar to natural gas found in conventional sedimentary reservoirs, although it is generallyhigher in methane concentration. However, unlike conventional natural gas reservoirs, where


gas is trapped in the pore or void spaces of a rock, such as sandstone, methane trapped incoal is adsorbed onto the coal grain surfaces or micropores of the coal and is held in place byreservoir (water) pressure.

The coal therefore acts as a source, reservoir and seal for the methane and as such is to bedistinguished from a conventional gas accumulation within a sandstone reservoir rock.Because the micropore surface area is very large, coal can potentially hold significantly moremethane per unit volume than most conventional reservoirs such as sandstone. CSM isgenerally regarded as an unconventional source of natural gas, and is distinguished fromconventional gas which is produced from reservoir rocks that are typically not the origin ofthe gas.

In New South Wales, exploration activity has been carried out for some years in theGunnedah Basin and in the Sydney Basin, further to the south. The potential for CSM is notgoverned exclusively by the presence of coal (Vanibe 2000). In order to establish viable,commercial production it is necessary to evaluate the coal seams in order to establish theirpotential to produce adequate gas volumes on production. The general criteria relevant to thesuccessful discovery and development is as follows:

Areal Extent: This depends on the permeability and gas content and varies from area toarea. Typically a producing field would comprise at least 250 wells at an 80 acre(approximately 32 hectare) spacing, requiring between 80 and 100 km2, depending upon siteconditions.

Ash: A low ash content is generally better for CSM recovery. Coals with high (incipient, ordetrital) ash content tend to have fewer fractures. Fractures can be filled to varying amountswith ‘mineral matter’ and such mineral matter can also contribute to the ash content of thecoal. Coals with high ash content also tend to have less adsorbed gas by volume.

Depth: In general terms, coal seams in the range of 250 metres to 1200 metres in depth arefavoured for CSM production, otherwise overburden pressures are either too small or toogreat.

Cleat: Cleat is a fracture, or fracture system, developed in coal. Face cleat is the fracturesystem developed parallel to bedding, and butt cleat is the fracture system at right angles tothe bedding. Good cleat development is generally more common in coals with high vitriniteand bright clarain. High cleat density is related to higher permeability.

Structuring: CSM prospectivity is enhanced when the coal seam has extensive lateralcontinuity. Significant fault displacement can restrict production potential from a coalreservoir. The dislocation of the reservoir into small unconnected or poorly connected blockscauses this. In some cases faulting can act to permit the escape of methane from the coal,which is deleterious for CSM reservoirs but could allow migration of methane to anotherreservoir, such as a conventional gas-in-sandstone reservoir. In this respect, there might bean inverse relationship between CSM and conventional oil and gas prospectivity in suchareas. The presence, frequency, orientation and intensity of folds, faults, joints, and cleatsinfluence the permeability and continuity of a coal reservoir. The presence of a tensional


structural regime is preferred to enhance production potential, because such a regime favoursdilation of cleats and hence facilitates greater permeability.

Density: There is a preference for coals, which have low bulk density or specific gravity.Specific gravities of less than 1.45 grams per cubic centermetre are generally regarded asbeing more suitable for CSM prospectivity, whereas coals with densities of greater than 1.0gram per cubic centermetre have lower prospectivity.

Igneous Intrusions: Igneous intrusions can affect the composition of the gas in the coalreservoir by raising the proportion of carbon dioxide present. In some areas, the thermalmaturity of the coals present may be altered, the consequences of which can be eitherfavourable or unfavourable.

Insitu Stress: This is expressed in terms of effective stress, and is a major control on thecleat and fracture dilation and consequently coal seam permeability. Low effective stressfavours good permeability.

Permeability: Permeability is a fundamental parameter for CSM production. Ideally, thisshould be greater than five millidarcies, but sometimes permeability values as low as onemillidarcy can yield satisfactory gas flows.

Reservoir Pressure: Generally, depths below 250 metres are required to develop thehydrostatic pressure to ensure the gas is held adsorbed onto the coal, and also to promoteproduction from the wells. If the pressure is low then a considerable amount of gas may havebeen lost.

Overpressuring: Although not prevalent in Australia, it is important because wellcompletion techniques have been developed in the United States of America to produce gasfrom overpressured reservoirs.

Seam Thickness: Generally, the preferred values for coal seam and reservoir thickness aregreater than ten metres for single and closely spaced completions, and greater than 15 metresfor multiple completions.

Thermal Maturity: The maturation of the coal should be in the range of Ro of 0.7 to 2.0%vitrinite reflectance. Peak maturity for CSM is around 1.2%.

Petroleum (includes Conventional Gas)

Model Description: Petroleum.

Approximate Synonyms: Hydrocarbon accumulations, petroleum reservoirs, petroleumfairways, oil and gas reserves, petroleum system.

Description: In an ideal sedimentary basin there exists all the elements that constitute apetroleum system: source; reservoir; seal; traps; and optimum thermal and migrationconditions (Figure A-B).

General References: United States Geological Survey.


Geological Environment: Marine sediments interspersed with either extensive sandstonesequences or carbonate reefs involved in either dynamically tectonic regime or passivesedimentary.

Rock Types: Shales (seal and source), sandstones (reservoir), limestone reefs (reservoir).

Age Range: Palaeozoic to Tertiary.

Depositional Environment: Marine, deltaic, paludal, lacustrine and fluvial.

Tectonic Setting: Extensional regime with associated marine deposition, followed bythrusting, faulting and folding.

Associated Deposit Types: Coal seam methane (CSM) and Oil shale.

Composition: Oil and gas composition comprises various hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide,nitrogen and helium.

Examples:

Type World Class Australian Example

Structural: Minas (Indonesia) Barracouta (Gippsland)

Stratigraphic: Tengiz (Kazakhstan) Wandoo (NW Shelf)

Combination Ampa (Brunei) Goodwyn (NW Shelf)

Economic Significance: Conventional petroleum is one of the most valuable commodities inthe world. Single accumulations can vary from five million barrels to three billion barrels foroil and 500 billion cubic feet to 25 trillion cubic feet for gas. Depending on the location andproximity to existing pipelines, economic sizes can start from five million barrels (onshore)to 100 million barrels (deep water offshore). Petroleum is still a major political agenda inany country and the securing of supply and reserves has always been critical to the nation’seconomy.

Special Assessment Criteria for Petroleum

The principles of conventional oil and gas prospectivity outlined in Upstream PetroleumConsulting Services (2002a, 2002b) and Vanibe (2000), are used to assess conventionalpetroleum resources.

Most sedimentary rocks contain some organic material, although not all rocks are capable ofgenerating petroleum. Typically, rocks capable of generating conventional petroleum have atleast 0.5% and preferably more than 1.0%, total organic carbon content. Coals and fine-grained sedimentary rocks, such as shales and siltstones, are the most common rock typescontaining sufficient organic material to constitute potential petroleum source rocks.

When subjected to appropriate depths of burial (associated with increased temperature), andfor sufficient time, source rocks will generate and expel liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons.These hydrocarbons move through the microscopic voids in rocks under the influence of


buoyancy and congregate in traps where their further movement is impeded by permeabilitybarriers. Structural traps typically are associated with anticlines or faulting.

The most prospective traps involve very porous and permeable rock types (reservoirs), suchas sandstone, in which significant quantities of petroleum may be contained. Seismicreflection surveys are used by explorers to image potential traps in the subsurface so thatthey may subsequently be drilled to test whether they contain petroleum bearing reservoirs.Unlike CSM, expelled conventional oil and gas may move tens of kilometres under theinfluence of buoyancy (a process called migration) out of the deep basin areas in which theywere generated and across the flanks of adjoining structural highs.

A pod of actively generating source rock (kitchen area) and all related oil and gas, togetherwith all of the essential elements and processes needed for oil and gas accumulations isreferred to as a petroleum system. The occurrence of genetically related oil and gasaccumulations implies that migration pathways exist, either now or in the past, connectingthe kitchen with the accumulations. The goal of the explorer is to use seismic data, well dataand other geophysical data, to map and delineate specific petroleum systems in order tolocate undiscovered petroleum.

Traps are described as prospects or leads, depending upon the degree of confidence of theirdelineation. Typically the play fairway comprises a group of areally defined prospects andleads, which share similar or common trap type, seal, reservoir, and petroleum source withina petroleum system. Thus they share common elements of exploration risk relating to thepossible occurrence of oil and gas. Exploration strategies are geared to targeting specifictraps in a play fairway and previous exploration results in a specific fairway reflect thegeological risk associated with that play type.

Figure A-B. Generalised model of gas and petroleum formation, Nandewar study area (modified afterShenk & Pollastra, 2002)


A2.2 Industrial Minerals and Construction Materials

Magnesium

Magnesium resources within the Nandewar study area are localised to the large resourcepresent in mine tailings at the Woodsreef Asbestos mine. A detailed deposit model istherefore not presented here. Further discussion of the potential for magnesium in theNandewar study area is contained within Appendix 3.

Primary Diamond

Model Description: Barron et al. (1996).

Description: Subduction diamond model.

General References: Barron et al. (1996), Davies et al. (2002).

Rock Types: Basanite, nephelinite, leucitite, melilitite, alkali basalt (?).

Textures: Fine grained to brecciated with inclusions of rocks from mantle, basement andoverlying sequences.

Age Range: Most productive pipes worldwide are 80-100, 250, and 1,000-1,100 Ma in age,however eastern Australia alluvial diamonds exhibit two interpreted ages: Permo-Carboniferous, and pre-Cambrian age (Davies et al. 2002).

Depositional Environment: Mafic poor arc volcanics, lawsonite blueschists, and eclogite,with diamonds brought to surface by entrainment in ascending magmas. Diamonds ineclogite lenses. Regionally associated with blueschist eclogite belts and arc volcanics,leucocratic latite.

Tectonic Setting: Cratonic margin over palaeosubduction zone. Major structures. Associatedwith termination of subduction. In the New England Fold Belt sources inferred to intrudefolded cover rocks that overlie terminated subducted slabs. Sources may occur atintersections and/or regional zones of weakness. There may also be an older association withdeformed cratonic margins (Davies et al. 2003), or older decoupled lithospheric mantlesources now largely eroded. Sources in deformed margins are not correlated with orogenicevents but occur in areas of epeirogenic warping or doming and along major basementfracture zones (Figure A-C).

Associated Deposit Types: Alluvial diamond placers and deep leads.

Mineralogy: Diamond, garnets (orange, pink, brown) with elevated Na2O, high K2Opyroxene.

Texture/Structure: Diamonds are sparsely disseminated as phenocrysts or xenocrysts(mined kimberlites yield 0.1-0.6ppm diamond).

Alteration: N/a.


Ore Controls: Sources are rare and, at present, can only be identified by their diamondcontent. Regionally intersecting structures important. Major structures.

Weathering: Breccia sources may be weathered easily.

Geochemical Signature: Cr, Ti, Mn, Ni, Co, PGE, Ba. Anomalous Ni, Nb, and heavyminerals pyrope, garnet, phlogopite, and Mg-ilmenite indicate nearby pipes. Subductionmodel extends mineral indicators to emphasise high sodium garnets, and possibly includecorundum (Barron et al. 1996).

Examples: Copeton, New South Wales (MacNevin 1977); Kazakstan (Davies et al. 2002);Kamchatcka (L. Barron Department of Mineral Resources, pers. comm. 1993).

Economic Significance: Grade and size characteristics of subduction related diamonddeposits are not available. Subduction related diamond deposits are not currently consideredas economically important as kimberlite or lamproite deposits, which vary from one to 350million tonnes, and with values to many billions of dollars. Grades in these diatremes areusually 20 to 100 metric carats per 100 tonne (Argyle 650 metric carats per 100 tonne). Mosteconomic deposits contain greater than 30% gem quality, worth tens to hundreds of dollarsper metric tonne with industrial grades worth less than a few tens of dollars per metric tonne.

Figure A-C. Simplified subduction model for diamonds, Nandewar study area (modified after Barronet al. 1996)


Sapphire

Model Description: Based on the model of Cox and Singer (1986).

Approximate Synonym: Sapphire placers, placer gemstones.

Description: Sapphires and other gemstones in alluvial sediments.

General References: Pecover (1992), Coenraads et al. (1990), Pecover (1988).

Rock Types: Sand and gravel alluvial deposits. Conglomerate beds may containpalaeoplacers.

Textures: Coarse clastic.

Age Range: Commonly Tertiary to Quaternary, but may be any age.

Depositional Environment: Streams or palaeostreams draining areas of alkali basalt,lamprophyre, nephelinite, basanite or phonolite dykes, flows and pyroclastics.Unconformities, palaeoregoliths, or current erosional surfaces intersecting sapphire/ruby-bearing lithologies provide a vector for identifying secondary deposits (Figure A-D).

Tectonic Setting: Accreted fold belts. With regards to the primary source, host rocks occurin continental and pericontinental settings related to rifts, deep faults and/or hot spots. Insome cases they are interpreted to be subduction zone-related (Simandl & Paradis 1999).

Associated Deposit Types: Placer zircon, placer gold, placer tin, placer platinum groupelements, and placer diamond.

Mineralogy: Sapphire of inky blue to green and yellow parti-coloured associated with zirconand other heavy minerals.

Texture/Structure: Sapphire and zircon as subhedral to euhedral crystals often with glossycrystal faces in Tertiary alluvial sediments, but more abraided in Quaternary sediments.

Ore Controls: Sapphire is concentrated in low energy parts of stream systems with otherheavy minerals. Sapphires decrease in size and increase in quality with distance from source.

Weathering: With regards to the primary source, volcaniclastic rocks that host sapphire arecommonly clay-altered and ferruginised due to a combination of alteration and weathering.

Geochemical Signature: N/a.

Examples: Pailin, Cambodia; Bo Rai, Thailand; Anakie, Queensland; Kings Plains, NewSouth Wales (Brown & Pecover 1988a,b; Desertstone & Sapphire Mines 1996).

Economic Significance: Economic primary (hard rock) sapphire-bearing deposits arerelatively rare. Most sapphires are recovered from associated residual soils or placerdeposits. Sapphire-bearing, alkali volcanic rocks are source rocks for some of the largealluvial sapphire deposits, such as the Pailin gem fields of Cambodia, Bo Rai deposits ofThailand, the Anakie district of Queensland and the Kings Plain deposit in New South Wales


(Simandl & Paradis 1999). Production from the Central Province within the New Englandregion totals more than 50 million carats valued at more than A$250 million dollars (2003).

Figure A-D. Simplified model for the formation of sapphire deposits in the Nandewar study area(modified after Oakes et al. 1996).

Limestone

Model Description: Carr and Rooney (1983), Harben and Bates (1990), Lishmund et al.(1986).

Approximate Synonyms: Limerock, cement rock, calcium carbonate.

Description: Limestone deposits of economic importance are partly or wholly biologicallyderived from seawater; accumulating in a relatively shallow marine environment. Thecharacteristics of the deposition environment determine the size, shape and purity of thecarbonate rock. Limestone deposits are frequently of large areal extent and may be ofconsiderable thickness (several hundred metres).

General References: Carr and Rooney (1983), Harben and Bates (1990), Lishmund et al.(1986).

Rock Types: Limestone, marble (metamorphosed limestone).

Age Range: Late Proterozoic to Holocene.


Depositional Environment: Shallow marine.

Tectonic Setting: Continental shelf and subsiding marginal marine basins.

Associated Deposit Types: Deposits of dolomitic limestone and dolomite.

Mineralogy: Limestone is a sedimentary rock consisting of 50% or more of calcite (CaCO3)and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). There is a complete gradation from impure limestone to highcalcium limestone (greater than 95% CaCO3). In dolomites, the mineral dolomite is themajor carbonate, which usually forms by replacement of calcite. Common impurities incarbonate rocks include clay, quartz sand, chert, and organic matter.

Texture/Structure: Massive, bedded.

Alteration: Groundwater dissolution results in karst cavities, frequently filled with clay.

Ore Controls: Highly sought white limestones for mineral fillers are usually a product of acontact or regional metamorphic process. Maximum limitations of overburden are extremelyvaried depending on the end use. Limestones are known to be mined underground even foruses like cement production.

Weathering: Weathering results in a variety of karst landforms in most climatic areas, butintensifies with warmer climate.

Geophysical Signature: Resistivity has been used to identify karst features in coveredterrain.

Examples: Jackson and Sulcor quarries, New South Wales; Marulan and Wombeyanlimestones, New South Wales.

Economic Significance: Limestone/dolomitic limestone, like many other industrialminerals, have a low value per unit of volume but it is essential that they are accessible inlarge quantities close to urban areas for use in construction. Thus competing land uses are aconstant pressure on the availability of these resources. Other uses are in agriculture, the coalindustry, as roadbase, and fillers for paper and plastic. Currently around 55% of the state’slimestone is used in the cement industry. Production within the Nandewar study areacurrently exceeds $8 million from 400 000 tonnes annually from the Jacksons and Sulcorquarries near Attunga.

Limestone/dolomitic limestone deposits usually need to be either outcropping or near surfaceto be economic to extract. Distance from markets is also an important factor in the viabilityof a limestone/dolomitic limestone deposit as transport makes up a substantial proportion ofproduct costs.

Construction Materials

Model Description: J.W. Brownlow, R.G. Barnes, and G.P. MacRae (New South WalesGeological Survey, pers.comm. 2003).


Definitions: Construction materials are naturally occurring, low unit value commoditieswhich are generally exploited in bulk and with limited processing for use in civilconstruction. Transport costs contribute significantly to the delivered cost of constructionmaterials and, therefore, it is important to obtain such materials as close to markets aspossible. Increased transport costs associated with the need to use more distant resourcesresult in increased raw material costs which are inevitably passed on to the consumer. Theiruse in construction, road building and related uses, is an integral part of modern urban livingand therefore supplies need to be assured for continued development.

Approximate Synonyms: The term extractive resource is used, as a synonym forconstruction materials, particularly in the sense of resources not covered by mininglegislation. Various terms are used for construction aggregates depending on size andspecific use. Such terms include hard rock aggregate, coarse aggregate, crushed and brokenstone, rip rap, decorative aggregate, prepared road base, fine aggregate, construction sand,sand and gravel, river stone, shingle. Note that some of these terms describe products (forexample, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and construction sand) whereas others describegeology (for example, gravel and sand) or a combination of geology and materials (forexample, hard rock aggregate). Descriptive terms for clays used in construction includeclay/shale, structural clay, brick clay, low cost clay, stoneware clay, pipe clay, terra cottaclay. Dimension stone is also referred to as building stone, ornamental stone or monumentalstone depending on its end use.

General References: Carr (1994), Holmes, Lishmund and Oakes (1982).

Economic Significance: The economic significance of construction materials in theNandewar study area is detailed in the main section of the report. Recent annual productionfrom the Nandewar study area is $2 151 000.

Diatomite

Model Description: Description of the model after Shenk (1991) and Holmes et al. (1989).

Approximate Synonym: Diatomaceous earth, kieselguhr, tripolite.

Description: Diatomite is a soft, lightweight siliceous rock composed of the skeletal remainsof diatoms, microscopic aquatic plants. Lacustrine diatomite deposits form in fresh tobrackish water, are invariably associated with volcanism, and are found worldwide both inpalaeosediments and in recent lake sediments. It is widely held that the large quantity ofsilica necessary for thick accumulations of diatoms is derived from the weathering anddecomposition of silica rich volcanic rocks (Shenk 1991). However, some recently formedlacustrine diatomite deposits show no association with volcanic activity (Dolley 2002).

General References: Shenk (1991), Holmes et al. (1989).

Rock Types: Diatomaceous-bearing lake sediments can be hosted in either/or: volcanicrocks (craters, maars); volcanic and sedimentary rocks (interbedded volcanic flows and tuffsand fluvial or alluvial sediments); and sedimentary rocks. Diatomite is commonly


interbedded with one or more of the following: sandstone; mudstone; volcanic ash; limestoneor marls; or peat or lignite.

Textures: N/a.

Age Range: Commonly Miocene to Recent. Occurrences noted as early as Late Eocene.Some marine diatomite deposits reported to be as old as Cretaceous.

Depositional Environment: The depositional conditions required for a thick diatomitedeposit include: an abundance of both silica and other nutrients; an absence of toxic growthand minimal clastic or chemical input; a shallow and extensive basin for photosynthesis; anda low energy environment for preservation of diatom structure.

Tectonostraphic Setting: Typically found in volcanic terrains, often a crustal extensionalenvironment.

Associated Deposit Types: Possibly sand and gravel or clays (kaolin, bentonite).

Mineralogy: Diatomaceous silica, opal-cristobalite.

Gangue Mineralogy: Clays, quartz and feldspar grains, volcanic glass, calcite, organicmatter and iron and manganese oxides and possibly gypsum and halite.

Texture/Structure: Flat lying to gently dipping, some minor folding and faulting. Usuallyfound in volcanic terrain.

Alteration: N/a.

Ore Controls: The formation and localisation of ore is controlled by the physical andchemical boundaries of the regional depositional environment.

Weathering: Weathering will oxidise and remove organic contaminants, however it alsoproduces iron staining and soil formation.

Metamorphism: During diagenesis, dissolution of diatomaceous silica will destroy diatomstructure. Silica is then available to be redeposited as porcelainite, chert or silica cement.


Maximum Limitation of Overburden: Ratios up to 10:1, but typically less than 5:1.

Examples: Juntura and Otis Basins, United States of America (Brittain 1986); Kariandus,Kenya (Barnard 1950); Lake Myvatn, Iceland (Kadey 1983); Riom-les-Montagnes, France(Clarke 1980); Luneburger-Heide, Germany (Luttig 1980).

Economic Significance: World reserves are estimated to be 800 million tonnes which isabout 400 times the current estimated world production of about 1.9 million tonnes per yearas of 2002 (Dolley 2002). World resources of crude diatomite are adequate for theforeseeable future, but the need for diatomite to be near markets encourages development ofnew sources for the material.


There is insufficient data on diatomite deposits to give likely indications of size and grade ona worldwide basis.

Alluvial Diamonds

Model Description: Cox and Singer (1986).

Description: Diamonds in alluvial units, beach sediments, sandstone and conglomerate.

General References: Barron et al. (1996), Pecover (1988), Sutherland (1982).

Rock Types: Sand and gravel in alluvial and beach deposits. Conglomerate units maycontain palaeoplacers.

Textures: Coarse clastic.

Age Range: Commonly Tertiary and Quaternary, but may be any age.

Depositional Environment: Streams draining areas of lamproite pipes or other mantlederived igneous intrusives or diamond concentrations in sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.Alluvial diamond deposits may be 1 000 kilometres from source. Some diamonds may havebeen derived from Palaeozoic or older fold belts associated with subduction.

Tectonic Setting: Stable craton, accreted fold belts.

Associated Deposit Types: Primary diamond deposits, other placer deposits.

Mineralogy: Diamond, bort or carbonado (polycrystalline, generally dark coloured), ballas(spherulitic, polycrystalline and amorphous carbonado).

Texture/Structure: Diamonds derived from ancient placers in sedimentary rock commonlyretain sand grains cemented to grooves or indentations in the crystal.

Ore Controls: Diamonds are concentrated in low-energy parts of stream systems with otherheavy minerals. Diamonds decrease in size and increase in quality (fewer polycrystallinetypes) with distance from their source.

Geochemical Signature: Diamond: Cr, Ti, Mn, Ni, Co, PGE, Ba. Anomalous Ni and Nbtogether with the heavy minerals pyrope, Mg-ilmenite, and phlogopite indicate nearbykimberlite pipes.

Examples: African deposits (Sutherland 1982); Bow River, Australia (Fazakerley 1990).

Economic Significance: There is insufficient data on alluvial diamond deposits to givelikely indications of size and grade on a worldwide basis.

Serpentinite Related Deposits

Deposits in this generic class are many and varied, but have been grouped together formodelling purposes. This class of deposits includes podiform chromite,synorogenic/synvolcanic nickel-copper deposits, sediment-hosted and hydrothermal


magnesite, ultramafic-hosted asbestos, serpentine, and olivine (dunite). Models are presentedfor podiform chromite and synorogenic/synvolcanic nickel-copper deposits.

Podiform Chromite

Model Description: Description of the model modified after Cox and Singer (1986).

Approximate Synonym: Alpine type chromite (Thayer 1964).

Description: Pod-like masses of chromitite in ultramafic parts of ophiolite complexes.

General Reference: Dickey (1975), Duke (1996).

Rock Types: Highly deformed dunite and harzburgite of ophiolite complexes. Commonlyserpentinized.

Textures: Nodular, orbicular, gneissic, cumulate and pull-apart. Most relict textures aremodified or destroyed by flowage at magmatic temperatures.

Age Range: Any age.

Tectonic Setting: Magmatic cumulates in elongate magma pockets along spreadingboundaries. Subsequently exposed in accreted terranes as part of ophiolite assemblage.

Depositional Environment: Deep oceanic crustal rocks. Obducted ophiolite terrane?

Associated Deposit Types: Ultramafic-hosted talc, ultramafic-hosted asbestos,lateritic/saprolitic nickel.

Mineralogy: Chromite ± ferrichromite ± magnetite ± ruthenium-osmium-iridium alloys ±laurite.

Texture/Structure: Massive coarse-grained, granular to finely disseminated.

Alteration: None related to ore.

Ore Controls: Restricted to dunite bodies in tectonised harzburgite or lower portions ofultramafic cumulate. Restricted to serpentinised ultrabasics.

Weathering: Highly resistant to weathering and oxidation.

Geochemical Signature: None recognised.

Examples: Oakey Creek (Gordonbrook) deposits; Thetford mines ophiolite complex (Kacira1982).

Economic Significance: There is insufficient data on chromite deposits to give likelyindications of size and grade on a worldwide basis.

Synorogenic-Synvolcanic Nickel-Sulphide

Model Description: Description of the model modified after Cox and Singer (1986).


Approximate Synonyms: Nickel-copper in mafic rocks; Stratabound sulphide-bearingnickel-copper; gabbroid associated nickel-copper.

Description: Massive lenses, matrix and disseminated sulphide in small to medium sizedgabbroic intrusions in fold belts and greenstone belts.

General References: Cox and Singer (1986).

Rock Types: Host rocks include norite, gabbro-norite, pyroxenite, peridotite, troctolite,anorthosite, and hornblendite; forming layered or composite igneous complexes.

Textures: Phase and cryptic layering sometimes present. Rocks are usually cumulates.

Age Range: Archaean to Tertiary, predominantly Archaean and Proterozoic; Cambrian inTasmania, Devonian in Victoria.

Depositional Environment: Intruded synvolcanically or tectonically during orogenicdevelopment of a metamorphosed terrane containing volcanic and sedimentary rocks.

Tectonic Setting: Mobile belts, metamorphic belts and greenstone belts.

Associated Deposit Types: Stratiform mafic-ultramafic nickel-copper (Stillwater);Stratiform mafic-ultramafic platinum group elements (Merensky Reef, Bushveld Complex);placer platinum group elements.

Mineralogy: Pyrrhotite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite ± pyrite ± titanium-magnetite ±chromium-magnetite ± graphite, with possible by-product cobalt and platinum groupelements.

Texture/Structure: Predominantly disseminated sulphides in stratabound layers up to threemetres thick. Commonly deformed and metamorphosed so primary textures and mineralogymay be modified.

Alteration: Serpentinisation.

Ore Control: Sulphides may be near the basal contacts of the intrusion but are generallyassociated with gabbroic-dominated rather than basal ultramafic cumulates.

Weathering: May be recessive if altered. May form nickeliferous laterites over theultramafic portions in low latitudes.

Geochemical Signature: Ni, Cu, Co, PGE, Cr.

Geophysical Signature: Strong magnetic signature where not extensively serpentinised.

Examples: Sally Malay, Western Australia; Radio Hill, Mount Sholl, Western Australia;Rana, Norway; Cuni deposits (Five Mile), Tasmania.

Economic Significance: According to grade/tonnage models for synorogenic–synvolcanicdeposits: 90% contain at least 0.26 million tonnes of ore; 50% at least 2.1 million tonnes;and 10% at least 17 million tonnes. In these types of deposits: 90% contain at least 0.35wt%


Ni and 0.13wt% Cu; 50% contain at least 0.77wt% Ni and 0.47wt% Cu; and 10% at least1.6wt% Ni and 1.3wt% Cu (Cox & Singer 1986).

According to grade/tonnage models for komatiite nickel–copper deposits: 90% of depositscontain at least 0.2 million tonnes of ore; 50% at least 1.6 million tonnes; and 10% at least17 million tonnes. In these types of deposits: 90% contain at least 0.71wt% Ni and 0.13wt%Cu; 50% at least 1.5wt% Ni and 0.094wt% Cu; and 10% at least 3.4wt% Ni and 0.28wt% Cu(Cox & Singer 1986).

The gabbroid associated stratabound nickel-copper sulphide deposit type has been of limitedcommercial importance in Australia in the past. However, this deposit type is of worldsignificance overseas as an important source of nickel and as a source of strategicallyimportant platinum group elements.

Kaolin

Model Description: Description of the model after Hora (1998).

Synonyms: Primary kaolin, secondary kaolin, fireclay, flint clay, ball clay.

General References: Hora (1992), Harben and Bates (1990).

Rock Types: Kaolinised feldspathic rocks, for example gneiss, granites to diorites and theirvolcanic equivalents. Secondary alluvial kaolinitic clays.

Age Range: Can be any age.

Tectonic Setting: In tectonically stable areas. Down-faulted sedimentary basins.

Depositional Environment: Alteration (weathering) of aluminium silicates in a warm,humid environment. Primary kaolin is formed in situ as a result of weathering or ofhydrothermal alteration. Continued intensive weathering may remove the silica fromkaolinite to produce a bauxite mineral. Kaolinitic clays (Harben & Bates 1990) underlie mostbauxite. Secondary kaolin is formed from sedimentation in fresh or brackish water (Tertiaryand Quaternary river channels and lakes). Secondary sand kaolin deposits may also resultfrom post depositional alteration of feldspar clasts in arkosic sand. Selective dissolution ofcarbonate from argillaceous limestone or dolomites can also leave an insoluble residuecomprised mostly of clay.

Associated Deposit Types: Bentonite, diatomite, bauxite, coal, ceramic and cement shales.In the Nandewar study area, kaolin may occur with hydrothermal tin deposits.

Mineralogy: Kaolinite, quartz, feldspar, with minor biotite and hornblende.

Alteration Mineralogy: N/a.

Ore Controls: Kaolin contaminated with iron oxides and other mineral pigments (in red andbrown soils) are unsuitable for refined industrial use. Kaolin in the subsoil area, which formsthe pallid zone, can contain pure kaolin. The primary texture of the parent rock and thepresence of unconformities, shears and fracture zones are important for water penetration.


Fracture zones are also important for hydrothermal kaolin. Secondary kaolin is deposited inlow energy environments. Typical kaolin concentrations in sandy sediments are located atthe tops of fining-upward sand sequences. Quantity and quality of kaolinitic clays can beincreased by beneficiation (Harben & Bates 1990).

Examples: Merrygoen, New South Wales.

Economic Significance: For 2001, the worldwide production of kaolin was 42 milliontonnes (Virta 2001). There is insufficient data on kaolin deposits to give likely indications ofsize and grade on a worldwide basis.

High-grade kaolin is used in porcelain, ceramics, as a filler and for paper coating. Brick andcement clays, like many other industrial minerals, have a low value per unit of volume but itis essential that they are accessible in large quantities close to urban areas for use in industryand construction. Competing land uses are a constant pressure on the availability of theseresources.

Zeolite

Model Description: Description of the model after Flood (1987, 1995) and Holmes andPecover (1987).

Approximate Synonym: Natural zeolites.

Description: Naturally occurring crystalline hydrated aluminosilicates containing positivelycharged metallic ions (cations) of the alkali and alkaline earth elements within three-dimensional crystal frameworks.

General References: Flood (1987, 1995), Holmes and Pecover (1987).

Geological Environment: Varied. In the New England Fold Belt, Late Carboniferous vitricash fall tuffs deposited within lacustrine, fluvial overbank, and shallow marine environmentsappear to have the highest zeolite content.

Textures: N/a.

Age Range: Most are Cainozoic on a world scale, but they can be older. Their physio-chemical instability renders them unlikely to be older than Palaeozoic. In the New EnglandFold Belt, the highest concentration of zeolite-rich rock appears to be in the continental tomarine Late Carboniferous sequence, which are amongst the oldest known economicallyviable zeolite-rich rocks in the world. Zeolitic pyroclastics within the Currabubula Formationappear to have highest prospectivity (Flood 1987).

Depositional Environment: In the New England Fold Belt, Late Carboniferous vitric ashfall tuffs deposited within lacustrine or similar environments appear to have highest zeolitecontent. Welded and non welded ignimbrite ash-flow units and ash-flow tuffs show evidenceof having contained high vitric contents at the time of their deposition. Alteration of thesevitric components to zeolite minerals appears to have occurred mainly in the non-weldedash-flow pyroclastic units and in ash-fall tuffs. Factors which have influenced the formation


of zeolite include the porosity of the original host, and the availability of water during andafter emplacement (Flood 1987).

Tectonic Setting: In New England Fold Belt active continental margin arc (both fore-arcand back-arc)

Associated Deposit Types: Epithermal gold-silver, bentonite.

Deposit Description: Altered volcanic ash-flow units and tuffs.

Mineralogy: Zeolite minerals which are most widely used in industry and agriculture are:clinoptilolite; mordenite; chabazite; phillipsite; and erionite. Escott Mine: Ca-typeclinoptilolite, modenite quartz albite sanidine (Flood & Taylor 1991).

Texture/Structure: N/a.

Alteration: N/a.

Ore Controls: In New England Fold Belt high vitric content of original ash-flow units. Styleof eruption, porosity of the original host, and the availability of water during and afteremplacement (Flood 1987). Burial and metamorphic history (Homes & Pecover 1987).

Weathering: N/a.


Examples: Death Valley Junction, United States of America; Lake Tecopa, United States ofAmerica; Lake Magadi, Kenya.

Economic Significance: Worldwide production of natural zeolite is estimated to be betweenthree and four million tonnes based on reported production by some countries and productionestimates published in trade journals. Several companies focused on penetrating markets thatwere previously ignored, such as specialty concretes, and creating more innovative andpossibly more marketable products, such as soil amendment blends. If these are successful,they may spur more interest in the use of zeolite as the commercial potential of thesefunctional minerals is recognised (Virta 2002).

There is insufficient data on zeolite deposits to give likely indications of size and grade on aworldwide basis.

A2.3 Metallic Minerals

Orogenic Gold

Model Description: Description of the model after Berger and Bethke (1985), Phillips andHughes (1998), Robert (1996), Ash and Aldrick (1996), and Groves et al. (1998, 2003).

Approximate Synonyms: Slate belt gold veins, mesothermal quartz veins, mother lodeveins, turbidite-hosted gold veins, low sulphide gold-quartz veins, metahydrothermal gold,structurally controlled gold, quartz-stibnite ore, Victorian gold deposits.


Description: Gold in quartz veins and silicified lode structures, mainly in regionallymetamorphosed rocks; stibnite-gold veins, pods, and disseminations in or adjacent tobrecciated or sheared fault zones.

General References: Forde and Bell (1994); Hodgson, Love and Hamilton (1993), White(1962), Miller (1973), Knight (1978), Philips and Hughes (1998).

Rock Types: Regionally metamorphosed volcanic rocks, greywacke, chert, shale, andquartzite, especially turbidite-deposited sequences, greenstone belts and oceanicmetasediments. Alpine gabbro and serpentine. Late-stage granitic batholiths. One or more ofthe following lithologies is found associated with over half of the antimony-gold veindeposits: limestone; shale (commonly calcareous); sandstone; and quartzite. Deposits arealso found with a wide variety of other lithologies including slate, rhyolitic flows and tuffs,argillite, granodiorite, granite, phyllite, siltstone, quartz mica and chloritic schists, gneiss,quartz porphyry, chert, diabase, conglomerate, andesite, gabbro, diorite, and basalt.Regionally high background gold sources may be important on a province scale (forexample, Victorian Cambrian boninites), Ordovician shoshonites, New South Wales andLate Permian I-type granites in New England (Ashley et al. 1994).

Age Range: Archaean to Tertiary.

Depositional Environment: Continental margin mobile belts, accreted margins. Vein age ispre to post-metamorphic and locally cut granitic rocks.

Tectonic Setting: Fault and joint systems produced by regional compression; high strainzones.

Associated Deposit Types: Placer gold-platinum group elements, Homestake gold.Fosterville-Nagambie style gold (stockworks), alluvial gold. Stibnite-bearing veins, pods,and disseminations containing base metal sulphides, cinnabar, silver, gold, scheelite that aremined primarily for lead, gold, silver, zinc, or tungsten.

Some orogenic type gold deposits may contain input from other gold deposit styles andsources (Ashley et al. 1994; Groves et al. 2003). These deposits have been suggested to existon a spectrum of association with other gold mineralisation styles, which may provide asource for the gold in some cases (Groves et al. 2003, Ashley et al. 1994). Some overprintpre-existing deposits (Groves et al. 2003). In the New England region, a major influx of heatand development of I-type magmas, in association with regional uplift and deformation, hasbeen suggested to potentially influence the distribution and formation of these types ofdeposits (Ashley et al. 1994).

Mineralogy: Gold-low sulphide quartz vein deposits contain quartz ± carbonates ± nativegold ± arsenopyrite ± pyrite ± galena ± sphalerite ± chalcopyrite ± pyrrhotite ± sericite ±rutile. Locally tellurides ± scheelite ± bismuth ± tetrahedrite ± stibnite ± molybdenite ±fluorite. Gold-bearing quartz is greyish or bluish in many instances because of fine-grainedsulphides. Carbonates of calcium, magnesium, and iron abundant.

Antimony-gold vein deposits contain stibnite, quartz ± pyrite ± calcite; minor other sulphidesfrequently less than one percent of deposit and included arsenopyrite ± sphalerite ±


tetrahedrite ± chalcopyrite ± scheelite ± free gold. Minor minerals only occasionally foundinclude native antimony, marcasite, calaverite, berthierite, argentite, pyrargyrite, chalcocite,wolframite, richardite, galena, jamesonite. At least a third (and possibly more) of thedeposits contain gold or silver. Uncommon gangue minerals include chalcedony, opal(usually identified to be cristobalite by X-ray), siderite, fluorite, barite, and graphite.

Texture/Structure: Gold-low sulphide quartz vein deposits include saddle reefs, ribbonquartz, breccias, open-space filling textures commonly destroyed by vein deformation.

Antimony-gold vein deposits contain stibnite in pods, lenses, kidney forms, pockets(locally). The deposits may be massive or occur as streaks, grains, and bladed aggregates insheared or brecciated zones with quartz and calcite.

Disseminated deposits contain streaks or grains of stibnite in host rock with or withoutstibnite vein deposits.

Alteration: Quartz, siderite and/or ankerite ± albite in veins with possible halo of carbonatealteration. Chromian mica ± dolomite ± talc ± siderite in areas of ultramafic rocks. Sericite ±disseminated arsenopyrite ± rutile in granitic rocks. Antimony-gold vein deposits exhibitsilicification, sericitisation, and argillisation with minor chloritisation and serpentinisationwhen deposit is in mafic, ultramafic rocks.

Ore Controls: Veins occur along regional high-angle faults, joint sets. Best deposits overallin areas with greenstone. High-grade ore shoots locally at metasediment-serpentine contacts.Disseminated ore bodies where veins cut granitic rocks. Carbonaceous shales may beimportant. Competency contrasts, for example shale/sandstone contacts and intrusivecontacts may be important. Fold hinge zones also locally important. Fissures and shear zoneswith breccia usually associated with faults. Some replacement in surrounding lithologies.Infrequent open-space filling in porous sediments and replacement in limestone. Depositionoccurs at shallow to intermediate depth.

Weathering: Abundant quartz chips in soil. Red limonitic soil zones. Gold may berecovered from soil by panning. Yellow to reddish kermesite and white cerrantite orstibiconite (Sb oxides) may be useful in exploration for antimony-gold vein deposits;residual soils directly above deposits are enriched in antimony.

Geochemical Signature: Gold best pathfinder in general. As, Ag, Pb, Zn, Cu may be useful.

Geophysical Signature: Poorly defined generally, but magnetics may define importantstructures.

Genetic Model: After Ash and Aldrick (1996). Gold quartz veins form in lithologicallyheterogeneous, deep transcrustal fault zones that develop in response to terrane collision.These faults act as conduits for CO2 and H2O rich (5-30 mol% CO2), low salinity (less than 3wt% NaCl) aqueous fluids, with high Au, Ag, As, (±Sb, Te, W, Mo) and low Cu, Pb, Znmetal contents. These fluids are believed to be tectonically or seismically driven by a cycleof pressure build-up that is released by failure and pressure reduction followed by sealingand repetition of the process. Gold is deposited at crustal levels within and near the brittle-ductile transition zone with deposition caused by sulphidation (the loss of H2S due to pyrite


deposition), primarily as a result of fluid-wallrock reactions. Other significant factors mayinvolve phase separation and fluid pressure reduction. The origin of the mineralising fluidsremains controversial, with metamorphic, magmatic and mantle sources being suggested aspossible candidates. Within an environment of tectonic crustal thickening in response toterrane collision, metamorphic devolitisation or partial melting (anatexis) of either the lowercrust or subducted slab may generate such fluids.

Examples:

Gold-low sulphide quartz vein association: Bendigo Goldfield, Victoria (Sharpe &MacGeehan 1990); Ballarat East Gold Deposits, Victoria (d’Auvergne 1990); Mother Lode(Knopf 1929); Goldfields of Nova Scotia (Malcolm 1929).

Antimony-gold association: Amphoe Phra Saeng (Gardner 1967); Coimadai, Victoria(Fisher 1952); Costerfield, Victoria (Stillwell 1953); Hillgrove (Boyle 1990).

Gold in chert/jasperoid association: Fortnum, Western Australia (Hill & Cranney 1990);Dalmorton, New South Wales (Henley et al. 2001); Limbri?, New South Wales (Brown et al.1992).

Economic Significance: Orogenic gold deposits are one of the largest types of gold depositand are an important source of gold and silver, although there is a lack of consensusconcerning classification. According to the grade/tonnage models for low-sulphide gold-quartz veins: 90% of these deposits contain at least 0.001Mt of ore; 50% contain at least0.03Mt; and 10% contain at least 0.91Mt (Cox & Singer 1986). In 90% of these deposits orescontain at least 6g/t Au; 50% contain at least 15g/t Au and 10% contain 43g/t Au.

There is insufficient data and lack of consensus about orogenic gold deposits associated withchert and jasper to give indications of grades and tonnages. The Yarlaweelor pit at theFortnum gold mine in Western Australia is hosted in tension quartz vein arrays within foldedjasperoid lenses and has produced around two million tonnes at about 2.5g/t Au during thelate 1990s (approximately A$100 million). The Dalmorton gold field in New South Wales ishosted within stratabound chert lenses. The mineralising fluids are thought to be sourcedlargely by orogenic (‘metahydrothermal’) sources, although a regional association withfractionated I-type Permian-Triassic granites is also possible. Identified Inferred resourcesamount to some 232 000t at 3.27ppm Au.

The grade/tonnage model for simple antimony-gold vein deposits (Cox & Singer 1986)indicate: 50% of deposits contain more than 180 tonnes of ore; and 10% contain more that 4900 tonnes. In 90% of these deposits ores contain at least 18% Sb; 50% of them contain atleast 35% Sb; while 10% of them contain at least 66% Sb, 1.3g/t Au and 16g/t Ag.

Porphyry Copper-Gold

Model Description: Description of the model in Cox and Singer (1986), Cook et al. (1998),and Corbett and Leach (1998).


Description: Stockwork veinlets of chalcopyrite, bornite, and magnetite in porphyriticintrusions and coeval volcanic rocks and other country rocks. Ratio of gold (ppm) tomolybdenum (%) is greater than 30.

General References: Sillitoe (1979, 1989), Cook et al. (1998).

Rock Types: Tonalite to monzogranite; dacite, andesite flows and tuffs coeval with intrusiverocks. Also syenite, monzonite, and coeval high potassium, low titanium volcanic rocks(shoshonites). In Lachlan Fold Belt shoshonitic geochemistry is a major control (Downes1998).

Textures: Intrusive rocks are porphyritic with fine to medium-grained aplitic groundmass.

Age Range: Mainly Palaeozoic to Quaternary, but can be any age. In the southern NewEngland Fold Belt they are mostly Permo-Triassic.

Depositional Environment: In porphyritic stocks and dykes intruding coeval volcanicrocks. Large-scale breccias common. Evidence for volcanic centre. One to two kilometresdepth of emplacement.

Tectonic Setting: Subduction related, for example Island-arc volcanic setting, especially inthe waning stage of volcanic cycle. Active continental margin. Also continental margin rift-related volcanism.

Associated Deposit Types: Porphyry copper-molybdenum, gold-porphyry, epithermal gold-silver, copper-gold skarn, orogenic gold, gold placers.

Mineralogy: Chalcopyrite ± bornite. Traces of native gold, electrum, sylvanite, and hessite.Quartz, K-feldspar. Anticipated to provide adequate fault related trapping potential bothwithin and adjacent to the major graben.

Texture/Structure: Veinlets and disseminations.

Alteration: Quartz ± magnetite ± biotite (chlorite) ± K-feldspar ± actinolite ± anhydrite ininterior of system. Outer propylitic zone. Late quartz, pyrite, white mica ± clay mayoverprint early feldspar-stable alteration.

Ore Controls: Veinlets and fractures of quartz, sulphides, K-feldspar, magnetite, biotite, orchlorite are closely spaced. Ore zone has a bell shape centred on the volcanic-intrusivecentre. Highest grade ore is commonly at the level at which the stock divides into branches.

Weathering: Surface iron staining may be weak or absent if pyrite content is low in protore.Copper silicates and carbonates. Residual soils contain anomalous amounts of rutile.

Geochemical Signature: Anomalous Cu, Au, Mo, Ag, Zn, Pb, As, Sb, Hg, Te, Sn, S (Cooket al. 1998). Central Cu, Au, Ag; peripheral Mo. Peripheral Pb, Zn, Mn anomalies may bepresent if late sericite pyrite alteration is strong. Gold (ppm) to molybdenum (%) ratio isgreater than 30 in ore zone. Gold enriched in residual soil over ore body. System may havemagnetic high over intrusion surrounded by magnetic low over pyrite halo.


Examples: Goonumbla (Heithersay et al. 1990); Cadia, New South Wales (Wood &Holliday 1995).

Economic Significance: Generally these deposits are important sources of copper and gold.Pre-mining resources at Cadia-Ridgeway in central New South Wales amount to greater thanA$10 billion (2003).

The grade/tonnage model (Cox & Singer 1986) for porphyry copper gold deposits indicate:90% of these deposit contain at least 25Mt of ores; 50% contain at least 100Mt; and 10%contain at least 400Mt. In 90% of these deposits ores contain at least 0.35wt% Cu and0.2ppm Au; in 50 % of the deposits ores have at least 0.5wt% Cu and 0.38ppm Au and in10% of the deposits the ores contain at least 0.72wt% Cu and 0.72ppm Au.

Epithermal Gold-Silver

Model Description: Description of the model after Cox and Singer (1986).

Approximate Synonym: Epithermal gold (quartz-adularia) alkali-chloride type,polymetallic veins, low/high sulphidation, epigenetic.

Description: Galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, sulfosalts, tellurides and gold in quartz-carbonate veins hosted by felsic to intermediate volcanics. Older basin evaporites or rockswith trapped seawater are associated with these deposits.

General References: Buchanan (1980), White and Hedenquist (1990), Henley et al. (1984),Berger and Bethke (1985).

Rock Types: Host rocks are usually andesite, dacite, quartz latite, rhyodacite, rhyolite, andassociated sedimentary and/or plutonic rocks. Earlier non-associated units may also beaffected. Mineralisation related to calc-alkaline or bimodal volcanism.

Textures: Porphyritic.

Age Range: Most are Tertiary on a worldwide basis, but can be any age. For southern partsof the New England Fold Belt major mineralising events are identified in the Permian.

Depositional Environment: Bimodal and calc-alkaline volcanism. Deposits related tosources of saline fluids in prevolcanic basement such as evaporites or rocks with entrappedseawater and hot springs.

Tectonic Setting: Through-going fractures systems. Major normal faults, fractures related todoming, ring fracture zones, joints associated with calderas. Underlying or nearby olderrocks of continental shelf with evaporite basins, or island arcs that are rapidly uplifted.

Associated Deposit Types: Placer gold, epithermal quartz alunite gold, polymetallic veinand replacement, porphyry copper-gold, Carlin.

Mineralogy: Galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, copper sulfosalts, silver sulfosalts ± gold ±tellurides ± bornite ± arsenopyrite. Gangue minerals are quartz, chlorite ± calcite, pyrite,


rhodochrosite, barite ± fluorite ± siderite ± ankerite ± sericite ± adularia ± kaolinite. Specularhaematite and alunite may be present.

Texture/Structure: Banded veins, open space filling, lamellar quartz, stockworks, colloformtextures.

Alteration: Top to bottom: quartz ± kaolinite + montmorillonite ± zeolites ± barite ± calcite;quartz + illite; quartz + adularia ± illite; quartz + chlorite; presence of adularia is variable.

Ore Controls: Through-going or anastomosing fracture systems. High-grade shoots wherevein changes strike or dip and at intersections of veins. Hanging-wall fractures areparticularly favourable.

Weathering: Bleached country rock, goethite, jarosite, and alunite. Supergene processesoften important factor in increasing grade of deposit.

Geochemical Signature: Higher in system Au, As, Sb, Hg; Au, Ag, Pb, Zn, Cu; Ag, Pb, Zn,Cu, Pb, Zn. Base metals generally higher grade in deposits with silver. Tungsten and bismuthmay be present.

Examples: Pajingo, Queensland (Bobis et al. 1996); Mount Terrible, New South Wales.

Economic Significance: Epithermal gold-silver deposits are important sources for gold andsilver. Grade/tonnage model for deposits of this type indicate: 90% of deposits contain morethan 0.065Mt of ore; 50% more than 0.77Mt and 10% contain more that 9.1Mt (Cox andSinger, 1986). In 90% of these deposits ores have at least 2.0g/t Au and 10g/t Ag; 50% haveat least 7.5g/t Au and 110g/t Ag; and In 10% of have at least 27g/t Au and 1300g/t Ag.

Tin (Greisen and Vein)

Tin Greisen

Model Description: Description of the model after Reed (1982).

Description: Disseminated cassiterite, and cassiterite-bearing veinlets, stockworks, lenses,pipes, and breccia in greisenised granite.

General References: Reed (1982), Solomon and Groves (1994).

Rock Types: Specialised biotite and/or muscovite leucogranite (S-type) granite. Distinctiveaccessory minerals include topaz, fluorite, tourmaline, and beryl. Tin greisens are generallypost-magmatic and associated with late fractionated melt.

Textures: Common plutonic rock textures, miarolitic cavities may be common. Generallynonfoliated. Equigranular textures may be more evolved (Hudson & Arth 1983). Aplitic andporphyritic textures common.

Age Range: May be any age.

Depositional Environment: Mesozonal plutonic to deep volcanic environment.


Tectonic Setting: Fold belts of thick sediments and/or volcanic rocks deposited on stablecratonic shield. Accreted margins. Granites generally postdate major folding.

Associated Deposit Types: Quartz-cassiterite sulphide lodes, quartz-cassiterite ±molybdenite stockworks. Late complex tin-silver-sulphide veins.

Mineralogy: Cassiterite, molybdenite, arsenopyrite, beryl, wolframite, bismuthinite, copper-lead-zinc sulphide minerals and sulphostannates. Gangue mineralogy includes quartz ±fluorite, calcite, tourmaline, muscovite and topaz.

Texture/Structure: Exceedingly varied, the most common being disseminated cassiterite ingreisens, and quartz veinlets and stockworks (in cupolas or in overlying wallrocks). Lesscommon are pipes, lenses, and tectonic breccia.

Alteration: Incipient greisen (granite), muscovite ± chlorite, tourmaline, and fluorite.Greisenised granite, quartz-muscovite-topaz-fluorite, ± tourmaline (original texture ofgranites retained). Greisen, quartz-muscovite-topaz ± fluorite ± tourmaline ± sulphides(typically no original texture preserved). Tourmaline can be ubiquitous as disseminations,concentrated or diffuse clots, or late fracture fillings. Greisen may form in any wallrockenvironment, typical assemblages developed in aluminosilicates.

Ore Controls: Greisen lodes located in or near cupolas and ridges developed on the roof oralong margins of granitoids. Faults and fractures may be important ore controls.

Weathering: Granite may be ‘reddened’ close to greisen veins. Although massive greisenmay not be economic as lodes, rich placer deposits form by weathering and erosion.

Geochemical Signature: Cassiterite, topaz, and tourmaline in streams that drain exposedtin-rich greisens. Specialised granites may have high contents of SiO2 (greater than 73%) andK2O (greater than 4%), and are depleted in CaO, TiO2, MgO, and total FeO. They areenriched in Sn, F, Rb, Li, Be, W, Mo, Pb, B, Nandewar study area, Cs, U, Th, Hf, Ta, andmost rare earth elements, and impoverished in Ni, Cu, Cr, Co, V, Sc, Sr, La, and Ba.

Examples: Lost River (Dobson 1982; Sainsbury 1964); Anchor Mine (Solomon & Groves1994).

Economic Significance: According to grade/tonnage models for tin greisen deposits: 90% ofdeposits contain at least 0.8Mt of ore; 50% at least 7.2Mt; and 10% at least 65Mt. In thesetypes of deposits: 90% contain at least 0.17% Sn; 50% at least 0.28% Sn; and 10% at least0.47% Sn (Cox and Singer 1986).

Tin Veins


Approximate Synonym: Cornish type lodes.

Description: Simple to complex quartz-cassiterite ± wolframite and base-metal sulphidefissure fillings or replacement lodes in ore near felsic plutonic rocks.

General References: Solomon and Groves (1994), Hosking (1974), Taylor (1979).


Rock Types: Close spatial relation to multiphase granites. Specialised biotite and (or)muscovite leucogranite common. Pelitic sediments generally present.

Textures: Common plutonic textures.

Age Range: Palaeozoic and Mesozoic most common but may be any age.

Depositional Environment: Mesozonal to hypabyssal plutons. Extrusive rocks generallyabsent. Dykes and dyke swarms common.

Tectonic Setting: Fold belts and accreted margins with late orogenic to postorogenicgranites, which may in part, be anatectic. Regional fractures are common.

Associated Deposit Types: Tin greisen, tin skarn, and replacement tin deposits.

Mineralogy: Extremely varied. Cassiterite ± wolframite, arsenopyrite, molybdenite,haematite, scheelite, beryl, galena, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, stannite, bismuthinite. Althoughvariations and overlaps are ubiquitous, many deposits show an inner zone of cassiterite ±wolframite fringed with lead, zinc, copper and silver sulphide minerals.

Texture/Structure: Variable. Brecciated bands, filled fissures, replacement, open cavities.

Alteration: Sericitisation (greisen development) and/or tourmalisation common adjacent toveins and granite contacts; silicification, chloritisation, and haematisation. An idealised zonalrelation might consist of quartz-tourmaline-topaz, quartz-tourmaline-sericite, quartz-sericite-chlorite, quartz-chlorite, and chlorite.

Ore Controls: Economic concentrations of tin tend to occur within or above the apices ofgranitic cusps and ridges. Localised controls include variations in vein structure, lithologicand structural changes, vein intersections, dykes, and cross-faults.

Weathering: Cassiterite in stream gravels, placer tin deposits.

Geochemical Signature: Sn, As, W, B are good pathfinder elements; elements characteristicof specialised granites (F, Rb, Be, Nandewar study area, Cs, U, Mo, REE).

Examples: Cornwall (Hosking 1969); Herberton (Blake 1972).

Economic Significance: According to grade/tonnage models for tin vein deposits: 90% ofdeposits contain at least 0.012Mt of ore; 50% at least 0.24Mt; and 10% at least 4.5Mt. Inthese types of deposits: 90% contain at least 0.7% Sn; 50% at least 1.3% Sn; and 10% atleast 2.3% Sn (Cox and Singer 1986).

Tungsten-Molybdenum and Copper-Gold Skarn

Tungsten-Molybdenum Skarn

Model Description: Description of the model after Cox and Singer (1986) modified byKwak (1987) and Blevin and Chappell (1995)

Description: Scheelite and molybdenite in calcsilicate contact metasomatic rocks.


Approximate Synonyms: Scheelite skarns of the tungsten type (Solomon & Groves, 1994).

General References: Kwak (1987), Einaudi and Burt (1982), Meinert 1992, Einaudi et al.1981.

Rock Types: Tonalite, granodiorite, quartz monzonite. Fractionated granitoids, commonlyleucocratic quartz monzonite to granite intruding calcareous bearing sequences. Wallrockcomposition may have an effect on the oxidation state of the skarn system.

Textures: Granitic, granoblastic.

Age Range: Mainly Mesozoic, but may be any age.

Depositional Environment: Contacts and roof pendants of batholith and thermal aureoles ofapical zones of stocks that intrude carbonate rocks. Adjacent to fault zones, which intersectthe intrusion and the carbonate host rocks.

Tectonic Setting: Orogenic belts. Syn-late orogenic. Typically occur in marginal tocontinental margins settings and may have geochemical signatures indicating a mantleinfluence (Kwak 1987).

Associated Deposit Types: W skarns, Mo skarns, Zn skarns.

Mineralogy: Scheelite ± molybdenite ± pyrrhotite ± sphalerite ± chalcopyrite ± bornite ±arsenopyrite ± pyrite ± magnetite and traces of wolframite, fluorite, cassiterite, and nativebismuth. Progression from copper-gold, to tungsten-molybdenum mineralisation is related toprogressively more fractionated, oxidised, I-type magmas which can often be traced withinsingle supersuites (Blevin & Chappell 1995).

Alteration: High garnet to pyroxene ratio, iron-rich andradite garnet dominates overgrossularite. Diopside-hedenbergite pyroxene. Late stage spessartine-almandine garnet.Outer barren wollastonite zone. Inner zone of massive quartz may be present. For mosttungsten-molybdenum skarns there is a similar zonation pattern of proximal/late subcalcic-garnet-quartz, intermediate (and large) zone of garnet-pyroxene skarn, and a thin skarn frontof vesuvianite and/or wollastonite surrounded by less than one meter bleached marble.

Ore Controls: Carbonate rocks in thermal aureoles of intrusions. Fault which intersect theintrusion and the carbonate beds have acted as conduits to the mineralising fluids,particularly faults which pre-date the intrusion.

Geochemical Signature: W, Mo, Zn, Cu, Sn, Bi, Be, As.

Examples: King Island, Tasmania (Solomon & Groves 1994); Pine Creek, United States ofAmerica (Newberry 1982); MacTung, Canada (Dick & Hodgson 1982); Strawberry, UnitedStates of America (Nokleberg 1981).

Economic Significance: Grades 0.4-2% WO3 (typically 0.7% WO3). Deposits vary from 0.1million tonnes, to greater than 30 million tonnes. Skarn deposits have accounted for nearly60% of the western world’s production of tungsten (Ray 1995a).


Worldwide, grades 0.1-2% MoS2 and tonnages between 0.1 million tonnes to two milliontonnes (Ray 1995a). Molybdenum skarns tend to be of a smaller tonnage and lesseconomically important than porphyry molybdenum deposits (Ray 1995a).

According to grade/tonnage models for tungsten skarn deposits: 90% of deposits contain atleast 0.05Mt of ore; 50% at least 1.1Mt and 10% at least 22Mt. In these types of deposits:90% contain at least 0.34% WO3; 50% at least 0.67% WO3; and 10% at least 1.4% WO3

(Cox & Singer 1986).

Copper-Gold Skarns

Model Description: Modified by L. David and S. Jaireth (Geoscience Australia), after D.P.Cox and T.G. Theodore.

Description: Chalcopyrite and gold in calcsilicate contact metasomatic rocks.

General References: Einaudi and Burt (1982), Einaudi et al. (1981), Kwak (1987), Meinert(1992).

Rock Types: Tonalite to monzogranite intruding carbonate rocks or calcareous clastic rocks.I-type, magnetite-bearing, oxidised porphyritic plutons. Gold skarns are also associated withreduced (ilmenite bearing) calc-alkaline to alkaline synorogenic to late orogenic granitoids,with little or no economic copper. Wallrock composition may have an effect on the oxidationstate of the skarn system.

Textures: Granitic texture, porphyry, granoblastic to hornfelsic in sedimentary rocks.

Age Range: Mainly Mesozoic, but may be any age.

Depositional Environment: Fold belt sequences intruded by felsic plutons. Also oceanicisland arc setting associated with mafic to intermediate intrusives with no disseminatedand/or stockwork copper mineralisation.

Tectonic Setting: Continental margin belts with epizonal calc-alkaline granodioritic toquartz monzonitic rocks. Late orogenic magmatism. Typically occur in marginal tocontinental margins settings and may have geochemical signatures indicating a mantleinfluence (Kwak 1987). Many plutons have cogenetic volcanic rocks, stockwork veining,brittle fracturing and brecciation and intense hydrothermal alteration, all features indicativeof a relatively shallow emplacement. Oceanic island arc setting.

Associated Deposit Types: Porphyry copper, zinc-lead-silver skarn, gold skarn,polymetallic replacement, iron skarn.

Mineralogy: Chalcopyrite, pyrite ± haematite ± magnetite ± bornite ± pyrrhotite. Alsomolybdenite, bismuthinite, sphalerite, galena, cosalite, arsenopyrite, enargite, tennantite,loellingite, cobaltite, and tetrahedrite may be present. Gold and silver may be importantproducts. Base and precious metal mineralisation often in peripheral parts. Gold skarns richin arsenic, bismuth and tellurium, and have calcic skarn assemblage low in manganese.


Texture/Structure: Coarse granoblastic with interstitial sulphides. Bladed pyroxenes arecommon.

Alteration: High garnet to pyroxene ratio, iron-rich andradite garnet dominates overgrossularite. Diopside-andradite centre; wollastonite-tremolite outer zone; marble peripheralzone. Igneous rocks may be altered to epidote-pyroxene-garnet (endoskarn). The ‘rottenwood-like’ appearance of boulders containing wollastonite has been used successfully as anexploration guide in British Columbia (Simandl et al. 1999). Retrograde alteration toactinolite, chlorite, and clays may be present. Retrograde skarn assemblage is followed bylow temperature (less than 350 degrees Celsius) veins during which there is influx ofoxidised meteoric water.

Ore Controls: Irregular or tabular ore bodies in calcareous rocks near igneous contacts or inenclaves in igneous stocks. Associated igneous rocks are commonly barren.

Weathering: Copper carbonates, silicates, iron-rich gossan. Calcsilicate minerals in streampebbles are a good guide to covered deposits.

Geochemical Signature: Rock analyses may show copper-gold-silver-rich inner zonesgrading outward to gold-silver zones with high gold to silver ratio and outer Pb-Zn-Ag zone.Co-As-Sb-Bi may form anomalies in some skarn deposits. Magnetic anomalies.

Examples: Mason Valley (Harris & Einaudi 1982); Victoria (Atkinson et al. 1982); CopperCanyon (Blake et al. 1979); Carr Fork (Atkinson & Einaudi 1978); Red Dome (Ewers et al.1990); OK Tedi (Rush & Seegers 1990).

Economic Significance: Average 1-2% Cu. Worldwide they generally range from 1-100Mt,although some exceptional deposits exceed 300Mt. Historically these deposits were a majorsource of copper, although porphyry deposits have become much more important during thelast 30 years. However, major copper skarns are still worked throughout the world, includingChina and the United States of America (Ray 1995b).

According to grade/tonnage models for copper skarn deposits: 90% of deposits contain atleast 0.034Mt of ore; 50% at least 0.56Mt; and 10% at least 9.2Mt. In these types of deposits:90% contain at least 0.7% Cu; 50% at least 1.7% Cu; and 10% at least 4.0% Cu (Cox &Singer 1986).

Tungsten-Molybdenum Veins, Pipes and Disseminations

Model Description: Description of the model after Cox and Singer (1986).

Approximate Synonym: Quartz-wolframite veins (Kelly & Rye 1979).

Description: Wolframite, molybdenite, and minor base-metal sulphides in quartz veins.

General Reference: Solomon and Groves (1994).

Rock Types: Monzogranite to granite stocks intruding sandstone, shale, and metamorphicequivalents.


Textures: Phanerocrystalline igneous rocks, minor pegmatitic bodies, and porphyroaphaniticdykes.

Age Range: Paleozoic to Late Tertiary.

Depositional Environment: Tensional fractures in epizonal granitic plutons and theirwallrocks.

Tectonic Setting: Belts of granitic plutons derived from remelting of continental crust.Country rocks are metamorphosed to greenschist facies.

Associated Deposit Types: Tin-tungsten veins, pegmatites.

Mineralogy: Wolframite, molybdenite, bismuthinite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite,bornite, chalcopyrite, scheelite, cassiterite, beryl, fluorite. Also at Pasto Bueno, tetrahedrite-tennantite, sphalerite, galena, and minor enargite.

Texture/Structure: Massive quartz veins with minor vughs, parallel walls, local breccia.

Alteration: Deepest zones, pervasive albitisation. Higher pervasive to vein-selvage pink K-feldspar replacement with minor disseminated rare earth element minerals. Upper zones,vein selvedges of dark-grey muscovite or zinnwaldite (greisen). Chloritisation. Widespreadtourmaline alteration at Isla de Pinos.

Ore Controls: Swarms of parallel veins cutting granitic rocks or sedimentary rocks nearigneous contacts.

Weathering: Wolframite persists in soils and stream sediments. Stolzite and tungstite maybe weathering products.

Geochemical Signature: W, Mo, Sn, Bi, As, Cu, Pb, Zn, Be, F.

Examples: Pasto Bueno, Peru (Landis & Rye 1974); Xihuashan, China (Hsu 1943; Giuliani1985); Isla de Pinos, Cuba (Page & McAllister 1944); Hamme District, United States ofAmerica (Foose et al. 1980); Round Mountain, United States of America (Shawe et al.1984).

Economic Significance: According to grade/tonnage models for tungsten deposits: 90%deposits contain at least 0.045Mt of ore; 50% at least 0.56Mt; and 10% at least 7Mt. In thesetypes of deposits: 90% contain at least 0.6wt% WO3; 50% at least 0.9wt% WO3; and 10% atleast 1.4wt% WO3 (Cox & Singer 1986).

Besshi-Cyprus Volcanic Hosted Massive Sulphides (VHMS)

Model Description: Description of the model after Cox and Singer (1986) and L. David(Geoscience Australia).

Approximate Synonym: Keislager.


Description: Consist of thin, sheet-like bodies of massive to well-laminated pyrite,pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite within thinly laminated clastic sediments and maficlavas and tuffs.

General References: Ishihara (1974), Franklin et al. (1981), Hutchinson et al. (1982),Ohmoto and Skinner (1983), Large (1992), Allen and Barr (1990), Gemmel et al. (1998).

Rock Types: Occur in interbedded clastic marine sedimentary rocks and tholeiitic toandesitic tuff and breccia (or their metamorphosed equivalents such as schist andamphibolite). Some areas contain ultramafic units such as peridotites (often serpentinised)and locally, black shale, oxide-facies iron formation, red chert, and exhalative carbonatematerial. The amount of mafic rock can vary. In the type area, rocks are metamorphosed toblueschist facies.

Textures: Diabase dykes, pillow basalts, and in some cases thinly laminated clastic rocks,quartzose and mafic schist. All known examples are in strongly deformed metamorphicterrain.

Age Range: Archaean through to Cainozoic.

Depositional Environment: Generated by submarine hot springs along axial grabens inoceanic or back-arc spreading ridges, or related to submarine volcanoes producingseamounts. Besshi/Cyprus ores may be localised within permeable sediments and fracturedvolcanic rocks in anoxic marine basins in an epicontinental rifting environment.

Tectonic Setting: Associated with mid-oceanic spreading ridge/centres but within a narrowoceanic arm adjacent to emerged lands, which serve as the source of abundant sedimentsswamping the basaltic volcanism.

Associated Deposit Types: Manganese and iron-rich cherts regionally. Podiform chromite.Copper-nickel-cobalt-iron sulphides. Exhalative tin (-tungsten) deposits.

Mineralogy: Pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, marcasite ± magnetite ± valleriite ±galena ± bornite ± tetrahedrite ± cobaltite ± cubanite ± stannite ± molybdenite. Quartz,carbonate, albite, white mica, chlorite, amphibole, and tourmaline.

Texture/Structure: Generally of tabular shape, or cigar-shaped when deformed, and containfine-grained, massive to laminated ore (with colloform and framboidal pyrite), breccia orstringer ore and cross-cutting veins containing chalcopyrite, pyrite, calcite or galena,sphalerite, calcite.

Alteration: Besshi/Cyprus deposit alteration is difficult to recognise because ofmetamorphism but chloritisation of adjacent rocks is noted in some deposits.

Ore Controls: Mineralisation is stratigraphically controlled at the margin of mafic, volcanic-rich unit and overlying argillite-rich unit. Lenticular bodies occur in hinge zones of isoclinalfolds. Clastic sediments (argillite, chert) or their metamorphic equivalents predominantlyhost mineralisation.

Weathering: Massive limonite gossans. Gold in stream sediments.


Geochemical Signature: Cu, Zn, Co, Ag, Ni, Cr, Co/Ni ratio greater than 1.0. Au up to4ppm, Ag up to 60ppm.

Geophysical Signatures: Magnetic surveys may detect associated magnetite and/orpyrrhotite within orebody or magnetite within wallrocks. Induced polarisation techniquesmay detect pyritic schists. Electromagnetic techniques may detect massive sulphidemineralisation. Radiometrics may show potassium depletion in the alteration envelope.

Examples: Besshi, Japan (Kanehira & Tatsumi 1970); Girilambone, Australia (Suppel1975).

Economic Significance: Besshi VHMS deposits are a significant source for copper, silverand zinc. Some of these deposits can have a few tens of parts per million of silver and atleast one part per million of gold. Global grade/tonnage models for this type of depositindicate: 90% of these deposits have more than 0.012Mt of ore; 50% have more that 0.22Mt;and 10% have more than 3.8Mt. Similarly, 90% of these deposits the ores have more than0.56% Cu; 50% have more than 1.5% Cu and 2.0% Zn; and 10% have more than 3.3% Cu.Besshi deposits are highly skewed in their size distribution (Cox & Singer 1986).

Grade and tonnage data (Cox and Singer 1986) for Cyprus type deposits indicate: 90% ofthese deposits contain at least 0.1Mt of ore; 50% of the deposits contain at least 1.6Mt; and10% of these deposits can contain at least17 Mt. The largest 10% of these deposits have atleast 3.9% Cu in the ore.

Alluvial Tin


Description: Cassiterite and associated heavy minerals in silt to cobble-size nuggetsconcentrated by the hydraulics of running water in modern and fossil streambeds (deepleads). Includes colluvial and residual (secondary) deposits of tin.

General References: Hosking (1974), Taylor (1979), Sainsbury and Reed (1973).

Rock Types: Alluvial sand, gravel, and conglomerate indicative of rock types that host lodetin deposits.

Textures: Fine to very coarse clastic.

Age Range: Commonly Tertiary to Holocene, but may be any age.

Depositional Environment: Generally moderate to high-level alluvial, where streamgradients lie within the critical range for deposition of cassiterite (for instance, where streamvelocity is sufficient to result in good gravity separation but not enough so the channel isswept clean). Stream placers may occur as offshore placers where they occupy submergedvalleys or strandlines.

Tectonic Setting: Alluvial deposits derived from Palaeozoic to Cainozoic accreted terranesor stable cratonic fold belts that contain highly evolved granites or their extrusiveequivalents. Tectonic stability during deposition and preservation of alluvial deposits.


Associated Deposit Types: Alluvial gravels may contain by-product ilmenite, zircon,monazite, and, where derived from cassiterite-bearing pegmatites, columbite-tantalite.Economic placers are generally within a few (less than eight) kilometres of the primarysources. Any type of cassiterite-bearing tin deposit may be a source. The size and grade ofthe exposed source frequently has little relation to that of the adjacent alluvial deposit.

Mineralogy: Cassiterite, varying amounts of magnetite, ilmenite, zircon, monazite, allanite,xenotime, tourmaline, columbite-tantalite, garnet, rutile, gold, sapphire, and topaz may becommon heavy resistates.

Texture/Structure: Cassiterite becomes progressively coarser as the source is approachedwith euhedral crystals indicating close proximity to primary source. Where a marineshoreline intersects or transgresses a stream valley containing alluvial cassiterite theshoreline placers normally have a large length-to-width ratio.

Ore Controls: Cassiterite tends to concentrate at the base of stream gravels and in traps suchas natural riffles, potholes, and bedrock structures transverse to the direction of water flow.The richest placers lie virtually over the primary source. Streams that flow parallel to themargin of tin-bearing granites are particularly favourable for placer tin accumulation.

Geochemical Signature: Anomalously high amounts of Sn, As, B, F, W, Be, W, Cu, Pb, Zn.Panned concentrate samples are the most reliable method for detection of alluvial cassiterite.

Examples: Southeast Asian tin fields (Westerveld 1937; Newell 1971; Hosking 1974;Simatupang et al. 1974).

Economic Significance: There is insufficient data on alluvial tin deposits for indications onworldwide grades and tonnages.

Alluvial Gold

Model Description: Modified after Yeend (1974).

Approximate Synonyms: Lead, shallow lead, deep lead, auriferous deep lead, lead system,alluvial deposit, alluvial placer, eluvial gold, alluvial terrace, colluvial gold detrital gold,wash, washdirt, drift, reef wash (terrace deposits), gutter wash (channel fill).

Description: Elemental gold as grains and (rarely) nuggets in gravel, sand, silt, and clay, andtheir consolidated equivalents, in alluvial, beach, aeolian, and (rarely) glacial deposits.

General References: Boyle (1979), Wells (1973), Lindgren (1911), and Hughes et al.(1998).

Rock Types: Alluvial gravel, conglomerate, and breccia, usually with white quartz clasts.Sand and sandstone of secondary importance.

Textures: Coarse clastic, as breccias and/or conglomerates.

Age Range: Cainozoic. Older deposits are known but their preservation is uncommon.


Depositional Environment: Occur in steep gradient sections of river channels in headwatersat shallow levels, and where gradients flatten and river velocities lessen, such as at the insideof meanders, below rapids and falls, beneath boulders, in terrace deposits and in vegetationmats. Winnowing action of surf caused gold concentrations in raised, present, andsubmerged beaches.

Tectonic Setting: Tertiary conglomerates along major fault zones, shield areas whereerosion has proceeded for a long time producing multicycle sediments, high-level terracegravels.

Associated Deposit Types: Black sands (magnetite, ilmenite, areaomite), platinum groupelements, yellow sands (zircon, monazite). Gold placers commonly derive from various goldvein type deposits but also other gold deposits, for example porphyry copper-gold, goldskarn, massive sulphide deposits and replacement deposits. Reworking of older gold-bearinggravels and regolith.

Mineralogy: Gold, commonly with attached quartz or limonite, rarely attached to sulphidesand other gangue minerals. Associated with quartz and heavy minerals, which may include:rutile, ilmenite, areaomite, magnetite, limonite, pyrite, zircon, monazite, tourmaline,cassiterite, platinum-iron alloys and osmium-iridium alloys.

Texture/Structure: Usually flattened with rounded edges, also flaky or flour gold(extremely fine-grained), rarely angular and irregular (‘crystalline’), very rarelyequidimensional nuggets. Decrease in gold coarseness away from source. Crystalline gold iscommon where supergene gold or gold remobilisation within alluvium has occurred. Finegold, with lower silver contents occurs in ferricrete cements at higher stratigraphic levels inpalaeoplacers due to fluid remobilisation.

Ore Controls: Economic gold grades occur mainly at base of gravel deposits in various gold‘traps’ such as natural riffles in floor of river or stream or structures trending transverse todirection of water flow such as fractured bedrock, and may include changes in lithologycompetence (interbedded lithologies, dykes etc) that cause formation of waterfalls andwaterholes. Gold may also be localised within steep gradient (dendritic) tributaries nearheadwaters, at tributary intersections with main channels, or in the main channels fordistances of over 100 kilometres downstream (Phillips & Hughes 1996). Within channels,gold concentrations occur mainly within narrow width ‘wash’ horizons (less than two metresthick) in semi-continuous layers and/or lenses. Gold occurs within these layers in graveldeposits above clay layers that constrain the downward migration of gold particles. In somechannels gold, thought to have been remobilised during later weathering processes, wasrecovered from duricrust cements at higher stratigraphic levels.

Geochemical Signature: Anomalous high amounts of Ag, As, Hg, Sb, Cu, Fe, S, and heavyminerals magnetite, areaomite, ilmenite, haematite, pyrite, zircon, garnet, rutile. Goldnuggets have decreasing silver content with distance from source. Maghemite pisoliths mayalso be important.

Geophysical Signature: High resolution aeromagnetic and airborne electromagnetictechniques define buried channels (Lawrie et al. 1999). Other methods which have been used


to define buried channels/deep leads, but which have had limited success, include seismicmethods (both reflection and refraction), ground resistivity, magnetics and microgravity(Sedmik 1963; O’Connor 1964). Ground penetrating radar may, in some circumstances, beused to identify shallow channels.

Examples: Sierra Nevada (Lindgren 1911; Yeend 1974); Victoria (Knight 1975).

Economic Significance: According to global grade and tonnage data these deposits areusually small, with: 90% of them have at least 0.022Mt of ore; 50% at least 1.1Mt; and 10%have more than 50Mt of ore (Cox & Singer 1986). The ores in 90% deposits contain at least0.084g/t Au; in 50% deposits the ores have at least 0.2g/t Au; and 10% deposits containmore than 0.48g/t Au.

Silver-Bearing Polymetallic Vein

Model Description: Sangster (1984).

Approximate Synonyms: Felsic intrusion-associated silver-lead-zinc veins, low/highsulfidation hydrothermal.

Description: Quartz-carbonate veins with base metal sulphides and silver, and/or gold andtin related to hypabyssal granitic intrusions in sedimentary, igneous and metamorphicterranes.

General References: Sangster (1984).

Rock Types: Veins related to calc-alkaline to alkaline, diorite to granodiorite, monzonite tomonzogranite in small intrusions and dyke swarms in sedimentary, igneous and metamorphicrocks. Subvolcanic intrusions, necks, dykes, plugs of andesite to rhyolite composition.

Textures: Granitic texture, fine to medium-grained equigranular and porphyroaphanitic.

Age Range: Any age.

Depositional Environment: Near-surface fractures and breccias within thermal aureoles ofintrusions. In some cases peripheral to porphyry systems.

Tectonic Setting: Continental margin and island arc volcanic-plutonic belts. Especiallyzones of local domal uplift.

Associated Deposit Types: Tin/tungsten veins, mesothermal gold veins, tin-goldpolymetallic veins, porphyry copper-molybdenum, porphyry molybdenum low-fluorine,disseminated tin, polymetallic replacement, skarns, epithermal deposits, greisens, etc.

Mineralogy: galena, sphalerite, pyrite ± tetrahedrite-tennantite ± chalcopyrite ± arsenopyrite± silver ± gold, sulphosalts ± argentite ± copper-lead sulphosalts in veins of quartz, siderite,calcite ± ankerite/dolomite ± chlorite ± rhodochrosite.


Texture/Structure: Complex, multiphase veins with breccia, comb structure, crustification,and less commonly colloform textures. Textures may vary from vuggy to compact withinmineralised systems.

Alteration: Generally wide propylitic zones and narrow sericitic and argillic zones, but maybe small or nonexistent. Some silicification of carbonate rocks to form jasperoid. Somequartz-carbonate-sericite alteration of ultrabasics.

Ore Controls: Areas of high permeability, intrusive contacts, fault intersections, and brecciaveins and pipes. Replacement ore bodies may form where structures intersect carbonaterocks.

Weathering: Gossans and iron-manganese oxide stains. Zinc and lead carbonates and leadsulphates, arsenates and phosphates. Abundant quartz chips in soil. Supergene enrichmentproduces high-grade native and horn silver ores in veins where calcite is not abundant.

Geochemical Signature: Zn, Cu, Pb, As, Ag, Au, Mn, Ba. Anomalies zoned from Cu-Auoutward to Zn-Pb-Ag to Mn at periphery.

Examples: Misima Island (Williamson & Rogerson 1983); St Anthony (Mammoth)(Creasey 1950); Wallapai District (Thomas 1949); Magnet (Cox 1975).

Economic Significance: Silver-bearing lead-zinc veins have been mined for lead, zinc,copper and silver. Some deposits have also served as an important source for gold. Globalgrade and tonnage data show: 90% of deposits contain more than 290t, 50% contain morethan 7 600t; and 10% contain more than 200 000t of ore. In 90% of deposits the ores containmore than 140g/t Ag and more than 2.4% Pb; 50% of contain more than 820g/t Ag, morethan 0.13g/t Au, more than 9% Pb, more than 2.1% Zn and more than 0.89% Cu; 10% ofdeposits contain more than 4700g/t Ag, more than 11g/t Au, more than 33% Pb, more than7.6% Zn and more than 0.89% Cu.


APPENDIX 3: REVIEW OF SIGNIFICANT MINING PROJECTSAND AREAS

A3.1 The Bickham Coal Project (November 2003)

The Bickham open cut coal resource is located east of the New England Highway betweenthe townships of Wingen and Blandford (Figure A-G). The area includes an old coalminethat operated between the early 1900s and 1930s, and Commercial Minerals Pty Ltdchamotte (naturally occurring flint clay) mine (six pits) that operated between 1970 and1994. There are two exploration licences over the area (EL 5888 and EL 5306) held by theBickham Coal Company Pty Ltd.

The economic seams in the Bickham area are contained within the Koogah Formation. Thereare seven potentially economic coal seams that vary in thickness from 0.5 to 11.5 metreswith the lowest three seams containing 75% of the resources. Ash (a.d.) varies from 4% to9% in the three lowest seams and 15.5% to greater than 30% in the upper seams. A higherthan average iron content in the ash of the Bickham coal may prove to be problematic. Totalsulphur (a.d.) varies between 0.29% to 0.52% in all but the top seam with 8.8% sulphur(a.d.). Potential open cut resources in the area are 40 million tonnes with an averagestripping ratio of 4.2:1. Preliminary estimates of underground/highwall coal resources areexpected to be of the order of tens of millions of tonnes.

The area is structurally complex with NW-SE trending regional folds having variableplunges and limbs dipping at high angles (greater than 70 degrees in places). Large-scalefaults are also thought to exist in the Bickham area. A feature of the area is ancient deepcindering along seam subcrops and deep weathering oxidation is common.

The company has submitted a Review of Environmental Effects that was on public displayOctober-November 2002. Bickham Coal Company Pty Ltd proposes to extractapproximately 25 000 ROM tonnes of coal from a bulk sampling site located within EL5306. Bulk sampling will allow a better understanding of the performance of the coal duringextraction, the practicalities of physical separation of ‘problem horizons’ and the efficienciesof beneficiation in reducing sulphur and iron in ash.

A3.2 Creek Resources Coal Project (November 2003)

Exploration Licence (EL) 5993 was granted to Creek Resources Pty Ltd in 2002. The licenceis located five kilometres southwest of Werris Creek and covers an area of 531 hectaresincluding the now closed Werris Creek Colliery (Figure A-G).

The company has drilled 34 boreholes with a combined total of 2 080 metres (cored 308metres) of drilling. All but five boreholes have been geophysically logged with a full suite oftools, with some holes including downhole televiewer and dip meter. Piezometers were


installed in several holes to enable assessment of hydrological properties of the interburdenstrata and coal seams.

The exploration undertaken by Creek Resources Pty Ltd has identified potential in situ opencut coal resources of approximately ten million tonnes. The nine coal seams in the area varyin thickness from 0.40 to 8.0 metres. Coal quality is summarised as moisture (a.d.) 3.2-6.6%,Sulphur 0.25-0.35%, HGI 44-54 and SE 6 250-7 050 kcals/kg. Raw ash (a.d.) ranges from5.1-19.2%.

The deposit is contained within a synclinal structure that accommodates nine coal seams inthe Willow Tree Formation, part of the Werris Creek Coal Measures. The coal measures areearly Permian and stratigraphically the unit is the equivalent of the Maules Creek Formation.The area contains several faults with a maximum displacement of less than two metres andseveral igneous intrusions affect the area.

Selective mining of the Werris Creek coal seams should produce very low sulphur, exportthermal coal. A small quantity of contaminated coal requiring washing could be sold asdomestic power station fuel.

A3.3 The Woodsreef Magnesium Project (November 2003)

The Woodsreef mine, which closed in 1983, is located 17 kilometres east of Barraba (FigureA-H). Between 1918 and 1983, the mine produced 550 000 tonnes of white, chrysotileasbestos from 100 million tonnes of serpentinite ore, leaving millions of tonnes of tailings.

The tailings dump has been confirmed, by 15 vertical air-core drillholes, to contain 24.2million tonnes of serpentinite tailings with an average 23.1% Mg (38.3% MgO). Thecontained magnesium content is 5.5 million tonnes. Chemical analyses were consistentthroughout the dump.

The Woodsreef Asbestos mine tailings represent a very large potential source of magnesium.Current forecasts for future global magnesium requirements by the end of 2020 range widelybut could be upwards of 2 400 000 tonnes per year from a current production capacity of 536000 tonnes per year. This increase in demand is principally driven by the need for theautomotive industry to reduce exhaust emissions contributing to carbon dioxide build-up inthe atmosphere. Reduction in fuel consumption, through the reduction in vehicle weight, isseen as one solution to the problem. Magnesium alloys used in this capability, withoutsacrificing strength and safety, add to the potential for recycling that may become a futurerequirement of automotive manufacturers. From an average of three kilograms ofmagnesium per vehicle today, the aim is to reach at least 100 kilograms per vehicle.


Figure A-G. Geology and Tenure, Werrie Basin


A hydrometallurgical-electrowinning process is planned to extract the magnesium from thetailings. The pre-feasibility study carried out by Bateman Brown & Root (Asia-Pacific)indicated that the required refinery would cost A$680 million (2003) and employ 350people.

The biggest cost factor in the production of magnesium using the hydrometallurgical-electrolytic process is the energy requirement. To minimise costs, a study was carried out byGutteridge, Haskins & Davey to examine the alternatives of either locating the refinery at theWoodsreef Mine site or locating the refinery in the Hunter Region alongside an electricitygenerating plant. The former would require a new electricity transmission line fromTamworth to the mine site. The latter would require restoration of the Tamworth-Barrabarailway line with a branch line to the mine site. A variety of options are under considerationresulting from this study.

A staged program of activities was commenced in the 1990’s by the Department of MineralResources and the former Department of Land and Water Conservation and EnvironmentProtection Authority to minimise on-site and off-site effects resulting from previous miningactivities at Woodsreef. The plan to use the tailings as a source of magnesium will assist inthe clean up of the site, eliminating a potential environmental and safety hazard. The refinerylocation will determine where the residues from magnesium-extracted tailings are to belocated. Residues will be made up of a benign iron-silica material. The open pits wouldprovide the most practical location in the mine area.

A3.4 Attunga State Forest and Adjacent Areas (November 2003)

Current Titles

Current exploration titles over the Attunga area include EL 5869, ML 204 and PLL 3683, allheld by Goldrap Pty Ltd. Goldrap Pty Ltd also holds ML L38 for limestone and a privatemining agreement for serpentine in the area.

Unimin Lime (NSW) Pty Ltd holds ML 1470 and ML 1394 for limestone and marblequarrying at the Jacksons and Sulcor quarries, northwest of the Inlet Monzonite skarndeposits.

Tundi Pty Ltd holds MC 143 for serpentine.

Deposits

The following deposits are found within the Attunga area (only major deposits listed)(Figure A-I):


Figure A-H. Geology and tenure, Barraba area


Attunga scheelite (southern skarn) deposit and tungsten-molybdenum skarnssurrounding the Inlet Monzonite (Prospects W2-W6)Attunga copper (northern skarn) mineMt Paterson gold mineNamoi copper mineBetts molybdenite depositsAttunga molydenite depositKensington scheelite depositKensington copper-gold deposits (the Attunga Creek gold mine)the Jacksons and Sulcor quarries

Mining History

The Attunga copper mine, to the north of the Inlet Monzonite, was discovered in 1902 withsporadic mining being undertaken between 1904 and 1916. The ore was comprised ofcopper, gold and silver skarn with minor molybdenum and bismuth recorded. The oreoccurred as irregular lenses and bunches replacing favourable beds of garnet (prograde)skarn and along faults and fractures, with large blocks of recrystallised, unmineralisedlimestone. Mining recovered at least 1 600 tonnes of high grade copper ore at 6.2% Cu and7.75g/t Au from open cut and underground workings that went to a depth of 79 metres(Fisher 1943). Production is recorded at 140 tonnes of copper and 12.44 kilograms of gold(Weber et al. 1978). The shaft was deepened during World War II when the mine wasreopened briefly, but only minor production was undertaken.

The Attunga scheelite (or southern skarn) deposit was discovered in Horse Arm Creek in1968 by the Attunga Mining Corporation Pty Ltd (Endurance Mining Company). Five othertungsten-molybdenum skarn deposits, surrounding the Inlet Monzonite (Prospects W2-W6),were subsequently delineated by this company. No further exploration of significance hastaken place on prospects W5 and W6 to the southeast and south of the Inlet Monzonite sincetheir discovery.

Following World War I, the Mt Paterson Gold Mine was worked unsuccessfully up until1927. Only 50 tonnes were extracted from the mine, yielding 90 grams of gold with a gradeof 1.86g/t Au (Department of Mines 1926). Only minor production was recorded from asmall trial shipment at the Namoi copper mine, which was discovered in 1903 (Carne 1908).

The Attunga Creek molybdenite deposits were prospected between 1914 and 1920 but hadbeen recognised since 1906. Prior to 1918, 0.86 tonnes of molybdenum was removed froman unknown tonnage of ore, with an estimation of a few hundred tonnes of ore having beenextracted from this area. Numerous open cut and shafts are noted in the area and includesmall underground workings (Challenger Resources & Meszaros 1983).

The Betts molybdenite deposits were worked during World War I for molybdenite with anestimated 0.5 tonnes of 2-3% Mo have been extracted. In the past the deposit has beenworked for scheelite, with production recorded as 1.4 tonnes of WO3 (Weber et al. 1978).


The Attunga Magnesite deposit is comprised of extensive magnesite stockwork veins withinserpentinite. Over 100 000 tonnes of magnesite have been obtained from the deposit via opencut operations, with one large and several smaller quarries (Challenger & Meszaros 1983).

Identified Resources

Drilling of the scheelite (southern) skarn by Attunga Mining Corporation Pty Ltd led to thecompany estimating an initial indicated reserve of 500 000 tonnes of ore containing 1.4%wolfram metal after their first two drill holes assayed 0.8% wolfram over a 126 metres depthand 1.44% over a 183 meter depth. Further drilling led to downgraded calculations of 220000-240 000 tonnes of Proven ore at 0.35% WO3 and 280 000 to 305 000 tonnes of Inferredand Potential reserves at 0.35% WO3. However, the drilling programmed failed to delineatethe northern and western limits of the skarn.

A low grade deposit, with three small higher grade masses, at the scheelite (southern) skarnwas delineated by Attunga Mining Corporation Pty Ltd, Endurance Mining Corporation NLand Geopeko Ltd, with a total Inferred resource of 13 600 tonnes at 2.8% WO3, 0.337% Mousing a 0.5% WO3 cut-off. The tungsten-molybdenum W5 prospect was estimated to have162 000 tonnes of skarn with a possible average of 0.182% WO3 (Attunga MiningCorporation et al. 1970).

Challenger Resources Pty Ltd (Doyle et al. 1981) reassessed Attunga Mining CorporationPty Ltd data and calculated a resource of 260 500 tonnes at 0.82% WO3 and 0.136% Mowhen using a 0.25% WO3 cut-off grade.

Brown et al. (1992) indicated a total contained resource for tungsten-molybdenummineralisation associated with the Inlet Monzonite of 113 600 tonnes at 2.8% WO3 and0.337% Mo.

Remaining open cut reserves at the Attunga copper mine were estimated by the AttungaMining Corporation Pty Ltd at 10 000-15 000 tonnes at 2-3% Cu (Department of MineralResources 1968-1970; Attunga Mining Corporation et al. 1970). A remaining resource wasrecalculated for the Attunga copper mine of 20 000 tonnes at 4-10% Cu, 0.6-15ppm Au, 100-200ppm Ag, 0.1-1.0% Mo and 0.2% Bi (Doyle et al. 1981).

A 60 hole percussion drilling program was undertaken by the Attunga Mining CorporationPty Ltd at the Kensington deposits. Challenger Resources & Meszaros (1986) defined aresource from the Attunga Mining Corporation Pty Ltd data, of 4.2 million tonnes at 0.174%WO3 using a cut-off grade of 0.1% WO3 at the Kensingston scheelite and gold prospects.

Geology

Oxidised, unfractionated I-type granites of the southern Moonbi Supersuite have intrudedTamworth Group sedimentary sequences (Tamworth Belt) (Figure A-I). These granites areassociated with molybdenum, tungsten, copper and gold silver-bismuth mineralisation bothhosted within the granite as veins and disseminations and in the country rock as skarn andveins. These deposits include:


tungsten-molybdenum skarn and copper-gold skarn and vein deposits associated withthe Inlet Monzonite;skarn and granite-hosted vein deposits associated with the Moonbi Monzogranite;granite-hosted vein deposits of the Attunga Creek Monzogranite; andskarn-like, and vein deposits where the mineralisation style is unknown at theKensington deposits.

Roberts (1982) defined five metamorphic zones within the sediments of the TamworthGroup surrounding the Inlet Monzonite and Moonbi Monzogranite. Two skarn deposits werenoted by Roberts associated with the Moonbi Monzogranite, one of which had previouslybeen identified as uneconomical by the Attunga Mining Corporation et al. (1970). The zonesare correlated with distance from the contact of both granites, defining the limit of themetamorphic aureoles at two kilometres for the Inlet Monzonite and three kilometres for theMoonbi Monzogranite.

Skarn is developed both within the sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Silver GullyFormation (Tamworth Group) and developed within the Inlet Monzonite. Skarn developed inthe monzonite is in places rich in scheelite constituting up to 50% of the rock (AttungaMining Corporation et al. 1970). Diopside rich skarn, with diopside accounting for 30-40%of the rock, is also developed within the monzonite. Skarn developed in the monzonitegrades into skarn developed in the wallrocks of the Tamworth Group. The Inlet Monzonitealso hosts a small skarn roof pendant (Challenger & Meszaros 1983).

Tungsten-molybdenum skarn occurs immediately adjacent to, and surrounds, the InletMonzonite, the most prospective of these skarns is the Attunga scheelite (southern) skarn800 metres south of the Attunga copper mine. Rock samples assayed from prospect W5 at0.32% WO3 and from prospect W6 at 0.74% WO3 (Attunga Mining Corporation et al. 1970).The skarn has developed in calcareous rocks of the Silver Gully Formation and consists ofandradite garnet-diopside epidote-quartz-zoisite-magnetite-hematite-calcite. Locally thedevelopment of this skarn is associated with garnet-rich skarn where garnet can constitute upto 70% of the rock (Attunga Mining Corporation et al. 1970). Copper, gold and silver arealso noted to occur in the tungsten-molybdenum skarns (Challenger Resources & Meszaros1986). The western and northern extensions of the Attunga scheelite (southern) skarn havenot been defined, but it is possible that the tungsten-molybdenum skarn grades into oroverprints the copper-gold skarn 800 metres to the north.

The Attunga copper mine, to the north of the scheelite (southern) skarn, comprises grossulargarnet-diopside-epidote skarn with associated copper-gold mineralisation. Tungsten andmolybdenum as well as silver and bismuth mineralisation has also been noted in the copper-gold skarn (Fisher 1943; Suppel 1968; Snape 1994). The ore is hosted in zones ofshearing/faulting and as irregular lenses in skarn next to unmineralised recrystallisedlimestone. The ore body is northerly plunging with an outcrop strike of 49 metres (Suppel1968). Mining was undertaken in the oxidised section of the ore body with sulphidesremaining at depth (Doyle et al. 1981). The ‘P’ shaft occurs 150 metres to the south of thecopper mine. The deposit comprises garnet-rich skarnified veins hosted by andesitic countryrock (Brown & Brownlow 1990).


The Mount Paterson gold mine, to the east of the Inlet Monzonite, consists of a north-southtrending brecciated zone of andesite with skarn fill hosting a low grade copper-gold as wellas silver, molybdenum, bismuth, tungsten mineralisation (Geoservices Pty Ltd 2000). Thebreccia consists of andesite fragments rimmed by epidote which have been cemented withdiopside and later andradite garnet and wollastonite-calcite skarn. East-west trending quartzveins cut the breccia, which have given highly anomalous assays up to 42g/t Au, 220ppm Bi,and 60ppm Te (Renison & Gold Fields Exploration 1985). A brecciated 15 metre wide shearzone also trending north-south, to the west of the gold mine gave highly anomalously goldgrades with up to 17.77ppm (New England Gold 1986).

The Namoi Gold mine deposit, to the northeast of the Inlet Monzonite, comprises a northeasttrending quartz vein varying from 0.15 metres to 0.6 metres in width, hosted in quartz-veinedmetamorphosed sediments and andesite. Grades of 10.8% Cu, 3.4ppm Au and 23.7ppm Agwere reported, with associated very high bismuth contents (Carne 1908; Trigg 1986;Geoservices 1999).

Allanite (orthite) has been reported in the skarns at Attunga, however there has been nosystematic exploration for rare earth elements (Attunga Mining Corporation et al. 1970;Challenger Resources & Meszaros 1986).

Within the Moonbi Monzogranite, mineralisation is associated with quartz veins ordisseminated within the granite itself. The Betts molybdenite deposits occur as quartz veinsand leucocratic dykes within the Moonbi Monzogranite. These deposits are associated withtungsten, molybdenum, copper and gold mineralisation (Weber et al. 1978; Geoservices2000). Smaller quartz vein deposits are associated with molybdenite and tungstenmineralisation and include the Moonbi deposit and the Russ and Edwards claims/Pottersmine (Brown et al. 1992).

The Attunga Creek molybdenite deposit and strike-equivalent deposit, consist of quartz veinsand stockworks near the margin of the Attunga Creek Monzogranite. The veins are up to 40centimetres wide and consist of disseminated molybdenite, scheelite and pyrite. Not all veinsare molybdenite and/or scheelite bearing (Weber et al. 1978). An assay of the veins gave2.0% Mo, 6.6ppm Au, 5.1ppm Ag, 866ppm W and 0.22% Bi (Brown et al. 1992).

Wollastonite-garnet skarn has been located 3.5 kilometres north of the Inlet Monzonite (Rayet al. 2003) and it is possible that this skarn is associated with the Attunga CreekMonzogranite.

The Kensington deposits are associated with sporadic tungsten-molybdenum-goldmineralisation occuring along a 4.6 kilometre strike from the Attunga Creek to the south tothe Spring Creek to the north. The ore body is approximately parallel to the serpentinites andfault splays of the Peel Fault System (Challenger Resources & Meszaros 1983). TheKensington deposits comprise disseminated scheelite and molybdenite in veins withinunaltered limestone, siltstone and sandstone (Challenger & Meszaros 1986). Scheelite wasinitially detected in limestone mullock from the shaft of the old gold mine with the AttungaCreek gold mine now regarded as part of the Kensingston deposits (Challenger & Meszaros1983).


The Tamworth Group hosts large economic deposits of limestone and marble, which arecurrently being mined at the Jacksons and Sulcor quarries.

Geological Models for Mo-W-Cu-Au skarn mineralisation

Two geological models have been put forward to explain the juxtaposition of tungsten-molybdenum and copper-gold skarn mineralisation. The first model is based on a zonedpolymetallic mineralising system, whereby tungsten-molybdenum mineralisation isdeveloped close to the intrusive body and copper-gold mineralisation distally. With regardsto the Inlet Monzonite, tungsten-molybdenum skarn mineralisation is developed within 300metres of the granite at the scheelite (southern) skarn and surrounding the monzonite, atprospects W2-W6. Copper-gold skarn is located 800 metres to the north of the InletMonzonite, and to the east of the granite body as distal copper-gold mineralisation at MtPaterson and Namoi. The skarn is also zoned vertically with molybdenum mineralisationoccurring sporadically below the copper-gold skarn to the north of the Inlet Monzonite andsome copper-gold mineralisation noted below the scheelite (southern) skarn. Theskarn/granite contact is thought to be shallowly dipping on the northern side of the InletMonzonite, which may indicate a greater extension of skarn mineralisation than previouslythought and a possibility of new discoveries to the north (Geoservices 1994).

Snape (1994) proposed two separate mineralising events in the Attunga area to explain thejuxtaposition of the tungsten-molybdenum skarn and the copper-gold skarn. Throughgeochemical analysis, Snape found that the copper-gold skarn mineralisation was related to apreviously unrecognised dacitic plug located to the north of the granite. The dacite andassociated copper-gold mineralisation was proposed to predate the intrusion of the InletMonzonite and subsequent tungsten-molybdenum mineralisation. The tungsten-molybdenummineralisation was thought to be associated with the quartz monzonite phase of the zonedInlet Monzonite pluton (Challenger & Meszaros 1985; Snape 1994). This model, however,does not taken into account distal copper-gold skarn (Mt Paterson) and vein (Namoi)mineralisation to the east of the Inlet Monzonite.

Potential Resources

Metallic mineral potential resources in the Attunga area include: tungsten; molybdenite;gold; copper; and silver. Industrial mineral potential resources in the Attunga area include:garnet; wollastonite; limestone; marble; and serpentinite.

The Mt Paterson gold mine and associated breccia and the tungsten-molybdenum W6prospect is partially covered by the property ‘Monrepo’. Geoservices Pty Ltd were deniedaccess to this property during 1994-1995 to undertake stream sediment sampling. As a result,the potential of skarn mineralisation to the southeast of Inlet Monzonite has not been fullyexplored.

The Attunga State Forest is located immediately to the northwest of the adjoining Monrepoproperty and covers most of the Inlet Monzonite and the tungsten-molybdenum W5 prospect.


Figure A-I. Geology and Tenure, Attunga area.


APPENDIX 4: MINERAL AND PETROLEUM TITLES ANDAPPLICATIONS

A4.1 Mining Titles (September, 2003)

Table A-A Mining and Assessment Leases, Nandewar study area

Commodities Title Main Holder Area (ha) Granted Expires Notes(Jan2004)

Location

Mining Leases

Diamond, tin ML6153 Cluff ResourcesPacific NL

29.9 31/1/1969 31/1/1989 Renewalpending

SW Inverell

Diamond, gold MC194 Cluff Minerals PtyLtd

2 17/10/1996 16/10/2007 Bingara

Diatomaceous earth,diatomite

ML1195 Australian DiatomiteMining Pty Ltd

1.89 27/1/1988 26/1/2009 Barraba



3.75 30/4/1992 29/4/2018 Barraba



1.54 21/9/1989 20/9/2010 Barraba



10.8 11/12/1986 10/12/2007 Barraba



8.34 28/9/1983 27/9/2004 Barraba



31.58 31/3/1982 30/3/2024 Barraba



106 31/3/1982 30/3/2024 Barraba


MC238 Australian DiatomiteMining Pty Ltd

1 1/7/1999 30/6/2004 Barraba


MC239 Australian DiatomiteMining Pty Ltd

0.365 1/7/1999 30/6/2004 Barraba

Gold GL5890 Myer, Paul Douglas 1.99 10/6/1970 10/7/2009 (Act1906)

Bingara

Gold MC181 Riley, RodneyGeorge

2 31/1/1996 30/6/2006 Bingara

Gold MC133 Sorenson, Ven 1.2 21/2/1994 20/2/2007 Bingara

Gold MC134 Sorenson, Ven 2 21/2/1994 20/2/2005 Bingara

Gold MC165 Miller, BarryThomas

1.36 30/3/1995 29/3/2005 Nundle

Jade-nephrite ML791 Barlow, MichaelJohn

17.95 17/10/1979 16/10/07 NE ofNundle

Limestone, dolomite,marble

ML1394 Unimine Lime PtyLtd

75.01 4/6/1996 3/6/2017 NNWTamworth

Limestone, marble ML1470 Unimine Lime PtyLtd

188.5 29/8/2000 28/8/2021 SE Manilla


Rhodonite ML1004 Taggart, AlexanderClyde

1.99 25/8/1982 24/8/2006 ESE Manilla

Rhodonite ML1246 Warden, Oliver Tex 2 16/10/1991 15/10/2012 Nundle

Rhodonite ML1213 Warden, Oliver Tex 256 31/10/1988 30/10/2003 Renewalpending

Nundle

Sapphire ML1251 Gemfame Pty Ltd 195.6 19/2/1992 19/2/2012 Inverell

Sapphire ML181 Wilson, DavidBrandon

5.822 2/4/1976 1/4/2017 ENEInverell

Sapphire, corundum,diamond

ML1374 GTN Resources Ltd 150 14/7/1995 13/7/2005 W GlennInnes

Sapphire, zircon ML549 Wilson, DavidBrandon

16.94 7/12/1977 6/12/1998 Renewalpending

ENEInverell

Sapphire ML240 Wilson, DavidBrandon

19.75 21/7/1976 20/7/1997 Renewalpending

ENEInverell

Sapphire, zircon,corundum

ML1505 Frazier, RonaldAllen

267.6 20/3/2002 21/3/2023 W GlennInnes

Sapphire, corundum,zircon

ML860 Wilson, DavidBrandon

55.53 30/7/1980 29/7/2001 Renewalpending

ENEInverell

Sapphire, zircon ML881 Rynne, David Colin 17.4 1/10/1980 30/9/2013 ENEInverell

Sapphire, diamond,zircon

ML1205 Rainville Mining PtyLtd

192.9 16/6/1988 15/6/2016 WSWGlenn Innes

Sapphire ML1492 Australian SapphireCorporation Pty Ltd

134.8 17/8/2001 16/8/2022 W GlennInnes

Sapphire ML1142 Wilson Gems andInvestments Pty Ltd

24.57 30/7/1985 29/7/16 ENE ofInverell

Sapphire, zircon ML645 Airlie Brake Pty Ltd 15.1 6/9/1978 5/9/2020 ENE ofInverell

Sapphire, zircon,corundum

MC111 Walker, NoelThomas

2 15/6/1993 14/6/2003 Expired10/11/2003

W GlennInnes

Sapphire, corundum MC234 Horwood, DennisGeorge

1.954 2/3/1999 1/3/2004 Inverell

Sapphire, corundum MC235 Horwood, DennisGeorge

1.976 2/3/1999 1/3/2004 Inverell


MC112 Walker, NoelThomas

2 15/6/1993 14/6/2003 Expired10/11/2003

W GlennInnes

Sapphire MC182 De Torrens, BrunoValerio

2 6/2/1996 5/2/2001 Renewalpending

SWEmmaville

Sapphire PLL1393 Colley, Clive Robert 7.82 27/3/1974 27/3/2015 Act 1924 Inverell

Sapphire PLL3859 Colley, Clive Robert 15.63 27/4/1974 27/3/2015 Act 1906 Inverell

Serpentine ML1310 Abra, Edward Lyle 1.805 25/2/1993 24/2/2014 ESE Manilla

Serpentine MC156 English, PeterWarren

1.95 7/12/1994 6/12/2004 NNEBarraba

Serpentine MC143 Tundi Pty Ltd 1.96 19/4/1994 18/4/2005 N Tamworth

Zeolites ML1356 Zeolite Aust. Pty Ltd 96.96 2/8/1994 1/8/2004 Quirindi


Zeolites ML1395 Castle MountainEnterprises Pty Ltd

152.8 4/6/1996 3/6/2011 Quirindi

11 minerals (main)kaolin

ML1086 Shinagawa ThermalCeramics Pty Ltd

8.5 8/6/1983 7/6/2004 S ofBarraba

8 minerals (main) tin ML1312 Green, RonaldRussell

49.31 25/2/1993 24/2/2014 W Uralla

6 minerals (main)sapphire

ML1320 Rainville Mining PtyLtd

388.3 1/6/1993 30/6/2003 Renewalpending

W GlennInnes

4 minerals (main)kaolin

PLL1204 Shinagawa ThermalCeramics Pty Ltd

6.7 21/2/1968 21/2/2008 Act 1924 Barraba

14 minerals (main)molybdenum,tungsten, copper,gold

PLL3683 Goldrap Pty Ltd 11.736 21/2/1968 21/2/2009 Act 1906 N ofTamworth

8 minerals (main)rhodonite

ML1073 Warden, Oliver Tex 103.13 13/4/1984 12/4/2003 Renewalpending

NE ofNundle

12 minerals, (main)copper, gold,molybdenite, tungsten

ML204 Goldrap Pty Ltd 28.33 21/5/1976 20/5/2004 N Tamworth

Assessment Leases

Commodities Title Main Holder Area (ha) Granted Expires Notes Location


AL2 Jesasu Pty Ltd 106.5 ha 15/3/2001 14/3/2006 W GlennInnes

Zeolites AL3 Castle MountainEnterprises

233 ha 31/10/2001 30/10/2006 Quirindi

Zeolites AL7 Zeolite Australia PtyLtd

129 ha 29/11/2002 28/11/2007 NW Quirindi


A4.2 Exploration Titles (September, 2003)

Mining Act (1992)

Table A-B. Exploration Licences, Nandewar study area

EL Group EL No. Main Title Holder Units Grant Expiry Comments

(Jan 2004)

Location

Group 1-metallicminerals

EL5550 Rimfire Pacific Mining NL 19 27/1/1999 26/1/2004 E Bingara


EL6004 Hibernia Gold Pty Ltd 39 3/10/2002 2/10/2004 Nundle


EL5977 Malachite Resources NL 40 27/8/2002 26/8/2004 SW Inverell


EL6008 Alsop, Peter John 4 14/10/2002 13/10/2004 S Bingara


EL6120 Getz, Arnold 35 27/8/2003 26/8/2005 NE Barraba


EL5960 Alsop, Peter John 3 5/7/2002 4/7/2004 E Bingara


EL5551 Rimfire Pacific Mining NL 14 27/1/1999 26/1/2004 E Barraba


EL6118 Thompson, David 8 19/8/2003 18/8/2005 Nundle


EL5855 Alphadale Pty Ltd 8 10/5/2001 9/5/2003 Renewalpending

N Quirindi


EL5869 Goldrap Pty Ltd 50 12/6/2001 11/6/2005 N Tamworth


EL5550 Rimfire Pacific Mining NL 19 27/1/1999 26/1/2004 E Bingara


EL6114 Mount Conqueror Minerals NL 20 14/8/2003 13/8/2005 NE Torrington

Group 1, Group 6

metallic minerals,gemstones

EL5689 Goldrap Pty Ltd 45 1/2/2000 31/1/2004 SW Bingara

Group 1, Group 6-


EL5680 Goldrap Pty Ltd 50 25/1/2000 24/1/2004 NW Bingara

Group 1, Group 6-


EL5900 Regional ExplorationManagement Pty Ltd

100 26/10/2001 25/10/2003 Renewalpending

N Bingara

Group 2-non-metallic minerals

EL5978 Rimfire Pacific Mining NL 18 27/8/2002 26/8/2004 SW Tamworth


EL5549 Zeomin Technologies Pty Ltd 2 27/1/1999 26/1/2005 SW Tamworth



EL4642 English, Peter Warren 1 11/3/1994 10/3/2004 N Barraba


EL5400 Zeolite Australia Pty Ltd 3 11/12/1997 10/12/2003 Renewalpending

NW Quirindi


EL5944 Supersorb Minerals NL 16 22/5/2002 21/5/2004 NW Barraba


EL5635 Snowmist Pty Ltd 3 14/10/1999 13/10/2003 Renewalpending

SW Nundle


EL5490 Pacific Magnesium Pty Ltd 6 10/6/1998 9/6/2002 Renewalpending

Barraba

Group 6-gemstones

EL6106 Rimfire Pacific Mining NL 148 29/7/2003 28/7/2005 SW Bingara

Group 6-gemstones

EL6073 Cluff Minerals (Aust) Pty Ltd 14 2/5/2003 1/5/2005 SW Inverell

Group 6-gemstones

EL3325 Cluff Minerals (Aust) Pty Ltd 22 23/8/1989 22/8/2003 Renewalpending

W Bingara

Group 6-gemstones

EL5998 Pan Gem Resources (Aust)Pty Ltd

7 30/9/2002 29/9/2004 W GlennInnes

Group 6-gemstones

EL5927 Pan Gem Resources (Aust)Pty Ltd

7 20/3/2002 19/3/2004 W GlennInnes

Group 6-gemstones

EL4278 Jesasu Pty Ltd 12.6 ha 23/6/1992 22/6/2003 Approved W GlennInnes

Group 6-gemstones

EL5352 Cosgrove, Judith Patricia 2 29/9/1997 28/9/2003 Expired28/9/03

W GlennInnes

Group 6-gemstones

EL5880 Rimfire Pacific Mining NL 31/7/2001 30/7/2003 Renewalpending

ESE Moree

Group 9-coal EL5993 Creek Resources Pty Ltd 491 ha 18/9/2002 17/9/2005 NW Quirindi

Group 9-coal EL5888 Bickham Coal Company PtyLtd

2040ha

4/9/2001 27/5/2006 NNE Scone

Group 9-coal AUTH

216

Department of MineralResources

249squarekm

9/5/1980 24/4/2003 (ACT 1973) Curlewis

Group 9-coal EL5306 Bickham Coal Company PtyLtd

3040ha

28/5/1997 27/5/2006 NNE Scone


Petroleum (Onshore Act) 1991

Table A-C. Current petroleum exploration titles

Permit no. Permit Holder Expiry

PEL 437 Pangaea Oil and Gas P/L 5 May 2007

PEL 6 Eastern Energy Australia P/L 8 Dec 2005

PEL 238 Eastern Star Gas 2 Aug 2005

PEL 1 Australian Coalbed Methane P/L 10 Feb 2005

PEL 286 Australian Coalbed Methane P/L 10 May 2005

A4.3 Title Applications (September 2003)

Table A-D. Title applications Nandewar study area, September 2003

Commodities Application No. Main Applicant Area Date Notes (Jan2004)

Location

Serpentine ALA28 Pacific Magnesium PtyLtd

17.875 km2 18/12/2002 Pending Barraba

Coal MLA220 Centennial Hunter PtyLtd

3.996 ha 15/11/2002 Pending N Denman


ELA2112 Mount Dockerell MiningPty Ltd

100 units 29/5/2003 Withdrawn8/10/2003

ESE Manilla

Group 1, 5, 6-metallic minerals,clay minerals,gemstones

ELA2135 Malachite Resources 42 units 11/6/2003 Withdrawn13/11/2003

ESE Inverell

Group 3-semi-precious stones

ELA2119 Kapitany, Thomas 1 unit 23/6/2003 Granted12/12/2003

E Manilla

Group 3-semi-precious stones

ELA2118 Kapitany, Thomas 1 unit 23/6/2003 Granted12/12/2003

ENE Tamworth

Group 6-gemstones

ELA2149 Bruderhof Communitiesin Australia Pty Ltd

4 units 18/8/2003 Pending E Inverell

Group 6-gemstones

ELA2088 Hazelgrove EnterprisesPty Ltd

36 units 18/4/2003 Pending ENE Inverell

Group 6-gemstones

ELA2078 Wilson Gems andInvestments

3 units 28/3/2003 Pending SW Emmaville

Group 6-gemstones

ELA2063 Big Dam Diamonds PtyLtd

24 units 24/2/2003 Granted29/9/2003

SW Inverell

Group 6-gemstones

ELA2059 Berger, Anthony Claude 17 units 17/2/2003 Granted10/11/2003

ENE Inverell

Group 9 (coal) ELA2077 Renison Bell HoldingsPty Ltd

800 ha 26/3/2003 Granted Nov2003

Ashford

Sapphire,corundum

ALA19 Mingem Resources PtyLtd

2.2 km2 22/7/1999 Pending W Glenn Innes


APPENDIX 5 TERMINOLOGY FOR ASSESSMENT OF RESOURCEPOTENTIAL

A qualitative assessment of the resource potential of an area is an estimate of the likelihoodof occurrence of mineral deposits, which may be of sufficient size and grade to constitute aresource.

The mineral potential of an area is assessed for specific types of mineral deposits. For eachtype of deposit considered in a given area, the mineral potential is ranked in qualitative termsas ‘high’, ‘moderate’, ‘low’, ‘no’ or ‘unknown’, based upon professional judgements ofgeoscientists involved in the assessment. A qualitative mineral potential assessment is not ameasure of the resources themselves.

A general rule of thumb is that the more data there is, the smaller and better defined a singletract becomes, and the higher the certainty. Variations to this include the reliability andunderstanding of a particular model type (eg for diamonds), changes in international prices(eg for gold) and new developments in technology (eg for coal seam methane). Sometimesmore data or exploration can also make tracts become larger.

The rankings are defined as follows:

H: An area is considered to have a high mineral resource potential if the geological,geophysical or geochemical evidence indicate a high likelihood that mineral concentrationhas taken place and that there is a strong possibility of specific type(s) of mineral deposit(s)being present. The area has characteristics that give strong evidence for the presence ofspecific types of mineral deposits. The assignment of high resource potential does notrequire that the specific mineral deposit types have already been identified in the area.

M: An area is considered to have a moderate mineral resource potential if the availableevidence indicates that there is a reasonable possibility of specific type(s) of mineraldeposit(s) being present. There may or may not be evidence of mineral occurrences ordeposits. The characteristics for the presence of specific types of mineral deposits are lessclear.

L: An area is considered to have a low mineral resource potential if there is a low possibilityof specific types of mineral deposit(s) being present. Geological, geophysical andgeochemical characteristics in such areas indicate that mineral concentrations are unlikely,and evidence for specific mineral deposit models is lacking. The assignment of low potentialrequires positive knowledge and cannot be used as a valid description for areas whereadequate data are lacking.

N: The term ‘no’ mineral resource potential can be used for specified types of mineraldeposits in areas where there is a detailed understanding of the geological environment andgeoscientific evidence indicates that such deposits are not present.

U: If there are insufficient data to classify the areas as having high, moderate, low or nopotential, then the mineral resource potential is unknown.


To reflect the differing amount of information available, the assessment of mineral potentialis also categorised according to levels of certainty, denoted by letters A to D (Table 7-A).

A: The available data are not adequate to determine the level of mineral resource potential.This level is used with an assignment of unknown mineral resource potential.

B: The available data are adequate to suggest the geological environment and the level ofmineral resource potential, but either the evidence is insufficient to establish precisely thelikelihood of resource occurrence or the occurrence and/or genetic models are not wellenough known for predictive resource assessment.

C: The available data give a good indication of the geological environment and the level ofresource potential.

D: The available data clearly define the geological environment and the level of mineralresource potential.

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