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APPLIED A N D ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Feb. 1976, p . 158-162 Copyright © 1976 American Society f o r Microbiology Vol. 3 1 , No . 2 Printed i n U.SA. Influence o f t h e Rate o f Ethanol Production a nd Accumulation o n t h e Viability o f Saccharomyces cerevisiae i n  Rapid Fermentation I TILAK W . NAGODAWITHANA AN D KEITH H . STEINKRAUS* Cornell University, Ne w York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, Ne w York 14456 Received fo r publication 6 June 1975 Whereas  rapid fermentation o f diluted clover honey (25° Brix) fortified with yeast nutrients using 8 x 10 brewers' yeast cells p er m l resulted i n a n ethanol content o f 9.5 (wt/vol; 12 vol/vol) i n 3 h a t 30 C , death rate o f t h e yeast cells during this period wa s essentially logarithmic. Whereas 6 h wa s required t o reach t h e same ethanol content a t 15 C, t h e yeast cells retained their viability. Using a lower cell population ( 6 x 1 0 7 cells/ml), a level a t which thefermentation w a s n o longer  rapid, the yeast cells also retained their viability a t 30 C . Ethanol added to t h e medium w a s much less lethal than the same o r less quan- tities o f ethanol produced b y t h e cell i n  rapid fermentation. It wa s considered possible that ethanol wa s produced s o rapidly at 3 0 C that i t could n ot diffuse o u t o f t h e cell a s rapidly a s i t wa s formed. T he hypothesis wa s postulated that ethanol accumulating i n t h e cell wa s contributing t o th e high death rate a t 30 C . I t w a s found that the intracellular ethanol concentration reached a level o f approximately 2 x 1011 ethanol molecules/cell i n th e first 30 m i n of fermenta- tion a t 30 C . A t 1 5 C , with t h e same cell count, intracellular ethanol concen- tration reached a level o f approximately 4 x 101 ethanol molecules/cell a n d viability remained high. Also, a t 3 0 C with a lower cell population ( 6 x 1 0 7 cells/ml), under which conditions fermentation wa s no  rapid, intra- cellular ethanol concentration reached a similar level (4 x 1 0 molecules ethanol/cell) a n d t h e cells retained their viability. Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) lost i t s activity i n brewers' yeast under conditions of rapid fermentation a t 30 C b u t retained i t s activity i n cells under similar conditions a t 1 5 C . ADH activity w a s also retained i n fermentations a t 3 0 C with cell populations o f 6 x 107/ml. I t would appear that an intracellular level o f about 5 x 101 ethanol molecules/cell i s normal a n d that this level does not damage either cell viability o r ADH activity. Higher intracellular ethanol concentrations, such a s 2 x 1011 molecules ethanol/cell ( a fourfold increase i n intracellular ethanol concentra- tion), a r e accompanied b y inactivation o f ADH an d loss o f cell viability. B y using 7 x 1 0 8 cells o f brewers' yeast per m l , 2 5 ° Brix honey solutions fortified with nitro- gen, phosphate, a n d minerals were fermented t o 9.5 (wt/vol; 12 vol/vol) ethanol in 2.5 t o 3 h a t 3 0 C (6). Under these conditions of rapid fermentation, death r ate of t h e cells w a s high, with only 2.1 o f t h e cells surviving a t t h e e n d o f the fermentation. When t h e fermentation temperature w a s decreased t o 1 5 C a n d the content o f dissolved oxygen i n t h e medium w a s maintained a t 1 3 , fermentation time t o 9.5 (wt/vol) ethanol increased t o 6 h , b u t the yeast cells retained their viability (6). Rapid fer- mentations using high cell populations require Journal Paper n o . 2128, Ne w York State Agricultural Experiment Station. higher levels f vitamins a n d minerals than slower fermentations at lower temperatures o r those using smaller populations (Nagoda- withana an d Steinkraus, unpublished data). However, even in t h e presence o f t h e higher levels o f vitamins a n d minerals,brewers' yeast, the most rapid fermenting yeast w e have e n - countered, loses it s viability much more rapidly a t 3 0 C than i t does a t lower temperatures. T h e effect o f ethanol on yeast metabolism h a s been studied ( 1 , 3, 9 ; F . F . Pironti, Ph.D. thesis, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N.Y., 1971). Under Pironti s conditions, ethanol appeared t o inhibit yeast cell growth a t relatively l o w concentra- tion, whereas the fermentative activity o f t h e cells seemed t o tolerate ethanol until i t s con- centration approached approximately 2 0 (vol/ 1 5 8   o D  e  c  e  b  e r 2 1  , 2  0 1 4  b  y  g  u  e  s  t  h  t   t   p :  /   /   a  e  a  s  o r  g  /  D  o w l   o  a  d  e  d f  r  o  
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A P P L I E D

AND ENVIRONMENTAL

M I C R O B I O L O G Y , F e b .

1 9 7 6 ,

p .

1 5 8 - 1 6 2

C o p y r i g h t

©

1 9 7 6 A m e r i c a n

S o c i e t y

f o r

M i c r o b i o l o g y

V o l .

3 1 ,

N o .

2

P r i n t e d i n U.SA.

I n f l u e n c e

o f

t h e R a t e

o f E t h a n o l

P r o d u c t i o n

a n d

A c c u m u l a t i o n

o n

t h e

V i a b i l i t y

o f

S a c c h a r o m y c e s

c e r e v i s i a e

i n

  R a p i d F e r m e n t a t i o n

I

TILAK W.

NAGODAWITHANA

AND

K E I T H

H .

STEINKRAUS*

C o r n e l l

U n i v e r s i t y ,

Ne w

Y o r k

S t a t e

A g r i c u l t u r a l

E x p e r i m e n t

S t a t i o n ,

G e n e v a ,

Ne w

Y o r k

1 4 4 5 6

R e c e i v e d f o r p u b l i c a t i o n 6 J u n e

1 9 7 5

W h e r e a s   r a p i d

f e r m e n t a t i o n o f d i l u t e d

c l o v e r

h o n e y ( 2 5 °

B r i x )

f o r t i f i e d

w i t h

y e a s t

n u t r i e n t s

u s i n g

8 x 1 0

b r e w e r s '

y e a s t

c e l l s

p e r

m l

r e s u l t e d

i n a n

e t h a n o l

c o n t e n t

o f

9 . 5

( w t / v o l ;

1 2

v o l / v o l )

i n

3

h

a t 3 0

C ,

d e a t h

r a t e o f

t h e

y e a s t

c e l l s

d u r i n g

t h i s

p e r i o d wa s

e s s e n t i a l l y l o g a r i t h m i c .

W h e r e a s

6 h wa s

r e q u i r e d

t o

r e a c h

t h e s a m e e t h a n o l c o n t e n t a t 1 5

C ,

t h e y e a s t c e l l s r e t a i n e d

t h e i r v i a b i l i t y .

U s i n g

a

l o w e r

c e l l

p o p u l a t i o n

( 6

x

1 0 7

c e l l s / m l ) ,

a

l e v e l

a t

w h i c h

t h e f e r m e n t a t i o n

w a s n o

l o n g e r

  r a p i d ,

t h e

y e a s t c e l l s a l s o r e t a i n e d

t h e i r

v i a b i l i t y

a t 3 0

C .

E t h a n o l

a d d e d t o

t h e medium w a s much

l e s s

l e t h a l

t h a n

t h e

same

o r

l e s s

q u a n -

t i t i e s

o f

e t h a n o l

p r o d u c e d b y t h e c e l l

i n

  r a p i d

f e r m e n t a t i o n .

I t wa s c o n s i d e r e d

p o s s i b l e

t h a t e t h a n o l wa s

p r o d u c e d

s o

r a p i d l y

a t 3 0

C

t h a t i t

c o u l d

n o t

d i f f u s e

o u t

o f

t h e

c e l l a s

r a p i d l y

a s

i t wa s

f o r m e d . T h e

h y p o t h e s i s

wa s

p o s t u l a t e d t h a t

e t h a n o l

a c c u m u l a t i n g

i n

t h e

c e l l

wa s

c o n t r i b u t i n g

t o

t h e

h i g h

d e a t h r a t e a t 3 0

C .

I t w a s

f o u n d

t h a t

t h e i n t r a c e l l u l a r

e t h a n o l c o n c e n t r a t i o n

r e a c h e d

a

l e v e l o f

a p p r o x i m a t e l y

2

x

1 0 1 1 e t h a n o l

m o l e c u l e s / c e l l

i n

t h e

f i r s t

3 0 min

o f f e r m e n t a -

t i o n a t

3 0 C .

A t

1 5

C ,

w i t h

t h e

same

c e l l

c o u n t ,

i n t r a c e l l u l a r e t h a n o l c o n c e n -

t r a t i o n r e a c h e d

a

l e v e l

o f

a p p r o x i m a t e l y

4

x

1 0 1 e t h a n o l

m o l e c u l e s / c e l l

a n d

v i a b i l i t y r e m a i n e d h i g h .

A l s o ,

a t

3 0 C w i t h a

l o w e r

c e l l

p o p u l a t i o n ( 6

x

1 0 7

c e l l s / m l ) ,

u n d e r w h i c h

c o n d i t i o n s

f e r m e n t a t i o n

wa s

n o

l o n g e r

  r a p i d ,

i n t r a -

c e l l u l a r

e t h a n o l

c o n c e n t r a t i o n

r e a c h e d

a

s i m i l a r

l e v e l

( 4

x

1 0

m o l e c u l e s

e t h a n o l / c e l l )

a n d t h e c e l l s

r e t a i n e d

t h e i r

v i a b i l i t y .

A l c o h o l

d e h y d r o g e n a s e

( A D H )

l o s t

i t s

a c t i v i t y

i n b r e w e r s '

y e a s t

u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s

o f r a p i d

f e r m e n t a t i o n

a t

3 0 C

b u t r e t a i n e d i t s

a c t i v i t y

i n

c e l l s u n d e r

s i m i l a r

c o n d i t i o n s

a t

1 5

C . ADH

a c t i v i t y

w a s a l s o

r e t a i n e d

i n

f e r m e n t a t i o n s

a t 3 0

C w i t h c e l l

p o p u l a t i o n s

o f

6

x

1 0 7 / m l .

I t

w o u l d

a p p e a r

t h a t a n

i n t r a c e l l u l a r l e v e l o f

a b o u t 5

x

1 0 1

e t h a n o l

m o l e c u l e s / c e l l i s n o r m a l

a n d

t h a t

t h i s

l e v e l d o e s n o t d a m a g e

e i t h e r

c e l l v i a b i l i t y

o r ADH

a c t i v i t y . H i g h e r i n t r a c e l l u l a r

e t h a n o l

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , s u c h

a s

2

x

1 0 1 1

m o l e c u l e s e t h a n o l / c e l l

( a

f o u r f o l d

i n c r e a s e

i n

i n t r a c e l l u l a r

e t h a n o l

c o n c e n t r a -

t i o n ) ,

a r e

a c c o m p a n i e d

b y i n a c t i v a t i o n o f ADH a n d l o s s o f c e l l v i a b i l i t y .

B y u s i n g

7

x

1 0 8

c e l l s

o f

b r e w e r s ' y e a s t p e r

m l ,

2 5 °

B r i x h o n e y s o l u t i o n s

f o r t i f i e d

w i t h

n i t r o -

g e n , p h o s p h a t e ,

a n d m i n e r a l s

w e r e f e r m e n t e d

t o

9 . 5 ( w t / v o l ; 1 2

v o l / v o l )

e t h a n o l

i n 2 . 5 t o

3

h

a t

3 0 C ( 6 ) .

U n d e r

t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s

o f r a p i d

f e r m e n t a t i o n ,

d e a t h

r a t e o f t h e c e l l s

w a s

h i g h ,

w i t h

o n l y 2 . 1

o f

t h e c e l l s s u r v i v i n g

a t

t h e

e n d

o f

t h e f e r m e n t at i o n .

When t h e

f e r m e n t a t i o n

t e m p e r a t u r e w a s d e c r e a s e d t o 1 5 C

a n d

t h e

c o n t e n t o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n i n t h e medium w a s

m a i n t a i n e d a t 1 3 , f e r m e n t a t i o n t i m e t o 9 . 5

( w t / v o l ) e t h a n o l

i n c r e a s e d

t o 6 h , b u t

t h e y e a s t

c e l l s

r e t a i n e d

t h e i r v i a b i l i t y ( 6 ) . R a p i d

f e r -

m e n t a t i o n s u s i n g h i g h

c e l l

p o p u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e

J o u r n a l

P a p e r

n o .

2 1 2 8 ,

Ne w Y o r k S t at e A g r i c u l t u r a l

E x p e r i m e n t

S t a t i o n .

h i g h e r

l e v e l s

o f

v i t a m i n s

a n d

m i n e r a l s t h a n

s l o w e r f e r m e n t a t i o n s a t l o w e r

t e m p e r a t u r e s

o r

t h o s e

u s i n g

s m a l l e r

p o p u l a t i o n s ( N a g o d a -

w i t h a n a a n d S t e i n k r a u s ,

u n p u b l i s h e d d a t a ) .

H o w e v e r ,

e v e n

i n

t h e

p r e s e n c e

o f

t h e

h i g h e r

l e v e l s

o f v i t a m i n s

a n d

m i ne r a l s , b r e w e r s ' y e a s t ,

t h e

m o s t

r a p i d

f e r m e n t i n g y e a s t we h a v e e n -

c o u n t e r e d ,

l o s e s i t s

v i a b i l i t y much m o r e r a p i d l y

a t

3 0

C t h a n

i t

d o e s

a t

l o w e r

t e m p e r a t u r e s .

T h e

e f f e c t o f e t h a n o l o n y e a s t m e t a b o l i s m

h a s

b e e n s t u d i e d ( 1 ,

3 , 9 ;

F .

F .

P i r o n t i , P h . D .

t h e s i s , C o r n e l l U n i v . , I t h a c a ,

N . Y . ,

1 9 7 1 ) .

U n d e r

P i r o n t i s

c o n d i t i o n s , e t h a n o l a p p e a r e d

t o i n h i b i t

y e a s t

c e l l

g r o w t h

a t

r e l a t i v e l y

l o w

c o n c e n t r a -

t i o n , w h e r e a s t h e f e r m e n t a t i v e a c t i v i t y o f t h e

c e l l s

s e e m e d t o

t o l e r a t e

e t h a n o l

u n t i l

i t s c o n -

c e n t r a t i o n

a p p r o a c h e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y

20

( v o l /

1 5 8

  onD  e c  em b  er 2 1  ,2  0 1 4 

 b  y  g u e s  t  

h  t   t   p:  /   /   a em. a s m. or  g /  

D  ownl   o a d  e

 d f  r  om 

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VIABILITY

L O S S

IN  RAPID

FE R M EN TA T I ON

v o l ;

1 6 . 2 6 w t / v o l ) .

T h e e f f e c t o f e t h a n o l o n

g r o w t h r a t e s

a n d e t h a n o l p r o d u c t i o n wa s

shown

t o b e n o n c o m p e t i t i v e

i n h i b i t i o n ,

c o n f i r m e d b y

L i n e w e a v e r - B u r k p l o t s

( 1 ) .

I n h i b i t i o n

b y e t h a n o l wa s i n v e s t i g a t e d a f t e r

t h e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n

o f

y e a s t

c e l l s

r e a c h e d m a x i -

mum v a l u e i n t h e s h o c h u - m o l d e d

r i c e

f e r m e n t a -

t i o n ( 5 ) .

T h e d e c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e o f

e t h a n o l

p r o d u c t i o n wa s s ho wn t o

b e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o

t h e d e c r e a s e i n t h e number

o f v i a b l e y e a s t

c e l l s .

A d d e d

t h i a m i n e e n a b l e d y e a s t e n z y m e s

t o

t o l e r a t e t h e a moun t o f e t h a n o l

t h e c e l l w o u l d

n o r m a l l y

p r o d u c e

b u t

n o t h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

( 9 ) .

T h e

e x p e r i m e n t s r e p o r t e d w e r e u n d e r t a k e n

t o a t t e m p t

t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

p a r t

r a t e

o f

e t h a n o l

p r o d u c t i o n

o r

a c c u m u l a t i o n

c o n t r i b u t e s

t o

l o s s

o f

v i a b i l i t y i n   r a p i d

f e r m e n t a t i o n s

w i t h

b r e w e r s '

y e a s t

a t 3 0

C .

MAT E R IAL S AND

METHO S

Y e a s t s t r a i n s .

A b r e w e r s ' s t r a i n o f

S a c c h a r o m y c e s

c e r e v i s i a e w a s

k i n d l y

s u p p l i e d

b y M a r i o F r a t i ,

G e n e s e e

B r e w i n g

C o . , R o c h e s t e r ,

N . Y .

T h e

b r e w e r s '

y e a s t

w a s o b t a i n e d a s a s o l i d

p a s t e c o n t a i n i n g

f r o m

3 . 8 5

x

1 0 9

t o 4 . 0 4

x

1 0 9

c e l l s / g . The y e a s t

w a s

w a s h e d w i t h

c i t r a t e - p h o s p h a t e b u f f e r , pH 6 . 8 ,

a n d

c e n t r i f u g e d

t o

r e c o v e r t h e

c e l l s

t o

b e

u s e d i n

t h e

e x p e r i m e n t s .

Y e a s t

c o u n t s .

B a s e d u p o n

t h e

number

o f

y e a s t

c e l l s d e s i r e d

i n

t h e i no cu l a t e d

m e d i u m , a

g i v e n

w e i g h t , g e n e r a l l y 1

k g o f y e a s t p a s t e , w a s

s l u r r i e d

w i t h

1

l i t e r

o f t h e m e d i u m .

A f t e r

t h o r o u g h

d i s p e r -

s i o n ,

a 1 - m l

s a m p l e w a s

d i l u t e d

s e r i a l l y

a n d

p l a t e d

i n

d u p l i c a t e

t o o b t a i n t h e i n i t i a l

v i a b l e

c o u n t .

T h e

c u l t u r e medium u s e d

f o r

p o u r

p l a t e s c o n t a i n e d 1 . 5

m a l t o s e , 1 . 5

m a l t e x t r a c t ( D i f c o ) ,

a n d

1 . 5

a g a r

( D i f c o ) .

T h e

p l a t e s

W v e r e

i n c u b a t e d a t 3 0

C f o r 4 8 h ,

a n d

t h e f i n a l c o l o ny c o u nt w a s t a k e n a s t h e a v e r a g e

o f

t h e t w o

p l a t e s f o r t h e d i l u t i o n c o n t a i n i n g

3 0 t o

3 0 0

c o l o n i e s / p l a t e .

C a l c u l a t i o n s

i n v o l v i n g c e l l p o p u -

l a t i o n s w e r e b a s e d

u p o n

v i a b l e p l a t e

c o u n t s .

T h e

p e r c e n t a g e

o f v i a b i l i t y w a s d e t e r m i n e d

b y d i v i d i n g

t h e v i a b l e

c o u n t

a t

t h e d e s i r e d

f e r m e n t a t i o n

t i m e

o f

t h e i n i t i a l

v i ab l e c ou nt . I f

m u l t i p l i c a t i o n

o c c u r r e d ,

t h e

p e r c e n t a g e

o f

v i a b i l i t y

t h u s r o s e a b o v e 1 0 0 .

F e r m e n t a t i o n

m e d i u m . C l o v e r h o n e y

s t o r e d a t

1

C

w a s

d i l u t e d w i t h

w a t e r t o p r o v i d e t h e

2 5 0

B r i x

s u g a r

s u b s t r a t e .

A

b a s a l l e v e l o f

0 . 2 5 g o f

A c t i f e r m

p e r

l i t e r

( B u d d e

&

W e s t e r m a n n , New Y o r k , N . Y . ) ,

a

y e a s t

v i t a m i n

m i x t u r e ,

w a s a d d e d t o

t h e

f e r m e n t a -

t i o n

medium

a n d

t h i s

l e v e l i s

r e f e r r e d t o

a s

X . T h e

0 . 2 5

g

o f A c t i f e r m

p e r

l i t e r

c o n t a i n e d 1 2 . 5

u g o f

b i o t i n ,

2 5 0 M g o f p y r i d o x i n e , 1 . 8 7 m g o f m e s o - i n o s i t o l ,

2 . 5 m g o f c a l c i u m p a n t o t h e n a t e ,

5

m g o f

t h i a m i n e ,

2 5 m g

o f p e p t o n e ,

a n d 2 1 5

m g

o f

a m m o n i u m s u l f a t e .

T h e

medium w a s a l s o

s u p p l e m e n t e d

w i t h

1 . 0 g o f

( N H 4 ) 2 S O 4 ,

0 . 5

g

o f

K : 1 P 0 4 ,

0 . 2

g

o f

M g C l 2 ,

0 . 0 5

g

o f

N a H S O 4 ,

a n d 5 . 0

g

o f

c i t r i c

a c i d p e r l i t e r

a s

p e r

f o r m u l a

I

( 1 0 ) .

T h e b a s i c l e v e l

o f

m i n e r a l

s a l t s -

c i t r i c a c i d

s u p p l e m e n t

w a s r e f e r r e d t o

a s Y .

C e r t a i n

f e r m e n t a t i o n s

i n t h i s

s t u d y

w e r e

c o nd u c t e d u s i n g

a

2Y l e v e l

o f m i n e r a l s a l t - c i t r i c a c i d

s u p p l e m e n t

a n d

4X c o n c e n t r a t i o n

( 1 g o f v i t a m i n s

[ A c t i f e r m ]

p e r

l i t e r ) . T h e pH o f t h e

f e r m e n t a t i o n medium

w a s

a d j u s t e d t o

4 . 2 . I t

t h e n

w a s

p a s t e u r i z e d

a t 7 6 . 5

C

f o r

3 0

min

a n d

c o o l e d

t o

f e r m e n t a t i o n

t e m p e r a t u r e

b e f o r e

i n o c u l a t i o n .

A p p a r a t u s .

A

M i c r o f e r m l a b o r a t o r y

f e r m e n t o r

m o d e l 2 1 4

(New

B r u n s w i c k S c i e n t i f i c C o . ,

New

B r u n s w i c k , N . J . ) w i t h

1 4 - l i t e r f e r m e n t o r s

( w o r k i n g

c a p a c i t y ,

7

l i t e r s )

w a s

u s e d .

T h e

f e r m e n t a t i o n s

w e r e c a r r i e d o u t a t

1 5 o r 3 0 C a n d

w i t h 1 3 d i s -

s o l v e d

o x y g e n ( u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e

s p e c i f i e d ) w i t h

a g i t a t i o n

a t

3 0 0

r p m .

A

f e r m e n t o r s a m p l e r ( N e w

B r u n s w i c k

m o d e l S 2 1 ) w a s

u s e d

t o

s a m p l e

medium

d u r i n g

f e r m e n t a t i o n .

A

d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n

c o n t r o l l e r

m o d e l D O - 6 0 b y

Ne w

B r u n s w i c k

C o . ,

w a s u s e d

i n

c o n j u n c t i o n

w i t h

t h e

a b o v e

t o

m e a s u r e a n d c o n t r o l

o x y g e n

l e v e l .

P r e p a r a t i o n

o f

c e l l - f r e e

e x t r a c t .

S a m p l e s

( 2 5

m l )

w e r e

w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e

f e r m e n t i n g

medium

a t

d e s i r e d

t i m e i n t e r v a l s

a n d

c h i l l e d

i m m e d i a t e l y

u s i n g

a

d r y i c e - e t h a n o l

m i x t u r e ;

a l l

s u b s e q u e n t o p e r a t i o n s

w e r e c a r r i e d o u t

a t

0

t o

4

C .

  e l l s w e r e

h a r v e s t e d

b y c e n t r i f u g a t i o n

a t 9 , 0 0 0

x

g

f o r

1 0

min

i n

S o r v a l l

c e n t r i f u g e ,

m o d e l

S S - 3 ,

w a s h e d t w i c e

w i t h 1 2 . 5 - m l

p o r t i o n s

o f

0 . 1

M

c i t r a t e - p h o s p h a t e

b u f f e r

( p H 6 . 8 ) ,

a n d

c e n t r i f u g e d

a t

9 , 0 0 0

x

g

f o r

1 0 m i n .

T h e v o l u m e s

o f a l l t h r e e

s u p e r n a t a n t s

w e r e d e t e r m i n e d ,

a n d

1 - m l

s a m p l e s

w e r e

s e t a s i d e f o r

e t h a n o l

a n a l y s i s .

T h e c e l l p e l l e t

w a s

t h e n s u s p e n d e d

i n 1 2 . 5

m l

o f

0 . 1 M c i t r a t e - p h o s p h a t e b u f f e r , pH 6 . 8 ,

a n d 1

m l

o f

t h e

t h o r o u g h l y m i x e d s u s p e n s i o n

wa s

s u i t a b l y

d i l u t e d

f o r

d e t e r m i n a t i o n

o f

c e l l

n u m b e r

b y

d i r e c t

m i c r o s c o p i c c o u n t

u s i n g a n

A m e r i c a n

O p t i c a l

B r i g h t

L i n e h e m a c y t o m e t e r .

T h e r e m a i n i n g

y e a s t

s u s p e n -

s i o n

wa s

d i s i n t e g r a t e d b y

s o n i c

o s c i l l a t i o n ( S o n i f i e r

c e l l

d i s r u p t o r ,

m o d e l

W

1 8 5 D ,

H e a t

S y s t e m s - U l t r a -

s o n i c s I n c . , P l a i n v i e w ,

N . Y . )

f o r a t o t a l

o f 6

m i n ,

s u b j e c t i n g

t h e c e l l

t o

a

p e r i o d

o f

3 0

s

o f

s o n i c

o s c i l l a -

t i o n f o l l o w e d

b y

a

p e r i o d

o f

1

min

o f

c o o l i n g .

A

1 - m l

amount o f

t h e

s o n i c a t e d

s u s p e n s i o n

wa s

s u i t a b l y

d i l u t e d t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e

p o p u l a t i o n

o f

u n r u p t u r e d

c e l l s

b y

d i r e c t

m i c r o s c o p i c

c o u n t .

The t r e a t m e n t

r u p t u r e d

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0

o f t h e

c e l l s

i n

t h e

s u s p e n s i o n .

T h e

c e l l

d e b r i s

wa s

r e m o v e d

b y

c e n -

t r i f u g i n g

a t

3 2 , 8 0 0

x

g

f o r 1 5

m i n .

H a v i n g

mea-

s u r e d t h e

v o l u m e

o f

t h e

c e l l

e x t r a c t ,

i t

wa s

h e l d

a t

1 C u n t i l f u r t h e r

u s e . T h e e x t r a c t

wa s

s u b s e -

q u e n t l y a n a l y z e d

f o r e t h a n o l

b y

g a s - l i q u i d

c h r o m a -

t o g r a p h y .

T h e e t h a n o l

c o n t e n t

o f

t h e e x t r a c t

wa s

u s e d

t o c a l c u l a t e t h e e t h a n o l

c o n t e n t

o f

t h e

r u p -

t u r e d c e l l s .

M o l e s o f e t h a n o l w e r e

c o n v e r t e d

t o

m o l e c u l e s

o f e t h a n o l

p e r

c e l l

b y m u l t i p l y i n g b y

A v o g a d r o s

n u m b e r a n d

d i v i d i n g b y

t h e

t o t a l

number

o f

r u p t u r e d

c e l l s .

  C a r l e

g a s c h r o m a t o g r a p h ,

m o d e l

9 0 0 0 , e q u i p p e d

w i t h a f l a m e

i o n i z a t i o n d e t e c t o r

wa s

u s e d

f o r

t h e

s e p a r a t i o n

a n d

q u a n t i t a t i o n

o f

e t h a n o l

u s i n g p r o c e -

d u r e s

d e s c r i b e d

e a r l i e r

( 6 ) .

ADH

a s s a y . A l c o h o l d e h y d r o g e n a s e

( A D H )

a c t i v -

i t y

w a s m e a s u r e d b y

a

p r o c e d u r e b a s e d

o n

p r e v i o u s

m e t h o d s ( 2 , 7 ) , m o d i f i e d

a s

f o l l o w s .

  3 - m l amount

o f

b u f f e r , pH

8 . 8

( 2 ) , c o n t a i n i n g

1 0

M l

o f

1 . 5

m g

o f

e t h a n o l

p e r

ml

a n d

0 . 0 5

ml

o f t h e c e l l - f r e e

e x t r a c t ,

V O L .

3 1 ,

1 9 7 6

1 5 9

  onD  e c  em b  er 2 1  ,2  0 1 4 

 b  y  g u e s  t  

h  t   t   p:  /   /   a em. a s m. or  g /  

D  ownl   o a d  e

 d f  r  om 

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1 6 0

NAGODAWITHANA

AND

STEINKRAUS

w a s t r a n s f e r r e d

d i r e c t l y

t o a

c u v e t t e ( 1 - c m

l i g h t

p a t h ) ,

a n d

t h e

o p t i c a l

d e n s i t y

a t

3 4 0

n m w a s d e t e r -

m i n e d . T w e n t y

m i c r o l i t e r s

o f

0 . 1 5 M n i c o t i n a m i d e

a d e n i n e d i n u c l e o t i d e

( N A D )

w a s

t r a n s f e r r e d t o

t h e

c u v e t t e

w i t h

a s y r i n g e

a n d

m i x e d

i m m e d i a t e l y

w i t h

a

p l a s t i c r o d ,

a n d t h e

c h a n g e

i n o p t i c a l d e n s i t y a t

3 4 0

n m w a s

m o n i t o r e d e v e r y

3 0 s

d u r i n g

t h e

f i r s t 3

m i n .

From

t h e s t a n d a r d

c u r v e

f o r r e d u c e d

NAD

( N A D H ) ,

t h e

o p t i c a l d e n s i t y r e a d i n g

a t 3 4 0

n m w a s

d i r e c t l y c o n v e r t e d

t o

t h e

a m o u n t

o f NADH

p l u s H+

f o r m e d

i n

t h e c u v e t t e w i t h

t i m e

f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r

r u n . T h e i n i t i a l

r a t e o f

NADH p l u s

H+ f o r m e d

p e r

m i n u t e w a s

c a l c u l a t e d f r o m

t h e

g r a p h ,

s h o w i n g

t h e

i n cr e a se o f

NADH

p l u s

H+ w i t h t i m e

f o r t h e

p a r t i c u -

l a r r u n . S i n c e

NAD

a n d e t h a n o l

w e r e a d d e d i n

e x c e s s ,

t h e

r e a c t i o n r a t e

w a s d e p e n d e n t

o n t h e

a c t i v i t y o f

ADH

i n

t h e 0 . 0 5 - ml

c e l l - f r e e e x t r a c t

a d d e d

t o t h e c u v e t t e . P r o t e i n

i n

t h e

c e l l - f r e e

e x t r a c t w a s

d e t e r m i n e d

b y t h e

m e t h o d o f

L o w r y e t

a l . ( 4 )

u s i n g

b o v i n e

a l b u m i n

s e r u m

a s t h e

s t a n d a r d .

T h e

s p e c i f i c

a c t i v i t y o f ADH

=

m i c r o m o l e s

o f

NADH p l u s H+

f o r m e d

p e r

m i n u t e / m i l l i g r a m

o f

p r o t e i n .

R E S U L T S

AND

DISCUSSION

W h e r e a s

  r a p i d

f e r m e n t a t i o n

( d e f i n e d

a s

f e r m e n t a t i o n

i n w h i c h

t h e e t h a n o l

c o n t e n t

r i s e s f r o m

0 t o 9 . 5 [ w t / v o l ;

12 v o l / v o l ]

i n 6

h

o r

l e s s ) u s i n g

8

x

1 0 8

c e l l s / m l

a t

3 0

C r e s u l t e d

i n

a n

e t h a n o l

c o n t e n t o f

9 . 5

( w t / v o l ; 1 2

v o l / v o l )

i n

3

h ,

d e a t h r a t e o f

t h e

y e a s t c e l l s

9

0 I

5 ' C

Ua

8

3 O ~

2

E

\

° 1 0

3 0 ° C

  ~

@

30°C

HOURS

F I G . 1 .

E f f e c t o f

i n i t i a l

c e l l p o p u l a t i o n

on

v i a b l e

c e l l c o u n t

d u r i n g

f e r m e n t a t i o n

u s i n g b r e w e r s '

yeast

a t

1 5

and

3 0 C . 1 3

d i s s o l v e d

oxygen

( D . O . ) .

d u r i n g

t h i s

p e r i o d

w a s e s s e n t i a l l y

l o g a r i t h m i c

( F i g .

1 ) . A l t h o u g h

i t

r e q u i r e d

6

h

t o r e a c h

t h e

s a m e

e t h a n o l

c o n t e n t

a t

1 5

C ,

t h e

y e a s t

c e l l s

r e t a i n e d

t h e i r

v i a b i l i t y . U s i n g

a

l o w e r

c e l l

p o p u l a t i o n

( 6

x

1 0 7

c e l l s / m l ) ,

a

l e v e l

a t w h i c h

t h e

f e r m e n t a t i o n

w a s

n o

l o n g e r

  r a p i d

a t

3 0

C ,

t h e y e a s t c e l l s a l s o

r e t a i n e d t h e i r

v i a b i l i t y .

I t w a s f o u n d

t h a t 9 . 4 ( w t / v o l )

e t h a n o l

p r o -

d u c e d

b y

t h e c e l l s d u r i n g

f e r m e n t a t i o n

a t

3 0

C

w a s much

m o r e l e t h a l

t h a n

e v e n

1 3 . 8

( w t / v o l )

e t h a n o l

a d d e d

t o

a

s i m i l a r c e l l p o p u l a t i o n

i n t h e

d i l u t e d

h o n e y

b a s e ( F i g .

2 ) .

O n l y

1 5 . 5

o f

t h e

c e l l s

i n o c u l a t e d s u r v i v e d

3

h

o f f e r m e n t a t i o n

t o

9 . 4

e t h a n o l

( w t / v o l )

a t 3 0

C , w h e r e a s

5 7 . 5

o f t h e c e l l s

i n o c u l a t e d

s u r v i v e d 3

h

i n

t h e s a m e

medium

i n w h i c h

t h e e t h a n o l

c o n t e n t

w a s

i n -

c r e a s e d

t o 1 2

( w t / v o l )

b y

a d d i t i o n

o f

e t h a n o l .

T h e

i n t e r n a l

e t h a n o l

c o n t e n t

o f

c e l l s

w a s

d e t e r m i n e d

d u r i n g

f e r m e n t a t i o n

u s i n g

8

x

1 0 8

c e l l s / m l

a t

3 0 C .

I t

w a s f o u n d

t h a t

t h e

h i g h e r

c o n c e n t r a t i o n

o f b r e w e r s ' y e as t

c e l l s

( 8

x

1 0 8

c e l l s / m l )

c o n t a i n e d

a

h i g h e r

e t h a n o l

c o n t e n t

( 1 . 6

x

1 0 1

e t h a n o l

m o l e c u l e s / c e l l )

a f t e r 3 0 - m i n

f e r m e n t a t i o n

a t 3 0 C t h a n

t h e

same c o n c e n t r a -

t i o n

o f c e l l s f e r m e n t i n g

a t 1 5

C ,

w h i c h c o n -

t a i n e d

3 . 9

x

1 0

e t h a n o l

m o l e c u l e s / c e l l

( T a b l e

1 ) . T h e

l o w e r

p o p u l a t i o n

o f c e l l s

( 6 . 3

x

1 0 7

1 0 0

9 0

80

8 E T H A N O L

WN

 

0 ° C

\

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ E X T E R N A L

7 0

6 0

9 4

E T H A N O I

W / V

1 0

( F E R M E N T A T L O N )

0

0

 

2

3

H O U R S

F I G . 2 .

L o s s

o f v i a b i l i t y

o f b r e w e r s '

y e a s t

c e l l s

a t

3 0

C

i n

2 5 °

B r i x

h o n e y

s o l u t i o n s

c o n t a i n i n g

i n c r e a s -

i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

o f

a d d e d ( e x t e r n a l )

e t h a n o l

c o m -

p a r e d

w i t h l o s s o f v i a b i l i t y

d u r i n g r a p i d

f e r m e n t a -

t i o n w h e n

e t h a n o l

i s

b e i n g p r o d u c e d

b y t h e

c e l l s .

A P P L .

E N V I R O N .

M I C R O B I O L .

  onD  e c  em b  er 2 1  ,2  0 1 4 

 b  y  g u e s  t  

h  t   t   p:  /   /   a em. a s m. or  g /  

D  ownl   o a d  e

 d f  r  om 

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VIABILITY

LOSS

IN

 RAPID FERMENTATION

1 6 1

c e l l s / m l )

a t

3 0

C

h a d a n i n t e r n a l

e t h a n o l

c o n -

t e n t

s i m i l a r

t o t h e c e l l s

f e r m e n t i n g

m o r e

s l o w l y

a t 1 5

C ( 3 . 9

x

1 0 1

m o l e c u l e s

e t h a n o l / c e l l ) .

T h i s

ma y b e r e l a t e d

t o

t h e r e l a t i v e l y

g r e a t e r

v o l u m e

o f f r e e

l i q u i d w i t h

t h e

l o w e r

c e l l

p o p u l a -

t i o n ,

w h i c h w o u l d

f a c i l i t a t e

d i f f u s i o n

o f

e t h a n o l

f r o m

t h e

c e l l s

d u r i n g

f e r m e n t a t i o n .

A t

1 5 C t h e i n t r a c e l l u l a r

e t h a n o l

c o n c e n t r a -

t i o n d i d n o t

i n c r e a s e a b o v e

5 . 3

x

1 0

m o l e c u l e s /

c e l l d u r i n g

t h e

f i r s t

2

h o f r a p i d

f e r m e n t a t i o n ,

w h e r e a s

e t h a n o l i n

t h e

h i g h

c e l l

p o p u l a t i o n

f e r m e n t i n g

a t

3 0 C r e m a i n e d

a t

t h e 2

x

1 0 1 1

m o l e c u l e s / c e l l

l e v e l .

N o r

w a s t h e r e

a n y

s i g -

n i f i c a n t

i n c r e a s e

i n t h e n u m b e r

o f

e t h a n o l

m o l e c u l e s

w i t h i n

t h e c e l l s a t

t h e l o w e r

c e l l

p o p u l a t i o n

l e v e l d u r i n g

t h e

f e r m e n t a t i o n . T h e

T A B L E

1 .

C o m p a r i s o n

o f

t h e

m o l e c u l e s o f

e t h a n o l

f o u n d

w i t h i n

y e a s t

c e l l s a t d i f f e r e n t

s t a g e s o f

f e r m e n t a t i o n

M o l e c u l e s

o f e t h a n o l p e r

a v e r a g e

c e l l

T i m e

( h )

8

x

1 0 1

c e l l s /

8 x

1 0 c e l l s /

6 . 3

x

1 0 7 c e l l s /

ml a t 1 5 C

m l a t 3 0 C

ml a t

3 0

C

( c e l l s

r e m a i n ( c e l l s

d i e r a p -

( c e l l s r e m a i n

v i a b l e )

i d l y )

v i a b l e )

0 3 . 7

x

1 0 1

6 . 4

x

1 0

4 . 4

x

1 0

0 . 5

3 . 6

x

1 0 1 . 6

x

1 0 '

3 . 9

x

1 0

1

4 . 9

x

1 0

2 . 0

x

1 0 4 . 5

x

1 0

2

5 . 3

x

1 0

1 . 6

x

1 0 1 1 5 . 0

x

1 0

I n i t i a l

v i a b l e

c e l l

c o u n t

o f

b r e w e r s '

y e a s t

c e l l s .

. 2 0

. 1 8 i

. 1 6

. 1 4

. 1 2

U

. 1 0

Q

. 0 8

0 6 o

 04

 02

0

1

2

3

HOURS

F I G .

3 .

ADH

a c t i v i t y

o f

b r e w e r s '

y e a s t

a s

i n -

f l u e n c e d

b y

i n t e r n a l

e t h a n o l

m o l e c u l e s

per

c e l l

a t 1 5

a n d

3 0 C

u s i n g

an

i n i t i a l c e l l count

o f

8

 

1 0 1

c e l l s l

ml

i n a 2 5 0

B r i x

m e d i u m ,

1 3 d i s s o l v e d

o x y g e n ,

with

a d j u n c t

n u t r i e n t s

added

a t

2Y

 

4X l e v e l s .

1-

u ;

u

U )

0

4 . x 1 0 1 1

z

a U

1 0

2 0 3 0

H O U R S

F I G .

4 . ADH a c t i v i t y o f

b r e w e r s ' y e a s t

a s i n -

f l u e n c e d

b y

i n t e r n a l e t h a n o l

m o l e c u l e s p e r

c e l l

a t

3 0

C u s i n g an

i n i t i a l c e l l c o u n t o f

6 . 3

x

1 0 7

c e l l s l m l .

f e r m e n t a t i o n , h o w e v e r ,

a t

t h i s c e l l c o n c e n t r a -

t i o n w a s n o

l o n g e r r a p i d .

A s t h e

e t h a n o l

c o n c e n t r a t i o n

i n c r e a s e d

i n s i d e

t h e

c e l l s

i n t h e 3 0 C

f e r m e n t a t i o n

c a r r i e d

o u t

w i t h

i n i t i a l c e l l

c o u n t

o f

8

x

1 0

b r e w e r s '

y e a s t c e l l s / m l ,

t h e

  H

a c t i v i t y

r a p i d l y

d e -

c r e a s e d

( F i g .

3 ) .

T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n

o f e t h a n o l

w a s

m u c h

l o w e r

i n

t h e

c e l l s a t

1 5

o r

3 0 C

u s i n g

a

c e l l p o p u l a t i o n

o f

6 . 3

x

1 0 7 / m l ,

a n d t h e r e w a s

n o i n a c t i v a t i o n

o f

ADH

( F i g .

3

a n d

4 ) .

T h u s ,

i t

c a n

b e c o nc l u d e d

t h a t e t h a n o l

a c c u m u l a t e s

w i t h i n

t h e

b r e w e r s

y e a s t

c e l l s

u n d e r

c o n d i t i o n s

o f

  r a p i d

f e r m e n t a t i o n

u s i n g

a

h i g h

c e l l

p o p u -

l a t i o n

a t 3 0 C .

I t

w o u l d a p p e a r

t h a t a n

i n t r a c e l l u l a r

l e v e l

o f

a p p r o x i m a t e l y

5

x

1 0 e t h a n o l m o l e c u l e s / c e l l

i s

i n

t h e n o r m a l r a n g e

i n

b r e w e r s '

y e a s t

c e l l s .

T h i s

l e v e l

d o e s

n o t

i n a c t i v a t e

ADH

o r

d a m a g e

c e l l

v i a b i l i t y . H i g h e r

i n t r a c e l l u l a r

e t h a n o l c o n -

c e n t r a t i o n s

s u c h a s

2

x

1 0 1 1 m o l e c u l e s

o f e t h a -

n o l

p e r c e l l

( a

f o u r f o l d

i n c r e a s e

i n

i n t r a c e l l u l a r

e t h a n o l c o n c e n t r a t i o n )

a r e

a c c o m p a n i e d

b y

i n -

a c t i v a t i o n

o f

ADH a n d l o s s o f

c e l l

v i a b i l i t y .

L I T E RA T U R E

C ITED

1 .

A i b a , S . ,

M.

S h o d a ,

a n d

M.

N a g a t a n i .

1 9 6 8 .

K i n e t i c s

o f

p r o d u c t

i n h i b i t i o n

i n

a l c o h o l

f e r m e n t a t i o n .

B i o -

t e c h n o l . B i o e n g .

1 0 : 8 4 5 - 8 6 4 .

2 .

B o n n i c h s e n ,

R .

1 9 6 5 .

E t h a n o l

d e t e r m i n a t i o n

w i t h

a l c o h o l

d e h y d r o g e n a s e

a n d

D P N , p .

2 8 5 - 2 8 7 .

I n H . U .

B e r g m e y e r

( e d . ) ,

M e t h o d s

o f

e n z y m a t i c

a n a l y s i s .

A c a d e m i c

P r e s s

I n c . ,

New

Y o r k .

3 .

H o l z b e r g , I . ,

R .

K .

F i n n

a n d

K .

H .

S t e i n k r a u s .

1 9 6 7 .

A k i n e t i c

s t u d y

o f

a l c o h o l i c

f e r m e n t a t i o n

o f

g r a p e

j u i c e .

B i o t e c h n o l .

B i o e n g .

9 : 4 1 3 - 4 2 7 .

V O L .

3 1 ,

1 9 7 6

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D  ownl   o a d  e

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162

NAGODAWITHANA

AND

STEINKRAUS

4 . L o w r y ,

0

H . , N .

J .

R o s e b r o u g h ,

A . L . F a r r ,

a n d

R . J . R a n d a l l .

1 9 5 1 .

P r o t e i n

measurement

w i t h

t h e

F o l i n

p h e n o l

r e a g e n t .

J .

B i o l .

C h e m .

1 9 3 : 2 6 5 - 2 7 5 .

5 .

N a g a t a n i ,

M . ,

Y .

K u b a ,

a n d S . S u g a n i a .

1 9 6 9 .

K i n e t i c s

o f p r o d u c t

i n h i b i t i o n

i n

s h o c h u

m a k i n g .

J .

F e r m e n t .

T e c h n o l .

4 7 : 7 2 3 - 7 2 8 .

6 .

N a g o d a w i t h a n a ,

T .

W . ,

C .

C a s t e l l a n o ,

a n d

K .

H .

S t e i n k r a u s .

1 9 7 4 .

The

e f f e c t

o f d i s s o l v e d

o x y g e n,

t e m p e r a t u r e ,

i n i t i a l c e l l

c o u n t ,

a n d s u g a r

c o n c e n t r a -

t i o n on t h e

v i a b i l i t y

o f S a c c h a r o m y c e s

c e r e v i s i a e

i n

r a p i d f e r m e n t a t i o n s .

A p p l .

M i c r o b i o l .

2 8 : 3 8 3 - 3 9 1 .

A P P L .

E N V I R O N .

M I C R O B I O L .

7 .

R a c k e r ,

E .

1 9 5 5 . A l c o h o l

d e h y d r o g e n a s e

f r o m

B a k e r ' s

y e a s t ,

p .

5 0 0 - 5 0 3 .

I n

S .

P .

C o l o w i c k a n d

N .

0 .

K a p l a n ( e d . ) ,

M e t h o d s

i n e n z y m o l o g y ,

v o l .

1 . A c a -

d e m i c P r e s s

I n c . ,

Ne w

Y o r k .

8 . R a h n ,

0 .

1 9 2 9 . T h e

d e c r e a s i n g

r a t e

o f

f e r m e n t a t i o n .

J .

B a c t e r i o l .

1 8 : 2 0 7 - 2 2 6 .

9 .

R a h n ,

0 .

1 9 5 2 .

A c i d

a n d

a l c o h o l

t o l e r a n c e

i m p a r t e d

b y t h i a m i n e .

G r o w t h

1 6 : 5 9 - 6 3 .

1 0 . S t e i n k r a u s ,

K .

H . , a n d

R . A .

M o r s e .

1 9 6 6 . F a c t o r s

i n f l u e n c i n g

t h e

f e r m e n t a t i o n

o f h o n e y

a n d

mead

p r o d u c t i o n .

J . A p i c .

R e s .

5 : 1 7 - 2 6 .

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D  ownl   o a d  e

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