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Applied Buddhism:
Application of
Emptiness in
Modern Science
Ankur Barua, M.A. Basilio
Hong Kong, 2009
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Background: Dr. Ankur Barua had graduated with distinction
from the University of Hong Kong (MBuddStud, 2009). He had
also completed two other Master Degrees, one from Sikkim
Manipal University (MBAIT, 2007) while the other from Manipal
University (MBBS-2000, MD in Community Medicine - 2003) and
presently working in professional field. Ms. M.A. Basilio is a
nursing professional who has also a keen passion for
conducting research on religion and science.
First Publication on 26th October 2009
Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok Yuen, Hong Kong
Copyright Ankur Barua and M.A.Basilio
Communication Address of Corresponding Author:
Dr. ANKUR BARUA
Block EE, No.-80, Flat No.-2A,
Salt Lake City, Sector-2,
Kolkata - 700091, West Bengal, INDIA.
Email: [email protected]
Mobile: +91-9434485543 (India), +852-96195078 (Hong
Kong)
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Contents
Items Page
No.
Acknowledgements 04
Preface
05
The Concept of Applied Buddhism
06
Relationship between Emptiness and Dependent
Origination 13
The Concept of Emptiness of Matter in Modern Science
31
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to extend their sincere thanks to Ven.
Dr. Jing Yin, Professor of Buddhist Studies and Director of the
Centre of Buddhist Studies in the University of Hong Kong for
his kind support, inspiration, encouragement and timely advice
during the compilation of this book.
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude and
indebtedness to Prof. Y. Karunadasa and Ven. Dr. Guang
Xing, the eminent professors at the Centre of Buddhist Studies
in the University of Hong Kong for their constant
encouragement, constructive criticism, personal attention and
valuable guidance throughout this work.
The authors would also like to acknowledge gratefully Dr.
Dipak Kumar Barua, who was the earlier Dean of the Faculty
Council for Postgraduate Studies in Education, Journalism &
Library Science in the University of Calcutta (1987-1991) and
the Director of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda (1996-1999)
for his technical guidance and valuable advice on various
aspects of this project.
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Preface
Applied Buddhism is the foundation of our true
understanding of all the events occurring in nature. The
term Applied Buddhism explains how every person can
relate Buddhist ideas in his or her daily life and in
profession.This book is a humble endeavour to motivate
the new learners and provide them first-hand guidance
on the vastness of the Philosophical approach of
Buddhism. This book is a simplified version and provides
guidance on how to apply the principles of the Doctrine
of the Buddha in our day to day life in an effective
manner.
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The Concept of Applied
Buddhism
Introduction
Applied Buddhism is the application of Buddhist
teachings in our daily life. It is a broad umbrella
under which all the essential aspects of life such as
physical, mental, social and spiritual wellbeing as
well as philosophical, bioethical, financial and
modern scientific aspects could be incorporated.
This includes the Buddhist ideas practiced by the
three major schools of Buddhist thoughts in modern
era, namely the Theravada, Mahyna and
Vajrayana / Tantrayana (Tibetan) traditions. Apart
from the commonly discussed philosophical and
psychological aspects, more emphasis is given here
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on the traditional culture and social aspects of
Buddhism.
1
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Applied Buddhism also shares valuable
information on Buddhist contributions to modern
science, health and wellbeing. As our concept of
wellbeing is directly related to our mental and
spiritual health, Buddhist Meditational practices are
given the prime importance for prevention of
mental illnesses and recommended for
incorporation in the regimen of regular
psychotherapy and in primary and secondary school
curriculum as a part of primordial prevention.1
Importance of Applied Buddhism
Without disrespecting the significance of religious
rituals, the myths and beliefs and traditional local
ceremonial practices related to Buddhism are
however, carefully extracted and excluded from this
domain of Applied Buddhism.
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This is intentionally done in order to make the
Buddhist ideas more acceptable to people
belonging other religious realms and cultural
backgrounds. The idea behind this is to enable
people practice Buddhism without being converted
into a Buddhist. One should understand that
Buddhism is not just a religion, but a way of life.1
In order to incorporate Buddhist ideas in daily life,
one need not give up his or her own religion. Just
that one can remain spiritual without being
religious, in the same way; one can practice
Buddhist teachings without formally being a
Buddhist.1
Applied Aspect of Buddhism: Integration of
Buddhist Philosophy with Activities in Daily
Life1,2
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Thus, the term Applied Buddhism explains how
every person can relate Buddhist ideas in his or her
daily life and in profession. The main focus of this
new concept is to diffuse the teachings of the
Buddha in every nook and corner of the society, so
that all sentient beings, irrespective of their
religion, culture and creed can benefit from it.
In recent times, some of the new concepts that
have evolved in Buddhism are Engaged Buddhism,
Social Buddhism, Socially Engaged Buddhism and
Green Buddhism. Like the String Theory of
quantum physics, Applied Buddhism is an effort
to integrate all these scattered aspects of Buddhism
under one single and unified concept in order to
make it more appealing to the global community.
Through this Applied Buddhism, one should be able
to follow Buddhism without being a Buddhist.
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Evolution of the Concept of Applied
Buddhism
1,2
The term Applied Buddhism was first coined by an
eminent Buddhist Scholar from India, Dr. Dipak
Kumar Barua. He was the elected Dean of the
Faculty Council for Postgraduate Studies in
Education, Journalism & Library Science in the
University of Calcutta, West Bengal, India (1987-
1991) and the Director of Nava Nalanda
Mahavihara, Nalanda (a Deemed University) in
Nalanda, Bihar, India (1996-1999). He had
discussed at length about this new concept of
Applied Buddhism in his Book entitled, Applied
Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha from
Modern Perspectives. This book was first published
during the year 2005 by the Centre of Buddhist
Studies, under the aegis of the Department of Pali
and Buddhist Studies of the Banaras Hindu
University in India.
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However, due to limited publications and restricted
circulation of this book within the country, the new
concept of Applied Buddhism could not be
popularized outside India for quite some time.
However, during the later years, this new concept
was widely appreciated by the renowned scholars in
various intellectual forums throughout the world.
The common people from varied religious
background also found comfort in easy
understanding of the principle teachings of the
Buddha.
Conclusion
This new concept of the applied aspect of Buddhism
is destined to bridge the gap of understanding that
exists due to misinterpretation of the teachings of
the Buddha by people belonging to diverse religious
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backgrounds. Once popularized and accepted, it
would pave the way in promoting peace and
harmony in the society. Applied Buddhism is also a
noble endeavor to integrate the Buddhist
philosophy with modern science and technology.
This applied philosophy is an integral part of our
daily life and is expected to be accepted by
everyone without any discrimination.
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References
1. Barua, A., Basilio, M.A. 2009. Applied
Buddhism in Modern Science: Episode 1.
Hong Kong: Buddhist Door, Tung Lin Kok
Yuen & Unibook Publications.
2. Barua, D.K. 2005. Environment & Human
Resources: Buddhist Approaches. Applied
Buddhism: Studies in the Gospel of Buddha
from Modern Perspectives. . Varanasi, India:
Centre for Buddhist Studies, Department of
Pali & Buddhist Studies, Benaras Hindu
University: 90-6.
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Relationship between
Emptiness and Dependent
Origination
Introduction
In early Buddhism, the term suat or nyat
is used primarily in connection with the no-self
(anatman) doctrine to denote that the Five
Aggregates (skandhas) are empty of the
permanent self or soul which is erroneously
imputed to them.1
The doctrine of emptiness, however, received its
fullest elaboration by Ngrjuna, who wielded it
skillfully to destroy the substantiality conceptions of
the Abhidharma schools of the Theravda. Since
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there cannot be anything that is not the Buddha-
nature (buddhat), all that appears is in truth
devoid of characteristics.1,2
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The doctrine of emptiness is the central tenet of the
Mdhyamaka School. A statement of Ngrjuna's
views in support of it may be found in his Mla-
Mdhyamaka-Nrik.1,2
Ngrjuna is regarded as the founder of the
Madhyamaka school of Mahyna Buddhist
philosophy which he had established during the 2nd-
3rd Century A.D. The Mulamadhyamaka-Karika
("Fundamentals of the Middle Way") is his major
work. It was originally composed in Sanskrit. The
Sanskrit as well as early Tibetan versions of the
work had survived without significant damage over
the ages along with the later Chinese translations.
Several complete English translations of the Karika
are available in recent times.1,2
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Emptiness thus becomes a fundamental
characteristic of Mahyna Buddhism. The teaching
is subtle and its precise formulation a matter of
sophisticated debate, since the slightest
misunderstanding is said to obstruct progress
towards final liberation. Emptiness is never a
generalized vacuity, like an empty room, but always
relates to a specific entity whose emptiness is being
asserted. In this way up to twenty kinds of
emptiness are recognized, including the emptiness
of emptiness. The necessary indiscoverability is the
essence of emptiness of Mdhyamika. It is
important to distinguish this emptiness from
nihilism.1,2,3
The Buddhist notion of emptiness is often
misunderstood as nihilism. Unfortunately, 19th
century Western philosophy has contributed much
to this misrepresentation. However, the only thing
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that nihilism and the teaching of emptiness can be
said to have in common is a skeptical outset.
Nihilism concludes that reality is unknowable, that
nothing exists, that nothing meaningful can be
communicated about the world. The Buddhist
notion of emptiness is just the opposite. It states
that the ultimate reality is knowable, there is a
clear-cut ontological basis for phenomena and we
can communicate and derive useful knowledge
from it about the world. Emptiness (nyat) must
not be confused with nothingness. Emptiness is not
non-existence and it is not non-reality.1,2,3,4
However, in Yogcra (Vijnavda), emptiness is
taught as the inability to think of an object apart
from the consciousness which thinks of that object,
i.e. the necessary indissolubility of subject and
object in the process of knowing is the concept of
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emptiness in Yogcra. It is important to distinguish
this from idealism and solipsism.
1
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The Concept of Emptiness3,4,5
In order to understand the philosophical meaning
of the term emptiness (nyat ), let us take a
simple solid object, such as a bowl. We usually say
that a bowl is empty if it does not contain any liquid
or solid. This is the ordinary meaning of emptiness.
But a bowl empty of liquids or solids is still full of
air. To be precise, we must therefore state what the
bowl is empty or devoid of. A bowl in a vacuum
does not contain any air, but it still contains space,
light, radiation, as well as its own substance. Hence,
from a physical point of view, the bowl is always full
of something. But from the Buddhist point of view,
the bowl is always empty. The Buddhist
understanding of emptiness is different from the
physical meaning. The bowl being empty means
that it is devoid of inherent existence.
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The Concept of Non-inherent Existence
Though from the Buddhist point of view everything
is impermanent, but this does not mean that the
bowl is non-existent. The bowl actually exists, but
like everything in this world, its existence depends
on other phenomena. There is nothing in a bowl
that is inherent to that specific bowl in general.
Properties such as being hollow, spherical,
cylindrical or leak-proof are not intrinsic to bowls.
Other objects which are not bowls have similar
properties, as for example, vases and glasses. The
bowl's properties and components are neither bowls
themselves nor do they imply our perception of
bowl on their own. The material is not the bowl. The
shape is not the bowl. The function is not the bowl.
Only all these aspects together make up the bowl.
Hence, we can say that for an object to be a bowl
we require a collection of specific conditions to
exist. It depends on the combination of function,
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use, shape, base material and the bowl's other
aspects.
3,4,5,6
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Only if all these conditions exist simultaneously
does the mind impute the label of a bowl to the
object. If one condition ceases to exist, for instance,
if the bowl's shape is altered by breaking it, the
bowl forfeits some or all of its attributes and our
mind cannot perceive it as a bowl anymore. The
bowl's existence thus depends on external
circumstances. Its physical essence remains
elusive.3,4,5,6
It is our mind that perceives properties of an object
and imputes attributes such as bowl onto one
object and table onto another. It is the mind that
thinks "bowl" and "table". Apparently, the mind
does not perceive bowls and tables if there is no
visual and tactile sensation. However, there cannot
be visual and tactile sensation if there is no physical
object. The perception thus depends on the
presence of sensations, which in turn relies on the
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presence of the physical object. We must
understand that the bowl's essence is not in the
mind, also it is never found in the physical object.
Obviously, its essence is neither physical nor
mental. As the essence of an object cannot be
found either in our external world or in our mind, we
must conclude that the objects of perception have
therefore no inherent existence. 3,4,5,6
If this is the case for a simple object, such as a
bowl, then it must also apply to compound things,
such as cars, houses and machines. For example, a
car needs a motor, wheels, axles, gears and many
other things to work. We should also consider the
difference between man-made objects, such as
bowls, and natural phenomena, such as earth,
plants, animals and human beings. One may argue
that lack of inherent existence of objects does not
imply the same for natural phenomena and beings.
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In case of a human being, there is a body, a mind, a
character, a history of actions, habits, behavior and
other things to describe a person. We can even
divide these characteristics further into more
fundamental properties. For example, we can
analyze the mind and see that there are sensations,
cognition, feelings and ideas. 3,4,5,6
We can analyze the brain and find that there are
neurons, axons, synapses, and neurotransmitters.
However, none of these constituents describe the
essence of the person, the mind, or the brain. Here
again, the essence remains elusive.3,4,5,6
Emptiness of Emptiness:
The ultimate nature of reality is deepened and
enhanced in our mind. We would develop a
perception of reality from which we could perceive
phenomena and events as sort of illusory or illusion-
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like. This mode of perceiving reality would
permeate all our interactions with reality. Even
emptiness itself, which is seen as the ultimate
nature of reality, is not absolute, nor does it exist
independently. We cannot conceive of emptiness as
independent of a basis of phenomena. Because
when we examine the nature of reality, we find that
it is empty of inherent existence. If we are to take
that emptiness itself as an object and look for its
essence, again we would find that it is empty of
inherent existence. Therefore, the Buddha actually
taught us the emptiness of emptiness. 3,4,5,6
The Concept of Dependent Origination
The Principle of Dependent Origination or the
Doctrine of Impermanence is a twelve-factor
formula titled Paiccasamuppda in Pli. The key
concepts within the causal relationships are
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identified as the antecedents and consequents in a
linear sequence. One factor is identified as a
conditioning factor for the next which in turn is the
conditioning factor for the following factor until the
final stage, the twelfth concept, birth, which
recommences the process of existence and
becoming and the whole twelve steps.6
This formula can also be viewed in reverse order to
indicate how the removal or cessation of one factor
leads to the predominant influence of another
factor, and down the line until the first conditioning
factor ignorance is removed completely thus
eliminating the proliferation and building of factors.
Once this is achieved an individual can be said to
be enlightened because he is no longer haunted by
the specter of ignorance as he has defeated the
three poisons and understood the arising and
ceasing of phenomenon.4,6
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The traditional interpretation of this formula states
that this is what causes the arising or rebirth and
death and requires at least three lifetimes. The
Dependent Origination can be viewed
microcosmically and be applied just to this lifetime
to describe the arising and ceasing of thoughts and
the perceptual process, thereby indicating the
correct way to apprehend an object if
enlightenment is sought.4,6
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Emptiness in Relation with Dependent
Origination
Dependent Origination demonstrates the
interconnectedness of all phenomenons, their
impermanence, their lack of an intrinsic self, and
factors of conditioning. Likewise, emptiness for
Ngrjuna is equivalent to Dependent Origination
as stated by Candrakrti, The meaning of the
expression Dependent Origination is the same as
emptiness, but it entails a further emphasis on
the lack of intrinsic nature of dhammas and states
that all dhammas are conceptual constructs. To the
Abhidhamma, dhammas are the smallest
analyzable unit of existence, but for Ngrjuna,
even these dhammas are conceptual constructs,
and understanding this is having proper wisdom
(praja): the understanding of emptiness.2,4,6
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Dependent Origination is the main ontological
principle in early Buddhism and Abhidhamma
Buddhism, but in Nagrajunas system emptiness
becomes the term to represent this chief
ontological principle. He writes, It is Dependent
Origination that we call emptiness. Dependent
arising and emptiness describe how reality comes
to be; as such, it is ultimate truth and an ontological
truth. This emphasis of emptiness as an ultimate
truth is a later development unique to Ngrjuna
and later Buddhist thought. Ngrjuna emphasizes
the lack of intrinsic existence in the conventional
level of reality. This lack must be apprehended by
understanding the ultimate truth of emptiness.2,4,6
These two levels of reality mutually imply each
other. Emptiness becomes dhammatta, the true
nature of things. A commentator to Ngrjuna
describes emptiness as, non conditioned by others,
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quiescent, accessible to saints only by direct
intuition, beyond all verbal differentiations, still, it is
nothing more than the mere absence of inherently
or intrinsically real existence. As a principle
nyat states that everything that one encounters
in life is empty of a permanent soul or inherent
nature and is inter-related, never self-sufficient, or
independent; thus nothing has independent
reality.2,4,6
Although there are different ways to explain the
theory of emptiness, all are based on the theory of
Dependent Origination. Ngrjuna provides an
insightful formulation of nyat as the mark of all
phenomena, as a natural consequence of
Dependent Origination and an elaboration upon
dependent arising. A further elaboration upon
Dependent Origination is that the concept of
emptiness is not itself a true doctrine or view, but is
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a therapeutic device. Ngrjuna had explained this
as the antidote to all viewpoints (i).
2,4,6
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Conclusion
Emptiness is a key concept in Buddhist philosophy,
or more precisely, in the ontology of Mahyna
Buddhism. The phrase "form is emptiness;
emptiness is form" is perhaps the most celebrated
paradox associated with Buddhist philosophy. It is
the supreme mantra. The expression originates
from the Prajna Paramita Hridaya Sutra, commonly
known as the Heart Sutra, which contains the
philosophical essence of about six hundred scrolls
making up the Maha Prajna Paramita. The Heart
Sutra is the shortest text in this collection. It
belongs to the oldest Mahyna texts and
presumably originated in India around the time of
Jesus Christ.2,4,5,6
Ngrjunas unique version of emptiness is a direct
result of the eight-fold method of negation. It is
interpreted as non-arising, non-ceasing, non-
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permanence, non-annihilation, non-identity, non-
difference, non-coming, and non-exiting. Through
the eight-fold negation, all the concepts by which
we normally apprehend the world are placed in the
negative form. In this way, one is supposed to
realize correct understanding of emptiness. By
understanding the emptiness of these concepts by
which we conceptually construct and apprehend the
world and even the Dhamma, the teaching of the
Buddha, one can understand the emptiness of
emptiness (unyatunyat). This is an innovation
in Buddhist thought attributed to Ngrjuna.2,3,4,6
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References
1. Bowker, J. 1997. nyat. The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of World Religions. UK:
Encyclopedia.com. [Serial online]. [Cited
2009 April 28]; [2 screens]. Available from:
URL: http://www.encyclopedia.com
2. Garfield, J.L. 1995. The Fundamental Wisdom
of the Middle Way: Ngrjuna's
Mulamadhyamakakarika, translation (from
Tibetan) and commentary. New York: Oxford
University Press.
3. Finkelstein, D.R., Wallace, B.A. ed. 2001.
Emptiness and Relativity. Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press.
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4. McCagney, N. 1997. Ngrjuna and the
Philosophy of Openness. Lanham, MD:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers: 135-218.
5. Knierim, T. 2009. Emptiness is Form [serial
online]. [Cited 2009 October 20]; [4 screens].
Available from: URL:
http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/emptin
ess.html
6. Williams, P. 2009. Mahyna Buddhism: The
Doctrinal Foundations, 2nd edition. UK:
Routledge: 69-82.
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The Concept of Emptiness
of Matter in Modern Science
Introduction
Dependent Origination demonstrates the
interconnectedness of all phenomenons, their
impermanence, their lack of an intrinsic self, and
factors of conditioning. Likewise, emptiness for
Ngrjuna is equivalent to Dependent Origination
as stated by Candrakrti, The meaning of the
expression Dependent Origination is the same as
emptiness, but it entails a further emphasis on
the lack of intrinsic nature of dhammas and states
that all dhammas are conceptual constructs.1
To the Abhidhamma, dhammas are the smallest
analyzable unit of existence, but for Ngrjuna,
even these dhammas are conceptual constructs,
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and understanding this is having proper wisdom
(praja): the understanding of emptiness.
Ngrjunas concept of emptiness can also be
applied to the analysis of matter and explains why
our very existence is based on emptiness.1
The Emptiness of Atoms
The ancient Greeks believed that matter is
composed of indivisible small elements with certain
characteristics, such as the characteristics of earth,
water, air, and fire. They called these elements
atoms and they held that atoms were solid and
fundamental. However, Ernest Rutherford later
demonstrated that atoms have an internal structure
though an experimental verification. 2,3
Rutherford had discovered that atoms have a
nucleus containing most of its mass and that
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electrons orbit the nucleus.2,3 Moreover, he
established that the nucleus of an atom is only
about one ten-thousandth of the diameter of the
atom itself, which means that 99.99% of the atom's
volume consists of empty space. This is the first
manifestation of emptiness at the subtle level of
matter.2,3
Soon after Rutherford's discovery, physicists found
that the nucleus of an atom likewise has an internal
structure and that the protons and neutrons making
up the nucleus are composed of even smaller
particles, which they named quarks after a poem of
James Joyce. Interestingly, quarks are hypothesized
as geometrical points in space, which implies that
atoms are essentially empty. This is the second
manifestation of emptiness at the subtle level of
matter.2,3
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Emptiness and the Quantum
The terms "quarks" and "points in space" still
suggest something solid, since they can be
imagined as irreducible mass particles. Yet,
quantum field theory does away even with this finer
concept of solidity by explaining particles in the
terms of field properties. Quantum electrodynamics
(QED) has produced an amazingly successful theory
of matter by combining quantum theory, classical
field theory and relativity. No discrepancies
between the predictions of QED and experimental
observation have been found till date. According to
QED, subatomic particles are indistinguishable from
fields, whereas fields are basically properties of
space. In this view, a particle is a temporary local
densification of a field, which is conditioned by the
properties of the surrounding space. This implies
that matter is not different from space. This is the
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third manifestation of emptiness at the subtle level
of matter.
2,3,4
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Emptiness and Interrelations of Quantum
Physics
An important class of phenomena in the subatomic
world is defined by the various interactions between
particles. Although interactions can be described
clearly in mathematical terms, there is no clear
distinction between the notions of phenomena,
particles and interactions. For example, there are
interactions between free electrons by means of
photons that result in an observed repelling force.
There are also interactions between the quarks of a
nucleon by means of mesons, interactions between
the neighboring neutrons or protons, interactions
between nucleus and electrons and interactions
between the atoms of molecules. The phenomena
themselves involving the nucleon, the nucleus, the
atom and the molecule are sufficiently described by
these interactions.2,3,4,5
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Study of the respective equations suggests that
interactions and these phenomena are
interchangeable terms. However, the interrelations
of quantum physics do not describe actual
existence. Instead they predict the potential for
existence. A manifest particle, such as an electron,
cannot be described in terms of classical
mechanics. It exists as a multitude of superposed
"scenarios" in which one or another manifests only
when it is observed upon measurement. Therefore,
matter does not inherently exist. It exists only as
interrelations of "empty" phenomena whose
properties are determined by observation. This is
the fourth manifestation of emptiness at the subtle
level of matter.2,3,4,5
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Conclusion
Findings from the Buddhist analysis of matter goes
hand in hand with our modern scientific
understanding of matter. Quantum physics has
recently proved that the major part of matter
actually consists of empty space. Whenever we
analyze matter, most of the time we come across
emptiness, while the solid part of matter is hard to
recognize. On one side all the atoms are empty at
micro level, on the other side at macro level; most
part of the space is also empty.2,3
Albert Einstein, the pioneer for Quantum Mechanics,
and many modern scientists were very much
influenced by the Buddhist doctrines related to the
concepts of absence of any Creator God, absence of
any soul or self (anatta), Dependent Origination
(paticcasamuppada), impermanence (anicca) and
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the emphasis on practicing compassion with moral-
driven, volitional activities (kamma).
4,5
Einstein had also predicted that the religion of the
future will be a cosmic religion and
enthusiastically stated that if there is any
religion that would cope with modern
scientific needs, it would be Buddhism.4 In his
opinion, Buddhism has the characteristics of what
would be expected in a cosmic religion for the
future. Buddhism transcends a personal God and
avoids dogma and theology. Buddhism covers both
the natural and spiritual domains of human
existence. Buddhism is also based on a religious
sense aspiring from the experience of all things,
natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity.4
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References
1. Williams, P. 2009. Mahyna Buddhism: TheDoctrinal Foundations, 2nd edition. UK:
Routledge: 69-82.
2. Knierim, T. 2009. Emptiness is Form [serial
online]. [Cited 2009 October 20]; [4 screens].
Available from: URL:
http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/emptin
ess.html
3. Finkelstein, D.R., Wallace, B.A. ed. 2001.
Emptiness and Relativity. Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press.
4. Dukas, H., Hoffman B., ed. 1954. Albert
Einstein: The Human Side. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
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5. Jammer, M. 1999. Einstein and religion:
physics and theology. Princeton, NJ: PrincetonUniversity Press.