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Paper: Plant Anatomy

Lesson: Applications of Plant Anatomy in Forensics, Systematics and

Pharmacognosy

Lesson Developer: Dr. Darshan Kaur Cheema1

Dr. Charu kalra2

Department/College: 1.SGTB Khalsa College, University of Delhi

2. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya College, University of Delhi

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Table of Contents

Introduction

What is Forensics?

Botanical evidences in forensics

Why to rely upon botanical evidences?

Pollen- one of the most significant botanical evidence

How botanical evidences are useful?

In identifying clandestine graves

In estimating time elapsed since death

Limitations of forensic botany

How plant anatomy has helped in solving criminal

cases?

First case

Second case

Third case

Applications of plant anatomy in systematic

Wood anatomy

Nodal anatomy

Trichomes

Epidermal characters

Stomatal types

Leaf anatomy

Applications of plant anatomy in pharmacognosy

Drugs

Adulterants

Pharmacognostic studies on spice plants

Summary

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Exercise/ Practice

References/Bibliography/Further Reading

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Introduction

Plant anatomy is the branch of botany dealing with the anatomical and histological structure

of vegetative and reproductive plant organs. Now-a-days along with other branches,

anatomy is also essential to validate and understand of many aspects of plant biology,

including the ecological and molecular ends of the spectrum. This field of biology finds

application in number of fields viz. systematics, forensics and pharmacognosy. Structural

variations in anatomical characters have enormous implications in these fields as being

discussed in this chapter.

What is Forensics?

Forensics is related to or denoting the application of scientific methods and techniques to

the investigation of crime. Forensic botany deals with the application of plant sciences in

solving both criminal and civil cases. The microscopic (Light and electron microscopy)

analysis of plant cells, tissues or organ can provide compelling evidentiary arguments

toward the resolution of a number of legal questions. Botanical evidence suitable for law

rests upon several biological sub-disciplines such as dendrochronology, palynology,

systematics, ecology, molecular biology etc.

Botanical evidences in Forensics

Botanical evidences are significant while solving criminal cases. Forensic botany is primarily

engaged in making connections between evidence and a crime. Various plants or their

products can be helpful for this purpose as mentioned below:

(A) Pollen grains recovered at the scene of crime or from the criminal or victims body.

(B) A rare plant type present near a victim can be helpful in correlating a suspect to a

victim or scene.

Why to rely upon botanical evidences?

Botanical evidences can be relied upon for the following reasons:

(a) Plant remains are found almost everywhere.

(b) Being both macroscopic and microscopic, they offer multiple sources of evidence,

such as pieces of wood, (even as charcoal), twigs, leaves, trichomes, seeds, fruits,

pollen and spores etc.

(c) The number and morphological diversity of these botanical evidences act as their

signature to identify them, thus providing crucial information such as the season

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and location of crime, position of body of the victim i.e. whether it has been moved

after murder or buried and if so then for how long etc.

Did you know?

Marcello Malphigi, an Italian doctor and microscopist and Nehemiah

Grew, a British doctor were considered as founders of plant anatomy.

Marcello Malphigi published Anatomia Plantarum, in 1671 the first major

advance in plant physiogamy since Aristotle.

Nehemiah Grew published An Idea of a Philosophical History of Plants in

1672 and The Anatomy of Plants in 1682.

Franz Meyen published Phytotomie, in 1830, known to be the first

comprehensive review of plant anatomy.

Katherine Esau published, Plant Anatomy (1953), which became the

ultimate textbook on plant structure in North American universities and

elsewhere, followed till date. She also published Anatomy of seed plants in

1960.

Pollen - one of the most significant botanical evidences

Pollen is a powdery biological material containing microgametophytes of higher plants

released by anthers in large volumes. They are considered as one of the important botanical

evidences because of the following reasons:

(1) They are light and easily transported by wind.

(2) They can usually be traced on clothes, hair or skin.

(3) Being prevalent in the air, may be breathed into the lungs.

(4) They decompose slowly.

(5) They can be retrieved from millions of years old rocks.

(6) Being microscopic, remain unseen as silent witnesses and even if visible, unlike

fingerprints, it’s nearly impossible to do away with them from a crime scene.

(7) Like spores, exine of pollen grains of each plant possesses unique characteristics

and this 'signature' can link an individual or object to a specific location. Pollen

signatures may also further indicate that a body has been moved or suggest the

locality where the original crime took place.

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How botanical evidences are useful?

Botanical evidences are helpful in the following ways:

(A) Identifying clandestine graves:

Botanical evidence can be used to identify clandestine graves. Whenever a grave is dug and

filled in, following inevitable events occur:

(a) Ground is disturbed.

(b) Existing vegetation is destroyed.

(c) Quick invasion and re-colonization of plants takes place.

(d) Plants occupy grave site in an identifiable succession pattern different from the

neighboring undisturbed vegetation.

(e) The presence of a buried body may chemically change the nature of the soil which

may either promote or inhibit the growth of the plants in vicinity.

(f) Either way, the disturbed area will be at a different stage than its surroundings.

These differences may be visible for decades.

Forensic botanists can help to identify areas by studying this succession on disturbed

ground because the composition and distribution of the new colonies can never be exactly

similar to the original community. However, it is not necessary that all the successions on

disturbed soil point towards a clandestine grave beneath.

(B) Estimating time elapsed since death:

Aquatic plant species like algae and diatoms can also be helpful in diagnosing death by

drowning in freshwater. To confirm death by drowning, botanists identify both the number

and the species of diatoms present in the lungs and other tissues and link them with the

flora of the location where the body was found.

As algae and diatoms vary seasonally, so they can provide information regarding the

approximate time elapsed since death (the time between the death and discovery of body),

by their abundance and diversity in an area where the body was found.

Trees and roots are useful for determining the time elapsed since death. Annual growth

rings of the woody plants of particular area can be counted to provide the timing of an

event, sometimes even centuries later. Even partial damage to root growth can suggest the

period since an incident occurred.

Limitations of Forensic Botany

Despite many benefits, forensic botany has certain limitations:

(a) Because pollen is so common and diverse in our surroundings, it is usually not easy

to associate it with a particular area.

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(b) Moreover, it shall be properly ensured that the buried evidence is free from any sort

of fresh pollen at the scene.

(c) If the evidence is not protected, it is impossible to determine whether the pollen was

there at the time of death or not.

(d) If already during burial a body is roofed by certain original vegetation, the latter

would appear older than the body below. On the other hand, if the plant growth is

delayed by the decomposition processes it may look younger. So it becomes difficult

to corroborate between the two.

(e) Care should be taken by the botanists to collect, document, and preserve their

evidence to make certain that their interpretations are valid and admissible as

evidences in court.

How plant anatomy has helped in solving criminal cases?

Following is the description of various fields/cases where forensic botany has played pivotal

role in solving the cases:

First case

In 20th century, Arthur Koehler who was an expert on wood anatomy. He used certain

botanical evidences to solve one of the most important cases of New Jersey at that time.

This was the trial of B. R. Hauptmann for kidnapping the young son of Charles Lindbergh,

aviation hero of that time. Dr. Koehler uniquely mentioned in his testimony about the

structure of wood of the ladder used by the kidnapper.

Koehler presented three kinds of information from his study of the ladder –

1) Identification of the wood used,

2) Physical marks left by tools on the wood,

3) Comparisons of the wood structure.

He determined that ladder was made up of following four kinds of wood:

(a) Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco),

(b) Two types of pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws. and Pinus echinata Mill.,

or a close species, commonly called yellow pine) and

(c) Birch (Betula sp., probably B. alba L.)

During identification procedure, he saw very thin and characteristically thick walled

epithelial cells surrounding the resin canals in pine and douglas fir respectively. The wood of

the top left rail of the ladder clearly seen to be sawn away from some bigger piece as there

were nail holes in it. Therefore, Koehler notified authorities to look for some missing

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wooden board in any place linked with the suspect. Interestingly, police found that one of

the floor boards in Hauptmann’s attic had been partly cut away.

Further, Koehler was able to show in the court that the attic board and the ladder rail

belonged to a single board as their annual rings matched exactly and more importantly, he

showed that patterns of annual rings are unique and no other random board would have an

absolutely identical pattern. Thus, wood anatomical evidence ultimately proved to be helpful

in convicting the suspect (Fig. 1).

Source: http://botany.org/PlantTalkingPoints/Crime.php (CC)

Second case

In this case, a young woman was raped in an alleyway, in Christchurch in 1997. The suspect

was arrested and he admitted being in the area, the woman mentioned but not in the

particular alleyway (crime site). The passage was lined by a row of small flowering shrubs of

wormwood, Artemisia arborescens L. which were found to be broken and flattened. There

was no other evidence like DNA except the dirt-stains on suspect’s clothes. The analysis of

the latter was done with a comparative sample of soil from the site in a forensic palynology

laboratory and following results obtained:

(a) As expected, the soil sample was dominated by pollen grains of Artemisia (77%).

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(b) As pollen grains were present in clumps indicating that they are not blown from

anywhere else but was present at the site of crime.

(c) The exine of pollen of this genus was distinctively thick and echinate (spiny).

(d) The analysis of soil sample also revealed aggregates of unusually large, thick walled

fungal spores.

On investigating, it was found that the Artemisia pollen dominated the clothing sample

(53%) with the clumps of same type of fungal spores. The species was not common and

rarely planted in gardens. After careful processing of large number of samples from different

localities, the forensic experts could only found the specific pollen in trace amount with

seldom occurrence of fungal spores. Pollen and spore combination proof helped in convicting

the suspect.

Third case

Suspect can also be traced if the seeds and fruits have specialized features like hooks or

barbs aiding in their dispersal. These features helped in convicting a stepfather for murder

of his children. Some seeds which were traced from the blanket of father were known to

present at the gravesite. Later on, these seeds were identified as Geum canadense Jacq.

(or possibly Geum aleppicum Jacq. with very similar fruits), commonly known as white

avens, of Rosaceae and Galium aparine of Rosaceae (Fig.2).

Fact Finder

Pollen morphology is not remarkably different in grasses so it becomes difficult

to identify the geographical location based on this source.

In grasses, where average pollen diameter is ca. 35 µm, cultivated corn is an

exception with very large pollen, ca. 100 µm in diameter.

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Fig. 2: Hooked seeds found on murderer’s clothing, Galium aparine L. (Left) and Geum

canadense Jacq. (Right). Photo: S. Graham.

Source: http://botany.org/PlantTalkingPoints/Crime.php (CC)

Applications of Plant Anatomy in systematics

Systematics deals with the description, naming, classification, identification and

determination of relationships among plants by using data from many disciplines such as

morphology, anatomy, molecular biology, ecology etc. Majority of the plants have been

classified according to macro-morphological features, but for an accurate classification,

information from diverse sources must be utilized. Anatomical characteristics have played a

significant role in determining phylogenetic relationships. Bailey and his students largely

undertook the anatomical work of taxonomic significance. Anatomical characters are neither

more nor less reliable than other plant characters, yet they play pivotal role in devising

systematic hypotheses and establishing phylogenetic system of classification.

Some of the anatomical features of taxonomic significance are:-

Wood Anatomy

Wood is also known as secondary xylem formed through the activity of vascular cambium

mainly consists of tracheids and vessels. Vessels are present in angiosperms not in

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gymnosperms (except Ephedra and Gnetum). There is a progressive evolution in

angiosperms from tracheids to long, narrow vessel elements having scalariform perforation

plates to short wide vessel elements having simple perforation plates. Studies on anatomical

features of wood clearly indicate that family Amentiferae forms a relatively advanced group.

It further tends to prove that Gnetales are not ancestors of angiosperms. In 1994, Bailey

further concluded that vessels in latter two groups arose independently. In case of

angiosperms they developed from scalariform pitted tracheids whereas in Gnetales from

circular pitting. Moreover, certain primitive feature have been observed in the vesselless

angiosperms (Winteraceae, Trochodendraceae) leading to the conclusion that ancestors of

angiosperms were vesselless.

Genus Paeonia and Austrobaileya have been separated into a distinct family Paeoniacae and

Austrobaileyaceae respectively, based on wood anatomical studies.

Recently anatomical characters have been used in solving systematics of a small

dicotyledonous family Alseuosmiaceae (Fig.3). It includes three well defined genera which

are previously assumed to have diverse affinities. Following observations based on set of

anatomical synapomorphies (shared derived characters) helped in validating that

Alseuosmiaceae forms a coherent group.

All the three genera possess narrow vessel elements with primitively scalariform perforation

plates. However this plesiomorphic (primitive) character is not that useful in establishing

affinities. Following important features helped to solve the systematic of Alseuosmiaceae:

(a) Shared possession of apomorphic (derived) wood character state of septate fibres

storing starch at maturity.

(b) Scarcity or absence of axial wood parenchyma (derived feature).

(c) Distribution of pores in combination to solitary or grouped vessels again an

apomorphic character.

(d) Presence of well-differentiated endodermis with casparian bands in stem and

continuation of the same around each vascular bundle in petiole as well.

(e) Moreover, the family shows a convincing phyletic shift toward raylessness.

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Fig. 3: Wood Anatomy of Alseuosmiaceae: Alseuosmia macrophylla (A) Transverse section

(B) Tangential section showing absence of rays (C) TLS showing scalariform perforation

plates of vessels. Also seen are the fiber tracheids with bordered pits.

Nodal Anatomy

Pattern of vascular continuity between leaf and stem is described by the nodal anatomy.

The vascular bundle maintaining connection between leaf and stem is called leaf trace. The

latter is associated by parenchymatous interruptions in the stem termed as leaf gaps. It is

of great significance in classification of angiosperms (Fig.5). Various groups are

characterized by a distinctive anatomy at node which mainly differs in the number of

vascular traces entering a leaf base and associated gaps left in the vascular cylinder of

stem. The node may be unilacunar having a single gap from a single or three (two enter

stipules) leaf traces or trilacunar with three gaps and three leaf traces (Fig.4).

A

C

B

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Nodal pattern is usually constant within an individual species and often variable in different

higher level plant groups. Therefore it serves as a diagnostic tool to study systematic and

phylogenetic relationships between different taxa. Moreover, most families tend to have a

similar nodal anatomy. So variation in nodal pattern is also significant while dealing with

intrafamilial taxonomic problems.

Fig. 4: Diagrams of vascular system from stems with a unilacunar node (A) and trilacunar

node (B). A single leaf trace diverges into a leaf and two branch traces into a branch. A leaf

with three leaf traces each subtended by a separate gap. (After Esau, Plant Anatomy, John

Wiley and Sons, 1953). Source: From Esau (1961: p. 209).

Separation of Genus Illicium from Winteraceae has been attributed to the presence of

unilacunar nodes, continuous siphonostele and lack of granular substances in stomatal

depressions.

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Fig. 5: Cross sections of stems with different types of nodal structure. Leaf traces are

indicated by blackened xylem regions. (A) Spiraea (B) Salix (C) Brassica (D) Veronica (E)

Rumex (F) Clerodendron (A-E, after Esau, Plant Anatomy, John Wiley and Sons, 1953).

(Source: From Esau (1961: p. 209).

Trichomes

These are epidermal outgrowths which may be glandular or non-glandular (Fig.6).

The non-glandular trichomes may be of following types:

(1) Simple unicellular e.g. Gossypium

(2) Multicellular hair e.g. Brassicaceae, Moraceae etc.

(3) Like vesicles e.g. Atriplex

(4) Peltate hair- a plate or shield-shaped cluster of cells attached directly to the surface

or borne on a stalk of some kind. e.g. Olea

(5) Flattened scales

(6) Branched hair –which may be dendroid- tree-like (Platanus) or stellate- star-shaped

(Styrax)

The Glandular hair may be sessile or stalked,

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(1) In Atriplex unicellular glandular hairs are present with globose head resting upon a

few celled stalks.

(2) These are also known to secrete nectar as in calyx of Abutilon or mucilage in leaf base

of Rumex.

Fig. 6: Different types of trichomes

Source: http://www.cas.miamioh.edu/~meicenrd/ANATOMY/Ch11_Secretory/trichomes.jpg

Did you know?

The hollow stinging hairs of Urtica which are present on leaf and stem consist of a silica tip

which breaks off immediately as soon as the hair is touched (Fig.6). These hairs act like

hypodermic needles causing stinging sensation by injecting histamine and other irritating

chemicals when touched by humans and other animals.

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Fig.7: Stinging Hairs of Urtica dioica.

Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Urtica_dioica_stinging_hair-

2.jpg

Trichomes have played a very important role in systematic of angiosperms especially in the

genera Arabis and Arabidopsis of family cruciferae. Further, the Himalayan species Hedera

nepalensis has scaly trichomes while the European species H. helix has stellate trichomes.

Epidermal characters

Epidermis types: It is of great taxonomic importance. Grasses can be distinguished based

on the type of opal phytolith present in the epidermis (Fig.8). By comparing shapes of

phytoliths in spodograms of 17 common grass species, four classes and 26 types are

proposed, which distinguish three groups of subfamilies of Gramineae (Twiss et al, 1969).

(1)The Festucoid Type: It contains simple silica cells which may be circular, rectangular,

elliptical or oblong.

(2)The Chloridoid Type: It contains saddle-shaped bodies.

(3)The Panicoid Type: It contains silica bodies that are variations of crosses and

dumbbells.

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Source: http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Publications/Bulletins/GB5/Twiss/index.html

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Fig. 9: Spodogram of Zea mays L. (from Twiss and others, 1969, as adapted from Metcalfe,

1960).

Source: http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Publications/Bulletins/GB5/Twiss/index.html

Did you know?

Silica bodies produced by the plants when absorbed soluble silica in ground water is reaches

plant via vascular system are termed as phytoliths. The precipitation of silica occurs

around the cellular walls as a result of evaporation of this water. As the plant or any plant

part dies and breakdown distinct and decay-resistant plant remains can be seen in the soil

which are termed as opal phytoliths.

Types of epidermis may also serve as the basis for recognizing C3 and C4 plants. Twiss

(1980, 1983) suggested that grass-opal phytoliths could serve as indicators of C3 and C4

pathways in grasses.

The festucoid (pooid) class of phytoliths occurs dominantly in taxa of Subfamily Pooideae

which use the Calvin-Benson (C3) pathway and are most abundant in cool, moist

climates.

The chloridoid class occurs in the arid to semi-arid, warm-season C4 grasses belonging

to Subfamily Chloridoideae and requires less available soil moisture.

The panicoid class occurs in the warm-season, more humid C4 grasses of Subfamily

Panicoideae. According to Gould and Shaw (1983, p. 110), more than 97% of native U.S.

grass species (1,026 of 1,053) are divided equally among three subfamilies Pooideae,

Chloridoideae, and Panicoideae.

Stomatal types

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Different types of stomata (Fig. 10) can also be used to identify certain families such as:-

1. Ranunculaceae- Anomocytic (No distinction between subsidiary and epidermal cells)

2. Brassicaeceae- Anisocytic (Three unequal subsidiary cells)

3. Caryophyllaceae- Diacytic (2 subsidiary cells and guard cells are at right angle to each

other)

4. Rubiaceae- Paracytic (2 subsidiary cells and guard cells are parallel to each other)

5 Poaceae- Graminaceous (two subsidiary cells parallel to 2 dumble shaped guard cells)

Other stomatal types are:

6 Actinocytic- A ring of radiating cells around guard cells

7 Cyclocytic- More than one concentric ring of subsidiary cells

8 Tetracytic- With four subsidiary cells-two polar+two lateral

Fig. 10: Different types of stomata.

Source: http://nickrentlab.siu.edu/PLB400/images/EvertFig9_22.jpg

In 1989, Stace observed 35 different types of stomata in vascular plants. Acanthaceae with

diacytic stomata is distinguishable from its closely related family Scrophulariaceae which

has anomocytic type. However, sometimes stomatal features are not reliable. A single leaf

of Lippia nodiflora (syn. Phyla nodiflora) may show different types of stomata.

Leaf Anatomy

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Members of Poaceae do not show much structural differences as their florets are reduced.

Therefore, leaf anatomy has proved to be of great taxonomic help. Several grasses have

been reclassified due to the occurrence of C4 pathway or Kranz anatomy i.e. dense thick

walled chlorenchymatous bundle sheath and simple mesophyll cells (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11: V. S. Leaf of C4 grass Panicum sp.

Source:http://sydney.edu.au/science/biology/learning/plant_form_function/revision_module

s/2003A_Pmodules/module1/1C5.shtml

Sanmiguelia and Furcula were rejected as angiospermic fossils from the Triassic mainly on

the basis of the venation pattern of the leaves.

Application of Plant Anatomy in Pharmacognosy

Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural sources. Furthermore, it

includes their collection from different natural sources like plants, identification, estimation

and preservation corroborating with their commercial aspects. Herbs, spices and naturally

occurring plants are the source of very valuable and therapeutic chemicals. Many of these

chemicals are secreted by plants, both wild and cultivated ones, and they serve to attract

animal pollinators by their fragrances. Some chemicals serve to defend plants against the

visitation of harmful insects and herbivores. From times immemorial, man has used these

products in the form of medicines, dyes, as condiments and in perfumery. Recent advances

in pharmacognosy mainly rely upon the exact identification of drug-yielding plants and

anatomy played a major role in it.

(A) Drugs- These are chemical compounds that are used as medicines and may be even

be mildly poisonous. However, spices are obtained from different parts of a plant such as

seeds, fruits and have very strong taste e.g. quinine from bark of cinchona, inulin from

Bundle Sheath

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roots of dahlias, morphine from unripe seed pods of and codeine from poppy and digoxin

from foxglove- Digitalis pupurea.

Drugs from plants are obtained from tissues of the root, rhizome or stem, bark,

leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. The raw materials from the plant parts that produce drugs

are observed under microscope. This is essential for correctly identifying powdered plant

materials and detecting and quantifying adulterants.

(B) Plant adulterants – The drugs are contaminated by addition of foreign organic

matter leading to generation of product of inferior quality as well as early spoilage and

deterioration. Sometimes, illegal adulteration occurs by total substitution of one plant

product by another. In order to maintain the official standards for purity of drugs, an

analyst with remarkable knowledge of the anatomy of drug plants is employed to analyze

the purity of the drug. When plant parts are powdered, and macerated the characters of

individual cell types like vessels, tracheids, fibres, sclereids, leaf epidermal cells, trichomes,

crystals and starch grains etc. can be studied by the analyst. According to the law, all drugs

of plant origin have an official definition mainly describing the specific anatomical

characteristics of the source (plant part) of the drug.

Pharmacognostic studies on spice plants – These studies have been carried out

cinnamon, ginger, cinchona and peppermint. Cinnamon is obtained from the bark of

Cinnamomum zeylanicum. The bark consists of secretory oil cells involved in the secretion

of the known volatile essence for which it is used as spice and flavouring agent. Middle zone

of the bark contains groups of sclereids and numerous phloem fibres where as the secretory

cells are found scattered in cortical and secondary phloem parenchyma. Since commercial

cinnamon powder is usually a mix of the different species of cinnamon, so it either enhances

the aromatic quality or reduces it. Therefore, in order to identify the crude samples, various

keys for identification of anatomical characteristics of barks and their powders for different

species of Cinnamomum are available. Ficus microcarpa is another traditional medicinal

plant. Its bark is used in the treatment of various health ailment. Pharmacognostic and

phytochemical studies on its bark is studied to determine its morphological, anatomical and

phytochemical diagnostic characters (Figure 12 and 13).

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Fig. 12: Ficus microcarpa: (a) External features of bark. (b) Transverse section of bark. (c)

Enlarged portions. Ph = Phellem, Pd = Phelloderm, Sc = Sclereids, LF = Lignified fibers, SSc

= Scattered Sclereids, MR = Medulary rays and Phl F-Phloem fiber; Phl P-Phleom

Parenchyma

Source: http://www.ancientscienceoflife.org/article.asp?issn=0257-

7941;year=2012;volume=32;issue=2;spage=107;epage=111;aulast=Kalaskar (CC)

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Fig. 13: Powder microscopy of Ficus microcarpa bark. (a) Calcium oxalate crystal. (b)

Phloem fiber. (c) Stone cell/sclereids. (d) Lignified fibers

Source: http://www.ancientscienceoflife.org/article.asp?issn=0257-

7941;year=2012;volume=32;issue=2;spage=107;epage=111;aulast=Kalaskar (CC)

Summary

Plant anatomy is the branch of botany dealing with the anatomical and histological structure

of vegetative and reproductive plant organs. Now-a-days along with other branches,

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anatomy is also essential to validate and understand of many aspects of plant biology,

including the ecological and molecular ends of the spectrum. This field of biology finds

application in number of fields viz. systematics, forensics and pharmacognosy.

Forensic botany deals with the application of plant sciences in solving both criminal and civil

cases. The microscopic (Light microscopy/SEM) analysis of plant cells, tissues, or organ

fragments can provide strong evidences helpful in the resolution of a number of legal

questions. Botanical evidences are significant as they provide supporting and sometimes

decisive evidences in solving criminal cases. Forensic botany is primarily engaged in making

connections between evidence and a crime. Various plants or plant materials such as pollen

at the scene of crime or a rare plant type present near a murder victim can be helpful in

connecting a suspect to a victim or scene. Systematics deals with the description, naming,

classification, identification and determination of relationships among plants by using data

from many disciplines such as morphology, anatomy, molecular biology, ecology etc.

Majority of the plants have been classified according to macro-morphological features, but

for an accurate classification, information from diverse sources must be utilized. Anatomical

features have played a very important role in determining phylogenetic relationships.

Pharmacognosy involves study of biological, biochemical and economic aspects of

natural drugs along with their constituents. Furthermore it includes their collection from

different natural sources like plants, identification, estimation and preservation

corroborating with their commercial aspects. Herbs, spices and naturally occurring plants

are the source of very valuable and therapeutic chemicals. Many of these chemicals are

secreted by plants, both wild and cultivated ones, and they serve to attract animal

pollinators by their fragrances. Some chemicals serve to defend plants against the visitation

of harmful insects and herbivores. From times immemorial, man has used these products in

the form of medicines, dyes, as condiments and in perfumery. Recent advances in

pharmacognosy mainly rely upon the exact identification of drug-yielding plants and

anatomy played a major role in it.

Exercises

Subjective Questions:

a) Give two examples where plant anatomy has helped in solving criminal cases?

b) Why pollens are considered to be one of the most important evidences in

forensic botany?

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c) Why botanical evidences shall be relied upon for solving criminal cases?

d) Throw a light upon the set of botanical evidences used by Koehler to solve the

kidnapping case.

e) Study of ecological succession of a crime area can help in solving a criminal

case. Discuss.

f) Discuss the limitations of forensic botany.

Explain/Define the following:

a) Forensic botany

b) Clandestine graves

c) Annual rings

d) Hooked seeds

e) Apomorphic characters

f) Dendrochronology

g) Palynology

h) Adulterants

i) Pharmacognosy

j) Drugs

Match the Following:

a. Eragrostis a. One of the founders of

plant anatomy

b. Marcello Malphigi b. A Grass

c. Franz Meyen c. Phytotomie

d. Nehemiah Grew d. An Idea of a Philosophical

History of Plants

e. Katherine Esau e. The study of aquatic

environments

f. Limnology f. Anatomy of Seed Plants

Answers:

a-b, b-a, c-c, d-d, e-f, f-e

Institute of lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

References/ Bibliography/ Further Reading

Dickinson, W.C. 2000 Integrative Plant Anatomy. Harcourt Academic Press, USA.

Fahn, A. 1974 Plant Anatomy. Pergmon Press, USA and UK.

Mauseth, J.D. 1988 Plant Anatomy. The Benjammin/Cummings Publisher, USA.

Esau, K. 1977 Anatomy of Seed Plants. Wiley Publishers.